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The Kennedy and Johnson Years. SPONS AGENCY National Inst DOCUMENT RESUME ED 231 050 iA 015 ;711 AUTHOR Graham, Hugh Davis TITLE The Transformation of Federal Education,Policy: The Kennedy and Johnson Years. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE. Jan 83 , GRANT NIE-G-80-0139' .NOTE . 427p: PUB TYPE Historical Materials (060) -- Reports - General (140) Books (010) EDRS PRICE ME01/PC18 Plus Postage." DESCRIPTORS *Advisory Committees; Advocacy; Archives; De ision . Making; Educational Change; *Educational.His ory; : *Educational Legislation; Educational'Oualit Federal Government; Federal Legislation; Federal Programs4 Government School Relationship; Historiography; *PoliCy Formation;'Political Power;, Political Science; *Presidents; Social Change; Social SCience Research IDENTIFIERS Congress; *Great Society; Johnson (Lyndon Baines); Kennedy (John F); *Task Force Approach ABSTRACT Archive-based historical anaIysis brings a perspective to policy studies that is lackingn individual case° studies. The recently opened Kennedy and Johnson arChives facilitate an internal analysis of the evolution of education policyformulation in the 1960s from the petspective of the executive branch. The central thread of continuity for such an analysis is executive planning through presidential task forces, such as those coordinated in the mid-1960$ by Bill Moyers and Joseph Califano. While task . forcing was for Kennedy largely a one-shot ceampagn effort,of dubious efficacy, it was crucial for Johnson's construction of'the Great Sciciety's programmatic base. Task forces provide both a window into the education policy processes of the 1960s and a point of entry into the'surrounding political context. From the perspective of the 1980s, the escalation of the Vietnam War in 1966 and its budgetary consequences:appear to marfc a turning point away from Johnson's Great Society programs.'Although the Kennedy-Johnson initiatives were -N overwhelmed by the social tides that flowed around them and did not.\ successfully rescue the poor through educat&gh, they contributed,to an interest in the quality of education that ektends evem into et-ire Reagan era.s(JBM)ik a i ********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by gDRS are the best thp.t can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPAOTMENT OF EDU9TION taA.TIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION o EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION ( CENTER IERIC) originatmg it Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality , o Points of view or opinions stated in this docu ment do not necessarily represent official NIE position or poficy THE'TRANSFORMATION OF FEDERAL EDUCATION POLICY IA THE KENNEDY AND JOHNSON YEARS by Hugh Davis Graham National Institute of Education Research Grant No. 80-0139 January 1983 Kve THE TRANSFORMATION OF FEDERAL EDUCATION POLItY: THE KENNEDY AND JOHNSON YEARS by Hugh Davis Graham CONTENTS Preface and Acknowledgements . i Introduction: Education, Public Policy, aqd HistorY , I The Federal Role in Education 1 The Science of Public Policy and the Art of Archival History 6 Executive Leadership' and the Task Force Device 11 The Johnson Task.Forces: Policy InnovatiOn......., 13 The Gardner'Task Force on Education: A Case Study 17 Task Force Evolution: from Outside to Interagency 21 Task Force Reports: Education and Government Reorganization 23 Political Strategy and Historical Perspective 29 Chapter One John F. Kennedy and Education: From the Congress to the White House 36 Kennedy and Federal Aid -36 The Campaign of 1960 41 The Kennedy Task Forces 49 The Hovde Task Force on Education 52 Forging Kennedy's'Education Program: The Role of the Bureau of the Budget 57, Federal Aid to Education and the Congress: The Debacle of 1961 65 Kennedy's Backdoor Strategy:. The Covert Catholic "Sweetener"... .......... 0 69 "Fiasco': 72 1(N. Chapter-Two Kennedy and the Legacy of Atsasstnation 77 The Political Context of 1962 77 The College Aid Debate of 1962 i )B1 The Disorganliation of the Executive Branch 87 "Nonreimburseable Loans" 91 The Congressional Elections of 1962 98 A Fresh Strategy for 1963: The Budget Bureau's Omnibus Social Welfare Approach 99 a. The States Rights Counterattack 101 Commissioner Francis Keppel.. 104 The Ambivalent Omnibus Bill of 1963 107 Congressional.Response 111 . Judicial Review and Taxpayer Suits. 113 The Kennedy Legacy 117 Chapter Three Task Forcing Toward Lyndon Johnson's Great Society 122 Antipoverty Bandwagon 122 The Task Forces of 1 64 126 The Budget Bureau's Issue Papers" The Gardner Task F rce 134 Politics and Secrecy 144 Toward a Legislative Strategil for EqA 147 The President Decides 155 The ESEA of 1965 158 The Higher Education Act of 1965 164 Chapter Four . Reorganizing the Government 171" The Legacy of Brownlow and Hoover 171 The Price Task Force on Government Reorganization 177 The Problem of the Office of Education 182 Keppel, Loomis, and the Ink Task Force 189 The Organizational Problem of HEW -- and / the Great Society 199 , The Heineman Task Force , ...206 *V' 0CR,...T.0,1,..45.1,4,LL 41111. Chapter Five Expanding the Task Force Device: From Moyers to Califano 214 -- From Outside-to Intei.agency Task Forces ..214 The, Keppel Interagency Task Force on Education-of 1965 221 The PoliticS of the Second Session of - the 89th Congress, 227 A-Case for Budgetary and Programmatic Restraint 231 The 1966 Coalition for Increased Educational Programs 238 ' a The Revolt of Senator Morse 242 The Quiet Sea Change of 1966 247 Chapter Six Forging the Califano Systhn: 19664967 250 Califano's Domestic Council 250 The Campdt Visits of 1966 254 Califano's Task Force Operation of 1966 258 The Task Forces Versus the Budget 263 The Hunt Task Force on Child Development 266 A Federal Ombudsman for'Children? 271 Legislative Strategy in the 90th Congress 275 The Battle Over the Quie Amendment 279 The Triumph of Edith Green 284 The Political Origins of Bilingual ,Education 290 Elements of the Coming Crisis 296 Chapter Seven Planning far the Final Round: 1967-1968 299 Campus Visits, Vietnam, and Ghetto Riots: 1967 299 The Fri,day Task Force 311 Swab Song 320 The Political Editorial of Commissioner Howe 322 A Bureaueratic War . 326 .., (4 hChaOter Eight "The Paradox of 1968 . 332 The Economic Dtlemma of 1968 332 A Tight Executive Budget for Fiscal Year 1969 334 , Tile Congressional Agenda 337 Th Collapse of Morale . 339 A V t Contradiction , 345 v Iron iriangles t 347 Lame Duck Campus Visits 353 Lame Duck Task Forcing $55 , . Academic Science and the Rivlin Report 358 The Last Great Society Task Force an Education 361 Exit January 1969 , 363 Chapter Nne Epilogue 368 Polf6y Implementation and the Political Context of Federalism 368 The Great Society's Built-in Evaluation Requirements 373 Assessing Compensatory. Education 379 a The Racial and Ethnic Politics of Education 391 _Bilingual Education in Theory and Practice X 394 The Nadir of the Ethnic Politics of Education: D-Q UniAversity 401 The Ambi§dous and Ironical Legacy of the Kennedy-Johnson Years 404 Esiay on Method and Sources 410 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My commitment to write this book evolved in a curiously 4. indirett fashion. In the fall of 1979 I was invited by histdrian Ropert A. Divineof the University of Texas at Austin toparticipatein a symposium designed to explore researchand histoVography on the Johnson administration. The, symposium wassponsored bythe Lyndon Baines Johnson Foundation and my topic was collecti4 violence.1\But during myfirst week of researchin the LBJ Library, I quIckly, became fascinated by the rich dOcumentary evidence on the domestic policy process, and especially on the secret Johnson task forces. So what began as an essay on collective vio- lence,evolved into a rather schizophrenic essay on education, youth, and violence, and eventually the force of both logic and evidence forced a 'divorce into two seperate essays, one onviolence and one on education asa case studyinthe 11 had been cot-director, with policitcal scientist Ted Robert Gurr, of the Historical and Comparative Task Force of theNational Commission on theCausesand Prevention of. Violence in. 1968-69. Gurr and I co-editedViolence in Aarica (Washington: U.S. GovernmentPrinting,Mffice, 1969), which wasalso publishedin hardcover by Praeger andin paperbackby- Bantam and New American Library. In 1979 a thoroughly,revised edition was published by Sage. , , policy procpss.2.tiy essay entitled "The Transformation of Fedel?...1 EdUcation Was:published as.chapter,five in Robe t A.4ivine's' anthology, xploring the JOhnsdn Xears:3 As ro University of Maryland colleague trred Miryt exclaimed to "Welcome to the politics of education!". And ;as Wilbur Cohen was fond af'wryly observing, everybody was an expert on education, since everybody had gone to school. But another generous grant-in-iid of research from the LBJFoundation in 1980 .allowed me to return to Austin to st. Continue my research, and Most important of all,in 1.81 I received a two-year ,research grant, from'the National Institute ,ofEducation thatenapledme to complete the' research illthe Johnson and Kepnedy Libraries, the National Archives, the Office of Education archives in the Education kibrary of the NIE, to conduct 19 interviews, tlead 30 oral histories,and ultimately towri:.te the iook. Hence I am deeply indebted to a lot 'of helpfulp ople. In Nddition to RobertDivine in Austin, I tion. theunfailingly helpfulNancy Smith and Linda Hanson, who as archivists at the LBJ Library patienfl,y helped me to learn to ask the rfght questions. WilburCohengraciously encouraged me toask critical questions. The staff archivistsat the John F. Kennedy Library and at the Nation4lArchives were no less helpful, as were the staff librartans at the University of MarylandBaltimore County, and Joanne Cassel atthe NIE Library, who was especially helpful in exploring the . , 2The essay on collective violence was published as "On Riots and Riot Commissions: Civil Disorders in the i960's," The Public Historian (Summer 1980), 7-27. 3(Austin: University of Texas Press), 155:84. ii a resources available through ERIC, and Dr.
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