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Notes and References 1 Finding the HRight Key:" Kennedy and the New Pacific Community 1. William J. Lederer and Eugene Burdick, The Ugly American (New York, 1960), pp. 163, 233. 2. "The United States and Our Future in Asia," Excerpts from the Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy (Hawaii, 1958), JFK Library, Senate Files. 3. Ibid. Championing America's virtue and image abroad, as weil as Amer­ ican self-interest, always remained a difficult task for Kennedy. See Ronald Nurse, "America Must Not Sleep: The Development of John F. Kennedy's Foreign Policy Attitudes, 1947-1960" (Ph.D. dissertation: Michigan State University, 1971), James Dorsey, "Vietnam 'a can of snakes,' Galbraith told JFK," Boston Globe (28 January 1974), Stephen Pelz, "John F. Kennedy's 1961 Vietnam War Decisions," lournal of Strategie Studies (December 1981), lan McDonald, "Kennedy Files Show President's Dismay at CIA Power," The Times (London, 2 August 1971), JFK Library, Excerpts from Biographical Files. 4. Secretary of State Dean Rusk to Kennedy, 2 February 1961, and "The New Pacific" (Speech in Hawaii, August 1960), JFK Library, POFlBox 111 and Senate Files. 5. John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the President, 1961) (Washington, D.C., 1961), pp. 174-5. These comments were made during the Presi­ dent's push to create the "Alliance for Progress" program for the Latin AmericaniCaribbean states. 6. Kennedy, Public Papers ofthe President, 1961, p. 399. 7. Ibid., 1963, p. 652. 8. Kennedy's early cabinet meetings on foreign affairs topics often became energetic discussions on how to win the Cold War. A winning strategy, wh ether in allied favor or not, was acceptable. This type of approach is skillfully noted in Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation: The Politics of Foreign Policy in the Administration of lohn F. Kennedy (New York, 1967), pp. 541-76, and Herbert Parmet, lack: The Struggles of lohn F. Kennedy (New York, 1980), pp. 399-416. Other authors have attempted to separate the Kennedy record from the Kennedy promise, conc1uding that Americans have created a Kennedy patriotic myth since the November 1963 assassination. Lewis Paper, The Promise and the Per­ formance: The Leadership of lohn F. Kennedy (New York, 1975), Henry Fairlie, The Kennedy Promise: The Politics of Expectation (New York, 1972), William Leuctenburg, In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to Ronald Reagan (Ithaca, 1983). More specific studies of Ken­ nedy's foreign policy, particularly stressing the Third World, have drawn distinctions between New Frontier foreign policy promises and have 116 Notes and References 117 found them wanting. Richard D. Mahoney, lFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York, 1983), Montague Kern, Patricia Levering, Ralph Levering, The Kennedy Crises: The Press, the Presidency, and Foreign Policy (Chapel Hill, 1983). 9. Richard Walton, Cold War and Counterrevolution: The Foreign Policy 0/ lohn F. Kennedy (New York, 1972), pp. 202-34. 10. See the conc1usion to Theodore C. Sorensen, Decision-Making in the White House (New York, 1964). 11. For a fine "Socratic" analysis of Kennedy's Vietnam cabinet decisions, see William Rust, Kennedy in Vietnam (New York, 1985), pp. ix-xvii. 12. Kennedy's preference for keen analysis of foreign policy options, and his se1f-appointed role as America's Number 1 intellectual diplomat, is praised in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr, A Thousand Days: lohn F. Ken­ nedy in the White House (Boston, 1965), pp. 406-47. 13. "Observations on Proposal for a New Pacific Community and Review of April Cabinet Sessions," J. Robert Schaetzel to George Ball, internal State Department memorandum and report, 2 November 1961, JFK Library, NSFlBox 345. This extensive year-end account, dec1assified in the early 1980s, is the basis for the succeeding notes. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid. See also my "The Promise Fulfilled: John F. Kennedy and the New Frontier in Guam and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1961-1963," Alexj Ugrinsky (ed.), lFK (Westport, CT, 1985). 18. Schaetzel to Ball, 2 November 1961, and Kennedy to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, 31 January and 1 February 1961, JFK Library, NSFlBox 345 and GuamIBox 101. Anthony Solomon, Chair­ man of the US Survey Mission to Guam and the Trust Territory, to Kennedy, plus Survey Report, 9 October 1963, Pacific Collection (Con­ fidential File), Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam (hereafter referred to as MARC). 19. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p. 532; Kennedy to Sukarno, 9 December 1961 and Schaetzel to Ball, 2 November 1961, JFK Library, POFlBox 111 and NSFlBox 345. W. Ibid. (last citation). Kennedy believed that tough "crisis management" decisions were always possible. Indeed, a President must embrace con­ flicts with a certain "masculine will" and resolve them with "vigor." Kennedy's efforts to demonstrate his masculinity via tough decisions is examined in Garry Wills, The Kennedy Imprisonment: A Meditation on Power (Boston, 1982), pp. 141-50, 165-74, 176-87, 219-31. Other authors see Kennedy's drive to "inftuence world history" and leave a "lasting legacy" as representative of what Arthur Schlesinger, a former member ofthe Kennedy team, called "the Imperial Presidency." Conse­ quently, national security problems were always examined by Kennedy in an intensely "personal" fashion within his "cult of authority," the cabinet. Theodore J. Lowi, The Personal President: Power Invested, Promised Unfulfilled (lthaca, 1985), and David Burner and Thomas 118 Notes and References R. West, The Torch is Passed: The Kennedy Brothers and American Liberalism (New York, 1984), p. 212. 21. Schaetzel to Ball, 2 November 1961, and Cabinet discussion and memor­ andum on the visit of the Australian Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, to the White House, 23 February 1961, JFK Library, NSFlBox 345 and POFlBox 111. 22. The point of "importance" is dramatically illustrated in Kennedy's corre­ spondence to Prime Minister Hayato Ikeda of Japan during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy noted that, regardless of the outcome of the Crisis, the United States would maintain its commitments to Japan and the Pacific. Praising the progress of US-Japanese and US-Pacific relations in general, he also promised a "vigorous" re affirmation of America's peaceful goals in the Pacific region once the Crisis was over. Nothing would disturb America's interests in the Pacific, he said. Ken­ nedy to Ikeda, 22 October 1962, JFK Library, POFlBox 120. 2 Rost Removal: the New Frontier in Guam and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 1. Several historical works exist on individual western Pacific islands and their development and security problems; however, there is no specific study concerning the evolution of Washington's policy towards modem Micronesia, particularly during the pivotal Kennedy era. The most suc­ cessful political/strategic studies of selected islands in the region remain Daniel T. Hughes and Sherwood G. Lingenfelter, Political Development in Micronesia (Columbus, 1974), pp. 3-309; James H. Webb, Jr, Micronesia and U.S. Pacific Strategy: A Blueprint for the 1980s (New York, 1974), pp. 61-102; and David Nevin, The American Touch in Micronesia (New York, 1977), pp. 70-96. 2. For Nucker's comments and abrief account of 1950s Micronesia, see: E. J. Kahn, Jr, A Reporter in Micronesia (New York, 1966) p. 119. Following this episode, Nucker resigned and was replaced by his assist­ ant, M. W. Goding, a Democrat sympathetic to the Kennedy admin­ istration. 3. J. Robert Schaetzel to George Ball: Memorandum on Proposal for a New Pacific Community, 2 November 1961, JFK Library NSFlBox 345. 4. Ralph Dungan, Special Assistant to the President, to Bradford Smith, 20 April 1961, JFK Library, White House Central FileslBox 940. 5. Jose Benitez, Deputy High Commissioner of the Trust Territory, to JFK, 23 June 1961 and JFK to Benitez, 20 July 1961, ibid. 6. Aspinall to Kennedy, 20 March 1962, JFK Library, White House Central Files! Box 940. "Micronesia is a term which is often misused and misun­ derstood. Generally , the term is used synonymously with the Trust Territory of the Pacifie Islands; this is a politieal description. Geographi­ cally, Micronesia includes the Marianas, Carolines, Marshalls, Kiribati (Gilberts), and Nauru." Dirk Ballendorf, Direetor, Mieronesian Area Research Center (MARC) , University of Guam. This work uses "Micronesia" in a geographie sense. Notes and References 119 7. JFK to Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole, Malietoa Tanumafili II, Head of State, Western Samoa, December 27, 1961, JFK Library, POFIBox 123a. 8. "The Vnited States and Hawaii and Our Future in Asia," JFK Library, Excerpts from the Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, 1958. 9. Kennedy to his parents, 12 September 1943, JFK Library, Personal Papers of JFK. 10. John Kennedy, Profiles in Courage (New York, 1956). 11. JFK to M. W. Goding, High Commissioner of the Trust Territory, 3 July 1962 and White House Press Release: "Guam and Executive Order 8683," 23 August 1962, JFK Library, White House Central Files/Box 572 and GuamIBox 101. 12. T. J. Reardon, Special Assistant to the President, to John Hosmer, 28 December 1962, JFK Library, White House Central FileslBox 940. 13. Benitez to Ted Sorensen, Special Advisor to the President, 9 November 1962, and "Statement by the President: Guam and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands," 23 August 1962, JFK Library, White House Central FiIesIBox 940 and POFIBox 77. 14. For background on this period, see Timothy P. Maga, "The Citizenship Movement in Guam, 1946-1950," Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 53 (February 1984), pp. 59-77; Earl S. Pomeroy, Pacific Outpost: American Strategy in Guam and Micronesia (Stanford, 1951), pp. 161--80. 15. For background see the introductory material to Dr Anthony Solomon to Kennedy, 9 October 1963: "Report by the V.S. Government Survey Mission to the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands," MARC, Pacific Confidential Collections. 16.
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