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Guidelines for Equitable and Sustainable Non-Timber Management

Citation: Jalonen, R., Lamers, H., Elias, M. 2018. Guidelines for Equitable and Sustain- able Non-Timber Forest Product Management. Bioversity International, Rome. ISBN: 978-92-9255-112-4

Cover Photo: Bioversity International/E.Hermanowicz Good practices for Equitable and Sustainable Non-Timber Forest Product Management Forests worldwide are under tremendous pressure – and so are the 1.6 billion forest dwellers who depend on these for their livelihoods. Forest and diversity are essential to sustain forest ecosystems and livelihoods. Yet, forest degradation, evidenced in the rapid and disconcerting loss of forest biodiversity, is propelled by many factors, including persistent poverty, growing international demand for timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and climate change. In parallel, and partly to address this concern, community-based or joint forest management approaches have been adopted in various countries to promote sustainable and inclusive forest management. However, many challenges persist related to poor governance, lack of transparency, gender inequality, social exclusion and lack of tangible livelihood benefits; all of which contribute to unsustainable practices and continued degradation. How can we improve local livelihoods while maintaining forest biodiversity and strengthening sustainable forest management in a socially inclusive and just manner? These guidelines present practical strategies and field examples for the inclusive and sustainable extraction, sale and management of forest products, particularly NTFPs. They build upon the framework of the Community Biodiversity Management approach in which three outcomes are sought; (1) community empowerment and social equity, (2) biodiversity conservation and (3) livelihood development (Sthapit et al. 2016). The guidelines draw upon data from the project: ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Management and Conservation’ carried out between 2014 and 2017 in districts of two Indian states: Mandla District in Madhya Pradesh and Uttara Kannada District in Karnataka.

Understanding the local context is crucial to  Which NTFPs are collected most from the study sites and how does that make informed non- impact the forests? timber forest product  What is the impact of commercial sales of non-timber forest products management decisions. (NTFPs) on local livelihoods? Hereby, an introduction is provided to the sites located in Madhya Livelihoods, markets and collected and used to make alcohol, as a Pradesh and Karnataka. forests in Mandla district, sweetener and for flavouring traditional Madhya Pradesh dishes. Mahua are sundried at home and sold to local traders at farm The tribal communities in Mandla district gate or the local market. Chakoda (Cassia have an average monthly income of only tora) pods of a small shrub found US$25 (less than $USD 1 per day) and surrounding farm fields and barren lands depend heavily on non-timber forest are also highly valued and are generally products (NTFP) for their food security, sundried and sold to be used as nutrition and income. Alongside farming ingredients for animal feed or as an and wage labour, NTFPs are an important source of cash. On average, households can earn between USD$75–150 annually through the sales of NTFPs, which amounts to about 30–60% of annual income. In addition, NTFP species help to fill the food and nutrition gap in the lean season (rainy season), just before rice and millet harvests. In the 1990s, the State Government introduced community-based forest management by establishing Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs), which mostly did not develop as the strong, representative forest governance institutions originally envisioned. In Mandla district, the most important NTFP is the yellow of the mahua tree (), which is widely alternative to coffee. Many , protected by ancestral locally referred to as ‘betta lands’, households also collect, sun-dry and harvesting rights, are some of the from which they collect green manure sell the from the char tree only large trees remaining near for their gardens and rice fields (Buchanania lanza). The - villages, as most trees in close and NTFPs for home use. Over time, flavoured (chironji, a high- proximity are heavily harvested for many poor households of Scheduled value product in mainstream fuel wood and pruned or even cut Castes and Tribes or Other markets) obtained by manual down to ground level. When the Backward Classes have settled in the decortication, are eaten raw, roasted forest is left alone, shoots and small area to work as agricultural labourers or ground, and used as an alternative trees re-emerge from the old or NTFP collectors for larger-scale to rice, millet or wheat flour. system. landowners. This was initially Additional NTFPs include: ban tulsi or characterized by forest wild basil (Ocimum gratissimum), Livelihoods, markets and encroachment, with many migrants harra (Terminalia chebula) and forests in Uttara Kannada eventually acquiring small but official bhilwa or wild (Semecarpus district, Karnataka landholdings. anacardium). Sirsi is the major town in Uttara NTFP harvesting rights over forest Kannada district, which is located in In Mandla, persistent poverty, natural areas, with exception of the ‘betta the middle of the Western Ghats: an population growth, and the high lands’, are coordinated by the Forest evergreen semi-tropical rain forest dependency of tribal communities on Department, with concessions being area with deciduous patches, NTFPs and fuel wood, in conjunction granted to a few dominant NTFP considered an important biodiversity with storms, forest fires or extreme traders. Village Forest Committees hotspot. Farmers have a mixed drought, has resulted in widespread (VFCs), established in the 1990s by system combined with rice degradation of the dry deciduous to the State Government and supported fields. The cash areca tropical moist forests located on by training from the Forest (Areca catechu) is widely grown and steep hilltops in the landscape Department and local NGOs, hold intercropped with other , such (ghats). As a result, the last two management rights over agroforestry as pepper, and cardamom. decades have seen a sharp decline plantations and NTFP extraction. The larger and more affluent farmers in availability of NTFPs and a have historical and ancestral NTFPs are used widely for home subsequent increase in the distance harvesting rights to forest areas, consumption and play an important travelled to collect them. Mahua role in traditional food culture. Landless or land-poor households, earning on average $USD 90 per month, tend to be highly dependent on NTFP as a source of cash income (20–50%), while large farmers only receive a minor share of their income (less than 15%) from selling NTFPs. The most collected NTFP is uppage (Garcinia gummigatta), which has substantially increased in price (from 15–30 rupees per kg in the early 90s up to 200–240 rupees in 2013) since its use as an ayurvedic and in weight- loss pills in the pharmaceutical industry. However, this year prices decreased to 50–70 rupees due to low quality and competitive prices from Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Traditionally, uppage fruit rinds are dried using fuel wood and consumed as a sourly food ingredient for fish or curries, while the butter from the seeds is widely used as . Households also collect kokum

Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz (Garcinia indica) fruit, which have concessions. similar medicinal properties but are The forest is largely still in place but consumed as a juice (kokum juice). has gradually become degraded and The butter of kokum seeds derives less dense and diverse over the past high value as a skin moisturizer used few decades. However, some villagers in ayurvedic medicine and in the have reported a reduction or even cosmetics industry. reversal of this degradation following Aromatic mangoes (Mangifera the establishment of VFCs. The major indica) named ‘appe midi’, drivers of degradation include: predominantly used to make a immigration, natural population popular traditional type of growth, conversion of land to pickle, are collected unripe from agriculture, and more frequent trees found mostly along streams extraction of timber and NTFPs due to and rivers. Urbanization and infrastructural improvements linking women’s greater entry into the rural communities to markets. Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global labour force have led to the Increased prices and the emergence research partnership for a food- emergence of a market for this of international markets for several secure future. www.cgiar.org pickle, as women have less time to NTFPs and have also put produce it at home. In addition, pressure on populations of wild households collect wild pepper pepper, wild and, to a lesser (Piper nigrum), wild nutmeg extent, uppage and kokum. Many (Myristica malabarica) and villagers reported irregularity of yields Bioversity International (Apis spp.). Most households sell over the last decade due to heat Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a their NTFPs to collecting or local waves and increased rainfall 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy variability. Tel. (+39) 06 61181 market traders who sell them to the Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 few large traders granted NTFP

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This site description was developed by Hugo Lamers as part of the pro- ject ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Man- agement and Conservation (IEMaC)’, implemented in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, India, from 2014 to 2017. The project was sup- ported by USAID India Mission, and is part of the CGIAR Research Pro- gram on Forests, Trees and Agrofor- estry, which is supported by CGIAR Trust Fund Donors (www.cgiar.org/ funders/).

Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Sustainable incomes from forests: Promoting collective sales of non-timber forest products

This guideline is the first in a series that In this guideline: explains good practices in community-based  Why pursue sustainable value chain development and sales of non-timber forest products forest management. It (NTFP)? How to generate sustainable incomes from NTFPs without damaging the resource base can be used as a  trainer’s or facilitator’s  Which tools can help guide sustainable value chain development interventions for NTFPs? guide in community meetings to help that maximize profits and margins at participants identify non Why pursue sustainable value -timber forest products village level in an equitable manner (NTFP) management chain development and sale of options for their own non-timber forest products  Individual premiums and benefits for contexts. The sub- (NTFP)? NTFP traders who adopt sustainable headings can serve as practices. guiding questions to Persistent local poverty, poor forest foster discussion on management institutions and strong How can we generate sustainable current and alternative commercial interests in NTFPs have often practices and incomes from NTFPs without motivating factors, resulted in a ‘tragedy of the commons’: free- damaging the resource base? rider attitudes reflected in overharvesting while the text provides The study, conducted in 50 villages across some common answers and destruction of the NTFP resource base the two districts, provides useful insights into and implementation for short-term gains. ideas. the institutional structures that support a Value chain development offers the sustainable increase in incomes from NTFPs: opportunity to improve the economic benefits that local communities derive from NTFPs, thereby providing incentives to limit damage to the resource base. Using examples of best practices from Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka and Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh, this guideline discusses how to pursue sustainable value chain development by contributing to:  Collective knowledge, awareness, regulations and conservation actions to monitor and ensure the long-term survival of the NTFP species  Value chain development interventions

Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Form first-tier Self-Help Groups farmer interest groups, amounting to to sell uppage to traders in an open (SHGs) to facilitate and regulate 1,000 members (76% women), all of upward-bidding process. In Mandla, NTFP harvesting campaigns. In total whom were also shareholders. The the Forest Department restricted 30 SHGs, representing 341 member-elected board hired a general harvesting of mahua flowers to households, were established in forest manager and seasonal field staff to maximum 4kg per household in 2017, -dependent villages in Uttara Kannada coordinate NTFP harvesting to curb the illegal alcohol industry. district. Households that depend most campaigns and collective storage, Collective collection, grading and on NTFP collection for their grading and sales to bigger and more storage of NTFPs to improve quality livelihoods, such as encroached and distant traders or processors. and profit margins. The FPC landless households of Introduce a harvesting license organized a meeting, open to all SHG Scheduled Castes and Tribes or Other system for major NTFP species in leaders and members, to inform them Backward Classes, were the main collaboration with local forest of sustainable harvesting practices and beneficiaries. One member per authorities, such as Joint Forest discuss NTFP availability, quality household could join the SHG, with Management Committees (JFMCs) or requirements, location and timing of encouraged participation of women the Forest Department. In Uttara collection points before the harvesting (40% of the members are women), Kannada district, the Forest season. Pictorial information sheets for who collect, use and process many Department and NGOs delivered each NTFP were distributed during the NTFPs. Each SHG collectively training to Village Forest Committees meeting to inform villagers about harvested NTFPs and held a (VFCs) on sustainable harvesting quality requirements and sustainable communal bank account, into which practices. In order to ensure that NTFP practices, sometimes supported by revenues and profits were transferred. harvesting is sustainable and advice from traders. In Mandla, costs Form second-tier organization to beneficiaries hold a license, some were minimized by using community facilitate collective aggregation, VFCs appointed a monitoring group buildings and private houses for processing and sales of NTFPs, comprised of community members. storage and grading. The FPC in such as a commercial-oriented farmer Since 2014, the Forest Department Mandla experienced a loss of 40% (10 cooperatives, federations of self-help granted a few VFCs a concession instead of 14 rupees per kg) on 10 groups or Farmer Product Companies (licence), normally obtained by large tonnes of chakoda (due to (FPC). In Uttara Kannada district, the traders, to directly trade and harvest demonetization) but made a 60% 30 SHGs were grouped under a newly uppage. Some VFCs started to margin (8 rupees instead of 5 rupees registered FPC. In Mandla we worked organize village-level auctions over the per kg) on the sale of 4 tonnes of with the active FPC, composed of 50 harvest season to enable households harra, with a revenue of approximately USD$ 5,000 in the first year of collective sales. In Uttara Kannada, six SHGs (45 members) engaged in the successful sales of ripe , which had not been marketed before. Engage collectively in primary processing of NTFPs to create added value and higher incomes. Strategic business plans for the establishment of three nurseries, to sell fruit tree saplings, vegetable plants and NTFP saplings, were developed based on rapid market appraisal interviews and meetings by an external facilitator. In Mandla, the tree nursery managed to sell the first batch of 2,641 saplings for USD$ 450 to the government-administered Narmada river basin tree planting program, and got several orders from JFMC

Credit: Bioversity International/H. Lamers presidents for small scale tree planting initiatives within their villages. A major bottleneck was to convince the Forest agreed to provide harvesting tools to households for a refundable deposit. A goal of the FPCs was to establish a system to monitor the resource stock of NTFPs in order to provide reliable estimates of yields to buyers to secure advanced agreements, improve the quality of harvest and ensure a viable NTFP tree population is maintained for future business interests. Spread commercial risks and increase economic viability by trading multiple NTFPs combined with agricultural produce, farm inputs and other commercial activities. In Mandla, the FPC collectively purchased farm inputs such as fertilizers, as well as engaging in collective sale of NTFPs such as mahua flowers, chakoda, harra and char. The FPC also planned to invest into the decortication of char and chakoda and assisted the two SHGs Credit: Bioversity International/H. Lamers that established a nursery with the sales of tree saplings and vegetable Department to allow JFMCs to established to monitor adherence of plants for a fixed fee. Estimates purchase from local nurseries instead households and harvesting groups to indicated that the FPC in Mandla of the large Forest Department sustainable harvesting regulations. To requires a yearly turnover of nurseries in Mandla town, which often simplify monitoring, peer pressure can approximately USD$ 40,000 and an distribute saplings for free. In addition, be utilized to deter unsustainable average profit margin of 10–15% to business plans were developed for a harvesting methods by punishing the cover the minimum annual costs of tailored decorticator for harra whole SHG (no premium paid) when operation (USD$ 4,800 annually). (Terminalia chebula) to increase value one member violates regulations. In According to the value chain from 5–6 rupees to 20–25 rupees per Uttara Kannada district, income from assessments, processing gives higher kg. In Uttara Kannada district, the sales of fresh jackfruit was paid to the margins (15–30%) than collective business plan for tailored decorticating SHG bank accounts and distributed to trading of raw materials (5–15%). In and use of an oil expeller for Garcinia group members by SHG leaders. Uttara Kannada district, the SHG seeds generated a relatively low Meanwhile, monitoring the adoption of focused on the collection and sales of revenue of USD$ 90 within the first sustainable harvesting practices was kokum, uppage, jackfruit and wild month in 2017, due to harvesting of done by the Village Forest aromatic (appe midi) mangoes, and immature (seedless) fruit and limited Committees. availability associated with climate Establish an agreement among FPC change. members to save a percentage of Monitor and pay premiums only to annual profits, such as 5% or 10% , households and groups that follow to finance monitoring and agreed sustainable harvesting conservation actions. In Mandla, the practices. The FPC members who FPC board agreed to save some of the were part of the harvesting campaign annual profit to purchase saplings of in Mandla were paid directly in cash the most threatened and preferred tree upon delivery to keep competitive species from the local SHG nursery. advantage over local traders. The All members agreed to plant one tree premium was decided upon and paid per year near their houses during the after profits and margins were secured rainy season. In order to improve the following the collective marketing of NTFP quality and ensure proper use of NTFP harvests. A committee was harvesting hooks and sticks, it was developed a business model to make product and pricing install fuel-wood efficient water improvements. heaters and driers for a USD$ 10  Rapid market appraisal to collect fixed fee using building materials market information about 10–15 purchased by households. suitable NTFPs and prioritize 3–4 NTFPs that provide best income and value chain development Which tools can help guide opportunities. value chain development  Value chain assessment or value interventions for NTFPs? chain mapping to understand The FPCs and SHGs received on- and identify market channels, the-job guidance from a full-time bottlenecks, market or price trends market development specialist. A and opportunities for sequence of several participatory 3–4 selected NTFPs. Bioversity International is a CGIAR methods and tools were used to Research Centre. CGIAR is a global  Business plan development to research partnership for a food- guide FPCs and SHGs in the secure future. www.cgiar.org evaluate and understand implementation of sustainable value investment requirements, marketing chain development activities: strategy, profitability and long-term  Score card to evaluate the viability of a particular commercial availability, status (ecological enterprise or activity. health) and market suitability of  Exposure visits for the FPC Bioversity International a wide range of available NTFP Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a board, general manager and staff species and identify 10–15 most 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy or for SHG members to successful Tel. (+39) 06 61181 suitable NTFPs for sale. FPCs, NTFP processors, Fax. (+39) 06 6118402  Street theatre play ‘the square machinery manufacturers and to an mango’ to discuss value chain NTFP auction and trade fair. problems and explain the www.bioversityinternational.org  Training workshops for FPC or concept of a value chain to FPC SHG leaders and members on and SHG members; to nursery management, FPC understand the chain from forest governance and financial to end consumer, to listen to administration, and sustainable customer demands and to the NTFP harvesting practices. importance of collaboration to

More information about these tools is available on the Bioversity International website.

This guideline was developed by Hugo Lamers as part of the project ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Management and Conservation (IEMaC)’, implemented in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, India, from 2014 to 2017. The project was supported by USAID India Mission, and is part of the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry, which is supported by CGIAR Trust Fund Donors (www.cgiar.org/funders/).

Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz

Gender equity and social inclusion in joint forest management

This guideline is the second in a series that explains In this guideline: good practices in community -based forest management.  Why foster gender equity and social inclusion in Joint Forest Management (JFM)? It can be used as a trainer’s  What constraints do women and marginalized groups face in JFM? or facilitator’s guide in  How can we promote gender equity and social inclusion in JFM? community meetings to help participants identify non- timber forest products (NTFP) management Why foster gender equity and Gender equity and social inclusion are options for their own social inclusion in joint forest important because it is everyone’s human contexts. The sub-headings management (JFM)? right to participate in decisions that have can serve as guiding important effects on their lives. They are also questions to foster Gender equity and social inclusion refer important because different groups in the discussion on current and to all people, regardless of gender, community (e.g. women, different ethnic, age alternative practices and ethnicity or other factors, having equal motivating factors, while the or socio-economic groups) have different opportunities to have their voices heard text provides some common sets of knowledge, perspectives and answers and implementation and respected, their opinions counted, and priorities to bring to the table. ideas. the ability to make important decisions in the community or beyond that affect their Research in Sirsi, Western Ghats, has lives. In joint forest management (JFM), shown that elder women from the Siddhi this can mean having the ability to (Scheduled Caste) ethnic group held more participate as members in JFM committees knowledge than women from other groups (JFMCs), to join JFM boards, and to make decisions within those boards. It can also mean having a say in forest-related groups and initiatives, like Farmer Producer

Companies. Equity may require measures

that give particular chances to groups that have been historically marginalized, like women or Scheduled Tribes or Castes, to ‘catch up’ with other groups in this respect; for example, by having reserved seats for them in JFMCs. Having a ‘critical mass’ of women or marginalized members (at least 1/3 people) makes it easier for them to

actively participate. Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz PhotoInternational/E. Credit: Bioversity and men about the tree species found and marginalized groups face participating in public affairs. In in their forests. Young men who had in JFM? Mandla, a male Gondh farmer explains motorcycles and could visit the city that, “[women] don’t speak a lot, they A common theme was that ‘women were most knowledgeable about really don’t speak. The women haven’t are too busy’ as they juggle family markets for non-timber forest products gone to school, they can’t read and responsibilities and domestic work (Hegde et al. 2017). Specifics can vary write, they feel shy to go [to JFMC with work in the fields. Those who across contexts, but differences in meetings].” The same applies to men are landless or dependent on daily knowledge and priorities are usually from ethnic groups who have received wages also face competing work present. This means that every group less formal education. schedules. can bring something unique to the Culturally, men of specific ethnic matter of JFM. groups predominate in public Meetings are held at inconvenient affairs. “It is traditionally the role of times for women, who cannot easily In other parts of India, giving women men to attend such meetings” (female leave the house in the evenings when the ability to actively participate in Havik Brahmin VFC member, Sirsi) they are busiest with childcare, dinner JFMCs has been shown to result in and “Women feel like they are in the preparations and milking cows. improved forest management wrong place in a VFC meeting. If outcomes (Agarwal 2010). This is problems are there, then women trust because they bring their knowledge to Limited mobility among women and that men will come up with some the table, but also because people poorer socio-economic groups that solutions” (female NGO staff, Sirsi). tend to respect rules and regulations don’t have access to motorbikes or Women are often thought not to have better when they were involved in their that live far from the village centre important ideas to contribute. For creation, and when these rules reflect make it hard to travel to the meetings. example, “when the women speak, the their own needs and priorities. Women men tell the women “Shut up, you don’t are often also better able to monitor Lack of knowledge and awareness know what you are talking about”, and and sanction other women who break about JFM and forest conservation they say “don’t speak in front of those rules than men are, which linked to limited mobility and poor everyone”” (Pancha woman, Mandla). means that the rules are enforced and circulation of information regarding Speaking out at meetings, when abided by more people. JFM and JFMC meetings, especially women do attend, can be perceived as What constraints do women among those who do not have cellular a sign of disrespect for their male phones. counterparts. Attending meetings can itself be considered a sign of Lack of formal education, confidence and experience Photo credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz

Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food- disobedience towards one's different experiences and opinions. secure future. www.cgiar.org husband. Actively invite members of different The same goes for men from groups to speak and allow those politically marginalized groups that who are intimidated to speak first to feel uncomfortable speaking in have their opinions heard. public. Some groups are also Maintain reserved seats in JFMCs Bioversity International blamed by others for cutting down Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a for women and for marginalized the forest, which makes them 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy groups. Tel. (+39) 06 61181 uncomfortable to speak up in public Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 about this issue. Create rules that encourage their participation: e.g. there must be enough women at a meeting before www.bioversityinternational.org How can we promote gender it begins, or enough women involved equity and social inclusion in making important decisions. in JFM? Hold side-meetings for sub- groups (e.g. marginalized women Achieving a climate of inclusion and men) to discuss their priorities References: Agarwal B. 2010. Gender depends on all people concerned before and after the community-level and Green Governance: The Political with JFM (community members, Economy of Women’s Presence Within JFM meetings. Once those priorities and Beyond Community Forestry. JFMC members, forestry officials, Oxford University Press, New Delhi and are established, they can be NGOs). Oxford. discussed with the larger group. Hegde N, Elias M, Lamers HA, Hegde Schedule meetings at times and Linking up with existing groups M. 2017. Engaging Local Communities in Social Learning for Inclusive places convenient for all or work (e.g. women’s self-help groups) is a Management of Native Fruit Trees in good way to make that happen. the Central Western Ghats, India. out logistics to facilitate participation Forests, Trees and Livelihoods 26(1): (e.g. arrange transportation for those Increasing the number of Forest 65-83. who live far away). Department agents who are women and from marginalized Make an effort to share information groups can support social and encourage participation, inclusion. regardless of gender, ethnicity, age This guideline was developed by Marlène Elias as part of the project or socio-economic status, in JFM Local authorities should set the ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Manage- meetings and sustainable forest tone for such a climate of ment and Conservation (IEMaC)’, management initiatives. inclusion. Role models can implemented in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, India, from 2014 encourage others to follow suit. to 2017. The project was supported When different groups interact in by USAID India Mission, and is part these meetings and events, listen to of the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry, each other and respect each other’s which is supported by CGIAR Trust Fund Donors (www.cgiar.org/ funders/).

Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz

Collecting ripe fruit for better income and forest regeneration

This guideline is the third in a series that In this guideline: explains good practices in community-based  How common is it to collect forest fruit unripe? forest management. It  What reasons do people have for collecting unripe fruit? can be used as a  How can we encourage collection of ripe fruit among forest-dependent non-timber trainer’s or facilitator’s forest product collectors? guide in community meetings to help participants identify non -timber forest products How common is it to collect forest unripe, reducing both income (NTFP) management fruit unripe? options for their own opportunities and species regeneration. The contexts. The sub- Ripe forest fruit are better quality for species include: headings can serve as processing and tend to garner a better  Chironji nut (Buchanania lanzan, locally: guiding questions to price than unripe fruit. But collection of foster discussion on chironji): >90% fruit collected unripe current and alternative unripe fruit of non-timber forest products  Black myrobalan (Terminalia chebula, practices and (NTFP) is a common practice in rural India. locally: harra): >70% fruit collected unripe motivating factors, In Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, villagers while the text provides  Wild nutmeg (Myristica malabarica, locally: estimate that traders typically pay 10–50% some common answers rampatre): >70% fruit collected unripe and implementation less for unripe forest fruit than for ripe fruit ideas. because of their lower weight, smaller size, poor quality or different colour. In some cases, traders reject fruit lots because of a high proportion of unripe fruit.

When collection starts after most fruit are ripe, fruit is available for dispersing animals who help the tree species to spread and regenerate. Collecting unripe fruit will reduce the number of new plants in the forest, because less of the fruit develops to yield ripe seed. Over time, it reduces the number of fruit-bearing trees in the forest. Yet, villagers in Indian districts of Sirsi (Karnataka) and Mandla (Madhya Pradesh) reported that the majority of fruit of several forest tree species are collected Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Seedlings of chironji are now perceive existing rules as reasonable, harvesting at the risk of losing in completely absent in some forest they may ignore them. Changes in harvestable quantity. In Sirsi, many villagers felt that the price for unripe areas in Mandla, according to weather patterns due to changing fruit was not significantly lower than ecological assessments conducted in climate make it increasingly difficult to for ripe fruit, unless the fruit were 2015. Seedlings of harra in Mandla fix collection times from year to year. clearly of poorer quality. Yet, they and seedlings of rampatre in Sirsi have These changes also affect locally set considered regulating collection times both been reduced by 90% in the or traditional customs and rules. as a priority action to improve vicinity of the villages, compared to sustainable harvesting because they Even if rules exist, they are not forest beyond 3km from the villages. felt it would benefit both the collectors effective unless compliance is and the forest. monitored, and offenders are

What are the reasons for systematically sanctioned. However, collecting unripe fruit? monitoring requires time and resources How can we encourage that are often not readily available. collection of ripe fruit among Forests across the tropics are often Even if community members observed forest-dependent NTFP under collective ownership of forest their neighbours breaking rules, they collectors? user groups, or considered as common might hesitate to address or report property with open access to anyone. them in order not to harm Reducing collection of unripe fruit If rules regulating forest use are relationships. requires strengthening both rules and insufficient or not effectively market incentives. Unripe fruit are in demand for implemented, there is often intense making specific products, for What can collectors do together? competition for forest resources – the example mango pickles from young earlier a person starts to collect fruit,  Monitor flowering and fruit appe midi fruit or kappehuli from unripe the more he or she can potentially development to identify fruit rinds of kokum (Garcinia indica) in collect before others come in, while the appropriate collection time in Sirsi. In Mandla, unripe harra (bel last persons to start are often left with each season. Such monitoring is harra) is valued for its medicinal little or no harvest. useful also because it gives properties and fetches a better price information about future yields and In some cases, forestry authorities than the ripe fruit, although its helps to plan labour investment may have introduced rules on collection has been banned. between collection and other collection times. However, fruiting Prices offered by traders for unripe livelihood activities. periods can vary even between and ripe fruit may not always differ nearby sites because of differences in so much that it would be strong site conditions. If collectors do not enough incentive to postpone

Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz  Agree on collection times and of April, and honey harvesting in enforce a ban on collecting Sirsi is started after Ugaadi festival unripe fruit through systematic (Hindu New Year), also in April. sanctions. Collection permits that are distributed after the ripening of fruit can help reinforce rules. If What can forestry authorities do: there is demand for unripe fruit of  Support community-based certain species, quotas can be set initiatives to monitor fruiting and set on what proportion of fruit can be collection times, including through collected unripe. resource mobilization.  Initiate collective marketing that  Encourage village forest helps to monitor product quality committees to set up locally and encourages good practice relevant systems of sanctions and while also resulting in better implement them fairly and income. Those who collect unripe Bioversity International is a CGIAR systematically. Research Centre. CGIAR is a global fruit will not be able to participate in  Collaborate with local traders to research partnership for a food- collective marketing schemes secure future. www.cgiar.org persuade them to reject unripe fruit because unripe fruit is exposed for in support of sustainable forest everyone to see. management.  Celebrate the onset of NTFP collection as a community or

invigorate traditional practices of Bioversity International linking the onset to cultural or Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy religious festivals, to discourage Tel. (+39) 06 61181 collection of unripe fruit. For Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 example, collection of chironji in Mandla is traditionally started after the Akshat Tritiya festival at the end www.bioversityinternational.org

This guideline was developed by Riina Jalonen as part of the project ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Management and Conservation (IEMaC)’, implemented in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, India, from 2014 to 2017. The project was supported by USAID India Mission, and is part of the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry, which is supported by CGIAR Trust Fund Donors (www.cgiar.org/funders/). Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Avoiding damage to trees when collecting non-timber forest products

This guideline is the fourth in a series that In this guideline: explains good practices in community-based  How common are destructive practices in the collection of non-timber forest products? forest management. It  What are the reasons for destructive collection practices? can be used as a  How can we encourage sustainable collection practices? trainer’s or facilitator’s guide in community meetings to help participants identify non- Damaging trees while collecting non-timber (Phyllanthus emblica) are collected by cutting timber forest products branches, according to villagers themselves. (NTFP) management forest products (NTFP) reduces future yields, options for their own forcing collectors to walk longer distances In five of ten focus groups, participants contexts. The sub- year by year to fill their baskets. Cutting mentioned that entire trees are being cut to headings can serve as branches or even entire trees to harvest collect NTFP. As a result, these species are guiding questions to NTFP is not allowed under India’s Joint now disappearing from Mandla’s forest foster discussion on landscape. current and alternative Forest Management rules. Nevertheless, practices and motivating these practices are not uncommon among The densities of NTFP species in Mandla, factors, while the text NTFP collectors. including aonla, jamun (Syzygium cuminii), provides some common imli (Tamarindus indica) and bael (Aegle answers and marmelos) have reduced to approximately implementation ideas. How commonly are destructive just one tree per hectare within 3km from the practices used in NTFP collection? villages. This is less than 5% of the current Villagers in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka density of tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), the reported that 30–50% of wild nutmeg, locally known as rampatre (Myristica malabarica), is collected by cutting branches. Cutting branches has long-term impacts on the species productivity. According to the NTFP collectors, it reduces fruit production in rampatre and trees for at least two to three years because the tree has to invest in regrowth instead of fruiting. In Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, typically more than 50% – and in some cases more than 90% – of the fruit of valuable species such as chironji (Buchanania lanzan) and aonla Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz collection of which is tightly regulated come and cut the tree after them. making value-added products such as by the Forestry Department. Although Destructive collection methods further jams or juice concentrate. relatively many chironji trees remain in intensify competition in subsequent This suggests that the value of the the vicinity of villages (8 trees per seasons as collectors have to products and tree tenure are more hectare within 1 km from the villages), continuously expand their collection important reasons for choosing chironji is very difficult to find beyond areas to look for fruiting trees. Villagers collection methods than the availability 1km into the forest from the villages both in Uttara Kannada and Mandla of technology as such. (≤1 trees per hectare). commonly opined that destructive NTFP collectors in Mandla report that harvesting in the village forest was they now have to walk 5–7km to collect mostly done by outsiders rather than How can we encourage the fruit, compared to 1–2 km previously. the villagers themselves. use of sustainable collection In some villages people have stopped Some species are more difficult to practices? collecting chironji because of its low collect than others because of their What can collectors do together? availability. biological characteristics. In particular, very tall trees such as rampatre, If collection methods are not improved,  Have a community meeting to chironji or bhelwa (Semecarpus the disappearance of many valuable agree on collection rules, anacardium) are often collected by NTFP species is imminent which would including a ban on cutting branches cutting branches because they are put even more pressure on the already and trees, and sanctions for rule- difficult and dangerous to climb and precarious livelihoods. breaking. In Mandla, participants in fruit cannot be reached from the five of ten focus groups in five

ground using sticks. Some species villages called for enforcing a What are the reasons for tend to attract ants which makes complete ban on cutting NTFP destructive collection climbing even more difficult. Fruit of trees. practices? some species such as chironji spoil easily if they fall on the ground,  Develop a register of collectors Collection methods depend on the reducing their value. of each species and give out value of the tree’s products, tree harvesting permissions with the tenure, species biology and available Lack of suitable tools or technology condition that collectors commit to technology. can result in destructive harvesting, existing rules. Training on good especially for trees that are difficult to Valuable trees with secure practices can be collect from. Carrying long sticks as ownership are generally well given at the same occasion. harvesting tools in dense forests is maintained. In Sirsi, many villagers difficult. Yet, improved techniques are  Take turns patrolling and opined that trees on bettaland (district not always used even when they are monitoring forest in groups. forest where exclusive access rights available. For example, in Mandla,  Organize regular meetings are given to individual households) sticks are used for collecting during collection season to produce more fruit than forest trees mangoes but rarely for NTFPs. In discuss yields and report any because their owners are motivated to Uttara Kannada, women use shade untoward activities. This helps take care of the trees. In Mandla, the nets to gather falling fruit only for make offences public and creates cultural and economic importance of mahua (Madhuca longifolia) has over time resulted in a practice where trees are owned by individual families. However, not all families own mahua trees and ownership rights are not always respected. When NTFPs are highly priced but trees are under collective ownership or common property with open access to anyone, there is often intense competition and NTFP are collected using destructive methods to save time. Collectors perceive that they do not directly benefit from saving the trees because anyone else may still Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz social motivation towards good  Support villagers in practice. experimenting with different  Allocate collection areas or collection techniques and tools individual trees to individual and to identify those that are families, aiming for equitability effective and locally relevant. and considering the families most Encourage local manufacturing of in need. Sanctions are needed to best-evaluated tools. encourage people to respect such  Support the efforts of the VFCs in tree tenure rights. enforcing village forest What can forestry authorities do? boundaries, to move from open access to collective access rights by  Strengthen the role of the Village the village’s inhabitants. Forest Committees (VFC) by creating incentives that are channelled to villagers through the Bioversity International is a CGIAR VFCs. Incentives considered Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food- effective by male villagers in Uttara secure future. www.cgiar.org Kannada included providing rights to harvest dead and fallen trees for construction wood, and reducing taxation of NTFPs sold through VFCs so that the VFCs could offer This guideline was developed by Riina better price to collectors. Jalonen as part of the project Bioversity International ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Manage- Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a  Establish VFCs in villages that ment and Conservation (IEMaC)’, im- 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy plemented in Karnataka and Madhya Tel. (+39) 06 61181 do not yet have those. In Uttara Pradesh, India, from 2014 to 2017. Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 Kannada, villagers commonly The project was supported by USAID India Mission, and is part of the opined that VFC establishment had CGIAR Research Program on Forests, a significant positive impact on Trees and Agroforestry, which is sup- www.bioversityinternational.org forest use practices. ported by CGIAR Trust Fund Donors (www.cgiar.org/funders/).

Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Monitoring the forest and its uses to improve management

This guideline is the fifth in a series that explains In this guideline: good practices in community-based forest  What are some of the key characteristics of forest monitoring? management. It can be  What types of monitoring do people in rural Indian communities consider relevant and used as a trainer’s or facilitator’s guide in why? community meetings to  How can we encourage community-based forest monitoring? help participants identify non-timber forest products (NTFP) What are some of the key Forest monitoring should not be seen as a management options for characteristics of forest stand-alone activity but as an integral part their own contexts. The monitoring? of forest management. For example, if the sub-headings can serve goal is to reduce destructive practices in the as guiding questions to Forest monitoring helps to assess how collection of non-timber forest products foster discussion on effectively forests are managed to yield current and alternative (NTFP), it is important to first establish rules benefits to their users and where there practices and motivating to ban poor practices and sanctions for those factors, while the text are needs for improvements. Monitoring who break the rules. Monitoring will then help provides some common makes the use of collectively owned or enforce the rules. answers and managed forests more transparent by giving implementation ideas. detailed information about forest uses and users. Forest monitoring can help demonstrate commitment towards sustainable forest management and negotiate use rights with forest authorities or other stakeholders. Monitoring can also help predict future yields and thereby plan livelihood activities. Ideally, monitoring is a process to assess progress towards a set of goals. It involves gathering information on specific issues or concerns to understand change, and is done through multiple measurements in different locations or at different times. To be effective, the results of monitoring must be communicated to forest users to guide or correct management or enforcement of rules. Photo Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Four different aspects of forest mean that forest status is improving, monitoring was important for enforcing condition and use can be because people may not adopt the the rules. Such monitoring was already monitored: practices they were taught. Number successfully done in some villages in of seedlings (status) is a good Sirsi. 1. Status of the forest itself – for indicator of the forest status but time- example, the number of big However, people explained how they consuming to monitor, because trees and seedlings of key found it difficult to address or report many sample plots in across the species fellow villagers using poor practices, forest are needed to get a good because it affects their relationships. 2. Threats to the forest – for picture of it. Having a strong Village Forest example, the proportion of Committee through which offences can NTFP collectors who do not be addressed helps enforce rules. In use tools to aid sustainable What types of monitoring do Mandla these committees did generally collection people in rural Indian not function as well as in Sirsi and 3. Benefits from the forest – for communities consider people suggested establishing new example, the quantity and relevant and why? committees specifically for monitoring quality of fruit collected A study conducted in 50 villages in purposes. 4. Actions taken towards the relatively forested area of Sirsi, Villagers showed little interest for direct sustainable forest management Karnataka, and heavily deforested monitoring of forest condition – for example, the number and area of Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, (mentioned only in 3 villages in Sirsi), type of forest-related activities gives insights of opportunities and possibly because of time demand and that are regulated, or the challenges in community-based lack of concrete benefits. People were number of people trained on forest monitoring: mainly interested in monitoring specific, socio-economically sustainable collection practices valuable species groups, namely How time-consuming monitoring is Trespassing and collection of medicinal plants and dead timber trees and how accurate information it by outsiders which could be used as construction emerged as priority for monitoring gives about forest status depend wood. However, it was obvious that among villagers in both Sirsi (8 of 25 on which aspects of forest use are villagers made regular and specific villages) and Mandla (17 of 25 monitored. Some aspects indicate villages). Outsiders are often observations about forest and could direct and immediate changes in perceived to collect NTFP using poor often quantify impacts on specific forest condition, for example, when practices such as cutting trees or species. Although monitoring forest more people give up destructive branches. Restricting the number of status seems low priority as a practices and start to use tools in collectors would help to reduce community-driven activity, there can be NTFP collection (threats). The pressure on the forest. Depending potential to involve villagers as paid on accessibility to the forest, such number of people trained on workers in forest inventories. sustainable harvesting (actions) is monitoring can be easy or difficult. In Mandla and in some villages in Sirsi, quick to calculate but does not always people felt that establishing How can we encourage checkpoints along the main roads or community-based forest paths to the forest would help reduce monitoring? collection by outsiders. In contrast, people in the more remote and What can villagers do together? forested villages in Sirsi considered monitoring difficult because of their  Set specific monitoring goals and village forests were large and directly plan ahead how the generated bordered by neighbouring villages. knowledge will be used.

Monitoring NTFP collection  Prioritize monitoring goals and practices, for example collection needs, to keep them manageable of unripe fruit or cutting of trees or and motivating. Monitoring could be branches, was the second most started with a couple of indicators popular topic for monitoring in both and expanded with positive Sirsi (7 villages) and Mandla (9 experience. villages). Villagers called for  Identify market opportunities related complete bans and sanctions on

Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz specific poor practices, and felt that to monitoring as an indicator of techniques, documentation and sustainably harvested products. For record-keeping. example, to get organic certification,  Identify opportunities to train and NTFP collectors must be able to hire villagers to contribute to forest show that the products are collected inventories. It could serve as an using sustainable practices. alternative income source that can  Identify non-cash incentives to help reduce pressure on forests. encourage villagers to participate in monitoring, for example, allocating NTFP trees to individual families who are actively involved in monitoring.

 Identify ways to link monitoring activities to daily routines or other Bioversity International is a CGIAR topics of interests. For example, Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food- monitoring could be done using secure future. www.cgiar.org transect walks while collecting forest products. If there is interest to monitor medicinal plants, regeneration of NTFP species could be monitored at the same time.

Organize regular meetings to Bioversity International  Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a discuss monitoring experiences and 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy ways to improve Tel. (+39) 06 61181 Fax. (+39) 06 6118402

What can forestry authorities do? www.bioversityinternational.org

 Support villagers’ efforts to monitor and control trespassing of village forest boundaries, for example by establishing checkpoints or demarcating boundaries.  Train villagers in monitoring

This guideline was developed by Riina Jalonen as part of the project ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Manage- ment and Conservation (IEMaC)’, implemented in Karnataka and Madh- ya Pradesh, India, from 2014 to 2017. The project was supported by USAID India Mission, and is part of the CGIAR Research Program on For- ests, Trees and Agroforestry, which is supported by CGIAR Trust Fund Do- nors (www.cgiar.org/funders/).

Credit: Bioversity International/E. Hermanowicz Photo Credit: IORA Ecological Solutions Ltd.

Bringing back valuable trees to degraded landscapes

This guideline is the sixth in a series that explains In this guideline: good practices in community-based forest  What are the trends for forest trees in rural Indian villages? management. It can be used as a trainer’s or  What motivates people to plant and care for trees? facilitator’s guide in  How can we encourage more people to plant and care for trees? community meetings to help participants identify non-timber forest products (NTFP) management options for What are the trends for forest Forest Department and non-governmental their own contexts. The trees in rural Indian villages? organizations provide tree seedlings for sub-headings can serve planting, often free of charge or even as guiding questions to Many important non-timber forest species are paying villagers for planted seedlings that foster discussion on quickly declining in rural Indian villages current and alternative survive. As collectors of forest fruit, most because of poor harvesting practices, forest practices and motivating villagers routinely handle tree seed, part of factors, while the text conversion, grazing, adverse weather and which could be used for propagating provides some common other threats. seedlings. answers and Of the 40 tree species found in the vicinity implementation ideas. However, despite of the perceived of villages in Mandla, Madhya Predesh, restoration needs and the availability of half are completely lacking regeneration seed and seedlings, villagers estimated within 3–5 km from the villages. This includes important NTFP species such as aonla (Phyllanthus emblica), mahua (Madhuca longfolia) and bael (Aegle marmelos). In the more forested area of Sirsi, Karnataka, 37% of the 126 tree species still lack regeneration within 3–5 km from the villages, including valued species such as dalchini (Cinnamomum malabatricum), antuval (Sapindus laurifolius), hole (Terminalia arjuna) and geru (Anacardium occidentale). Male and female villagers in both Sirsi and Mandla commonly list tree planting as one

of their priority activities for improving Photo Credit: IORA Ecological Solutions Ltd. both forest condition and livelihoods. that only 20–30% of them plant themselves could harvest the fruit. probably alone not very strong trees. Only few species are regularly Others cited the lack of private land as motivators for tree planting in the planted, including mahua in Mandla, a reason for not planting trees. In one area. However, it is worth identifying and kokum (Garcinia indica) and village in Mandla, women said they and encouraging such incentives: uppage (Garcinia gummi-gutta) in had planted trees because they were they help to reduce pressure on Sirsi. banned access to the forest – an forests before deforestation and extreme motivator in areas where degradation advance so far that Survival rates of planted trees are alternative sources of livelihood are restoration becomes difficult. In unknown. However, in Mandla scarce. Mandla, water shortage and invasive villagers cited stories of plantings that species associated with deforestation had failed and mentioned uncertainty In Sirsi, villagers showed interest already severely limit opportunities for of plant survival as one reason why for improved, more productive tree planting and natural regeneration. they had not planted trees. varieties but explained that they lacked knowledge on and land for

domestication. They opined that What motivates people to relevant government schemes in How can we encourage plant and care for trees? agriculture and exist but do more people to plant and not currently support villagers’ In the heavily deforested Mandla care for trees? domestication efforts. This suggests landscape, the lack of many tree What can villagers do together? that villagers may have limited interest products such as fruit, fuel wood for planting forest tree seedlings but  Protect existing trees and and construction wood is the main may respond actively if provided seedlings – it is easier and quicker motivator for tree planting. But it is no seedlings of improved or grafted than planting and tending new solution to the immediate livelihood varieties which are perceived to be trees. Do not cut down or otherwise needs, and it involves risk because more productive or of better quality. damage trees, collect only ripe fruit, survival of seedlings is not and leave some fruit behind in each guaranteed. Time invested in tending Other positive incentives for tree for natural regeneration to take planting trees may include source agricultural crops or livestock gives its course. Protect seedlings from quicker and more certain returns. This of income, market demand for the grazing animals, for example by can make it difficult to motivate people species, availability of tree products for trenching or natural fencing. home consumption, saving time in to start planting trees. Allocating harvesting rights of harvesting when planting trees near Tenure security, or the lack of it, is individual trees to individual housing, reducing pressure on forest another important factor behind tree households is a powerful incentive resources and conserving them for planting. In Sirsi, villagers spoke for them to protect the trees and future generations, and receiving enthusiastically about planting trees their seedlings. seedlings from the Forest Department. near their homesteads because it These incentives were mentioned only  Select planting areas carefully to would help ensure that they in individual villages in Sirsi and are reduce effort needed for tending seedlings: for example near homesteads or fields, and with easy access to water sources. Some trees can be cultivated with crops or fodder grasses to yield benefits when the trees are still young. It is better to plant few trees and properly take care of them than to plant many trees but not maintain them after planting.

Photo Credit: Bioversity International/R. Jalonen  Document and share knowledge Villagers have a key role in planting and experiences on choosing and caring for seedlings, so it is right species for right sites, tree important to consult them to propagation and management understand what works well and techniques, and suitable species what improvements are needed combinations for intercropping. from their perspective, to motivate their involvement. It can also be  Mark some trees as seed trees helpful to share experiences with where fruit collection is allowed only other districts or other organizations for seedling production. Superior who have tree planting trees can be selected to help programmes. enhance productivity and resistance over time. The trees can give income  Seek to understand and meet from seed or seedling sales. villagers’ preferences for species and varieties because species  Collect seed from large forests choice importantly affects the Bioversity International is a CGIAR and at least 15–20 trees per Research Centre. CGIAR is a global interest for planting and caring for species to obtain quality seed for research partnership for a food- seedlings. Men and women may secure future. www.cgiar.org raising seedlings. Seed collectors prefer different species, so it is can agree on collection areas and important to consult both. then mix the seed together to help Distributed seedlings must be of collect such diverse seed. good quality and genetically diverse  Develop planting and taking care to meet villagers’ expectations for of trees as part of the community Bioversity International survival and productivity. Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a culture, for example by 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino), Italy  Encourage the establishment of celebrating the onset of tree Tel. (+39) 06 61181 village nurseries to extend the Fax. (+39) 06 6118402 planting as part of the monsoon supply of seedlings, generate celebrations, recognizing or livelihood opportunities and foster a rewarding villagers who actively culture of tree cultivation. www.bioversityinternational.org plant trees and organizing friendly competitions about who has  Create incentives for taking care achieved best seedling survival of seedlings (rather than for rates and tallest or healthiest planting only), such as pay-back saplings. arrangements for each year that young seedlings survive. What can forestry authorities do:  Collaborate with other  If tree planting or seedling departments to tap to existing distribution programmes already government schemes that can exist, assess their success support tree planting and regularly to use resources domestication. effectively and help reach results.

Photo Credit: Bioversity International/R.Jalonen This guideline was developed by Riina Jalonen as part of the project ‘Innovations in Ecosystem Manage- ment and Conservation (IEMaC)’, im- plemented in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, India, from 2014 to 2017. The project was supported by USAID India Mission, and is part of the CGIAR Re- search Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry, which is supported by CGIAR Trust Fund Donors (www.cgiar.org/funders/). Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. www.cgiar.org

© Bioversity International 2018

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