Window Into the White House

Stephanie van Hover, Marc J. Selverstone, and Patrice Preston-Grimes

Have you ever wanted to eavesdrop on American presidents as they deliberate, Designed for use by the research and agonize, debate, discuss, or reflect on key policy issues? An exciting online resource, teaching communities, whitehousetapes. www.whitehousetapes.org, makes this possible. From 1940–1973, six presidents (from org provides teachers and students the Franklin D. Roosevelt to Richard M. Nixon) secretly taped almost 5,000 hours of opportunity to learn more about how conversations, including telephone calls, meetings, and memoirs. Hosted and main- American presidents have made deci- tained by the Presidential Recordings Program at the University of Virginia’s Miller sions and exercised leadership dur- Center of Public Affairs, whitehousetapes.org offers free access to presidential recording pivotal moments in United States ings covering myriad topics that range from the significant—World War II, the Cold history.1 These fascinating historical War, the Space Race, the War on Poverty, the Civil Rights Movement, the Cuban sources offer students the opportunity Missile Crisis—to the mundane—President Lyndon B. Johnson ordering some custom- to explore the presidency beyond the made pants. All presidential recordings, declassified and released by the respective pages of the textbook. They practice key presidential libraries, are available on the website. In addition, the site offers links historical thinking skills as they listen, to numerous recordings that the Miller Center has augmented to include a scrolling analyze, and discuss the revealing con- transcript with the audio, so teachers and students can both see and hear the conversa- versations that often provide conflict- tion as it plays (see Figure 1). Each of these recordings provides an introduction that ing viewpoints on events in history. In details contextual information such as the date, topic and participants, as well as the this article, we highlight the resources type of recording (e.g., telephone conversation, meeting, or memoir). available on this site for teaching about a topic that continues to be both con- troversial and extremely relevant to the current political debate: the Vietnam War.

The Vietnam Recordings The website’s Vietnam tapes include conversations from the administrations of presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Richard M. Nixon, with the earliest stemming from 1962—the year Kennedy instituted his taping system—to the spring of 1973, when Nixon dismantled his own taping opera- tion. These tapes capture some of the key moments in presidential decision making about the war, from the build-up of the U.S. advisory mission to the final Figure 1.

S o c i a l Ed u c a t i o n 130 Bill Cowell edits an original tape from the Nixon White House at the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington in this undated photo. For two decades, President Nixon’s White House tapes have been pre- served and protected in a cold storage vault at the National Archives.

(AP Photo/National Archives)

withdrawal of American troops. These relationship with the media, his own The Vietnam Recordings and the tapes highlight, as no other document thoughts on escalating and de-escalating Classroom can, the complexity of the challenge American involvement in Vietnam, and To facilitate use of this site by teachers confronting these statesmen. the political calculus that underlay his and their students, Marc Selverstone, a The Vietnam recordings are partic- endgame for the war. historian and assistant professor at the ularly helpful in illuminating various Collectively, these tapes offer Miller Center, has constructed a Digital policymaking dynamics, including the a unique window into a period in Classroom Initiative (DCI) at www.white- role of presidential advisers, tensions American history that is perhaps housetapes.org/classroom (see Figure 2). The between the executive and legislative unparalleled in its array of personali- “topics” link on the menu offers visitors branches of government, the role of ties, political change, and drama. They a variety of recordings organized into electoral politics, and the challenges cover scenes from the massive transfor- of managing the media. Students can mation of American life that resulted hear Kennedy ruminating on topics not only from Vietnam, but from the such as the critical reporting of the Civil Rights Movement, the War on American press corps in Vietnam, the Poverty, and the political realignment possibility of withdrawing U.S. troops, of the country. These tapes therefore and America’s involvement in the over- provide a portrait of three politicians, throw of South Vietnamese President at the height of their political powers, Ngo Dinh Diem. President Johnson also as they strove to shape both the country comes alive in these recordings as listen- and the world around them. But they do ers hear him “work over” members of so by humanizing the president and the Congress, discuss the pros and cons of presidency—a role and an office too fre- escalating the war, and anguish over the quently characterized by mythology— Figure 2. wisdom of committing American blood revealing the messy business of crafting and treasure. Materials from the Nixon national policy and the personal quali- broad historical themes including Civil recordings are likewise illuminating, as ties of those who make it. Rights; the Economy; Foreign Policy & they detail the 37th president’s stormy National Security; Law; Politics; Space;

A p r i l 2008 131 the War on Poverty; and Presidents: the learning more about the policymaking and the assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem Human Dimension. To access resources and personalities of presidents. The DCI and his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, Kennedy on Vietnam, click on “Foreign Policy site provides suggestions for classroom refers to the chairman of the joint chiefs of & National Security” and then select use through content-specific lessons and staff, General Maxwell Taylor; Attorney “Vietnam.” The first section of the site instructional activities. Teachers can General Robert Kennedy, Secretary of offers a series of virtual exhibits that access these resources by clicking on the Defense Robert McNamara, Director explore different aspects of the Vietnam “Classroom” link on the front page or by of Central Intelligence John McCone, War. “The Great What If” explores a scrolling to the bottom of each subject- Ambassador to Vietnam Henry Cabot fascinating question: What if President specific page. Lodge Jr.; Undersecretary of State John F. Kennedy had lived out his term— Averell Harriman, Undersecretary of would he have made good on an expressed Sound Recording Analysis: Pre- State George Ball; Assistant Secretary of desire to withdraw American troops Post-During Listening Activities State Roger Hilsman; National Security from Vietnam? The exhibit includes a Another resource for teachers interested Council aide Michael Forrestal; and the series of conversations over the course of in using recordings in the classroom is the head of the U.S. military assistance com- October 2 through October 5, 1963, in “Sound Recording Analysis Worksheet” mand, Vietnam, General Paul Harkins. which Kennedy and his advisers debate available on the National Archives web- Basic background information on those the merits of withdrawing the bulk of site (www.archives.gov/education/lessons/ mentioned or involved in the conver- American troops from Vietnam by the worksheets/sound_recording_analysis_work- sation can add richness to the listening end of 1965. It also provides related sheet.pdf). This worksheet emphasizes the experience. A useful source for this resources, including articles and other importance of pre-listening, during-lis- information is the website www.ameri- relevant recordings. tening, and post-listening strategies, and canpresident.org (also maintained by the Another exhibit, “The Gulf of Tonkin, the recordings on this site raise particular Miller Center), which provides in-depth 1964,” explores the recordings that cap- questions and issues to consider. background on each president, a list of ture Johnson and his advisers discussing Pre-listening: Before listening to a key figures in each administration, and the Tonkin Gulf Incident of 1964. These presidential recording, it is important links to presidential speeches and other tapes reveal the contradictory and incom- to ensure that students have the requisite resources. Similarly, many recordings plete reports flowing into Washington, as background knowledge so that they are reference historical events that will need well as Johnson’s own doubt about the aware of (a) the historical context of each to be identified and defined. veracity of the intelligence he was receiv- recording and (b) the roles and respon- During-Listening: The web-based ing prior to passage of the Gulf of Tonkin sibilities of the people featured in the “transcript + audio” feature makes it Resolution. The exhibit includes excerpts recordings. The contexts surrounding easy to simultaneously read and hear the from LBJ’s presidential diary around the each recording are often quite complex. conversation. The scrolling transcript time of the event, offering insight into the Presidents rarely have the luxury of deal- highlights the sentence as it becomes multiple issues and crises facing Johnson ing with one event at a time; for example, audible, and the recording can be paused on a day-to-day basis. at the time of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, at any time. The audio offers the listener Additional resources on Vietnam are Johnson was also contending with a race a window into the emotions of the presi- also available via the “Vietnam” link. riot in New Jersey and the discovery of dent; while listening, students can think Visitors can listen to conversations cov- the bodies of three civil rights workers about the mood, tone, and language ering the Wheeler Mission of January in Mississippi. To establish context, stu- heard in the recording. There might be 1963, press coverage of the war, the Diem dents can identify the date and time of the surprises. For example, in the dictated Coup of November 1963, the escalation recording, use the links to the presiden- memoir mentioned earlier, President of American military involvement, the tial diaries to investigate other meetings Kennedy, less than three weeks before impact of the war at home, and President and events on the president’s calendar his own assassination, is reflecting on Nixon’s plan for ensuring that a “decent and think about the host of issues facing the murder and overthrow of President interval” existed between a U.S. with- the president on that date and time in Ngo Dinh Diem and his brother Ngo drawal and the fall of Saigon. These history. The online resource presiden- Dinh Nhu. While Kennedy was record- resources, as well as the virtual exhibits, tialtimeline.org offers a visual timeline ing, his children, John John (aged 3) and all lend themselves to classroom use. that helps contextualize events during Caroline (aged 6) join their father for a a particular presidency. few moments. Kennedy laughingly asks Strategies for Classroom Use The recordings often feature many his children to speak into the recorder; Whitehousetapes.org offers a wonder- names—people either directly involved we hear John John talking about the sea- ful opportunity to teach students how in the conversation or mentioned during sons, and Caroline giggling while saying to think about the recordings—as both the recording. For example, in a dictated “your horses.” They leave, and Kennedy a historical source and as a means of memoir on the South Vietnamese coup returns to his reflection. The tone and

S o c i a l Ed u c a t i o n 132 the mood during this recording change deeper understanding of the content, but tion. Students can focus on the reasons abruptly—from anguish and thoughtful- in analyzing the historical perspectives Johnson lists for escalating the war, as ness, to that of a loving father, and back presented in each source. Also, graphic well as pay attention to his tone and to that of a reflective leader. Asking stu- organizers such as a persuasion map, a mood. Johnson sounds defensive but dents to listen carefully to these nuances time/order chart, or a timeline (see www. never ceases to act as a lobbyist for his adds a human element to our presidents eduplace.com/graphicorganizer/) could facil- position. He is actively advocating his and influences how we think about what itate discussion and comprehension of perspective to King. The clip also reveals we hear. each recording. Johnson’s genuine self-doubt as he contin- Post-Listening: After summarizing the ues to make decisions about Vietnam. key points and content of the recording, Example: LBJ and the Logic of Post-Listening: After discussing ques- a number of additional questions can be Escalation tions related to the recording (purpose, considered, including: On July 2, 1965, Dr. Martin Luther King motive, audience) the class can discuss Jr. gave a speech in Petersburg, Virginia, broader questions about the Vietnam What is the purpose of this record- to a chapter of the Southern Christian policy as part of the Cold War. It can also ing? Leadership Conference. According to compare and contrast this recording with The New York Times, King declared that others Johnson made on the same topic, What is the motive behind the “the war in Vietnam must be stopped” and and even explore the manner in which recording—in other words, why is called for a “a negotiated settlement even Kennedy and Nixon considered the this president recording himself? with the Vietcong.” President Johnson, related, if slightly different, challenges Who is the audience for this about to call up 100,000 American sol- they faced in Southeast Asia. Further recording? diers to go to Vietnam, did not appreciate exploration of Johnson’s rationale might these comments. In a telephone conversa- touch on the power of the “Munich” What do we learn about the presi- tion on July 7, 1965, King and Johnson metaphor or the dangers of appease- dent’s approach to policymaking? spend the first two-thirds of the call ment, fears harbored by Democrats of What do we learn about the person- discussing the voting rights bill pending reliving the “loss of China” debate, and ality, the human component, of the before Congress. King raises the issue of the manner in which Johnson depicts U.S. president? the Petersburg matter towards the end of involvement in Vietnam as central to the the call and, in response, Johnson offers continuing Cold War. If the recording addresses a specific a detailed rationale for his war-fighting decision, additional questions could strategy. He highlights the risks of pull- Sound Recordings and Historical include: ing out, as well as those for getting in too Inquiry deeply.2 The audio recordings also lend them- What are the problems or issues Pre-Listening: Before listening to this selves for use in student-centered under discussion? recording, it is important for students to research activities. The NCSS Curriculum What do the various people in understand the context of the time period Standard Time, Continuity, and Change, this conversation appear to value? including the challenges facing Johnson emphasizes the importance of teaching What evidence do you have to sup- in Vietnam as well as his work to pass students how to “systematically employ port this? the voting rights bill in Congress. Also, processes of critical historical inquiry in the recording, Johnson makes many to reconstruct and reinterpret the past, What is the decision that is made? references to “hot spots” in the Cold War such as using a variety of sources and Why does the group come to this (such as the Philippines, Formosa, Greece, checking their credibility, validating and decision? Turkey, Iran, China) and ideas (domino weighing evidence for claims, and search- theory, containment). Additionally, it is ing for causality.” 3 The site “Historical What are the alternative actions or useful for students to have some back- Inquiry: Scaffolding Wise Practices in decisions that are possible? What ground on Johnson’s relationship with the History Classroom” (www.historical- are possible consequences of each King and some understanding of how the inquiry.com), created by Peter Doolittle, alternative? two leaders differed in their views toward David Hicks and Tom Ewing, offers an escalation in Vietnam. Students could excellent resource for teaching students If you were one of the people in the compare and contrast King and Johnson’s how to develop the capacity to engage recording, what would you decide? positions using a Venn Diagram (www. in meaningful historical inquiry.4 They Why? eduplace.com/graphicorganizer/pdf/venn. offer a strategy, SCIM-C, which can pdf). teach students to engage in the “doing” Additional content-specific questions During-Listening: The recording of history and can scaffold how students assist students in not only gaining a captures Johnson’s rationale for escala- learn how to conduct historical inquiry.

A p r i l 2008 133 2008 The SCIM-C approach asks students • Related audio clips (JFK to summarize, contextualize, infer, Withdrawing 1,000 Troops monitor and corroborate historical from Vietnam, Parts I, II, II) SUMMER sources. Within each of these steps tapes.millercenter.virginia.edu/exhib- there are four additional analyzing its/vietnam_withdrawal/ INSTITUTES questions (see www.historicalinquiry.com/ scim/index.cfm). Teachers could employ • Foreign Relations of the United for Educators the SCIM-C model when using indi- States, Documents 166 through vidual audio recordings alone, or as 184 (available via the Vietnam at Yale part of a larger historical inquiry proj- page on the Digital Classroom ect. The audio recordings could also Initiative). Spend time at Yale University learning about: be used to generate specific historical questions for students to research. • Fredrik Logevall’s “Vietnam The Teaching of Africa July 7-18 and the Question of What Example: JFK and Might Have Been,” in Kennedy: Europe: Past or Future?* “The Great What If” The New Frontier Revisited, July 7-11 As mentioned earlier, the site includes ed. Mark J. White (New York: a virtual exhibit entitled “The Great New York University Press, The Southern Cone: What If,” an exhibit that explores 1998), 19-62, which maintains Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay* whether, if he had lived out his term, that Kennedy might well have July 7-12 President Kennedy would have with- removed troops from Vietnam, drawn troops from Vietnam. The but probably not until after the From Sand to Sea: exhibit includes links to three specific 1964 election. Cultural Exchange through conversations that address the issue Trade on the Silk Road* of troop withdrawal. The questions • Excerpts from Howard Jones’s July 7-16 posed in the exhibit could serve as an Death of a Generation: How excellent issue for students to explore the Assassinations of Diem and Immersion Program: French in class—that is, according to avail- JFK Prolonged the Vietnam War West Africa/Focus on Senegal* able evidence, “What if President (New York: Oxford University June 21-23 John F. Kennedy had not been cut Press, 2003), a book-length *Programs include an optional travel component down by an assassin’s bullet and had account of Kennedy’s approach lived out his term—and perhaps a to Vietnam. Registration fees range between $150 and subsequent one—as president of the $250 per program. Housing and transportation United States? Would he have made • Chapter 5 of Gareth Porter’s to the institutes in New Haven, Connecticut, are not included. Scholarships may be available. good on an expressed desire to with- Perils of Dominance: Imbalance draw America troops from Vietnam of Power and the Road to War in and turn the fighting over to the South Vietnam (Berkeley: University of For detailed information Vietnamese?” In other words, what did California Press, 2005), which and registration visit Kennedy plan to do in Vietnam? What highlights Kennedy’s struggles www.yale.edu/macmillan/pier evidence is there for our conclusions? with his advisers over the nature How has our knowledge of Kennedy’s of the U.S. military commitment decision making changed over time? to Vietnam. Students could work individually or in small groups to investigate this issue. • James Galbraith’s, “Exit The audio recordings could serve as Strategy,” in the Boston Review the first step in the students’ historical (available via the Vietnam research. They could summarize the Page on the Digital Classroom content offered in the tapes and then Initiative). This article offers a work to corroborate (or challenge) the concise version of the argument information, using the SCIM-C model that Kennedy was committed The MacMillan Center on all historical sources. Sources could to removing U.S. troops from P.O. Box 208206 include the following: Vietnam. New Haven, CT 06520-8206 203.432.6238

S o c i a l Ed u c a t i o n 134 • Marc Selverstone’s op-ed in Notes the Boston Globe on March 9, 1. Marc J. Selverstone, “Policy in the Making: A Look Inside the White House at War,” Magazine 2006 (available via the Vietnam of History 18, no. 5 (October 2004): 63-65. page on the Digital Classroom 2. Kent Germany, Guian McKee, and Marc Selverstone, “LBJ and the Logic of Escalation” Initiative). This article provides tapes.millercenter.virginia.edu/clips/1965_0707_ background information about king/. Kennedy’s decision making in 3. National Council for the Social Studies, Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum regards to Vietnam and exam- Standards for Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: ines the “what if” question. NCSS, 1994), 113. 4. Peter Doolittle, David Hicks, and Tom Ewing, JAMES MADISON “Introduction: The Doing of History” www.his- GRADUATE FELLOWSHIPS • Excerpts from “An Unfinished toricalinquiry.com. Life: John F. Kennedy, AVAILABLE UP TO 1917-1963.” Historian Dallek asserts that newly available doc- $24,000 uments indicate that Kennedy Available to secondary school teachers of American history, American government or social studies to was planning to wind down undertake a master’s degree program emphasizing troop commitments. the roots, principles, framing and development of the U.S. Constitution. • Photographs and other histori- Fellowships pay the actual cost of tuition, fees, books, and room and board. cal evidence from the National Archives (www.nara.gov), the For information and to download an application, visit Library of Congress (www.loc. www.jamesmadison.gov gov), and the JFK Presidential General inquiries can be sent to [email protected], Library (www.jfklibrary.org). or call, 1-800-525-6928

Students could present their find- James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation Stephanie van Hover is an associate profes- ings and draw connections between sor in the Curry School of Education at the Vietnam and the present-day conver- University of Virginia. She serves as the faculty sations related to troop withdrawals advisor for the secondary social studies teacher (and increases) in the current war in education program. Her areas of research interest include the teaching and learning of history Iraq. in a high stakes testing context and the profes- sional development of history teachers. She Conclusion can be reached at [email protected]. Marc The American public often wonders Selverstone is an assistant professor at the University of Virginia’s Miller Center of Public what goes on in the White House and Affairs, where he transcribes and annotates the how domestic and foreign policy are Kennedy and Johnson White House tapes as made. Whitehousetapes.org provides a historian with the Miller Center’s Presiden- an incredible window into the policy- tial Recordings Program. He is the author of Constructing the Monolith: The United States, making and personalities of six presi- Great Britain, and International Communism, dents as they negotiate complex and 1945–1950 (Harvard University Press, 2008), challenging events in our history. The and The Kennedy Withdrawal: Camelot and site offers teachers invaluable histori- the American Commitment to Vietnam (Har- cal sources that can enrich lessons on vard University Press, forthcoming). He can be reached at [email protected]. Patrice Vietnam (and many other topics) and Preston-Grimes is an assistant professor in assist in connecting key issues in the the Curry School of Education at the Univer- past to current problems facing our sity of Virginia. A former classroom teacher, she leaders today. Readily available to all, is the recipient of the 2007 NCSS Exemplary Research in Social Studies Award. Her areas of this digital resource opens up oppor- research interest are civic education, the social tunities for students and teachers to contexts of learning and schooling, and more study political history and political recently, the uses of technology in social stud- decision making during a tumultuous ies teacher preparation. She can be reached at [email protected]. time.

A p r i l 2008 135