THE WEEK WE WENT TO WAR by Barton J. Bernstein THE UGLY AMERICAN REVISITED by Dino J. Caterini

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FORD EXPORT CORPORATION FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL American Foreign Service Association JANUARY 1977: Volume 54, No. 1 Officers and Members of the Governing Board PATRICIA WOODRING, President LARS HYDLE, Vice President CHARLOTTE CROMER, Second Vice President USIA: A Counter Proposal FRANK CUMMINS, Secretary GUNTHER K. ROSINUS 3 PAUL von WARD, Treasurer WILLIAM S. LEFES, THOMAS O'CONNOR, AID Representatives SAMUEL F. HART, DAVID NOACK, & Hiring Myself an Employer KENNETH N. ROGERS, Sfafe Representatives PETER WOLCOTT, USIA Representative NANCY COLE 5 OLCOTT DEMING & GLENN G. WOLFE, Retired Representatives Journal Editorial Board The Week We Went to War: RALPH STUART SMITH, Chairman G. RICHARD MONSEN, Vice Chairman American Intervention in Korea JOEL M. WOLDMAN ARNOLD P. SCHIFFERDECKER BARTON J. BERNSTEIN 6 JAMES F. O'CONNOR GEORGE F. SHERMAN, JR. HARRIET P. CULLEY CYNTHIA E. GALLUP WESLEY N. PEDERSEN William Faulkner, STAG Staff JACK H. SHELLENBERGER 10 ALLEN B. MORELAND, Executive Director WILBUR P. CHASE, Counselor CATHERINE WAELDER, Counselor The Ugly American Revisited CECIL B. SANNER, Membership and Circulation DINO J. CATERINI 12 CHRISTINA MARY LANTZ, Executive Secretary Foreign Service Educational Values and Consensus in and Counseling Center American Foreign Policy 16 BERNICE MUNSEY, DirectorICounselor CLARKE SLADE, Consultant Journal Manuel’s Son SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor ELIZABETH E. McNEILL 19 PAUL L. C. SQUIRE, Editorial Assistant MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction Advertising Representatives Editorials 2 JAMES C. SASMOR ASSOCIATES, 521 Fifth Ave., Suite 1700, New Book Essay 24 York, N.Y. 10017 (212) 683-3421 ALBERT D. SHONK CO., 681 Market St., San Francisco, Calif. Bookshelf 25 94105 (415) 392-7144 Letters to the Editor 36 JOSHUA B. POWERS, LTD., 46 Keyes House, Dolphin Sq„ AFSA News 37 London SW1 01-834-8023/9. International Representatives. Cover: Everyday, Lome, by Eleanor Dickinson

The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in For subscription to the JOURNAL, one year (12 issues); $6.00; two years, foreign affairs, published twelve times a year by the American Foreign $10.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except Canada, add $1.00 annu¬ Service Association, a non-profit organization. ally for overseas postage. Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Historical not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the Abstracts and/or America: History and Life. United States Information Agency, the Agency for International Develop¬ Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the FOREIGN ment or the United States Government as a whole. SERVICE JOURNAL are available through the University Microfilm Library While the Editorial Board of the JOURNAL is responsible for its general Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 under a contract signed October 30, content, statements concerning the policy and administration of AFSA as 1967. employee representative under Executive Order 11636 on the editorial ® American Foreign Service Association, 1977. The Foreign Service Jour¬ page and in the AFSA News, and all communications relating to these, are nal is published twelve times a year by the American Foreign Service the responsibility of the AFSA Governing Board. Association, 2101 E Street, N.W., Washington D.C. 20037. Telephone (202) Membership in the American Foreign Service Association is open to the 338-4045 professionals in foreign affairs overseas or in Washington, as well as to persons having an active interest in, or close association with foreign Second-class postage paid at Washington, D.C. and at additional post affairs. office. Membership dues are: Active Members—Dues range from $13 to $52 annually depending upon income. Retired Active Members—Dues are $30 annually for members with incomes over $15,000; $15 annually for less than $15,000. Associate Members—Dues are $20 annually. AR^A EDITORIAL

A MESSAGE FROM THE NEW AFSA PRESIDENT I am honored by the Governing Board’s decision to appoint me as President of the Association for the re¬ mainder of its term. LEGAL DEFENSE As a State Representative on the AFSA Board, I have This month’s AFSA News describes the activities of been painfully aware of the problems that have faced the Association since Mr. Hemenway’s recall took effect your Governing Board as it has attempted to carry out its on November 17. This issue also reports, on page 39, on serious responsibilities in serving you, the members of Mr. Hemenway’s continuing lawsuit against the Associa¬ AFSA. The circumstances we continually encountered tion and individual members of the Governing Board and are well documented and need not be reviewed here. As the Recall Committee, which makes it impossible for the President I shall direct my efforts and energies in getting Association to put the matter completely behind us. on with the day-to-day business of representing you, of That legal action, by Mr. Hemenway and four other listening to your problems and solving them as they can AFSA Members, was initially aimed at stopping the be solved, and of improving the working conditons and counting of the recall election votes. That failed, and the effectiveness of AFSA’s membership. Membership expressed its will decisively, in the largest I recognize that the present Board is in its final months percentage turnout ever in an AFSA election, by a vote of stewardship. There remains much to be done, how¬ of 94 percent in favor of recall. The Governing Board had ever, and with the multiple approach of effectiveness, hoped that this would resolve the matter, and appealed to honesty and dignity, I know our Board can and will ac¬ the plaintiffs on November 23 to .drop their lawsuit to complish much to prove our worth to you. I can honestly avoid further substantial legal costs. But the plaintiffs state to you that every current Board Member—elected persist, seeking to return Mr. Hemenway to office and and appointed—is a dedicated competent representative obtain $100,000 for him in “compensatory and punitive” of his or her constitutency. I am proud to serve with damages. them. We have survived much. In our future delibera¬ The plaintiffs’ disregard of the expressed will of the tions on your behalf our differences will be professional Membership, the lack of substantive merit in their allega¬ and final positions that we take will reflect collectively tions, and their failure to exhaust, or even to pursue, less the best possible, the best attainable, and the best costly administrative remedies through the Employee- thought out solution. Management Relations Commission and the Department I do not consider myself to be a lame duck president. of Labor, make this matter more than just a dispute of the With your support I will not be. With your support, we, type in which an association such as ours could normally the Board, will give you honest, dedicated representa¬ expect to be involved. This lawsuit is nothing less than an tion. I ask that special interest groups communicate with attack on AFSA’s ability to represent its Membership, us on a regular basis as required or desired. An informed and State and AID Foreign Service employees, under Board will have a basis, a consensus, of what is needed Executive Order 11636; and an attack on the right of by whom. In the same manner, individuals are these employees to be represented effectively. There¬ encouraged to help us in our deliberations. Write to us, fore, we believe that it is necessary and proper to appeal come to our meetings, volunteer as you can to help us directly to Members for contributions to meet the costs with your particular expertise, I want your Board to be of litigation, as we did to fight the AID RIF and to estab¬ open in the conduct of its affairs, and you have a neces¬ lish the tax deductibility of home-leave expenses. sary, a valuable role to play. The Board from here foward Over the longer term we hope that members will con¬ will reflect your contributions. To this end, beginning in tribute regularly to the AFSA Legal Defense Fund, January 1977, there will be a Board meeting every Tues¬ building it into a formidable war chest for legal fights on day at 12:00 noon in the Levin Library on the second issues affecting the interests of our Membership and the floor of the AFSA headquarters building, unless for some Foreign Service and the effectiveness of the Association special reason otherwise indicated. Additional meetings itself. There is a box for such contributions on the AFSA will be called when and as necessary. membership application and we suggest that the Fund AFSA in the past has survived slings and arrows cast would be an excellent beneficiary for profits from the sale about. We will do more than merely survive now. I hope overseas of automobiles and other personal property. We you will find my performance as your President satisfac¬ are taking steps to ensure that contributions to the AFSA tory and timely. I look forward to serving you in the Legal Defense Fund may be treated as deductions for months ahead. taxable income on federal income tax returns. Patricia A. Woodring But the need is immediate, for funds to defend AFSA AFSA President et al against Hemenway et al. Please let us have your (Approved by the Governing Board at its December 14 Meeting). contribution as soon as possible. 2 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 “To my mind, the arguments put forward in favor of into the economic or political ones should an amalgama¬ maintaining USIA as a separate agency are out¬ tion with State take place. A keen nose for survival will surely undermine optimistic constructions of equality weighed by the disadvantages.” under one roof. AC DA and AID are hardly cheerful —Hans N. Tuch examples; and Tom has only to recall his own fairly re¬ cent service with a principal officer who, in the weekly senior officer sessions would, with typical delicacy, al¬ ways refer to POL and ECON as the “substantive” sec¬ tions while leaving no doubt that US IS, along with USIA: A COUNTER ADMIN and CON, presumably, belonged to the non¬ substantive side of the ledger. USIA’s lack of recognition should not be attributed to PROPOSAL its somewhat truncated independence, but rather to our inability over the 23 years to develop a consistent con¬ GUNTHER K. ROSINUS cept of public affairs from which some logical and perma¬ nent operational and organizational imperatives could flow. Let me venture to suggest such a concept, some¬ In “Tom” Tuch’s well presented proposal for the what in “action memorandum” - fashion. There is no joining of USIA with State, he puts the cart before the quarrel with Tom’s central point that USIA and the cul¬ horse, for me, at least. He brushes aside too lightly, I tural component of State should be joined—but this fear, the overriding objection to this move that he himself should be outside State and under USIA, precisely as lists in his essay: the ultimately crushing effect of subject¬ they have long been joined in large measure overseas ing an operational Agency all down the line to the clear¬ under the supervision of the PAO. That worthy creation, ance and supervisory role of a bureaucracy whose orien¬ incidentally, somewhat like the sturdy bureaucracy under tation and psychological makeup point—quite legiti¬ five French republics, has run well-integrated public af¬ fairs programs for more than two decades. And this de¬ mately—in an almost opposite direction. More of that below; but Tom must know from his own spite the unrealistic domestic separation of the cultural experience what an immense rush there would be by our and informational components and despite the even more best FSIOs out of the public affairs cone or cones and unrealistic, repetitive and largely irrelevant annual de¬ bates within our own Agency whether USIS program Mr. Rosimts joined the State Department in 1951 and USIA in 1965. He orientation around the world should be more one than the has served in Japan, Germany, Brazil and the Philippines. other. This futile flagellation back home stems from that Does your wine list include one of the finest names from home? The Christian Brothers, with headquarters in the prestigious Napa Valley, are among the oldest vintners of California wines. Their reputation for fine varietal wines is established throughout the world. 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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 3 same lack of concept lamented above. So let us try: available to us. The Organization: Removal from the Department of On a Permanent Concept and Role State and inclusion in the United States Information for the United States Information Agency Agency of all cultural and exchange activities currently The Problem: An Agency after 23 years of existence administered by the Department but invariably managed without effective morale, with frequently changing, un¬ overseas by USIS personnel. Some current duplication even leadership, with no consistent concept of public af¬ of personnel and functions could be eliminated in this fairs to guide its operations, with little standing in the amalgamation. foreign affairs community and the frequent subject of de¬ State-USIA Relations: Retain the Washington separa¬ bilitating studies with invariably shelved recom¬ tion and, in the field, the large current degree of opera¬ mendations. tional autonomy under the general guidance of the am¬ The Assumption: That America’s national security— bassador. Initiative and efficiency are best preserved in i.e., the preservation of our democratic ways and this way. The element of our diplomacy dedicated to op¬ values—rests ultimately and essentially in a world erations, exposition and the stimulation of controversy environment pluralistic in nature, largely free of and debate is not best served by submerging it within a ideology-driven behavior, and containing as many “open larger bureaucracy dedicated to observation, reporting, societies” as possible; that this basic security goal must careful phrasing and the smoothing or avoidance of con¬ be consciously served by our diplomacy; and that there¬ troversy. Collegiality is a far better setting for fore the sum total of our official international information creativity—and even for creative tension—than subordi¬ and cultural activities and exchanges known as “public nation. For the longer run, frequent functional inter¬ affairs” is as integral a dimension of American diplomacy change throughout the career ladder among officers in as the economic, political and military dimensions. political, economic and public affairs should be instituted The Operational Concept: That the essential purpose to build a well-integrated foreign affairs leadership and a of this public affairs dimension of diplomacy is to help pool of talent properly conversant with all the major di¬ preserve and project the Open Society and to explain the mensions of our diplomacy. Then and only then, when foreign and domestic policies that flow from ours; that as good intentions have become tested reality, will the time corollary to this the most basic public affairs function have arrived to consider possible alternatives to our everywhere must therefore be the maintenance and de¬ domestic separation. velopment of effective channels of communication with In brief, then, the impulse toward separation 23 years and among relevant public and private sectors; and that ago was sound but, like most half-way measures, it was this exercise must employ in cohesive fashion all the not enough. Rather than sneaking back into the tent now, tools of international communication and exchanges now let’s try it all the way.

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4 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, Janaury, 1977 “How happy he who crowns in shades like these, A youth of labour with an age of ease.” —Oliver Goldsmith Hiring myself an employer

NANCY COLE

During the spring of 1976 graduating college stu¬ qualify for the oral examination. Anxious as I was to join dents throughout the United States participated in up, I flew from Houston to Washington, D.C., at my an annual scramble for employment. Many, like myself, own expense, for the oral exam. Like many other candi¬ were looking for entry-level positions in government or dates, I found the oral to be a very unnerving experience. business that would provide opportunities for interna¬ When the head examiner called me back to the examina¬ tional work. Accordingly, many scrambling students tion room to give me the oral panel’s decision, I had applied for appointment as junior Foreign Service offi¬ already prepared myself for the news that I did not pass. cers (FSOs). Not to be deterred, however, I asked how I might The process was anything but a novel one for me in better prepare myself for a second attempt at passing the 1976. I first took the FSO written exam in December oral. My examiner suggested three things: (a) wait until 1 1972, in the hope of joining the Foreign Service upon the was older to reapply, (b) accumulate relevant work ex¬ completion of my bachelor’s degree in economics the fol¬ perience, and (c) consider obtaining a master’s degree in lowing spring. My scores that year were good enough to international relations. Suggestion (a) came naturally enough, without any special effort on my part. As for Nancy Cole is a Fulbright-Hays graduate study grantee in Ecuador, suggestion (b), I went to work for a year at the Depart¬ studying Andean pact regulations on foreign investment until August of this year. She received her Master of Public Affairs from Woodrow ment of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) as an Wilson School in 1976. Continued on page 28 We can insure your china during your stay in Peking. For more than 45 years, the Government way around the world in Peking, or just across the Service Policy has given added security to U.S. em¬ ocean in London, the yearly premium is the same. ployees stationed abroad. It is computed as follows: first $1,000, Worldwide all-risk coverage 2%; next $4,000, 1-1/2%; and remaining for government employees. value, 1%. This policy covers all household The annual rate for a total valua¬ goods and declared personal effects, tion of $10,000 is only $130—and special such as furs, jewelry, silverware, paint¬ lowered rates are available to AFSA ings, antiques, cameras, liquor and members. priceless heirloom china. When the policy is extended to It insures valuables, and ac¬ cover goods-in-transit, the premium companying luggage, against fire, theft, charge depends upon origin and des¬ mysterious disappearance, floods, wind¬ tination. A separate, all-risk transit policy, storms, and breakage-at any loca¬ with $50 deductible, can insurb your tion in the world. automobile wherever it travels. Special rates for American When you move, you can count on For additional information, Foreign Service Association members. Paul Wood, Manager of our write to us at our Main Office Whether you're stationed half¬ Insurance Division, to take care of every insurance detail. address, or, if you’re in town, call us (202) 234-5600. Jfropagf (Jontpani) of Itf ashington Main Office: 1701 Florida Avenue, N.W., Washington, D C. 20009 Maryland: Bethesda-Chevy Chase, Marlow Heights, White Oak Virginia: Alexandria, McLean

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 5 1950 marked the end of an uneasy peace in the Land of Morning Calm

the week we went to war: American Intervention in the Korean Civil War

BARTON J. BERNSTEIN

[Until June 25, 1950] the view was ROK, and at about 6 a.m. crossed “that it constitutes an all-out offen¬ generally held that since the Com¬ the 38th parallel to attack the sive against the Republic of munists had far from exhausted the South’s armies. During the early Korea.” potentialities for obtaining their objec¬ hours, the reports from the battle Shortly before midnight, Secre¬ tives through guerrilla and psychologi¬ area were piecemeal and often un¬ tary of State Dean Acheson tele¬ cal warfare, political pressure and in¬ sure, and did not conclusively in¬ timidation, such means would probably phoned President Harry S. Tru¬ continue to be used rather than overt dicate that it was a massive attack. man, then in Independence, Mis¬ military aggression. At General Douglas Mac Arthur’s souri. “I have very serious news,” It was fully realized that the timing of headquarters in Tokyo, officers the Secretary reported. “The any move in Korea would be ordered first judged the conflict another North Koreans have invaded South from the Kremlin. “incident”—one of the many on¬ Korea.” Acheson did not contend going border clashes between the that it was a full-scale attack, but Dean Acheson, 1951 forces of the North and South in he treated it as more than just the recently divided Korea. By late another border clash. Upon the The attack upon Korea makes it morning, however, Pyongyang Secretary’s advice, Truman de¬ plain. . . .that communism has passed charged that the ROK had initiated cided not to rush back to Washing¬ beyond the use of subversion to con¬ quer independent nations and will now the attack and that the North Ko¬ ton, because the information was use armed invasion and war. rean forces had responded strongly still skimpy, but approved Ache- to the assault. son’s strategy that the United Harry S. Truman, June 27, 1950 In Washington (14 hours behind States should bring the matter of Korean time), at 9:26 p.m. on the invasion before the United Na¬ At 4 a.m. on Sunday morning Saturday, the State Department tions Security Council on Sunday. (Korean time), June 25, 1950, received from its Ambassador in By early Sunday morning (Wash¬ the Democratic People’s Republic Korea, John J. Muccio, its first of¬ ington time), the situation in Korea of Korea (DPRK) launched a bom¬ ficial news of the attack: “Accord¬ was still confused, but not bleak. bardment against the Republic of ing to [South] Korean Army re¬ American officials could find evi¬ Korea (ROK), according to the ports which are partly confirmed dence for their cherished notion by [US] Korean Military Advisory that the South Korean forces could Group field advisor reports, North resist the invasion. Ambassaador Barton J. Bernstein, Associate Professor of Korean forces invaded Republic of Muccio, who had warned in early History at Stanford University, is the author of “Hiroshima and Nagasaki Reconsid¬ Korea territory at several points June that the South’s armies were ered: The Atomic Bombings of Japan and this morning”—at Ongjin, Kae¬ weak, told Americans in Seoul that the Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1945” song, and Chunchon, and south of “Korean officials and Security (1975) and the editor of among other vol¬ Kangnung. “It would appear from Forces are handling the situation umes, “Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration” (1970). He is writing a the nature of the attack and the calmly and with ability. There is no series of studies on WW!1 and postwar manner in which it was launched,” reason for alarm. As yet, it cannot foreign policy. Muccio tentatively concluded, be determined whether the north-

6 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 era communists intend. . . .all-out selves in June? What was the role sion. . . .impossible.” The report warfare.” KMAG officers were of NSC-68 in their thinking? also noted that North Korea “had recently removed. . . .civilians widely quoted that the attack had Who Started the War? been ‘‘virtually stopped.” One from areas adjoining the [38th] South Korean official lamented, Did the North or South start the parallel [, that] there was increased “Our only cause for dissatisfaction war? Some analysts suggest that [Northern] military activ¬ is that there has been no order to the events in Korea on the 25th are ity. . . .about four kilometers north advance into the North. By tomor¬ too unclear to allow any conclu¬ parallel [, and that North Korea row morning,” he predicted, “we sion. They point out that the ac¬ had taken possession of] salients on shall have defeated them com¬ cusations against the North depend south side parallel, occupation in at pletely.” basically on South Korean reports least one case being of fairly recent During the next five days (June (not American or UN observers), date.” This information, when 26-30) these hopes slowly col¬ and a few writers even contend that viewed in retrospect, suggests lapsed. In incremental steps, Tru¬ Syngman Rhee, president of the DPRK preparation for an attack. man committed American forces ROK, may have started the war to Even though Rhee had —first, the Air Force and Navy, force the United States into but¬ threatened repeatedly to unify the then the Army—to the battle. By tressing his position both within the country by arms and had good rea¬ Friday, the 30th, America was sub¬ son to want to increase' American stantially engaged in its first shoot¬ support, it is unlikely that he initi¬ ing war since 1945. It was an unde¬ “In view of this ated the war. Despite Mac Arthur’s clared war (“a police action,” said evidence, Rhee had affection for him, and the friendly Truman) without formal congres¬ visit in June by John Foster Dulles, sional approval, but with wide¬ good reason to be a special representative of the State spread popular and informal Con¬ cautious and fearful Department, Rhee did not have gressional support in the early ample evidence for believing that months. —unless he was the United States would come to The war dramatically altered the suicidal, which he was his aid with troops if the North at¬ course of American foreign policy, not. His frantic pleas tacked. In fact, there was substan¬ promptly spurring the Administra¬ tial evidence to suggest that the tion to redefine other commit¬ during the first week United States would probably ments: to increase military aid to of war underline how abandon him: the recent reluctance the French in Indo-China, to re¬ of Congress to provide military and verse its position (disengagement) unsure he was that economic aid; the Truman adminis¬ on Formosa and to support Chiang Truman would commit tration’s suspicion of him and its Kai-shek, to expand its military aid pleas for less repression; the warn¬ to Europe and to push for substan¬ troops to defend ing in May by Senator Tom Con- tial European rearmament, and to the South.’’ nally, chairman of the Senate escalate its military budget—the Foreign Relations Committee, that enactment, in effect, of National the Communists would force the Security Council (NSC) document South and against the North. United States to quit South Korea; 68. The Truman administration, These analysts are technically and Acheson’s refusal the next day following the counsel of Acheson, correct on some matters. There is to “say whether the United States was girding for a long struggle with no impartial direct evidence (re¬ might have to abandon South the Soviet Union and seeking to ported observations) on who Korea to Russia.” In view of this organize and strengthen the “free started the war. The reports by evidence, Rhee had good reason to world.” America would have to American and UN observers rely be cautious and fearful—unless he create an international environ¬ upon South Korea’s claims for the was suicidal, which he was not. His ment in which the American sys¬ critical period (4 a.m. to 6 a.m.) or frantic pleas during the first week tem of democratic capitalism could describe events after the outbreak of war underline how unsure he flourish. of the conflict. And it is true, the was that Truman would commit Even a quarter century after the way matters turned out, that the troops to defend the South. outbreak of the war, many of the embattled Rhee, whose party had In the months before June, Rhee critical questions remain in dispute: just lost the election, gained greatly knew that his military forces would Who started the war? If North from American intervention. be at a decided disadvantage in any Korea, as seems most likely, why? Yet, the indirect evidence in¬ sustained battle with the North—a Did the Soviet Union know about dicates that North Korea, not point that South Korean officials the scheduled attack and even in¬ South, started the war on the 25th. emphasized in the spring. In itiate the scheme? Why did Ameri¬ A UN field report of the 24th (filed January 1950, according to official can policy makers assume that the later) by two Australians who ob¬ American sources, North Korea Soviets had conceived the scheme? served the South Korean army, had begun rapidly expanding her Why did policy makers in June concluded, it “is organized entirely formerly “defensive-type” army commit their nation to a large-scale for defense and is in no condition to into an offensive force. The Rus¬ armed intervention? After defining carry out attack on large scale.” sians supplied about 150 tanks, Korea as outside America’s “de¬ The lack of air support, armor, and some heavy artillery, and a small fense perimeter” as late as January heavy artillery would make “any tactical air force—equipment that 1950, why did they reverse them¬ action with object of inva¬ made the North considerably FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 7 stronger than the ROK, which Rhee and his cohorts would be cast global obligations, the United lacked tanks and combat planes. out of office, and the divided coun¬ States did not seem prepared for Partly because the Truman admin¬ try would be reunited. “Kim had military intervention in Korea. In istration feared that Rhee might at¬ believed,” according to Khrush¬ view of all this evidence, why then tack the DPRK, he was left with¬ chev, “that South Korea was blan¬ should not the North have sought out adequate supplies for an inva¬ keted with Party organizations and to achieve what Rhee periodically sion to unify the country. that the people would rise up in re¬ threatened but could not volt when the Party gave the sig¬ accomplish—unification of the Other evidence supports the nal.” According to a Japanese country? The civil war, abetted by conclusion that the North started study, Communist agents from the the revolution in the South, prom¬ the war and offers likely motives. South reported that the party was ised speedy success. Nikita Khrushchev’s memoir re¬ strong, that there were about ports that Kim II Sung, premier of 500,000 in the underground, and The Role of the DPRK, had informed Stalin in that “members were asking them the Soviet Union late 1949 that he wanted to act to to start a war and invade the ROK Did the Soviets originate or ac¬ unify Korea. “The North Koreans as soon as possible. This was a cede to the North Korean attack? wanted to prod South Korea with major reason why [Kim] decided to Khrushchev claims that Stalin the point of a bayonet. Kim II Sung attack the ROK.” Later, the leader “had his doubts about a North Ko¬ said that the first poke would touch of the Southern faction, Pak Hon- rean attack but acceded to it . . . off an internal explosion in South yong, was indicted by Kim for, the war wasn’t Stalin’s idea but Korea and that the power of the among other charges, falsely re¬ Kim II Sung’s.” The prospects of people would prevail, that is, the porting in 1950 that the South was uniting a divided country under power which ruled in North ready to overthrow Rhee. communism, establishing a coun¬ Korea.” Undoubtedly North Korea did terweight to Mao’s China, embol¬ Khrushchev’s recollection, as not expect a speedy—if any— dening Japan’s communist party, well as some military evidence, in¬ armed American intervention in assisting a liberation movement, dicates that the North Korean gov¬ the civil war. If the expected re¬ and nibbling away at American ernment expected that its strong at¬ volution had developed in the power—all should have seemed at¬ tack, and its quick capture of South, such intervention would tractive but not risky to the usually Seoul, would unleash the antici¬ have lacked the patina of legiti¬ cautious Stalin. He thought, ac¬ pated revolution in the South. macy and, more importantly, cording to Khrushchev, that the Probably for this reason, the North would have been logistically very United States would not intervene Korean government did not origi¬ difficult, if not impossible, because if the war was fought and won nally give its attacking divisions there would have been no safe land¬ swiftly. orders to go beyond Seoul, and the ing area for American troops. Even Did Stalin know when the North North did not await mobilization of aside from logistical difficulties, Koreans would attack? Or did Kim its full army but used only seven of American intervention should have “jump the gun”? There are various 13-15 divisions in the attack. Even seemed unlikely to Kim II Sung, as reasons—indirect evidence—sug¬ Kim II Sung’s calls in earlier June it did to Rhee. The American with¬ gesting that Stalin was surprised by for the overthrow of Rhee, unifica¬ drawal of troops in mid-1949 im¬ the early date of the attack. First, tion, and elections can be inter¬ plied that Korea was not an area of and most important, the Soviets did preted within the framework of the significant interest for the United not even return to the United Na¬ anticipated revolution. States. The presence of a 500- tions and temporarily end their member American military advi¬ boycott (on the issue of seating The South had long faced an sory group and the continuation of Communist China) to block the internal revolutionary threat. An economic aid were inadequate, de¬ American-sponsored resolutions official American army history de¬ spite an Administration claim, “to on the 25th charging North Korea scribes “an organized guerrilla deter overt moves on the part of with a “breach of the peace” and movement” in the South, and notes neighboring powers.” Statements on the 27th urging aid for the ROK. by late 1949 that deserters from the by Acheson and MacArthur, Had Stalin known the scheduled ROK army, guerrillas from the among others, excluding Korea date for the attack, he would have South, and infiltrators from the from the American defense perime¬ probably prepared for the first North “were attacking villages and ter seemed to confirm that Korea meeting of the Security Council installations and becoming ... a was of marginal concern to and most certainly for the second grave threat to the internal security America. Who would have made meeting. Given the Soviets’ con¬ of . . . [South] Korea.” So great much of Acheson’s implication in cern about legalism and their fear were the problems, according to a his January 1950 speech that South that the UN was an American- recently declassified KMAG re¬ Korea would have to rely for assis¬ controlled instrument, Stalin had port, that 30 per cent of the South's tance “upon the commitments of good reason to want to block these forces were engaged in trying to put the entire civilized world under resolutions. It would not have been down the rebellion in late 1949. . . . the United Nations,” and that difficult. A simple strategy could When Rhee’s supporters suf¬ this action might mean American have been devised. Since North fered a massive defeat in the May intervention? Moreover, with only Korea claimed that Rhee had elections, Kim II Sung could find four under-trained divisions in Ja¬ started the war, the Soviets could additional evidence that an up¬ pan, and a relatively small army al¬ easily have endorsed that charge, heaval in the South was likely: ready strained perilously thin by delayed a vote in the Security

8 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 Council for a few days, and de¬ could nibble away at sections of the not, Bohlen and Kennan con¬ manded that Kim’s government, as “free world.” The United States, tended, the beginning of a new well as Rhee’s, be heard by the with her depleted conventional phase of Soviet policy: attacks by UN. Not only did the Soviets seem forces, would not be able to halt satellite armies elsewhere. “The unprepared in the UN, but they these encroachments. The choice Soviet action in Korea,” in seemed so surprised by the out¬ for America would be painful— Bohlen’s words, “was limited break of the war that they even de¬ acquiescence or nuclear weapons. strictly to Korea.” layed a few days in commenting on For Acheson and Nitze, Stalin’s Kennan argued that Stalin was its origins and, in line with Kim, goals were insatiable expansion, ul¬ responding primarily to the pro¬ charging Rhee with aggression. timate conquest of the rest of the posed American peace treaty with Had they known that the DPRK world. He would probe and test, Japan, which excluded the Soviet would attack on the 25th, they exploit areas of weakness, nibble at Union and guaranteed a longterm, would not have floundered for a the West, and slowly spread the formidable American military few days. Communist menace. It was a doc¬ presence in the Pacific. “For some trine in 1949-50 that sounded re¬ American Analysis reason this connection—the idea markably like the analysis of the of Soviet Responsibility that in doing things disagreeable to famous “Mr. X” essay (“The our interests the Russians might be Why did American policy mak¬ reacting to features of our own ers assume that the Soviets had behavior—was one to which the planned the attack? Despite Ache- mind of official Washington would son’s earlier thoughts of ultimately always be strangely resistant,” prying China out of her alliance wrote Kennan. “Our adversaries with the Soviet Union, American had always to be demonic, leaders assumed comfortably that “In addition, in the monstrous,” he complained. “It the Soviet Union orchestrated case of Formosa, was unthinkable that we, by admit¬ nearly all major events in the Acheson may still ting that they sometimes reacted to Communist world—certainly mat¬ what we did, should confess to a ters of aggression. Since North have had serious share in the responsibility for their Korea was a Soviet satellite, ac¬ doubts about ending behavior.” At the time and later, cording to Washington, no one Acheson deemed this analysis fan¬ doubted that this analysis fit the the policy of ciful, bizarre, and wrong-headed, events of late June. disengagement. . and in late June the Secretary also NSC-68, of which Acheson was barred Kennan from the high-level the spiritual father, confirmed and meetings with Truman. dramatized this mode of thinking. Even Kennan and Bohlen, who Put together primarily by Paul challenged some of the assump¬ Nitze of the Policy Planning Staff in the winter and early spring of tions about the war, would not endorse what now seems a more 1949-50, NSC-68 contended that Sources of Soviet Conduct”), pub¬ reasonable interpretation of that “the Soviet Union, unlike previous lished in 1947 by George Kennan. conflict: it was a civil war, initiated aspirants to hegemony, is animated By 1949-50, however, Kennan and by the North for its own purposes, by a new fanatic faith . . . and Charles Bohlen had modified— and approved by Stalin, despite seeks to impose its absolute author¬ even repudiated—parts of the “Mr. some doubts. It was not a Soviet- ity over the rest of the world .... X” analysis, and they objected to directed or initiated scheme. Much To that end Soviet efforts are now NSC-68 on various grounds. They of the explanation of the war lies in directed toward the domination of viewed the Soviet Union, in an understanding of politics in the Eurasian land mass.” NSC-68 Bohlen’s words, as “largely Korea and especially in the DPRK. warned that “the Communist suc¬ motivated by its interests as a na¬ Unfortunately the Cold War think¬ cess in China, taken with the tional state, and that the idea of ing of 1949-50, with the assump¬ politico-economic situation in the spreading Communism was sec¬ tions that satellites in both the rest of South and South-East Asia, ondary to such considerations.” Soviet and American camps lacked provides a springboard for the further incursion in this troubled Despite these disagreements on the capacity to initiate bold ventures, made it impossible for area.” Indo-China and the Philip¬ the goals and nature of Soviet pol¬ most Americans—both policy pines, by implication, were in icy, none in the high ranks of gov¬ makers and attentive citizens—to danger. With a minor revision, the ernment questioned the conclusion general analysis, when stretched that Stalin had planned North formulate an interpretation that rested upon an analysis of politics geographically, could easily in¬ Korea’s attack; but some—notably in Korea. clude Korea as an endangered re¬ Kennan and Bohlen—challenged gion. Acheson’s thesis that the war was American Decisions The document foresaw the dan¬ part of some “grand design.” They for War gers of “piecemeal aggression,” rejected that conception. “NSC- which the United States lacked the 68’s misconception of Soviet By Sunday, the 25th, in Wash¬ conventional forces to resist. The aims,” wrote Bohlen, “misled . . . ington, the evidence began to ac¬ Soviet Union—employing aggres¬ Dean Acheson and others in inter¬ cumulate that the North Korean at- sion by satellites or subversion— preting the Korean war.” It was Continued on page 33 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 9 “The old universal truths lacking which any story is ephemeral and doomed—love and honor and pity and pride and compassion and sacrifice.’’—William Faulkner William Faulkner-STAG (Short Term American Grantee)

JACK H. SHELLENBERGER

It is hard to separate the worked in Hollywood as a screen¬ ing in a pursed-lip sort of way. fantasy from the reality. That he writer. The Foreign Correspondents came to Japan in the summer of I recall him sitting in the rear seat Club of Tokyo planned that day’s 1955 is real enough. A certain of a car which was being bounced luncheon in honor of William Japanese inn in the hill city of up and down by hand; a branch of a Faulkner without regard for decor Nagano has a plaque at the recep¬ tree was waved rhythmically to or menu but with considerable con¬ tion desk which says so—the only cast its shadow upon the car and cern about seating space. The an¬ American guest in the inn’s history the novelist. Through the lens of a nouncement went out to members so honored. fixed movie camera, the idea that in the usual nondescript mimeo¬ I remember his leaving because Faulkner was being driven through graphed form several weeks in ad¬ it was handled as if he was arriving. Japan’s countryside was conveyed. vance. USIS was making a documentary He tolerated all of this; patiently, In those days, Tokyo was not the film based on Faulkner’s brief even stoically, but not out of obli¬ watering spot for celebrities that it essay entitled “Impressions of Ja¬ gation. Some might have assumed is today. The number of takers at pan.” The essay surfaced in the so, given what occurred during his the equivalent of $4.00 a head was final days of his six-week stay and first days in Tokyo. unprecedented, save, as one old- we faced the problem of making it Faulkner arrived tired after a timer remarked, when General the basis for a film, with the author, 30-hour flight from California. Douglas MacArthur was rumored of course, depicted as arriving at Time change affected a metabolism to be feted on the occasion of his those impressions. unused to more than summer’s recall. The General did not show. Neither did Faulkner. Northwest Orient Airlines coop¬ early dawn and the late coming of darkness to a Mississippi farm. Picture 400 journalists and their erated. Faulkner got to the airport guests squeezed into the club’s lim¬ early for his departure. He was The plane was late and the wel¬ ited dining space for a relatively hurried through the formalities, coming reception at Tokyo’s Inter¬ expensive but unexceptional lunch. rushed into a DC-7 and then told to national House began within an Note how they glance at the head hour of the novelist’s arrivial. leave the aircraft at the head of a table and the empty chair of the one procession of American Embassy The guest list was impressive to be honored this day. Every staffers and their wives and chil¬ enough. But not as extensive or opening of the main door stops dren. This was filmed as was a prestigious as the American Am¬ conversation for an instant as simulated press conference at bassador’s affair scheduled for the nobodies slip in embarrassed by Haneda Airport’s VIP room. The following evening. Faulkner made what they assume to be their tardi¬ questioners were USIS locals his appearance at International ness. whose jottings in Kanji and House and retired quickly, plead¬ The eating is done, and coffee Hiragana ideographs reflected ing exhaustion. Wholly justified. cups are refilled. “Members, something of what the novelist had No incident. friends of the Foreign Corre¬ stated in the essay. The following morning a cour¬ spondents Club!” The attention is This reversal from reality was tesy call on the Ambassador was unusually rapt. “I won’t say any¬ nothing new to Faulkner. He had the first appointment. It went thing more. And I gladly turn the badly. Faulkner had slept little and microphone over to Leon Picon, poorly. He did not really want to Cultural Affairs Officer of the Jack H. Shellenberger is Program Manager meet the American Ambassador. United States Embassy.” for the Voice of America. Mr. Shellenberger And, arriving late, he terminated The applause is negligible. The joined US1A in 1955 after experience as a news reporter and in radio and TV. He has the conversation suddenly by rush¬ murmuring noisy. Not one person served at Tokyo, Nagoya, Rome, Rangoon, ing to a toilet. The Ambassador is in the room now doubted the Brussels and Lagos. reported to have been understand¬ rumors that had flown since Faulk- 10 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 ner’s Tokyo arrival. On the morning of the third day August morning, sitting in a large Leon did his best. He mentioned of Faulkner’s projected six-week USIS office with the novelist and the long flight and the heavy visit, a special meeting was con¬ an interpreter. The Japanese critics schedule, and Faulkner’s personal vened in the Ambassador’s office. were scheduled in and out of the regrets. And then as a sincere, but, “I want him out of here within 24 office at 30 to 40 minute intervals. I under the circumstances, somewhat hours!” That was how the meeting felt silly if not guilty under the cir¬ limp gesture, he invited everyone’s began. It ended a short time later in cumstances, but also immensely attention to the sheet of paper now something of a compromise. In lucky to eavesdrop on conversa¬ being passed out (by me and other bureaucratese/it could be summed tions with a literary giant. USIS junior officers). It was a re¬ up as follows: If Faulkner failed to “What phases of Japan do you production of Faulkner’s ac¬ meet any single commitment during wish to explore, Mr. Faulkner? ceptance statement on receiving the remainder of his stay, or should “Can the soul be evil, and if so the 1949 Nobel Prize for Litera¬ his conduct prevent him from meet¬ where is truth? ture. Leon then proceeded to read ing the requirements of whatever “What is the task of the writer? the statement. Its nobility of tone that commitment entailed, then. “How do you like Ernest and directness of sentiment make it Hemingway? a classic, worth hearing and quot¬ “Why did you write ing from again and again. But in “He [the writer] must Sanctuary?” Tokyo that day, it was no substi¬ tute. teach himself that “To buy a horse,” was the That evening, the Ambassador’s the basest of all novelist’s answer to the latter. As tolerance, already strained by what for the other questions, what was he’d learned about the Corre¬ things is to be afraid; impressive and revealing to me was spondents Club affair, was further and, teaching himself Faulkner’s utter lack of boredom tested. The turnout of Tokyo’s in¬ or condescension. He seemed to tellectual, political and diplomatic that, forget it forever, welcome the questions, responding establishment was above average. leaving no room in his fully and creatively to all that was Not that Faulkner’s works were asked of him in a soft voice and that well known. But here was workshop for anything sincere manner. I was amazed at America’s first Nobel Prize for lit¬ but the old verities his patience and struck by his sub¬ tlety in drawing from his erature winner ever to visit Japan. and truths of the heart, Japan would honor a laureate of questioners insights about Japan such stature. the old universal and its intellectual life. The Residence glittered with the truths lacking which The morning passed quickly. assemblage. Faulkner nearly During a break, we stood on a bal¬ missed it all. How he arrived is as any story is ephemeral cony outside the office and gazed unclear as is the timing. He was too and doomed—love and down at a pair of scavengers pick¬ late to stand in the receiving line ing through the rubble of a war- (the Cultural Attache was his honor and pity and destroyed building. “They have stand-in and unintentionally con¬ pride and compassion their work and their reasons,” he vinced many that he was the muttered, adding “those bricks are novelist). The Ambassador and his and sacrifice.’’ exceptional having withstood so wife, not unlike those in a similar —December 10, 1950 much heat. Get some for your¬ circumstance, who had invited and self.” (I did and they have accom¬ planned and laid out an elaborate panied us as support for a slab of reception with extra help and a ca¬ not only would William Faulkner mahogany to three continents.) tered buffet, were less than amused return to the United States, but he Lunch was in-family. Picon, and by his late arrival. would be accompanied by certain another who had staked his job on Faulkner finally appeared, dazed key USIS officers whose Japan the Faulkner visit, the novelist, and and uncomfortable. He greeted his tours would be prematurely termi¬ me. The Union Club was an hosts and promptly downed a nated. American military officers' facility drink. It was his first. It was his Interviews with Japanese literary nearby. Leon rushed us past the last. To potted plants in an out-of- critics and intellectuals had been noisy bar and then moved from din¬ the-way alcove, he fled, and got scheduled, an entire day set aside ing area to the snackbar chattering sick behind them. Among those for them. It was Faulkner’s last about how great the cheeseburgers who observed his furtiveness was, day in Tokyo before traveling— were and ostentatiously suggesting of course, the Ambassador. “Get either to Nagano in the hills of cen¬ milkshakes all around. him up and out, quickly and tral Japan and the long planned “Beer,” stated Mr. Faulkner. quietly,” was the reported instruc¬ seminar on American Literature or “Beer it shall be,” said Leon, re¬ tion to his Cultural Attache whose to Haneda Airport and a flight signedly. He motioned me to join career high in finally delivering a home to Mississippi. him in the Men’s Room. “For God leading American novelist under “Just get in on the sessions,” I sakes, try to siphon his beer! Even United States Governmental au¬ was told. “Keep track of the time. a little will affect him. I don’t care spices to a significant overseas au¬ Make sure the schedule is ob¬ how you do it. . .” dience had been reduced to a re¬ served.” So it was that I found my¬ We returned to the table as the buke. self at nine o’clock on a steamy Continued on page 30

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 11 “We have had no novel called The Ugly Senator. Nor have we had The Ugly Journalist, The Ugly Barrister, or even The Ugly Ad Man. But we might have. Like the Foreign Service, each of these professions has its share of misfits, mischief-makers, buffoons and shirkers.’’ — J. William Fulbright

The Ugly American Revisited

DINO J. CATERINI

America loves any anniver¬ wasn't kidding. The blast threw in print. It sold more than a sary that is divisible by five: shock waves throughout the world, thousand copies in hard cover last witness the Bicentennial. And yet shaking up an America that had be¬ year and 120,000 copies were pub¬ three years ago, the anniversary of come fat and complacent in the lished in paperback as well. a very important event went by middle ’50s. Item: Monarch Press has pub¬ unnoticed—the fifteenth anniver¬ “If the book’s message seems lished a critique on the book in its sary of the publication of The Ugly too severe,” Jim Walls wrote in the Monarch Notes series which is American by William J. Lederer San Francisco Chronicle, “this re¬ aimed at college students as a study and Eugene Burdick, the best¬ viewer for one doesn’t think it goes aid. Why? Because the book is seller par excellence of the Cold far enough.” taught in many courses in Ameri¬ War years. Percy Wood of the Chicago Sun¬ can Literature on many college campuses. Other Monarch Notes Looking back at the Cold War day Tribune agreed, writing “We do send a lot of fatheads to the far cover such literary greats as from the vantage point of detente, Shakespeare, Aristotle, Chekhov, it’s hard to recreate the impact of east as our diplomatic and eco¬ nomic representatives, as this re¬ Chaucer, Dostoevsky, Twain, etc. The Ugly American in 1958. And Item: On the Metroliner to New for those who think the book is a viewer has reason to know, and the authors of The Ugly American York recently, the lady sitting next mere relic of the past, here’s news to me strikes up a conversation. for you: The Ugly American is have done a good job of blowing the whistle on them.” When she discovers I am in the alive and well and living—in the Foreign Service, she says, “What a American psyche. Though 1 think The respected New York Times coincidence! I was just reading The the time has come to eradicate the gave the book an unqualified Ugly American last week. And premises upon which it was based, endorsement. Robert Trumbull, now, what happens? I meet an it won’t be easy, for few books the Times reviewer, said, “The American diplomat for the first have ever made a more lasting im¬ collaboration of this experienced time in my life.” She was delighted pression on the American mind. pair produced a book that is not with the chance to get the “inside A fast-moving story with plenty only important but constantly story.” She sized me up for the rest of action, The Ugly American entertaining. . . . The attack on of the trip, comparing me to the drilled into the American con¬ American policy in Asia this book people in the book. In the end, she sciousness with the force of a jack¬ makes is clothed in sharp charac¬ granted I was more “human” than hammer cutting through sand. It terizations, frequently humorous the characters she had been reading had Zowee and Zoom. Power. incidents and perceptive descrip¬ about—but that was as far as she’d Force. The book packed a wallop, tions of the countries and people go. Her reference to me as “hu¬ pushing its way into the American where action occurs.” man” irritated me, forcing me to psyche with the POP! WHAM! BAM! Action: that’s the key word. For reflect about the book and my of a Superman comic strip. The Ugly American set the scene career. What was The Ugly Ameri¬ When the New York Herald for “diplomacy as action”—the can all about anyway, I asked my¬ Tribune called it a “bombshell,” it precursor of an era of active diplo¬ self. What was the secret behind its macy that led directly to Vietnam. success? For the book was nothing Mr. Caterini joined USIA in I960, after re¬ But The Ugly American as a if not successful. It was one of ceiving lii.s B.A. from Miami University book is certainly dead, you say, a those books whose time had come, (Ohio) and his LL.B. from New York Uni¬ a best-seller in the original sense of versity School of Law. He has served in Ber¬ passe remnant of the nostalgic ’50s. lin, Mogadiscio. Asmara, Vietnam, Ran¬ Negative. the word: it sold well. goon, and is now in Islamabad. Item: The Ugly American is still The book was first published in

12 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 hardback by W. W. Norton in Oc¬ Communism unless the local he made in China may have be¬ tober 1958. It quickly became a natives—in this case the come the model by which all Asian main selection of the Book of the Kachins-—are willing to do so Communists fight.” Wolchek dis¬ Month Club, and a paperback edi¬ themselves. He knows the natives cusses Mao with his French coun¬ tion was put out by Fawcett. Be¬ do not trust white men and that the terpart, Monet. At first, Monet is tween the hardbound and the worst thing he can do is to try to skeptical about applying Mao’s tac¬ paperback sales, the book sold “tell them what to do.” They must tics against the Viet Minh. He says more than 2,500,000 copies during see the light themselves. He gets that a nation that has produced its first three years of publication. nine trustworthy native friends to¬ Napoleon, Foch and Lyautey Almost overnight, the book’s gether to discuss the Communist doesn’t need to learn anything from title worked its way into the every¬ problem in their area and to abide Mao. In the battle following the day language of America. It was by whatever decision they may conversation, both Wolchek and the in book of its day and its influ¬ make. “This was, he was sure, the Monet are injured. Wolchek now ence was great. first time that these men had ever has the iron of three wars in his Why? Because it was published been told by a white man that a big body. The chapter ends with a at precisely the right moment in and important decision was entirely rather grisly account of a Viet time. Only a year earlier—in Oc¬ their own . . . and would be fol¬ Minh atrocity against two French tober 1957—the Russians elec¬ lowed by the white man.” The nine soldiers—the vocal cords of one trified the world with their natives are all Catholics who see soldier are ripped from his throat, bombshell of a propaganda victory: Communism as a menace to their one eye of another is torn from the Sputnik. With the launching of the religion. They decide to organize socket. Appalled, Monet is finally first man-made satellite, Russia— against the local Communists, and convinced that he should fight Mao in one brilliant stroke—put above all to set up an anti¬ with Mao. America on the defensive. We communist intelligence gathering MORAL: Understand your began to question ourselves—and team. They do so and in the end are enemy and read all about him; a na¬ especially our foreign policies— successful in discrediting the local tion and its army must remain flex¬ and The Ugly America rode the Communists. ible and must be able to adapt its crest of the Sputnik backlash. MORAL: An American who strategy and tactics to fit the The Ugly American was the kind lives with the natives, knows the enemy: a nation underestimates an of book that spoke to the gut. It local language, eats the food, un¬ enemy at the risk of failure. shook people up and it gave them derstands the customs and is not And so it goes, each chapter with the answers: we weren’t sending paternalistic can organize the na¬ its neat little moral: the right kinds of people overseas. tives into a coherent group capable Keep the backslapping club-joining We needed movers and shakers, of defeating the Communists. American Babbits at home; send Americans abroad who have a feel for men and women who spoke the Chapters can be picked out at foreign cultures. local language and weren’t afraid to random and the moral always Understand the culture and mores of act. The book didn’t pull any emerges clearly at the end. Take the country in which you are assigned; punches, and because it was read Chapter 11, for example, entitled don’t be above using palmistry and as¬ and believed, it influenced a whole “The Iron of War.” In it, Major trology or anything else accepted by generation of Americans as few James “Tex” Wolchek is an the local culture—if it works. other books did. American army observer attached Americans abroad on important mis¬ As literature, the book was con¬ to the French army in Vietnam. sions shouldn't “live it up" and troversial from the start. There was His body holds pieces of iron from shouldn’t attend too many cocktail par¬ much discussion at the time as to two previous wars—World War II ties; the gentle art of negotiation re¬ whether The Ugly American was and Korea. The year is 1954. Di- quires the full control of all one’s facul¬ ties. really a novel at all. There was no enbienphu has just fallen and American advisors abroad must un¬ story-line or plot to the book in the MacWhite, the visiting American derstand the masses and win the hearts traditional sense; instead, the ambassador, wants to know why and minds of the people if their advice book, in essence, was a series of the French are losing to the Viet is to influence the country’s leadership. short vignettes. Each vignette was Minh. Major Wolchek tells him The chapters, action-packed, roll meant to make a point and to make why: “We're fighting a kind of war on; each with a clear-cut moral it stick; each chapter had a here that I never read about at whose cumulative effect leads the “moral” akin in style to the ancient Command and Staff College. Con¬ reader to conclude that America is morality tales. ventional weapons just don’t work losing the battle in the underde¬ An analysis of a few chapters here. Neither do conventional tac¬ veloped world to an astute Com¬ will give the flavor of the book and tics.” Later Wolchek puts it munist Russia. The “ugly Ameri¬ show what I mean. For example, in another way: “It’s just that the can” of the title doesn’t appear Chapter 3, entitled “Nine Communists are fighting by a dif¬ until the end of the book, in two Friends,” Father Finian, a Cath¬ ferent rule book. And like a damn small chapters, but he epitomizes olic priest, fights against Com¬ fool, it’s taken me almost a month what the authors believe an Ameri¬ munism in Upper Burma. Father to remember that I once read it. can abroad should be. He and his Finian studies the Burmese lan¬ •When I was in Korea, I picked up a wife live with the natives, learn guage and Burmese culture; he book by Mao Tse-tung . . . Mao is their language and develop small learns to eat the native food. He one hell of a bright guy. I hate what schemes of direct benefit to the sees Communism as a secular relig¬ he stands for, but he does have a people and with which the people ion but he knows he cannot fight kind of genius . . . The kind of fight feel directly involved. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 13 In the final chapter of the book, on the evidence they saw around bungler; obversely, it elevated the entitled, “A Factual Epilogue,” them of American foreign policy Russians to the position of the su¬ the authors write: “It is not or¬ failures: the loss of China, the preme diplomats of our age. At this thodox to append a factual epilogue stalemate in Korea, the take-over point, it’s worth asking the ques¬ to a work of fiction. However, we of Eastern Europe by the Russians, tion: Were the Americans as bad as would not wish any reader to put the brutal repression of the they were portrayed? Were the down our book thinking that what Hungarian uprising, the Berlin Russians as good? In reality, both he has read is wholly imaginary. question, and the crowning were exaggerated. The Russian For it is not; it is based on fact.” blow—Sputnik. The book captured failures in Guinea, in the Congo The authors then go on to re¬ the imagination of Americans—of with Patrice Lumumba, in capitulate many of the points al¬ an America whose pride had been Indonesia—areas in which they ready made in the fictionalized ac¬ deeply punctured by Sputnik and had everything going for them— count and then end the book with which was ready to believe the attest to the fact that the Russians these ringing words: “We have worst about Americans abroad, of the late ’50s and early ’60s were been offering the Asian nations the especially official Americans. not diplomatic supermen. Nor wrong kind of help. We have so lost After all, hadn’t American dip¬ were the Americans all that bad. sight of our own past that we are lomats abroad already lost China? On the contrary, they were quite trying to sell guns and money Now they would lose the world. good and showed a great deal of alone, instead of remembering that The Ugly American created the creative imagination in an era of di¬ it was the quest for the dignity of impression that the American plomacy that was admittedly not freedom that was responsible for abroad was an inveterate bungler easy. The Marshall Plan, the Tru¬ our own way of life. All over Asia and that the Russians were giants man Doctrine, the Berlin .Airlift, we have found that the basic in pin-striped pants. It doesn’t mat¬ Point Four, the response in Korea, American ethic is revered and hon¬ ter that, in fact, the book had some the rebuilding of Western Europe, ored and imitated when possible. worthy, heroic Americans in it; NATO, the creation of a strong, We must, while helping Asia to¬ they weren’t the ones the readers non-militaristic Japan, the re¬ ward self-sufficiency, show by remembered. In this respect, it’s establishment of stability in the example that America is still the significant to recall that the “ugly Congo—these are examples of America of freedom and hope and American” was actually the hero imaginative diplomatic responses knowledge of law. If we succeed, of the book; he was the American that turned out to be successes. we cannot lose the struggle.” other Americans abroad were sup¬ But these facts hardly mattered Wow! No wonder many people posed to emulate. But in the popu¬ for, as a novel, The Ugly American put down the book wondering if it lar mythology which followed hard did not concern itself with facts in was really a novel at all. There had on the publication of the book, this the traditional sense. Despite the been other novels on contemporary was forgotten. The “ugly Ameri¬ “Factual Epilogue,” the book was themes before, but none that so ex¬ can” took on the connotation that essentially a work of fiction and as plicitly claimed to be based on fact. the very name implied: repulsive, such, it had to grip the imagination The “Factual Epilogue” was a loathsome, incompetent and cor¬ of the reader. The book concen¬ stroke of genius that gave credence rupt. People who had never even trated on “action diplomacy”—on to the story by its claim that the read the book took up the slogan of foreign policy as “involve¬ incidents depicted were in fact true “the ugly American” and made it ment”—because real diplomacy is though couched in the form of fic¬ their own. People who read the quiet, painstaking, methodical and tion. In a sense, The Ugly Ameri¬ book should have known better, rather dull. It is not the stuff of can was the first of the “non-fiction but even they used the title in a which action novels are made, and novels” in American fiction, the sense exactly opposite to what the The Ugly American was an action first really successful modern ap¬ hero of the book was supposed to novel. pearance of the novelist as pam¬ personify: all that is good in the Its very message was that phleteer. American abroad. America must act and act now. For the final analysis, the book Perhaps nothing better reflects The concept of action permeates was a call for action and the last the mood of those days than the the novel and keeps it moving words of the book—“If we suc¬ fact that a character that was sup¬ along. The book was basically con¬ ceed, we cannot lose the posed to be heroic was transformed cerned with American failures in struggle”—are the words of a pam¬ by the reading public into an ogre. the dramatically active areas of phleteer, the lineal descendant of Certainly McCarthy and his vindic¬ counter-insurgency and economic Paine’s declaration in “The tive crucifixion of the old State aid. As such, the book ushered in American Crisis” that these are the Department China Hands had al¬ the era of “diplomacy as action” times that try men’s souls. ready set the stage. Americans and was the inspiration for two of And the format worked. The were ready to believe the worst; the major action-oriented diploma¬ message got across, for the book and when The Ugly American tic maneuvers of the ’60s: the crea¬ was fated to influence a whole gen¬ came out, they believed with a tion of the Peace Corps and the eration of Americans for whom the vengeance, even going so far as to American intervention in Vietnam. launching of Sputnik was a tre¬ transform the hero of the book into In retrospect, it’s easy to see that mendous shock. The book was be¬ an American anti-hero. The Ugly American was the liter¬ lievable at the time because it said, Intentionally or not, The Ugly ary mother of the Peace Coips. in substance, what Americans of American created the image of the The book fostered the idea that those days were ready to believe, American abroad as an inveterate Americans should live with the 14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 people of the underdeveloped the counter-insurgency program at Asia and from there to the world. world, that they should know their Fort Bragg. These arguments were right out of language, create community in¬ Whether President Kennedy The Ugly American and there were volvement and work on small proj¬ himself ever read The Ugly Ameri¬ very few people who took issue ects at the rice-roots level. There is can, I do not know. But it hardly with them at the time. no doubt that the book helped matters whether he did nor did not. So by the late ’60s, two of the create the climate of public opinion By the late ’50s, the book and its major objections posed by the au¬ in which the idea of a Peace Corps basic concepts had become so thors of The Ugly American had could grow. Neither President much a part of American thought been overcome: (1) a Peace Corps John F. Kennedy who created the that even people who had never had been established in which vol¬ Peace Corps, nor Hubert Hum¬ read the book knew what it stood unteers lived and worked with the phrey who espoused the idea origi¬ for and what it proposed. It had people of the underdeveloped nally, nor the hundreds of others helped create a body of public opin¬ world at the lowest level, speaking who pitched in to make the idea a ion in which the concepts of the native language and executing reality were aware of the debt they small projects that truly benefited owed the book in laying the them; and (2) a corps of counter¬ groundwork for the Corps. In a insurgency experts well-versed in sense, the fact that no one ever cor¬ “When one looks at our Mao, had been established and relates The Ugly American with their theories were being tested in the foundation of the Peace Corps government’s record in real-life experiments on the attests to the fact that the book had Asia over the last battlefields of Vietnam. so deeply embedded itself into the decade or so, it seems And yet by the end of the ’60s, American consciousness of the despite the fact that the authors had period that it was, in effect, taken that if our leaders basically gotten what they called for granted. By the time the Peace have shown any for, American diplomacy was not Corps was established in 1961— much better off than it had been ten only three years after the book was persistent failing, it years before in the late ’50s. Most published—the necessity for a has been an excessive people would say it was worse. Peace Corps was so accepted in So where had The Ugly Ameri¬ principle that hardly anyone hunger for action.” can failed? What had gone wrong? questioned the basic premises upon In my opinion, its major fault which it was founded—premises was that it concentrated on aspects embodied in the book itself peripheral to foreign policy— The other action-oriented policy counter-insurgency would be read¬ mainly economic aid, counter¬ that The Ugly American inspired in ily acceptable. insurgency and propaganda. By the ’60s was the American in¬ And they were accepted. There doing so, it concentrated on action volvement in Vietnam. A good deal were very few experts in counter¬ as opposed to policy. As The New oiThe Ugly American was devoted insurgency in the early ’60s who Yorker put it recently, “. . . when to Vietnam and the French failure did not think that America could one looks at our government’s rec¬ there in the war against the Viet succeed in Vietnam where the ord in Asia over the last decade or Minh. Implicit in the book was the French had failed. The public in so, it seems that if our leaders have fact that, though the French had general—let alone the experts— shown any persistent failing, it has failed,, the Americans need not. If was even more willing to believe been an excessive hunger for ac¬ America would only understand this based on the undisputed fact tion.” By concentrating on action the real nature of insurgency—if we that the Americans were better as opposed to policy, The Ugly would read the works of Mao Tse- than the French. Period. The American gave a false impression tung and grasp the underlying es¬ counter-insurgency experts were of what was wrong with the United sence of his theories of revolution¬ just waiting for the chance to prove States abroad—not foreign policy ary warfare—we could then beat that they were right. Public opin¬ but the implementation of those Mao at his own game. Once again, ion, nurtured by The Ugly Ameri¬ things peripheral to it. What’s though very little mention was ever can mentality, was behind them. more, it presumed that these made of it—none, in fact, that I can And it wasn’t long before the op¬ peripheral aspects of policy were think of—The Ugly American portunity came. Already under good per se. played a subtle but significant role Kennedy, the build-up in Vietnam Nowhere, for example, does The in creating the background atmo¬ had begun. It continued under Ugly American question whether sphere in which the “counter¬ President Johnson and blossomed the non-diplomatic aspects of di¬ insurgency” programs of the early into full-scale warfare in 1965. plomacy are valid—i.e.,-economic '60s could grow. President Ken¬ It’s interesting to note that two aid, military assistance, cultural di¬ nedy was very much taken by the of the most oft-repeated rationales plomacy, etc. Instead, it pre¬ concept of counter-insurgency. for our massive intervention in supposes that they are and attacks Early in his administration, he set Vietnam were: (1) America must inadequacies, mostly in personnel. up a course in counter-insurgency prove that aggression doesn’t pay; The book, in sum, has little or no¬ and required all foreign affairs per¬ and (2) revolutionary warfare is the thing to say about policy and tra¬ sonnel to take it. He also threw his war of the future and we must show ditional diplomacy. presidential weight behind the ex¬ that counter-insurgency can stop it, Make no mistake about this: I pansion of the Special Forces and lest it spread all over Southeast Continued on page 31 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 15 “To what expedient, then, shall we finally resort for maintaining in practice the necessary partition of power among the several departments, as laid down in the Constitution?’’ —The Federalist, No. 51.

Values and Consensus in American foreign Policy

Anew Administration comes Americans exhibited a mood of tional activity, from detente and to power in Washington lack¬ vibrancy, hopefulness, and a de¬ strategic arms to intelligence, trade ing what most of its postwar pre¬ termination to rise above the ad¬ and aid. In attempting to recapture decessors have enjoyed: a national versity of the recent past. some of its lost influence in foreign consensus on America’s role in the Today, a new set of forces— policy-making, the Legislative world. some of them created in part as a Branch is beginning to offer an al¬ Powerful changes at home and reaction to American power— ternative vision of what American abroad have discredited old doc¬ challenge both the capacity and the foreign policy should be—a vision trines. Containment and American will of our nation to act with deci¬ more attuned to the preoccupation economic liberalism—the in¬ siveness and effect. In East-West of America with domestic prob¬ tellectual underpinnings for the re¬ relations, we no longer have the lems, more accepting of the relative markably coherent foreign policy conceptual framework of undiffer¬ decline of American power, and of one generation—no longer entiated anti-Communism, even as less ambitious to control events command unquestioning support we must live with both the insecuri¬ abroad. Yet the Congressional vi¬ from the next. Optimism has been ties of immense nuclear arsenals sion lacks completeness and coher¬ tempered by self-doubt about the and the demonstrated knowledge ence, and with the recent emphasis creativity, dynamism, and moral that military power alone is se¬ in Washington on constitutional certitude of America. Yet, in our verely limited as an instrument of prerogatives, these challenges so recent Bicentennial celebrations, national will. In the North-South far have been as much a source of context, we face demands from conflict as a search for consensus. new and complex forces. And With regard to the public, recent This article is excerpted from a paper prepared by Arnold Schifferdecker, Peter Ly- domestically, we sense the increas¬ polls and State Department “Town don, John Graham, Adrian Basora, Warren ing interdependence of our world Meeting’’ public forums across the Zimmerman and Richard Thompson. All are through the impact of international country strongly suggest a sense of officers of the Department of State. The events on our daily lives. estrangement between America paper was developed in discussions with a and the federal bureaucracy in larger group of professionals in the De¬ The Congress increasingly is partment and related agencies. It represents willing to challenge executive com¬ Washington. Many Americans feel the personal views of the authors. petence in every phase of interna¬ that Washington is out of step with

16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 the country—that somehow our • Equity. The provision of basic weaken them at our risk. Our prob¬ priorities and values here are dif¬ economic opportunities to every lems over the last decade have ari¬ ferent from their own. In particu¬ individual. sen in part because it has become lar, the sentiment has been re¬ • Dignity of the Individual. unfashionable for policymakers to peatedly expressed that Washing¬ Human rights, social justice, free weigh value and ethical factors as ton seems to be preoccupied with exchange of ideas. explicit and integral components of an essentially coercive foreign • Power, Prosperity and Mater¬ policy debates. policy—to the detriment of more ial Progress. Status, affluence and • Fourth, a closer look at our humanist ideals. faith in’ the fruits of continuing values leads us to acknowledge In short, 1977 is a time of great technological progress. what all of us instinctively know— challenge and flux—a time when Such a list, broad enough to gain that there are internal conflicts America can either remain captive gerieral agreement, is too broad to among our values and restraints on to outworn conceptions or become their complete fulfillment. It is rela¬ a creative force for a new world or¬ tively easy to come up with a list of der. Our task as a nation, then, is to “Our relatively easy values that covers the American absorb the lessons of the past, to path to prosperity spectrum. Yet we all assign differ¬ make a fresh analysis of our own ent priorities to different values and the world’s situation, and to tended to reinforce a within the same spectrum. And our strive to realign our foreign policy post-war sense of external environment presents a with our own deeper values and dynamic series of restraints on the with world trends. hubris and to skew our fulfillment of any of them. How we This paper is an effort to begin value system in the as a nation weight our values in re¬ the process of reassessment with a lation to each other in a world discussion of values in the conduct direction of maximizing where we cannot fully achieve any of our foreign relations since World economic profit, of them is at the root of the prob¬ War II and to suggest some shifts lem we face in defining a foreign in foreign policy priorities on which sometimes to the policy for the future. a renewed national consensus can detriment of our Value Priorities be built. commonly held There is one generally agreed American Values standards of both hierarchy among our values. Those Prompted by the ethical legacy equity and ethics.” which satisfy our most immediate of Vietnam and Watergate and by needs are most important to us. questionable American covert ac¬ Only when basic needs are met do tions and commercial misdeeds be very helpful as policy guidance. we gain the means and will to move abroad, both Congress and the pub¬ Yet there is a real worth to an ex¬ toward fulfillment of our lesser lic are sharply questioning whether plicit reaffirmation of our values, needs or the needs of others. For US international relations continue even at an abstract level: example, it is more important for us to adequately reflect the values of • First, events of recent years to be alive than to be well-fed; it is our society as a whole. To para¬ have clouded and confused our vi¬ more important for us to be well- phrase a question put by “Town sion of our values. It is important at fed than to feed others well. Meeting” respondents: “We know this stage in our history to clarify Beyond this simple exposition, what our values are—but does and reaffirm what we believe those however, in our large and complex Washington?” values to be in 1977. In what direc¬ society the ranking of our values American values are those ideals tions can we be led without the today is much more difficult. To for which our society has a special misgivings evident in recent years? understand the nature of the diffi¬ affective regard. We believe that • Second, our nation’s value culty, we must look at our national there remains general agreement system constitutes a vital set of experience since World War II. among Americans on what these guidelines for behavior which can¬ As in all wars, we developed and values are. A basic list acceptable not be significantly ignored for long exercised means of defeating an to most Americans, for example, without producing serious internal enemy which required difficult sac¬ would include: tensions. An effective foreign pol¬ rifices involving suspension of • Security. Peace, physical se¬ icy for the future must demonstrate many of our traditional values to curity, preservation of our society both to the American public and insure one—our survival. Soon and our way of life. the world at large that Washington after the war’s end, we perceived • Freedom. The personal free¬ does know what American values the Soviet Union as a threat to our doms we have enjoyed and refined are and that they constitute a solid, security and renewed the rationale over the last 200 years and the consistent base for our policies. for assigning an exceptional prior¬ democratic processes and struc¬ Reaffirmation of our values does ity to our survival. This, to some tures we have built to protect them. not of itself solve policy problems, extent, again conflicted with our • Individualism. Diverse, self- but it provides key elements of the individual rights and freedoms, our reliant personal development framework for intelligent policy democratic process of checks and through expression of one’s own choices. balances, our ability to meet identity in the context of the social • Third, leaving our value as¬ domestic economic and social and governmental systems in which sumptions implicit ultimately needs and our support abroad for we live. Economic laissez-faire. serves only to obfuscate and human rights, self-determination.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAI , January, 1977 17 and social justice. sponsibilities, status and wealth we and right and wrong. It was a World War II also thrust now enjoy. warped perception of both our se¬ America into a great power role in In the recent past, successive curity interests and the limits of our the world. As the Cold War began, Administrations have tried to build power which led us to the commit¬ we alone had the means and the consensus on foreign policy direc¬ ment we made in Vietnam and sub¬ will to counter the new threat. tion through tighter Executive se¬ sequent abuses. Certain CIA and Sometimes brilliantly, sometimes crecy and control combined with FBI activities, ordered or awkwardly, in the succeeding extensive manipulation of the sanctioned by higher authority, decades we adopted the customary media and appeals to public trust. undermined—in the name of na¬ tools of that role: massive military These efforts often produced a tional security—those very values efforts, global diplomatic involve¬ counterfeit consensus. Perhaps in the American system which ment, propaganda, covert actions none was less valid as a guidepost those actions are supposed to pro¬ and Executive dominance of for foreign policy than the Gulf of tect. foreign policy—all of which had Tonkin Resolution. Foreign policy, We need to stay alert, powerful their effect on values shaped by to be effective, cannot reflect only and responsive to real threats, but almost two centuries of more insu¬ Executive control or the sporadic we need to define more carefully lar tradition. and esoteric initiatives of small and more narrowly our security As America’s global role grew pressure groups. True consensus, and perceived threats to it. Vis-a- rapidly in post-war years, so did of course, does not mean rub¬ vis the Soviets, we have lived long the scope and depth of our material berstamping. Serious persons will enough with nuclear equivalence to prosperity. We became accus¬ continue to differ. But the consen¬ understand that what we have, tomed to unprecedented riches and sus we seek must rest on a broad while a strange kind of peace, is by to domination of the world national base and reflect as nearly no means a justification for war¬ economy. It became axiomatic that as possible a common perception of time exceptionalism to our value American enterprise, technological our values and their relative system. Globally, we can provide genius and economic liberalism weights. leadership without viewing every could continue to sustain and ex¬ Recent failures to achieve such problem primarily in terms of the pand our prosperity. As a corol¬ consensus—trade with the Soviet superpower balance and without lary, we came to expect that others Union, aid to Turkey, intervention seeking hegemony. We can, for could insure their own economic in Angola, and American intelli¬ example, afford to turn more of our well-being too, if only they cooper¬ gence activities—all represent seri¬ energies toward creative solutions ated with and emulated us. Our rel¬ ous differences within our society to problems of nuclear and conven¬ atively easy path to prosperity on the definition and degree of pre¬ tional arms limitation and to nu¬ tended to reinforce a post-war dominance accorded our value of clear proliferation. We can also sense of hubris and to skew our national security. take note of the many forces and value system in the direction of Rebuilding A Consensus trends which already work in ways maximizing economic profit, some¬ favorable or at least tolerable to us times to the detriment of our com¬ We believe that the most impor¬ without American efforts to control monly held standards of both tant step toward a new and effec¬ them in detail. equity and ethics. tive synthesis of our values is to The second step in a rebalancing In short, over the last 35 years realize that the events of the Sec¬ of our values is to understand bet¬ conflicts have arisen as one set of ond World War and the Cold War ter the interdependence between priorities among our values has have skewed our value system in our prosperity and that of the rest been challenged by factors stem¬ favor of security needs beyond to¬ of the world. The fact that eco¬ ming from: day’s legitimate requirements of nomic and environmental solutions • the prolongation of wartime self-defense. We will pay what we are increasingly multilateral sug¬ exceptionalism regarding our secu¬ must to maintain the strategic bal¬ gests restrictions on some aspects rity into nominal peacetime by way ance; we will provide for the ar¬ of traditional American indi¬ of the Cold War; mies, fleets and bases essential to vidualism and economic laissez- • our rapid rise to great power protect our legitimate interests faire. Our discomfort with recent status; abroad and deter aggression. But malfeasance by American com¬ • our equally rapid rise to world the only genuine security threat we panies abroad further suggests that economic dominance. face is from the Soviet Union, a na¬ Americans are not content with If any one message prevailed at tion whose capacity to project mili¬ unquestioned primacy of the profit the State Department’s “Town tary power abroad for the foresee¬ motive. We are willing to accept Meetings” last year it was that able future will remain more limited limits on profit for other social Americans are acutely conscious of than our own, and whose efforts goals—to serve our sense of equity, these conflicts and uncomfortable toward economic and political for example. with Washington’s present prior¬ leadership appear increasingly The third—and complemen¬ ities as they perceive them. Given empty. tary—step in achieving a more this disharmony, we believe that a Not every global crisis consti¬ supportable relationship among our central task in mapping foreign pol¬ tutes an element of Soviet con¬ values is to re-emphasize, within icy directions for the future is to quest. Not every threat to our the constraints imposed by our ex¬ better reconcile the traditional interests abroad justifies wartime¬ ternal environment, those values American value priorities which like exceptions to traditional stan¬ short-changed by our pursuit of se- still clearly exist with the global re- dards of personal freedom, equity, Continued on page 27 18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 “Or what man is there of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone?” —Matthew, VII, 9

Manuel’s Son

ELIZABETH E. MCNEILL

Manuel hovered in the door¬ for his job. The previous Ambas¬ impatiently. way of the Ambassador’s sador had promoted him to the pos¬ Manuel’s mouth was so dry he outer office. Shifting his chauf¬ ition of chief chauffeur with an could hardly speak. “Good after¬ feur’s cap from hand to hand, he award for fifteen years of meritori¬ noon, Senor Ambassador,” he waited for the secretary’s atten¬ ous service. But the new Ambas¬ said, standing at attention. “Please tion. sador’s manner was cold, almost forgive me, sir, I know you are Finally, looking up from her hostile. busy, but I want to give you the typewriter, “Oh!” she said, The door opened. Manuel's face good news.” “Hello, Manuel.” and neck muscles tensed. “Well, what is it?” His apathetic “Good afternoon, Miss Ander¬ “Come in,” the secretary said to pale-blue eyes and short restless sen. Please 1 want to see the Am¬ Manuel. fingers were already involved in a bassador.” The Ambassador, a wiry gray sheaf of papers. “Can’t 1 give him a message?” man, sat at a large desk which “I have a son at last!" A smile she asked kindly. “You know the stretched the distance between spread along his full mouth and his Ambassador is a very busy man.” them to a seemingly vast plane. yellowed black eyes glistened. “It will take only a minute,” he “What do you want?” he asked .“It’s about time, after three insisted. Standing up, she hesitated for a moment, then picked up some pa¬ pers from her desk and went into the Ambassador’s private office. Manuel straightened his narrow shoulders, pulling himself up to his full five-feet-six. But his nervous¬ ness betrayed itself when he reached up to smooth a no-longer- existing mustache. Five months earlier when the Ambassador arrived he had or¬ dered Manuel to shave his mus¬ tache, cut his hair short, clean his shoes and have his uniform pressed. This militant attitude had frightened Manuel, made him fear

Elizabeth McNeill retired from government service in 1970 after having served with the Foreign Service (FSS and FSR) in Af¬ ghanistan, Pakistan, India, Senegal and Colombia. She has been studying writing and working on short stories since then.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 19 girls.” The Ambassador’s thin “Good,” he said, smiling. His predecessor had allowed Man¬ voice had the cutting edge of a “Now I can see my son.” uel to drive home for dinner when razor. “Now I suppose you’ll take “I’m sorry,” she said, “but he’s he had to work late. It had taken my advice and have yourself steril¬ got a cocktail party at his residence the administrative officer a long ized.” and then a dinner at the Foreign time to convince the present Am¬ “Yes, sir,” Manuel replied, Minister’s.” bassador that it was unfair to ex¬ looking down at his worn but The smile on his face faded. He pect Manuel to go without dinner. highly-polished black shoes. stood up slowly as if his body were He couldn’t afford to eat in Without another word, the Am¬ ancient. “Looks like I’ll be work¬ restaurants and there was no reli¬ bassador went on leafing through ing late again tonight.” able public transportation to his the papers. Obviously the audience “Give my congratulations to barrio, south of the city. was ended. Maria,” Pablo called out as Man¬ Manuel found his wife, Maria, “Sir, may I go home now and see uel left. sleeping, their newborn son cud¬ my son?” Manuel took a step for¬ The Ambassador, in his usual dled in her arms. He leaned over ward. preoccupied manner, got into the and touched the child's downy There was no response. car without speaking. On the way black hair. Manuel’s arms fell limply to his to his residence he read the news¬ Maria’s mother gave him a plate side. He turned to leave past the paper. of rice and black beans. He ate a reception desk. During the cocktail party Man¬ few bites and then pushed the plate “Oh, Manuel, what wonderful uel helped in the kitchen. The ser¬ aside. news!” the secretary said, closing vants were happy with the news of “What’s wrong?” she asked. the Ambassador’s door. “I’ll bet his son. They teased him about his “You look depressed.” he’s a handsome boy.” luck changing. “Manuel, you’ve “Oh,” he sighed heavily, getting “I don’t know. I haven’t seen finally proved your machismo,” up from the table, “I'm worried him yet. He was born only an hour the cook said, picking up a martini about something the Ambassador ago." from a tray of drinks. “Senores!” told me to do.” “Which hospital is your wife he said in an authoritative voice, He stretched out on the chil¬ in?” mimicking the Ambassador’s dren’s bed. The house was silent, “She wouldn’t go to the hospital. heavy accent in Spanish, “I wish to except for the faint sound of his She thinks it’s a place where people propose a toast to our distinguished wife's breathing. On an altar in the die.” colleague, father of a newborn son, corner a candle flickered at the feet “I’m sure you are anxious to get His Excellency Manuel Lopez!” of a plaster figure of the Virgin. home,” Miss Andersen said, glanc¬ The other servants took drinks One night, over a year ago, when ing at the Ambassador’s closed from the tray. “Salud!” they cried, Maria finished praying at the altar, door. “Is there anything I can do to raising their glasses with comic she had asked Manuel why he had help? Could I send my doctor?” pomposity. stopped going to mass. He hadn't “You are very kind, but Maria is Just at that moment the kitchen answered and she never mentioned frightened of doctors.” door swung open. There stood the the subject again. Recently, Later, sitting all alone in the Ambassador. His icy stare went though he hadn’t told her, he had chauffeurs’ room, Manuel wished slowly from face to face. Then, been going to the cathedral across he had someone to talk to. Walking without a word, he turned and went from the Embassy to pray for a back and forth across the long nar¬ back through the open door. The son. row room he asked himself, what headwaiter made a rude gesture at “Papa!” Consuelo called from shall 1 do? Should 1 follow the Am¬ the Ambassador's back before the open door. Running to him, she bassador’s advice? Or was it an or¬ picking up a tray of drinks and fol¬ threw herself into his open arms. der? lowing him. The others laughed “Didn’t you say we were going to “Hola! Manuel,” Pablo said, nervously and finished their drinks name the baby Antonio?” closing the door behind him. in one gulp. “Yes, don’t you like it?” “What’s new?” “Horse’s ass,” someone mum¬ “Oh, yes, papa, but Isabel wants “I have a son!” bled. to call him Jesus.” “Congratulations! Now you’ll “You'll catch it tomorrow,” About a month later, on their have someone to take care of you Manuel said. way to the Embassy, the Ambas¬ in your old age. Are you going to The cook laughed. “We’re not sador suddenly looked up from his pass out cigars like the gringos afraid of him like you are.” newspaper. “Have you been do?” he asked, laughing. “But I can’t afford to lose my sterilized yet?” “I’m going to do better than that. job. I’ve got a wife and three, now Manuel’s face flushed and his You are invited to the christening four, kids to feed.” eyes tightened. “No, sir, 1 want to party. Will you be one of the com- Later, while driving the Ambas¬ wait until my son is at least six padres?” sador to the Foreign Minister’s months old.” “With pleasure. I . . .” He was residence, Manuel set his jaw and “By that time your wife will be interrupted by the telephone ring¬ asked if he could go home to see his expecting another one. Better take ing. wife and son. my advice and have it done right Manuel picked up the phone. “Oh, all right, but be back within away.” “Hello.” an hour.” The Ambassador’s voice One morning, in the chauffeurs’ It was the secretary. “The Am¬ was resentful as always where use room. Manuel found Pablo looking bassador wants to go home now." of the official car was concerned. at a pamphlet. “What are you read- 20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1977 ing?” he asked. themselves. Mosquitoes multi¬ Manuel, pressed from all sides with Pablo grinned. “Propaganda on plied. There were no screens. work and worry, finally gave in to family planning. It shows how Manuel couldn’t sleep at night. The her wishes. They moved back to much happier and healthier a Ambassador lectured him continu¬ the old barrio. family of four is than a family of ally because he couldn’t keep his Soon after Antonio was born ten. After a man has the ideal fa¬ shoes clean. His face remained sad Maria became just like the other mily of four children, it says, he in spite of the laughter of his son, women in the neighborhood, should be sterilized.” now almost a year old. barefooted, hair uncombed, and “And what if his only son should The rdiny season was followed wearing a dirty dress. Every time die?” by a hot, dry period. Mud became Manuel complained of her appear- “Then he wouldn't have anyone dust, water pipes ran dry, and small ence she answered with cutting in¬ to help him in his old age. What biting gnats were out in full force. sinuations about his impotency. crap!” Pablo said, throwing the But Manuel was at least able to For Antonio’s second birthday pamphlet on the table. give his family the comfort of ice party Consuelo had taught him to Manuel picked it up and looked talk. at the pictures of a boy and girl and “Papa,” she said, when Manuel their parents seated around a table, came home with the birthday cake, their plates heaped with food; going “Antonio wants to tell you some¬ to the movies together, shopping “It was late that night thing.” for clothes. Other pictures showed when he got home. He She put him down and he wob¬ the boy as a young man working on bled on his short fat legs into Man¬ machinery in a big factory and the hurried up the narrow uel’s open arms. “Papa, 1 love grown girl sitting behind a typewri¬ street, anxious to tell you,” he said shyly, hiding his ter in a comfortable office. round face against Manuel's cheek. “1 don't know, Pablo," he said. Maria about the house. “My son!” Manuel said, his face “It looks like a small sacrifice to But when he opened glowing with pride and happiness make for such good rewards.” the door, the smile on as he hugged the child to him. “Are you serious? This is just A month or so later, when propaganda put out by the rich. I his face faded.” Maria’s mother died, Manuel wouldn't give up my manhood for talked of moving. Maria agreed. anything.” He found a place nearer the Em¬ “But it says here that you don't bassy where he could have lunch at have to give up sex. The operation water to drink. Someone from the home and spend more time with just keeps your wife from having Embassy had given him an old re¬ Antonio. more children.” frigerator. To celebrate Antonio’s “Now 1 can send my son to a “And takes away your virility! first birthday they had homemade good school,” he told Pablo. “At No,” Pablo shook his head, “not ice cream with the birthday cake. last,” he sighed, “the future looks me.” Antonio was a beautiful child brighter.” “Well,” Manuel said, still look¬ with big black eyes, long heavy It was late that night when he got ing at the pictures, “I finally got lashes, and soft dark-brown curls. home. He hurried up the narrow my son. I don’t think I want any His fair skin was the pride of the street, anxious to tell Maria about more children.” family. He was alert and quick to the house. But when he opened the When Antonio was about eight learn. All the family, except his door, the smile on his face faded. months old, Manuel had a vasec¬ mother, showered him with love. Maria was standing in the middle of tomy. The Ambassador sent him to She had become increasingly pas¬ the room weeping as she rocked a doctor who was leading a crusade sive and careless in caring for the Antonio in her arms. The little against over-population. He per¬ house and children. Sometimes boy’s face was pale and motion¬ formed the operation free of Manuel found Antonio, half naked, less. A trickle of blood ran from the charge. Manuel didn't tell anyone, playing in the open gutter with the corner of his tiny mouth. not even his wife. He was physi¬ neighborhood children. He would “What’s wrong?” Manuel cried, cally well, but fears remained, and go into fits of rage. Maria seemed grabbing the child’s limp body. anxiety made him less and less in¬ not to hear. “He was playing on the roof,” terested in Maria, who belittled When Manuel married Maria he Maria sobbed, “and fell into the him with sarcastic remarks about boasted to her brother that he courtyard.” his manhood. During spare mo¬ would earn enough money to move “On the cement?” ments he sat and stared into space. out of the neighborhood. Before “Yes.” His eyes looked troubled, and the birth of their third daughter he “My God!” he cried out, tearing traces of weariness showed on his found a place he could afford in a a blanket from the bed and wrap¬ face. new barrio where the houses had ping it around Antonio. “Get your The rainy season attacked with a running water and Hush toilets. But shoes on!” he ordered. “We've got vengeance. Tropical storms swept Maria wasn’t happy there. She to get him to the hospital.” into the city, leaving his neighbor¬ 'complained of being too far away Clutching Antonio to his chest hood a sea of mud. Maria com¬ from her family and made no effort he ran, stumbling down the dark plained because the roof leaked. to find new friends. When she was unpaved street, to where he'd left The children, unable to play out¬ expecting Antonio she fell ill and the Ambassador’s car. side, constantly quarreled among begged to go back to her mother. “Here!” he said, handing An-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 21 tonio to Maria while he unlocked “He was my only son.” Man¬ arrives. You’d better take the short the door. She hesitated. “Get in!” uel’s body sagged as if the words cut.” He disappeared behind the he yelled. “There’s no time to had drained out his life. morning newspaper. waste. I’ll explain to the Ambas¬ The doctor put his hand gently All the Embassy cars were at the sador in the morning.” on Manuel’s shoulder. “You are airport to accommodate the arriv¬ The hospital emergency room still young enough to have many ing officials. While waiting for the was empty, except for an arrogant more sons.” plane, Manuel had a chance to tell receptionist who ignored Manuel’s “No,” he whispered, lifting his his colleagues of his tragedy. They presence. dead son tenderly into his arms, tried comforting him with assur¬ “Please, Miss,” Manuel “that’s impossible now. I will ances that he could have more pleaded, as she began slowly and never have a son.” sons. But his face became even deliberately selecting a sheet of It was almost midnight when more melancholy and his eyes hard carbon paper from her desk they arrived home. Maria got out and bitter. drawer. “May I see the doctor?” the suit Antonio wore at his second It was ten o’clock when they re¬ “He’s busy,” she said mechani¬ birthday party. The neighbor turned to the Embassy. As the cally without even looking up. women bathed and dressed the Ambassador got out of the car “But my son is unconscious. I child’s body and laid it on a narrow Manuel asked if he could have the must see . . .” He was interrupted cot in the front room. The local rest of the day off to bury his son. by the phone ringing. shopkeeper brought candles for “What time is the burial?” The receptionist answered it. each corner of the cot. “Five o’clock. Sir, but I've got “Oh, Ramon, it’s you.” She Consuelo was the only one of the to take money to the undertaker for leaned comfortably back in her children awake. She knelt in front the casket.” chair. “Why didn’t you call ear¬ of the altar, sobbing silently. The “Well, we’ll see,” the Ambas¬ lier?” doctor had given Maria an injection sador said absent-mindedly. Then “Miss!” Manuel cried, “can’t to calm her nerves and she had his voice became serious. “This is you see my son is dying?” been put to bed. Manuel sat stiffly a very important visit. These offi¬ She looked straight through him, in a chair facing the cot. His eyes cials have to see a lot of people. continuing her conversation. were dry. We’ll need all the cars and drivers. Suddenly Antonio’s body stif¬ Maria’s oldest brother, Juan, and You can take the money when you fened into convulsions. Manuel some of the neighborhood men sat go to lunch.” looked around desperately and in a row of chairs against the wall. Manuel did not get home until then ran wildly down the long cor¬ Others stood outside smoking. The almost two o'clock. A little knot of ridor screaming, “MY SON IS murmur of their voices floated old men and young boys hovered in DYING! MY SON IS DYING!” through the open door. The women the doorway, out of the blinding His voice broke against the silently served sweetened coffee hot sun. They made way for him, white-walled emptiness. and bread. mumbling their condolences as he “PLEASE, SOMEBODY HELP At dawn Manuel went to the passed. ME!” he begged. “PLEASE!” kitchen in the small back courtyard Inside, the room was dark, ex¬ A nurse appeared from one of and started a fire in the homemade cept for the flickering candles at the the rooms. “What’s all this noise? adobe stove. He heated some wa¬ corners of the cot where Antonio's You’re disturbing the patients.” ter. Then he shaved, mechanically body lay. Women in black squatted “MY SON IS DYING!” he looking at his face in the small mir¬ against the wall. shouted, running past her like a ror above an old metal typewriter Juan came forward. “Sorry,” he madman. table he’d salvaged from the Em¬ said, taking Manuel’s arm and lead¬ Before he reached the end of the bassy. After rinsing his face in cold ing him to the back courtyard, “the corridor, a young doctor stepped water, he turned to Juan. undertaker wouldn't give me a cas¬ off the elevator, blocking his way. “I’ve got to take the Ambas¬ ket without the money.” “Oh, doctor, please help me!” sador to the airport. Some impor¬ “What about the grave?” Man¬ Manuel pleaded. “My son is dy¬ tant officials are coming in from uel’s voice was hollow. ing.” Washington.” His voice was as “That’s been taken care of. You Quickly the doctor took An¬ vacant as his eyes. “Could you won’t have to bury your son in a tonio. Manuel followed him into make arrangements for the burial pauper’s grave. The neighbors con¬ the operating room. While the this afternoon at five? Tell the un¬ tributed enough for a private plot in white-coated man examined the dertaker I'll be back in a few hours the cemetery nearby.” child, Manuel told of the accident. with the money for the casket.” “How soon can you get a cas¬ “I’m afraid there’s been terrible “I’ll take care of everything. ket?” Manuel asked, giving him damage.” The doctor spoke with a Don’t worry.” the money to pay for it. His col¬ provincial accent. Manuel appeared at the Ambas¬ leagues at the Embassy had col¬ “Is there any hope?” Manuel’s sador's residence like a zombie. lected half the money and Manuel voice already had a tone of resigna¬ “What’s wrong with you?” the had drawn an advance on his sal¬ tion. Ambassador greeted him. ary. The doctor pulled the sheet over “My son is dead.” “When siesta ends.” Antonio. His eyes filled with com¬ “What a pity. I'm sorry, Man¬ Manuel went back into the house passion, he shook his head as uel,” the Ambassador said, getting and fell on his knees beside the cot. though unable to say the word into his car. “We've barely time to Reaching out he stroked Antonio's “No.” get to the airport before the plane alabaster face, repeating softly, 22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 “My son, my son.” ing and his face twitching with ten¬ bassador was standing on the other “Manuel,” Juan was shaking sion. Every time he passed a shrine side. He was dressed like a doctor him, “a driver has come from the to motorists who had perished and had a big knife in his hand. He Embassy. The Ambassador wants along the way, he crossed himself. was going to castrate me.” you immediately.” Only two of the officials had Manuel finished his drink in one Manuel looked across the room come with the Ambassador. One of gulp. “Give me another one,” he at Maria, kneeling at the altar. He them sat in front with Manuel. He said, sliding the glass across the started toward her, but then turned was a big friendly man. full of talk bar. and followed Juan out of the room and laughter and jokes a bit on the Manuel did not report for duty at and down the dusty street to where crude side. He was enjoying him¬ 8:30 the following morning. By 9:30 he'd left the car. self until the Ambassador’s icy the Ambassador, livid with anger, The Ambassador was due at the stare silenced him. called the police. They located the Foreign Minister’s office at four. After they arrived at the hotel in car. Then, in a room over the bar, When they arrived there Manuel they found Manuel, still asleep be¬ asked if he could turn the car over side the woman who had made him to another driver. feel like a man again. “I’m really sorry, Manuel, but The Ambassador said nothing to all the drivers are busy.” His voice “Street lights had just Manuel on the trip back, but the was kind. Then it changed to its come on when he friendly visitor, who had told the normal business-like tone. “You’ll crude jokes, gave him a couple of be needed at the residence this headed for the red-light knowing winks. evening. It’s a very important district, driving the The day after the visitors left, the dinner party and we are short of Ambassador’s car. He administrative officer called Man¬ help.” uel to his office. “I have a report “But sir ..." found a little bar and from the Ambassador,” he said, “I'm sure you will be able to use ordered a drink. looking at a sheet of paper on his the extra money, Manuel.” desk, “saying that on Saturday From the guard's post Manuel His hand shook so that night you used an official car with¬ telephoned the shopkeeper in his the drink sloshed out.” out permission. And, furthermore, neighborhood to deliver a message your behavior on that night was to his wife. He would be unable to unbecoming to an employee of the attend the burial of his son. United States Government." After midnight he finally got Manuel hung his head. Other home to his wife and children. He Chicha and Manuel had unloaded chauffeurs had been put on proba¬ slept very little. Soaked with the luggage, the Ambassador dis¬ tion for unofficial use of Embassy sweat, he tossed and turned, crying missed him. “Be back here tomor¬ cars. out for Antonio. row morning no later than eight- “The Ambassador feels that in By the following afternoon, he thirty.” order to maintain discipline and set was gray with fatigue. When the Manuel took a room in a third- an example for the other drivers Ambassador, accompanied by the class hotel and fell into bed. After you will have to be fired." visiting officials, came out of the tossing and turning he finally dozed The blow splintered into a burst Embassy, he was fast asleep, his off. Later he woke up screaming, of pain inside Manuel's head. head resting on the steering wheel. “NO! NO! Don't cut it off!” cov¬ Blinding spots pierced his eyes. The Ambassador, deep in conver¬ ering his genitals with his hands. “You can never be hired again,” sation, seemed not to notice. He lay rigid, staring at the ceiling he could hear the voice saying as As they arrived at the residence, for a few minutes before dragging black velvet darkness engulfed the Ambassador said casually to himself off the bed. Street lights him. He started running. He was in Manuel, “We'll be driving up to had just come on when he headed the tunnel again, Antonio’s body Chicha tomorrow to visit the In¬ for the red-light district, driving the heavy against his chest. He felt a dian ruins. I’ll expect you to report Ambassador’s car. He found a lit¬ rush of hot air and then blinding for duty at the usual time. And be tle bar and ordered a drink. His sunlight. His legs moved faster and prepared to spend the night.” hand shook so that the drink faster. Faintly, he heard car horns, “But, Sir . . .” Manuel got no sloshed out. voices shouting. Something hit further. The bartender looked at him war¬ him. He was falling. The iron gate! “What are you complaining ily. He was being crushed against the about? You'll get paid time and a “I’ve just had a terrible dream,” iron gate! half.” Manuel explained. “My son!” he cried out. Like a man sleepwalking, Man¬ “Oh.” Those who witnessed the acci¬ uel carried on. “I dreamed I was running down dent said that Manuel was running The five-hour drive up the a long black tunnel carrying my wildly through heavy afternoon mountain was hot and tedious. dead son’s body in my arms. I was traffic toward the cathedral when a Saturday traffic was heavy. One crying out for help, but my voice bus hit him. hairpin curve followed another on kept coming back at me like a Manuel was buried beside his the narrow road without guard hundred mocking ghosts. When I son. rails. Manuel sat rigidly on the edge finally got to the end of the tunnel The Ambassador sent white car¬ of the seat, his bloodshot eyes bulg¬ there was an iron gate. The Am¬ nations.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 2 3 we in America have only recently in which an Ambassador fore¬ shifted into an economics era after stalled assignment to his Embassy R3J BODK ESSAY | a postwar era in which politico- of a clerical assistant to that agen¬ Isolationism or military concerns seemed fore¬ Interdependence? cy’s attache. most. But that huge mistake which A further fault in this thin but REMAKING FOREIGN POLICY, by Graham Allison and Peter Szanton. culminated in Vietnam is peculiarly important book (the index ends Basic Books, Inc., $10.95. ours. It would be tragic if we com¬ with Zablocki, Clement on page pounded it with a second mistake in 238) is its failure to say much about Messrs. Allison and Szanton are government on the organizational what goes on abroad. The authors prominent among those who study plane, and gave up hope of cen¬ are right that significant decisions our Government’s foreign-affairs tralization and effectiveness in in American foreign policy are not apparatus. Allison was a main foreign policy in the name of “in¬ made by our Ambassadors abroad, Murphy Commission consultant in terdependence.” but in Washington. But the effec¬ 1975 and Szanton was the Commis¬ It is not pleasant to label as facile tive loss of an Ambassador’s full sion's research director. Perhaps the analysis in a book on which the powers did not happen yesterday; their views will carry weight in the authors have obviously worked it came with the invention of the Carter Administration. But if they hard and on which, as they em¬ telegraph. That is such an old do, our organization for foreign af¬ phasize in the preface, they have phenomenon it bothers no one. fairs will not see the simplification consulted Deputy Under Se¬ What does bother any member of and effectiveness that Mr. Carter cretaries and Members of Congress the Foreign Service—including a has promised. and other names well known in most distinguished Ambassador, Allison’s and Szanton’s basic Washington. But the case studies according to recent press ac¬ views are that the world and our they set forth briefly (e.g. German counts—and what ought to shock role in it grow increasingly more offset payments, Panama, Nixon's any analyst of our foreign affairs, is complex, that distinctions between “New Economic Policy,” and Vi¬ the way in which our missions foreign and domestic policy are etnam) simply fail to justify their abroad have filled with attaches now tending to fade away, and that conclusion that the State Depart¬ from a dozen agencies, each of because of all this, major changes ment does not deserve to be even them reporting to his home agency in our foreign-affairs organization primus inter pares and that we with the Ambassador exercising are not only beginning to occur (in must have a considerably expanded only a kind of titular control. Much this they are correct) but are both number of actors on our foreign- of this activity is probably harm¬ inevitable and desirable. The au¬ affairs scene. What their studies less, and some is useful, to our na¬ thors find that domestic agencies point up, rather, is the foolishness tional interest; but it is inherently more and more claim a legitimate of Nixon’s having cooked up a new wasteful, and promotes the in¬ interest in foreign affairs; they wel¬ economic policy in 1971 without coherence the authors say they come what they acknowledge has reference to State; the fact that the abhor. been a “dramatic” growth in the conduct of the war in Vietnam “lay What then do we want, we in foreign-affairs staffs of these agen¬ beyond the reach of civilian policy State and in the Foreign Service of cies; and they would leave to the makers”; or (in the case of Peru’s the United States? Allison and State Department only a role of expropriation of I PC) that legisla¬ Szanton are right in saying that we “advocacy,” which they admit is tion like the Hickenlooper believe there are extraneous actors far less than its traditional role— Amendment can leave the Execu¬ on the foreign policy stage. When but they want the reader to believe tive little room to maneuver. over 20 agencies in a single year that the Department has “regularly Certainly the authors recognize demand access to Foreign Service failed to perform” that traditional the need for a good decision¬ reporting for the first time, we find role. making process. I do not mean to ft difficult to believe they have all Unfortunately, their analysis is imply that they are calling for suddenly acquired a legitimate facile and their changes point to¬ chaos. Indeed, they warn against interest in foreign affairs. When we ward chaos. As Senator Mansfield drift and incoherence in our foreign hear that another agency is adding pointed out in dissociating himself policy. But their prescription for a 10 positions in order to analyze from some of the Murphy Commis¬ larger number of actors in foreign Foreign Service reporting, we sion’s conclusions, interdepen¬ affairs who would (the big ones, wonder if bureaucracies have dis¬ dence and the importance of eco¬ anyway) settle differences in an covered a new way to get fat. nomics are not new facts in the “Executive Cabinet,” will hardly What we want is to be the world. What is new is some hard work. Why should a Secretary of Foreign Ministry of the United facts for America, such as our in¬ Agriculture with full powers in States and the Service that repre¬ creasing dependence on shockingly foreign agricultural-related (not just sents our country abroad. What we expensive oil and a relative diminu¬ agricultural) affairs ever follow the need is to take full account of all tion in our world stature. Let us not lead of the Secretary of State? So domestic factors that weigh on, or make universals of these. Can one, the President settles matters. But are influenced by, foreign affairs. for example, imagine Norway, liv¬ what tiny, as well as major, matters (Perhaps some future writer will ing on ocean fisheries and world he would have to settle for this ask whether this is really feasible in shipping (and now oil), ever doubt¬ pack of peers. And this is no our system, or only in a parliamen¬ ing the importance of interdepen¬ theoretical possibility; not long ago tary one.) What we will fight is the dence and economics? We did so; a certain agency actually threat¬ argument about the world suddenly the authors correctly point out that ened to take to the President a case turning complex, which if carried

24 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 to a logical conclusion not only impossible to write of one without Stevenson’s book took less time rules out a State Department but the other.” to write. In fact, it holds something means that no one can possibly be Those who are familiar with of a current record for instant his¬ competent enough to be Secretary some of Han Suyin’s fifteen books, tory. Bantam was able to get it out of State—or, indeed, President. of which (Love Is) A Many- on the paperback shelves within a What we ask is that our leaders Splendored Thing has been proba¬ month of the actual raid on take full account of the people the bly the most widely read, know Entebbe. Stevenson flew to Israel Government requires—not just what an accomplished writer she is. for his research. He had been there Washington-bound economists, al¬ Those who are interested in Chi¬ before, having written extensively though we could use a few more of na’s history and future—and what on the Israeli armed forces in two these, but people who know how to may lie ahead for Sino-American previous books: Strike Zion and deal with the world in all its as¬ relations—will find her two latest Zanek!: A Chronicle of the Israeli pects. This book leaves one with books of immense value. It would Air Force. the suspicion that its concentration seem childish caviling to stress that Son Tay was a prison camp on Washington, “where the action she does not write with any pre¬ twenty-three miles from Hanoi. is,” reflects a new kind of tense of objectivity. For her, Sixty-one American prisoners of isolationism despite much talk of Chairman Mao was a totally- war were thought to have been interdependence. splendored thing. As one reviewer there at the time of the raid. This —PETER BRIDGES of Wind In The Tower has re¬ turns out to have been faulty in¬ marked: “To Han Suyin, Mao ap¬ telligence. In spite of repeated re- | BOOKSHELF pears to be only one thing— conaissance overflights, electronic perfection . . . Her book is nothing eavesdropping, and CIA agents Totally Splendored less than a panegyric to the Great operating nearby, the American 1 WIND IN THE TOWER. Mao Tse-tung & Helmsman ...” raiding party ended up capturing an The Chinese Revolution 1949-1975, by Dr. Han expresses the hope that empty compound. To complicate Han Savin. THE MORNING DELUGE: these two studies will contribute to the matter further, part of the at¬ Mao Tse-tung & The Chinese Revolu¬ the understanding so necessary be¬ tacking force landed at the wrong tion 1893-1954, by Han JSuyin. Little tween the Chinese and American Brown, $12.95. target, according to Schemmer, peoples. “For it is upon this closer and soon found itself confronting Dr. Han Suyin spent part of each understanding—whatever the dif¬ several hundred. “. . . Russian or year from 1956 to 1975 in China, in ferences in systems—that the Chinese troops who were training addition to her medical work in peace of the world depends to¬ North Vietnamese . . .” Schem¬ Chungking from 1939 to 1942. Her day.” mer says that in the five minutes it two decades of research, travel and — ROBERT W. RINDEN took for the 22 Americans to with¬ interviews in China, besides the Raid and Rescue draw from their mistaken location, fact she is the daughter of a THE RAID, by Benjamin F. Schemmer. they had to kill “. . . somewhere Chinese father and Belgian mother, Harper and Row, $10.95. between 100 and 200 ...” of the have given her special insight into Russians or Chinese. the Chinese scene and knowledge 90 MINUTES AT ENTEBBE, by William of the Chinese Communist Revolu¬ Stevenson. Bantam Books, $1.95. The ground action at Entebbe tion. Her explicit sympathy for the The 1970 American raid on Son was no less eventful. Much shoot¬ Revolution has given her access to Tay prison in North Vietnam, and ing took place there, as well—and leaders of the Revolution and the 1976 Israeli rescue effort at there were some unfortunate Is¬ unexcelled opportunities to travel Uganda’s Entebbe airport have raeli casualties. But the effort to throughout the Middle Kingdom. very little in common. Least of all, rescue the hijacked passengers of In two monumental, detailed in terms of their outcome. But Air France flight #139 turned out works, The Morning Deluge and these two books—both published to be overwhelmingly successful. Wind In The Tower (“Wind in the at approximately the same time— In the process, the Israelis scored tower./Herald of the approaching make it convenient to draw some an important victory against inter¬ storm . . —Chinese poem, comparisons, if not some conclu¬ national terrorism. quoted by Chou En-lai, 1973), she sions, between the two events. Like Schemmer, Stevenson has completed her biography of Both accounts are painstakingly faced an officialdom reluctant to Chairman Mao. In describing his detailed. Schemmer obtained ac¬ part with many of the details both background, his personal involve¬ cess to the classified Son Tay authors felt necessary to complete ment and the development of his After-Action Report which had their accounts. Stevenson’s task ideas in relation to the events that been prepared for the Joint Chiefs was made somewhat easier by the transformed China between 1893 of Staff. He also spent 18 months fact that the Israelis succeeded in and 1976, she necessarily also gives conducting, by his own account, their raid, and were therefore less an account of the Revolution he led 173 interviews with men involved inclined to engage in a cover-up. to final victory. As she writes, in the raid. Clearly a writer who Otherwise, he might have taken “The Chinese Revolution brought knows his way around the Penta¬ longer in writing his book. By way forth its leader in Mao Tse-tung; gon, Schemmer quotes one DOD of additional detail, Stevenson Mao Tse-tung shaped the Chinese official as suggesting that perhaps provides a rush course in the basics Revolution. This . . . link between he should subtitle his book: “More of Palestinian terrorism—including a man's life and the Revolution to About the Son Tay Raid Than We a Who’s Who of particular value which he has given his life makes it Ever Intended to Make Known.” for newcomers to this subject.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 25 In sum, both books offer ac¬ a new era in human history” tion-packed adventure to the casual through the building of a more reader—who may wish to think cooperative world community. twice about taking either of them Yet some foreign policy prac¬ Wilson College on a long journey by air, especially titioners, while affirming the exis¬ to Vietnam or Uganda. tence—even pervasiveness—of in¬ — SEAN KELLY terdependence, are dissatisfied Fidel and Fidelity with the term. Clearly it explains a REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN CUBA, great deal. But equally, it obscures 1933-1960. A Political Sociology from the richness, variety and relative Machado to Castro, by Samuel degree of millions of mutual de¬ Farber. Wesleyan University Press, pendencies among nations. $15.95. Gerhard Mally makes a sensible By suggesting that Castro and his attempt to fill the need for greater Communist government lack legit¬ elaboration and concrete examina¬ imacy, this “scientific” analysis of tion of this complex subject. The post-1933 Cuban revolutionary author, who has worked in both politics abandons claim to present academic and foreign policy worlds relevance. The Revolutionary (he is currently employed in Government seems securely in ACDA), has perhaps wisely lim¬ for Women power, its legitimacy buttressed by ited nearly two-thirds of his study military victory 18 years ago and to the patterns of cooperation Founded in 1869, Wilson is one protracted mass support since. among the nations of the Atlantic of the nation's oldest colleges Few governments these days have for women. Wilson students Community—a staggering task in a better claim to legitimacy. While itself. Part I deals with the concept, know the advantages of a col¬ the author would be happier had it lege for women, where dynamics and types of global inter¬ been the Directorio Revolucion- dependence; Part II focuses on the • women receive a superior ario rather than Fidel that over¬ institutional forums for managing education in the liberal arts threw Batista, he is unable to redo and sciences Western interdependence in the history. But he does brandish a realms of security and economics; • the faculty believes in the paper weapon of possible future and Part III is devoted to an evalu¬ advancement of women value; his study provides doctrinal ation of the designs for achieving • all facilities and resources justification for an attack on the intra-European and European- serve the express needs of Castro regime. Farber concludes North American integration. women that since Castro and his men were Mally points out, as others have, • women acquire the compe¬ bourgeois elements, not workers the dangers posed by the inexora¬ tence and confidence to and peasants, their struggle fails to ble growth of interdependence fulfill their chosen roles in meet the proper criteria for a true which received its greatest impetus life social revolution. In other words, it in this century with the spread of wasn’t Marxist. The implication is rapid communications and trans¬ Wilson, an independent, residen¬ that to undo their spurious hand¬ tial college, is located in scenic portation systems. The problem is Cumberland Valley, just 90 iwork would be no sacrilege against that all of us living on this planet milfes from Washington, D.C., Marxian writ, and might even be are becoming increasingly vulnera¬ and 30 miles from historic seen as the sacred duty of true be¬ ble to acts—charitable, uncharita¬ Carlisle Barracks. lievers. Years will probably pass ble, or simply unknowing—of before such an implication can gen¬ More than 20 majors plus special others. The central dilemma of our erate positive action. In the mean¬ time is to develop competent programs lead to the B.A. or time, the book is a welcome eluci¬ B.S. degree. means of coordination and control dation of the long-ago events that of our interdependent relationships Wilson's strong curricula in the led to Castro’s emergence and suc¬ without destroying our undeniably arts, sciences, humanities, and cess. shrinking sphere of independence. social sciences are complement¬ —JOHN P. HOOVER Mally’s focus on efforts to man¬ ed by abundant cultural and A Small Planet age interdependence in the West extra-curricular activities and INTERDEPENDENCE, by Gerhard demonstrates that even at the re¬ by outstanding programs in Mally. Lexington Books. gional level—among friends—the physical education, including Interdependence, as a concept task of securing the desired level of modern dance, swimming, and and imperative for international equitation. cooperation is arduous, slow mov¬ cooperation, has arrived. Its im¬ ing and complex. It will require portance is attested to by a growing strenuous efforts, then, at the glo¬ For further information: body of literature coming from bal level (principally through Director of Admissions foundations, universities, commis¬ United Nations bodies) to prevent WILSON COLLEGE sions, and so on. A “Declaration a dangerous gap from widening be¬ Chambersburg, Pa. 17201 of Interdependence,” written by tween the growth of interdepen¬ Henry Steele Commager and is¬ (717) 264-4141 dence and the means we devise to sued on UN Day 1976 in Philadel¬ regulate it. phia, urges America to “inaugurate —ARNOLD SCHIFFERDECKER

26 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 VALUES & CONSENSUS misunderstandings. This does not have exposed contradictions be¬ from page 18 mean that we should abandon the tween the exercise of a world effort to project our values and power we cannot—and should curity, power and prosperity. The ideals abroad. It simply means that not—give up, and positive native American people will support we should do so fully conscious of values we do not—and should modest increases in our efforts to the unique aspects of each case, not—wish to yield. The solution promote global economic equity, often permitting our ideals to speak lies in seeking broader consultation provided the burden is distributed for themselves. and support for our policies, both evenly here at home. They will But even a domestic value con¬ at home and among our kindred in¬ support renewed American con¬ sensus compatible with our exter¬ dustrial democracies, and in realiz¬ cern for human rights, self- nal environment only sets the ing that, thus buttressed, we have determination, social justice and framework. It does not answer the less to fear and more to hope than increased openness in our dealings hard policy choices. Policy choices we have recently imagined. An with other nations. are doubly difficult: not only must exaggeration of security and power The domestic consensus we policy reflect accurately and in a concerns has created pressure on must seek on a weighting of our global context the priorities we as¬ internal and external values. values will not, of course, be pur¬ sign our values, but it must pick be¬ We are strong enough to be our sued in a vacuum. To the extent tween alternative valid means of best selves, and sufficiently crea¬ that such consensus is not in har¬ serving the same generally agreed tive and dynamic to exercise lead¬ mony with major external patterns ends. The prevention of famine, for ership with less coercion than has and rhythms, its achievement may example, is central to our values been our habit since World War II. be more a source of friction than and consonant with the external We can and should invest the sub¬ amity. A case in point has been the environment, but the alternative stantial economies of energies and American espousal abroad of our means to achieve it still are the sub¬ resources thus realized in greater particular interpretation of democ¬ ject of strong debate. support of such traditional values racy—the quintessential American as equality and human rights, while value of freedom. Often it has not America’s involvement in committing ourselves to the long¬ fitted the new nations’ quest for na¬ world affairs is growing more term risk of building relationships tional order and identity, and our complex and inextricable at a time and structures that favor peace and attempted projections of it to the when we are questioning what that cooperation among nations. Third World have led to serious role should be. Recent failures

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 27 HIRING MYSELF AN EMPLOYER oral the third year running. Also, through arrangements from page 5 with Princeton University and the State Department, I was already preparing to spend the summer of 1975 as an economic research assistant. Finally, regarding sugges¬ “intern” at a United States embassy overseas. I knew tion (c), I applied to the Johns Hopkins School of Ad¬ that experience would be invaluable when it came to an vanced International Studies, the Fletcher School of Law oral examination by three seasoned FSOs. and Diplomacy, and the Woodrow Wilson School of Pub¬ The summer’s internship did in fact prove to be even lic and International Affairs. more valuable than I had anticipated. Not only did I Just to stay in practice, I once again took the FSO become close friends with many FSOs, thereby coming written exam in December 1973. Again I passed, and I to “know the enemy,” so to speak, as far as the oral decided to try the oral once more. I felt I had little to exam is concerned; but I also began to form a much more lose, because by the spring of 1974 I knew I had been realistic idea in my own mind of what it means to be a admitted to all three graduate schools in the fall. Also, Foreign Service officer. Like a colleague of mine, who this time my trip to the interview was only from South has written of his own summer internship experiences Arlington, Virginia, to the Board of Examiner’s office in (Andrew Spindler, “A Summer’s Intern,” Foreign Ser¬ Rosslyn. The result was once again failure. Again I asked vice Journal, January 1975), I saw many disenchanting for pointers on how to prepare for the oral, but this time I aspects of a Foreign Service career: overstaffing of em¬ got no advice whatsoever. When I mentioned I was plan¬ bassies, routinized busywork, stagnant promotion ning to go on for a master's degree in international rela¬ streams, underutilization of talented people in the actual tions, the head examiner went so far as to discourage me making and conducting of foreign policy, superficial life from what he felt would “probably be a waste of time” styles, uncalled-for smugness in some FSOs, resigned on my part. frustration in others, and often a lack of sincere devotion i to the real understanding of foreign peoples. The Foreign Persistent as ever, I went to Princeton in the fall of Service was not too dissimilar from what I had seen of 1974 with very little else in mind other than preparing for the Civil Service at HEW. the Foreign Service. Accustomed to taking the FSO writ¬ Certainly my enthusiasm for the career was somewhat ten exam every December, I once again did so in 1974. dissipated, nevertheless I proceeded with my plans to For a third time I passed. This time, however, I thought I apply for the Foreign Service. For the fourth year run¬ would be a little shrewder. Knowing 1 still had a second ning I took the written exam, in December 1975, and year of graduate school to complete before I would even passed it. But the spring of 1976 was somewhat out of the be available for appointment, I decided against trying the | ordinary for me. In addition to scheduling the Foreign

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28 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 Service oral, I also interviewed for jobs in international banking. That broadening of my job search certainly opened my eyes. Banks, it seems, regularly send representatives to many university campuses to interview students. Here is At Home an employer, unlike the Foreign Service, that goes out actively seeking the best students that can be hired. Not and one bank demands a long written examination nor the Abroad... completion of reams of forms. If a bank’s representative is adequately impressed during the campus interviews, that representative will invite a student to visit the bank’s headquarters. The student has a full day of individual interviewing with a variety of bank employees and is treated to a free lunch. Students are reimbursed for their We’ve got the Plan for you. transportation expenses, given hotel accommodations if necessary, and very generally treated like the capable, qualified human beings they want to think they are. Stu¬ Whether you’re returning or being assigned to the U.S., dents are also encouraged to look the banks over criti¬ departing to a foreign post, resigning or retiring — cally, and not just consider employment as a one-way street. The student is “hiring an employer” at the same we’d like to know because getting to know you is what time that the bank is hiring an employee. we’re all about. That’s why at Clements & Company, What a contrast this approach was for me, in compari¬ we’ve made it a point to study the local insuring son with the old Foreign Service routine. Nonetheless, conditions around the world — from Zaire to Russia when my oral examination date rolled around in 1976, I once more paid my way down to Washington, D.C. and Panama to France! Fairly certain by now that the Foreign Service would never want me, I was also beginning to think that maybe Write, cable or call us about your plans! We know — I did not “want” the Foreign Service. This oral exam would be, I was certain, my last attempt—a final chance because we’ve been there.. to at least prove something to myself. Ironically enough, I did pass the oral this third time around. □ Personal Property The history of my efforts to hire myself an employer Household and Personal Effects does not end here. The unexpected award of a Fulbright scholarship has delayed for one more year the final deci¬ □ Real Property sion on what employment I will accept. On the one hand, Dwelling owned in the U.S. several banks have courted my favor and will likely reis¬ Rental Property in the U.S. sue job offers to me for the fall of 1977. On the other hand, my name has been added to the rank order register □ Liability of those awaiting appointment as economic/commercial FSOs. Although my availability date is August 1977, the Life, Mortgage, Pension Foreign Service warns me that I cannot count on any □ definite offer. □ Hospitalization — Health Insurance So in spite of all I have done to hire the State Depart¬ ment as my employer, I now have serious doubts about □ Other that goal. Certainly other prospective FSOs must have similar doubts. Many capable persons never even apply for the Foreign Service in the first place because of this long and uncertain procedure. Many of those who do Effective February 1, 1977 our new address will be: start the process never complete it. Finally, many like 1700 K Street N.W. Suite 900 myself who do complete the process are then unwilling to Washington, D.C. 20006 sit idly by in hopes that a call will eventually come through actually offering an appointment. Telephone (202) 872-0060 Cable: Qemco (Wash. D.C) Surely the Foreign Service is not getting the best peo¬ ple it possibly can through its current recruitment sys¬ tem. It will, very likely, be getting patient people with a CLEMENTS & COMPANY true desire to be FSOs. But it will probably also be get¬ ting people without other options, people who have no

alternative employment offers. And surely those “job COMMERCE BUILDING, 1700 K STREET, N.W. WASHINGTON. D.C. 20006 go-getters,” as well as those sought after by other em¬ Telephone: (202) 872-0060 CABLE: CLEMCO-WASHINGTON TELEX: =WU1 64514 ployers, are the type of people that the Foreign Service ought to be attracting and vigorously trying to recruit for Insurance Specialists for the Foreign Service.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 29 WILLIAM FAULKNER ner’s attention while I attempted to enter the film in film festivals that from page 11 filch his beer was repeated. year. A copy was made for Faulk¬ “I do believe you’ve mistaken ner’s personal use and USIA’s Di¬ San Miguel was being poured into my bottle for yours.” His eyes rector was prepared to present it tall glasses. It looked good and we caught mine conveying regret and personally and screen it for the all sipped. Peering meaningfully at sadness. I gulped, nodded and novelist. me and then at Faulkner’s glass, apologized. He could have his Faulkner respectfully declined Leon immediately engaged the au¬ beer, my beer, everyone’s beer. I any such ceremony. While the film thor’s attention. Whether it was a wanted no further part of this sub¬ may have come into his possession, sleight-of-hand trick or a news¬ terfuge. it is doubtful that he ever saw it. paper, I don’t recall, but Faulkner In the event, the exercise was was obliged to lean away from his wholly unnecessary. Faulkner I have the film and I enjoy it. place and his beer. I emptied my finished his beer, ordered some tea, Faulkner had the words, all right, glass; edged my hand in the direc¬ chatted quietly about his morning and I don’t need to look at the film tion of his bottle, grabbed it, and meetings and then announced he to remember them: quickly poured about half of what was ready to resume the afternoon “And always the water, the remained into my glass. Faulkner’s schedule. sound and the drip of it as if here attention to what Leon was up to It went well as did the remainder were a people making constant faded and he returned to his beer, of Faulkner’s stay in Japan. His oblation to water as some people finishing what was in the glass and farewell call on the Ambassador do to what they call luck. . . . then emptying what little remained provided an opportunity for the lat¬ “. . . something fragile con¬ in the bottle. ter to thank the novelist for coming tained in the bowl of mountains, “I believe I’ll have another,” he and to state, without exaggeration, but supple and sturdy and endur¬ remarked. Leon looked around that US- Japanese cultural rela¬ ing, worked wisely by such kind wildly and noted the arrival of our tions had been enhanced by his people that with three words the cheeseburgers. “Wouldn’t it be presence in a more fundamental traveler can go anywhere and live. better if we ate first?” way than any visitor in memory. ‘Gohan, sake, and arrigato,’ and “I’ll take some beer all the The film based on Faulkner’s one more when all this is gone same.” “Impressions of Japan” was com¬ which memory will always know A round was ordered and the pleted several weeks after the au¬ though the eye no longer remem¬ charade of Leon’s engaging Faulk¬ thor’s departure. USIA would bers, ‘Sayonara.’ ”

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30 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 UGLY AMERICAN tants, the counter-insurgents—to Yet The Ugly American hardly from page 15 the level of lofty heroes; it said touches upon this aspect of believe strongly that there is a need nothing about policy, about the America abroad. It says little or for an aid program, for an informa¬ context in which these “heroes” nothing about foreign policy and tional and cultural program, for a must work. The authors extolled the people who make it. To the au¬ military assistance program, for a the implementers rather than the thors of The Ugly American, the Peace Corps—for almost all of the makers of foreign policy. That heroes are doers—those Ameri¬ post-war accretions of modern di¬ placed everything upside down, for cans abroad who are out in the rice plomacy. the sine qua non of national sur¬ fields at the ground level fighting But the organizations which im¬ vival and success abroad is a the good fight; the foreign policy plement these programs—AID, foreign policy that makes sense. expert—the thinker—has no place USIS, the Peace Corps, etc. do not And that’s where the profes¬ in this heroic scheme of things. In (or at least should not) formulate sional diplomat—the expert— my opinion, one George F. Ken- policy; they implement policy and comes in. Nothing will replace an nan sitting in the lonely recesses of there is nothing they can do to expert’s understanding of world the Foreign Policy Planning transform bad policy into good pol¬ politics in general and the history Board’s inner offices is worth a icy. If American intervention in and politics of a given country in whole legion of cold warriors in the Vietnam in the form it took was particular. There are higher politics field, but cogitating on foreign pol¬ bad policy, there was nothing the involved which determine relations icy and America’s real interests in military, USIS, AID or any other between nations; and it is the a changing world is not the stuff of adjunct element could have done to higher politics and an understand¬ which heroes in novels are made. make it good policy. ing of them that counts in the end. There was no place for a George F. And this brings me to my core Diplomacy is politics; nothing will Kennan in The Ugly American. criticism of The Ugly American: it replace an understanding of the And in a sense, that’s why the book did a disservice to America by local political forces—neither aid, doesn’t hold up seventeen years creating the impression that there nor cultural exchanges, nor infor¬ after it was written. It is already a were cheap substitutes for sound mation programs, nor military period piece of the late ’50s and policy-making, for traditional di¬ assistance—all these are peripheral early ’60s. plomacy. It elevated the cold war¬ by comparison with the overriding Or is it? riors of the jungles—the agricul¬ imperative of politics and the Well, it is and it isn’t. As pointed tural advisors, the technical assis¬ necessity of understanding them. out earlier the book is far from

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 31 dead: it is still in print, it is being days—that most of what The Ugly sion on the psyche than a true studied in our universities, and the American covered no longer ap¬ photographic portrait. phrase “ugly American” is a glib plies. Subjectively speaking, how¬ The characters out of The Ugly cliche that still slips very easily off ever, the book is far from an American are no more real—no the American tongue. Most impor¬ antique piece of American litera¬ more human—than the animal fig¬ tantly, the phrase is used as a ture because the premises of the ures in Aesop’s Fables or Orwell’s shorthand figure of speech to sig¬ book have so seeped down into the Animal Farm. Nor was it neces¬ nify everything that the book stood American subconscious that it still sary that they be. For The Ugly for. Americans use the phrase to influences the way Americans American, in essence, was a moral imply that we’re not doing the right think and act. fable of its time and as with all great things abroad, that we’re not acting Which brings us back to that lady fables, it has worked its way into decisively enough or shrewdly in the Metroliner. When she met the American national conscious¬ enough or empathetically enough. me, I was the first American dip¬ ness in a way no straight story with Actually, the book was a product lomat she had ever met in the flesh. human characters could ever have of its time and should be read in By her own admission, her image done. that light. Certainly no understand¬ of official Americans abroad had The time has come, however, for ing of the America of the late ’50s been lifted wholesale out of the America to expunge The Ugly and early ’60s is complete without a pages of The Ugly American. She American mentality from its na¬ reading. But what about its had called me “human,” however, tional consciousness, to exorcise applicability to the world of today? and though she meant no harm, the the twin demons of action and in¬ That’s where the problem arises word had bothered me consid¬ volvement that the book enshrined, for, though the premises of the erably. It was only later, while not because there are no longer any book were steeped in the condi¬ thinking about it, that I realized she “ugly” Americans left abroad but tions of the times, there is a per¬ had indeed come up with the pre¬ because they are irrelevant. What ceptual lag which makes most peo¬ cise word that applied. The charac¬ counts is foreign policy not foreign ple view the book as still applicable ters in The Ugly American, she adventures. Perhaps somewhere in today. Objectively speaking, the was saying in effect, were not hu¬ the wings there’s a great American world has so changed—the switch man. They were caricatures, as in¬ novelist who can make a case for from a bipolar to a multipolar world deed they were. But as any great heroism out of the lonely labors of makes everyone talk about the cartoonist knows, caricatures can the foreign policy expert. Cold War in the past tense these make a much more lasting impres¬ I hope so.

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32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 “THE WEEK WE WENT in Asia to meet his hopes and sense your lines of action . . . .” TO WAR” of destiny. At the Blair House meeting on from page 9 On Sunday afternoon, when Sunday evening, Truman conferred Acheson informed Truman that the with Acheson, Under Secretary of tack was not simply another border military situation was worsening, State James Webb, the JCS, the incident. Mac Arthur had already the President decided to cut short four civilian secretaries of the mili¬ sent a firm report that suggested a his visit in Independence and to fly tary, and three other representa¬ crisis: “Enemy effort serious in back to Washington. During the tives from State. The President ac¬ strength and strategic intent and is day, high-ranking officials from cepted five recommendations: that undisguised act of war.” When State and Defense planned courses MacArthur should send military asked “for estimate of objective of of action. Even before the supplies to Korea beyond the current North Korean attack,” President’s conference with his ad¬ foreign aid program (which he was Maj. Gen. Charles A. Willoughby, visers that evening, the army in¬ already doing); that the Seventh MacArthur’s chief of intelligence, formed MacArthur’s headquarters Fleet should move to Japan; that replied, “There is no evidence . . . of the likely results: “In event Se¬ the Air Force should provide air that the North Koreans are curity Council . . . calls on member cover for the evacuation of Ameri¬ engaged in a limited offensive or nations to take direct action in can civilians from Korea; that the raid . . . the size of [their] forces, Korea, to authorize and direct you Air Force “should propose plans the depth of penetration, the inten¬ to employ forces of your Com¬ to wipe out all Soviet air bases in sity of the attack, and the landings mand ... to stabilize the battle the Far East”; and that State and made miles south of the paral¬ situation including if feasible the Defense should make a “careful lel .. . indicate [they] are engaged restoration of original boundaries calculation ... [of where] Soviet in an all-out offensive to subjugate at 38 degrees parallel.” The predic¬ action might take place” in other South Korea.” This message tion, though hedged by the con¬ parts of the world. Truman’s pro¬ dramatized the situation and prob¬ tingency of UN support, was clear: gram represented an endorsement ably sought to evoke the increased a commitment of ground, air, and of most of Acheson’s stated pro¬ American commitment to Asia that naval forces to the war in Korea to gram, and the Secretary was the Mac Arthur had long sought. The roll back the North’s troops. dominant adviser at the meeting. Korean war would initially give “Come over and join the fight,” The President did resist efforts him the opportunities he wanted, MacArthur’s headquarters re¬ on two important matters— and partly revise American policy sponded. “We are delighted with interposing the Seventh Fleet be-

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 3 3 tween mainland China and For¬ troops. Admiral Forrest Sherman, be the nature of the American mosa, and increasing aid to Indo- Chief of Naval Operations, “said commitment and on what condi¬ China and the Philippines. So far, that the Russians do not want war tions would they expand it? Should the President had avoided making now but if they do they will have it. the United States go so far as to commitments that would reverse The present situation in Korea of¬ send ground troops? That night, American policy toward Formosa fers a valuable opportunity for us to only three participants spoke ex¬ and involve the United States in act.” General Hoyt Vandenberg, plicitly on committing ground the Chinese civil war, or expand Air Force Chief of Staff, “agreed troops, and they opposed such ac¬ American involvement in the anti¬ that we must stop the North Ko¬ tion. Bradley “questioned the ad¬ revolutionary struggles in Indo- reans but he would not base our ac¬ visability of putting in ground units China and the Philippines. The tion on the assumption that the [,] particularly if large numbers reasons for delaying decisions on Russians would not fight.” When were involved.” Supporting him, these matters are unclear, but asked by Truman whether the both Secretary of the Army Frank probably Truman did not want to United States could knock out Pace and Secretary of Defense move that evening on matters that Soviet air bases in the Far East, Louis Johnson, in the words of the could briefly wait. There was time. “Vandenberg replied that this minutes, “opposed . . . commit¬ Neither set of issues required im¬ might take some time ... it could ting ground troops in Korea.” The mediate action. In addition, in the be done if we used A-bombs.” recently declassified record refutes case of Formosa, Acheson may General Omar Bradley, Chief of Truman’s 1955 claim that the group still have had serious doubts about the JCS, agreed generally with had agreed “that whatever had to ending the policy of disengage¬ Sherman, “that Russia is not yet be done to meet this aggression had ment, and he and the President ready for war. The Korean situa¬ to be done.” were probably both troubled by tion offered as good an occasion for Earlier that day, Acheson had suddenly reversing this policy. action in drawing the line as any¬ received a telegram from Dulles, At the meeting, according to the where else . . . .” an eminent Republican, and John recently declassified minutes, None who spoke at the meeting Allison, director of the Office of much of the discussion focused on disagreed with Bradley’s judgment North Asian Affairs, who were in likely Russian intentions and mili¬ that Korea was the place to draw Japan. American “forces should be tary capacity, and less fre¬ “the line.” What would that entail? used,” they cabled, if South Korea quently—often obliquely—on the Important questions were not sys¬ cannot repel the attack. “To sit by wisdom of committing ground tematically addressed: What would while Korea is overrun by un-

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34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 provoked armed attack would start escalation of American involve¬ stroy the “economic advan¬ a disastrous chain of events leading ment—that the Navy and Air tage . . . from our trade with non- most probably to world war.” This Force be directed “to offer the ful¬ Communist Asia,” especially advice, echoing the perils of lest possible support to the South South and Southeast Asia. Munich, also conformed to Dul¬ Korean forces” by attacking the By reversing American policy les’s analysis in May, when he North’s forces but not crossing the and intervening in the Chinese civil warned that ‘‘a series of disasters 38th parallel. “Not yet,” said the war, Truman was recognizing the [in Asia] can be prevented if at President, who seemed to imply domestic and international political some doubtful point we quickly that he now’foresaw in the next few costs if Formosa now fell. How take a dramatic and strong stand days a wider and deeper American could he defend Korea but let that shows our confidence and res¬ involvement. Chiang “go down the drain?” olution,” even if it is necessary to On Acheson’s advice, and with¬ Johnson, MacArthur, and some “risk war” with Russia. out dissent from advisers, Truman military leaders would protest. Re¬ Anxiety about Soviet intentions made the decisions that he had de¬ publican critics, often Chiang’s elsewhere in the world prompted ferred on Sunday—increased aid strongest supporters, would not State on Sunday evening to send a and military forces in the Philip¬ tolerate it. Americans would not cable to American embassies pines, increased aid and a military understand. The blows to Ameri¬ throughout the world: “Possible mission to Indo-China, and de¬ ca’s and the President’s prestige that Korea is only the first of a ployment of the Seventh Fleet to would be too great in this time of series of coordinated actions on protect Formosa and to halt crisis. Yet, as the official minutes part of Soviet. Maintain utmost vig¬ Chiang’s attacks on the mainland. indicate, Truman and Acheson re¬ ilance and report immediately any In the case of Indo-China, Tru¬ mained hostile to Chiang. “We are positive or negative information.” man’s action was in line with the not going to give the Chinese ‘a Some predicted Formosa or analyses, approved by the NSC in nickel’ for any purpose whatever,” Yugoslavia; MacArthur’s head¬ December 1949, that “Asia is an Truman stated, according to the quarters said Iran, which was also area of significant potential summary. “He said that all the Truman’s guess. Others feared that power—political, economic and money we had given them is now Germany would be next. military—[whose loss] would invested in United States real es¬ Amid bleak reports from Korea, threaten the security of . . . the tate.” (“Mr. Johnson added or in on Monday night the Blair House United States,” for its conquest the banks in the Philippines.”) group again met. They agreed on would strengthen Russia and de¬ Continued next month STUART A MAURY, Inc. REALTORS FREE Sales • Rentals • Insurance Specializing in Residential Properties Relocation Kit Northwest Washington from Washington, D.C.'s largest Realtor. Montgomery County, Maryland Offices throughout the metropolitan area.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 35 Cabin John program represent her curt reply: “The Foreign Service LETTERS TO | at the award ceremony. The trou¬ List has been discontinued.” ble was that the deputy was black Which was, of course, the reason An Untold Story and the ceremony was to be held for the suggestion in the first place. There comes a time in somewhere where blacks are not Are there others who would like to every newsman’s life when he can usually welcome—unless they see the List again? Are there other, tell a story he could not write be¬ came to wash dishes. Sarah was undetected dangers in its publica¬ fore. This is about a remarkable asked to name someone else. She tion not solved by the suggestion woman. refused. above? Twenty years ago, during the Dr. Sarah Flinn Rogers, 53, died CHARLES O. CECIL heroic and romantic weeks of the of cancer a week ago. In addition to Washington Hungarian revolution, the Legation her BA degree (she also was a Phi in Budapest reported in a “Secret Beta Kappa) she had a master’s de¬ Comment on the VOA Niact” (now declassified on my re¬ gree in journalism from Columbia Petition in this Issue quest) that two Hungarian women, University, another master’s de¬ described in the cable as “wives of gree in education from American While proposing innova¬ writer leaders,” visited an uniden¬ University, and got her Ph. D. from tions, this VOA statement tified “legation wife.” Catholic University last spring. nevertheless reflects the continuing The women, the cable said, She was assistant professor at belief of some VOA staffers that asked that the Legation “request Lebanon Valley College, Pa., and they can both have and eat cake. the Hungarian communist govern¬ the author of a book: Parents as Either the VOA should be an ment to declare a 12-hour armis¬ Teachers at Home. arm of American diplomacy—in tice” during which peace could be In my long career as a news¬ which case it must be closely con¬ negotiated between the revolu¬ paperman I have met hundreds of trolled by State—or it should be an tionaries and the regime. diplomats’ wives and greatly ap¬ independent journalistic organiza¬ This was not the only “active,” preciate their important role in tion which simply uses State as a and therefore, I assume, highly ir¬ foreign countries, not necessarily source (albeit a prime one). And regular role the unidentified Lega¬ in Paris or Rome, but definitely in the world should know which one it tion wife played during those Eastern Europe or in the capitals of is. feverish days in the Hungarian cap¬ less developed nations. If the VOA is to be a public cor¬ ital. She never told it to anyone, Many of them were good in their poration (perhaps combined with including her husband, and I got it unpaid jobs as unofficial diplomats. PBS), it cannot at the same time from her trusted maid that she sent Some were lousy, and a few out¬ have a structural “special relation¬ out food and blankets to the “kids” standing. There was nobody like ship” with State. fighting Russian tanks on the Szena Sarah Rogers. Let the Voice be one or the Square front, the one closest to her ENDRE MARTON other—an arm of diplomacy or an Budapest house. One night she School of Foreign Service, independent public corporation. made the delivery herself. Georgetown University Trying to have it both ways, as in Sarah Rogers, wife of FSO (now AP staff writer 1947-1976 the past, will simply perpetuate the retired) Tom Rogers, was always a Foreign Service List hoopla in Washington and the con¬ rebel who disregarded the rules if fusion of foreign listeners. she thought they were contrary to Tom Donovan’s Novem¬ RALPH STUART SMITH her conscience. She did that when ber reflections on the end of the Washington she attended the University of Biographic Register were well put; South Carolina (she graduated in large part they apply to the Stamps Wanted magna cum laude) where she was Foreign Service List as well. This an eloquent advocate of rights for was a useful and handy document, I am retired and my hobby blacks at a time when this was sim¬ well-thumbed by all. I’m told that is to gather used stamps of all kinds ply not done by an offspring of a it, like the Register, was taken from which are sent to the lonely boys in southern family. She did it in us because it made easier the job of our Veterans Hospitals. Budapest, and wherever she was, identifying the CIA personnel Could you please write a few accompanying her husband on among us—not a foolproof guide by words about this in one of your fu¬ foreign assignments. any means, but an aid. ture issues so that those readers In the early 1960s, when her A small alteration could restore who have stamps they do not want husband was assigned to State, the List to us, pruned of its useful¬ or cannot use can send them to me? Sarah organized a highly effective ness to foreign agents: publish the I could show you hundreds of program for blacks in the ghetto- names without rank or career letters from the Red Cross and The enclave of Cabin John. The couple status, but listing personnel at USO—Veterans Hospitals and was already in Pakistan when in posts in their sections in rank or¬ Naval Hospitals all over the globe 1965 for what she did in the Cabin der. This would avoid invidious thanking me for the stamps I have John area the Bethesda Chamber of and often misleading comparisons already sent. Commerce named her the “out¬ between FSOs and FSRs, and Believe me, it’s real therapy as it standing citizen of the year.” Mrs. restore a welcome reference tool. keeps the mind alert and active. Rogers accepted the nomination When I submitted this idea last DAVE SCHOENFELD but, being a few thousand miles spring through the Department’s 522 Shore Road away, asked that her deputy in the suggestion program, I received a Long Beach, N.Y. 11561 36 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 AFSA NEWS

PAT WOODRING APPOINTED CONTENTS NEW PRESIDENT OF AFSA This portion of the JOURNAL is the re¬ Committee on Extraordinary sponsibility of the Governing Board of Dangers 38 AFSA and is intended to report on employee-management issues, condi¬ Useful Tax Info 38 Honor Roll of AFSA Posts 38 tions of employment and the policy and State Standing Committee 39 administration of AFSA, including its Hemenway et al Suit Against Board, Committees, and Chapters. Recall 39 Members wishing to send letters on David Noack, State Rep 39 employment, working conditions or William Lefes, AID Rep 40 AFSA affairs should get them to AFSA AFSA Budget Problems 40 by the 10th of the month preceding de¬ Grievance Report 40 sired publication. Salary Raise for Seniors 40 AFSA News Committee Room 3644, N.S. USIA and the Future of Public Diplomacy 41 The Future of the Voice of America 42 Foreign Service People 44 Scholarship News 44 Patricia Woodring, State Repre¬ AFSA GOVERNING BOARD sentative, was appointed to the vacant position of AFSA President The Governing Board has met foreign affairs community. by unanimous Board vote on De¬ four times since mid-November, On November 30 the Board (a) cember 7. Nominations for the po¬ dealing with the immediate conse¬ approved an article by Presidential sition had been sought by circular quences of the recall certification Appointments Committee Chair¬ telegram to the Chapters and by and moving ahead on several other man Olcott Deming for the Op-Ed fliers to the Washington agency issues. page of the New York Times, ex¬ plaining our proposals to streng¬ key people. The three other nom¬ On November 17 the Board (1) then the merit and career principles inees, Vice President Lars Hydle, declared that the Vice Presidents, in the process of appointment of Retired Representative Olcott the Secretary and Treasurer, in Deming and State Representative Ambassadors and (b) approved a order of precedence, should act as letter by the AFSA Secretary to Samuel Hart, declined the call. President while that office was the editor of Esquire, pointing out Pat, elected to the Board in July vacant; (2) opened nominations for 1975 by 918 votes, has made her numerous inaccuracies and distor¬ the Presidency; and (3) arranged to tions in a December article on name in AFSA through her vigor¬ inform the Membership, the press, ous championship of F.S. em¬ AFSA. management, the Congress, and On December 7 the Board (a) ployee matters as the head of the the AFSA staff of the recall action. Members’ Interests Committee. met in executive session to discuss During her 14 years in the De¬ On November 23, the Board (1) matters relating to published iden¬ partment Pat had served in Vien¬ having received State Representa¬ tification of two AID Foreign Ser¬ tiane, Zagreb and Manila. For¬ tive Woodring’s acceptance of her vice people as “CIA agents”; (b) merly a Foreign Service secretary, nomination as President, decided agreed to change the format of the Pat, through the Mustang program, to inform the Membership by tele¬ Herter, Rivkin, and Harriman is now a Foreign Service Reserve gram and memorandum within Awards from an exclusive eighth- Officer. She is an aviator, skier and Washington; (2) approved actions floor luncheon to an open cere¬ active in church affairs. to fight Mr. Hemenway’s anti¬ mony in the Dean Acheson Au¬ recall suit; (3) approved the text of ditorium; (c) approved the dis¬ a letter to President-Elect Carter; bursement of honoria to consul¬ AFSA ELECTION (4) decided to request a meeting tants to AFSA on the epideniologi- AFSA’s biennial election is ap¬ with his State Department Transi¬ cal study of people exposed to mic¬ proaching and the Bylaws provide tion Team (subsequently scheduled rowaves in Moscow; (d) reached that the Governing Board shall ap¬ for December 15); and (5) estab¬ consensus on the next steps in the point an Elections Committee on or lished an Organization and Man¬ establishment of an indenpendent about January 10. The Board would agement Committee, chaired by advisory committee to vet Ambas¬ welcome volunteers to serve on this Paul Ward with representation sadorial nominations; and (e) important committee, which re¬ from all three foreign affairs agency closed Presidential nominations quires five members, including at constituencies, to consider ques¬ and unanimously appointed State least one member from each consti¬ tions relating to the organization Representative Patricia Woodring tuency. and management of the official as President. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 37 COMMITTEE ON EXTRAORDINARY DANGERS REPORT USEFUL TAX INFO The Committee on Extraordi¬ Department on the question of US In the July, 1976 issue of the nary Dangers (CED) will be press¬ efforts to have those who attacked Journal, AFSA members were re¬ ing the new Administration for a our Embassy in Cyprus resulting in quested to report instances of IRS comprehensive review of our ter¬ the death of our Ambassasdor and questioning of tax returns of mem¬ rorism policy, especially as it re¬ a secretary arrested and tried. bers of the Foreign Service who lates to governments that assist or AFSA also has approached the had filed for capital gains tax defer¬ harbor terrorists. AFSA believes Department to see if the costs of rals on the sale of a home and the that such a review should include shipping guard dogs abroad might reinvestment of the proceeds in a our strategy for dealing with kid¬ be paid by the US government. new home where they have com¬ napping situations. The AFSA Governing Board plied with the time period and other On October 8, 1976, the approached both President Ford conditions set forth in the statute. President signed the “Act for the and President-elect Carter about There has been reported a case Prevention and Punishment of our terrorism policy, requesting a which has been used successfully Crimes Against Internationally review. The White House has re¬ by a retiree in Florida. In the case Protected Persons” (H.R. 15552). sponded (by the “Director of Cor¬ of Arthur R. and Elizabeth M. This Act provides extraterritorial respondence”) to our appeal with¬ Barry vs Commissioner, (Docket jurisdction to prosecute persons out really providing any substantive 2157-69TC—Memo 1971-179) an who commit offenses such as mur¬ answers. While we have not yet Army officer and his wife con¬ der, kidnapping, and assault heard from President-elect Carter’s formed to all requirements of the against “internationally protected office, we do expect to follow up statute except for the IRS chal¬ persons.” It also includes in its with the new Administration. lenge that the residence sold was jurisdiction extortionate demands The Johns Hopkins University not in fact their home because they in conjunction with threats or Epidemiological Study of the had rented it out while on assign¬ commission of any of the specified Moscow radiation situation is get¬ ment away from the area and that crimes against internationally pro¬ ting a slow start. Members of the they were not living in the house at tected persons. US jurisdiction for “study review committee” have the time of the sale. The Tax Court these new offenses is also extrater¬ been named and AFSA is nominat¬ held for the complainants because: ritorial. ing a member who is professionally 1. They had always considered This means that, in general when competent and who will also con¬ the property as their home; a specified act is committed against sult with us on the effectiveness of 2. They rented the property only US government employees serving the study. Radiation on our Em¬ when they were assigned away abroad who are “entitled pursuant bassy continues in Moscow, and from the area; to international law to special pro¬ AFSA has emphasized that this 3. They did not realize exorbitant tection” and their families who are must stop completely. We will be profits in the rental contracts; part of their households, those per¬ raising this issue again with the new 4. The home was not actually of¬ sons committing the act are all Secretary of State. fered for sale until change of living punishable under US law, irrespec¬ plans had been agreed upon; 5. They had rejected several un¬ tive of the place where the offense HONOR ROLL OF AFSA POSTS was committed or the nationality of solicited offers to buy, and the victim or offender. Details on The following posts have 6. It was the only home owned this law can be obtained at each reached 75% or more AFSA mem¬ by the couple. diplomatic or consular post. bership. Additional posts will be The retiree using this case re¬ AFSA is encouraged by this Act listed as the records become avail¬ ceived a favorable ruling from IRS which is an important step in the able. Help your post become a part even though at the time of the sale direction of strengthening our anti¬ of the honor roll. Sign up a member he and his wife were only terrorism efforts. today. “camping-out” on the premises for Further, the President has also U.S. Consulate General, Auckland; a short time. signed the instruments of ratifica¬ U.S. Interests Section, Baghdad; tion for the “Convention to Pre¬ Douglas Broome, U.S. Embassay, Banjul; Robert E. Prosser (Madrid), FSJ SPECIAL REPORT — The State- vent and Punish the Acts of Ter¬ U.S. Consulate General, Barcelona; USIA Recreation Association (DSRA) rorism Taking the Form of Crimes U.S. Consulate, Belem; John E. Ben¬ said in a recent travel flier advertising against Persons and Related Extor¬ nett, U.S. Consulate General, Bremen; “15 exotic days” in the Soviet Union. tion” (OAS Convention) and “the Donald Kreisberg, U.S. Consulate “The Russians are justly proud of Convention on the Prevention and General, Curacao; Eugene D. Schmiel, [their] scientific, technical and artistic Punishment of Crimes Against In¬ U.S. Consulate General, Durban; Ov- achievements and take a friendly inter¬ ternationally Protected Persons, sanna Harpootian, U.S. Consulate, est in showing what they have to vis¬ including Diplomatic Agents” Florence; U.S. Consulate, Isfahan; itors. You can ask any question about (UN Convention). The first con¬ U.S. Embassy, Maputo; U.S. Consu¬ any aspect of Russian life and expect a vention is in force, while the sec¬ late, Oporto; U.S. Consulate, Ponta straight answer.” Delgada; K. Patrick Garland, U.S. It’s disheartening to think we have ond convention is not yet in force. Consulate General, Quebec; U.S. Em¬ thrown away so much money on elec¬ Details can be obtained at each bassy, Suva; U.S. Consulate, Trieste; tronic surveillance and other tiresome post or at the Department’s Legal Robert E. Prosser (Madrid), U.S. gimcrackery; but now at least we Office. Consulate General, Seville; U.S. Con¬ know. Thanks, DSRA, for showing the AFSA has also approached the sulate, Shiraz. way. 38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 STATE STANDING COMMITTEE NEW STATE REP DAVID NOACK The State Standing Committee sues. has written to management, asking We have asked the Department for consultation on the abolition of to provide information on 121 posi¬ End-User Reports, now written tions which they have agreed to only by the Commerce Depart¬ eliminate in response to a Congres¬ ment. The Department appears sional mandate; they say they will sympathetic to our views but is do it by attrition. We are also seek¬ awaiting the completion of an In¬ ing further information, and consul¬ spection Report on the commercial tations and conferral if necessary, function before taking a position. on recent Department decisions to The Junior Subcommittee, led by reprogram existing positions (elim¬ Joe McBride, is consulting on the inating some and creating others). results of the Junior Threshold The Department appears close Selection Board, and on the im¬ to a decision to present us with plementation of the umbrella their long-awaited proposals for a agreement on the establishment of worldwide specialist program, a junior threshold and transitional which may well include a reversal measures for current junior offi¬ of policy since 1971 on the creation cers. (Incidentally, we have high of domestic FSR positions. We are hopes that the promotion list will seeking further information on be published before the change in reports—thus far denied by the David Noack joined the AFSA administration, as it was in 1969.) Department—that they have al¬ Governing Board last month as one A subcommittee including an ready begun to assign GS people of the four State Department Rep¬ FSO, a communicator and a secre¬ for Department positions previ¬ resentatives, his nomination having tary, on length of overseas tours of ously held by FSR-domestic em¬ been endorsed at a State Caucus duty drawing upon the views of ployees, in a manner contrary to meeting. Since entering the For¬ more than 60 overseas posts is con¬ current policy. eign Service in 1966, Dave has sulting with management on poli¬ The Committee has expanded its been active in AFSA, serving on cies. At this writing it is not clear membership to represent more of both the Elections Committee and whether we will be able to reach the principal groups within the the Staff Advisory Committee. He agreement, or will have to go to the State Foreign Service, and has ap¬ has also been the AFSA Keyper- Disputes Panel. pointed Dave Noack, a communi¬ son in A/OC. In addition to serving We have written to management cator, and Anthea De Rouville, a in the Office of Communications in expressing concern about the situa¬ secretary, as co-chairmen of a the Department, he has had over¬ tion at a small mission headed by a Specialists Subcommittee which seas assignments to Frankfurt and non-career Ambassador. At the lat¬ will deal with the special problems Bonn. Prior to 1966, Dave had a ter’s request a career FSO has of specialists, and seek better pro¬ tour in the armed forces and been transferred from there after motion prospects for secretaries worked at the Eastern Missile Test dissenting from the Ambassador’s and communicators. Range at Cape Kennedy. position on an issue; the officer ap¬ parently is the fourth such early HEMENWAY ET AL FILE SUIT AGAINST RECALL transferee in less than 2 years. We are concerned about the rights of On November 12, three days be¬ The Court on November 16 de¬ the officer concerned; the implica¬ fore the recall vote count, a suit to nied a motion by the plaintiffs for tions of the transfer for dissent block the recall was filed in US an order temporarily restraining the within the Foreign Service; and the District Court of the District of Co¬ defendants from counting the bal¬ Department’s unwillingness, until lumbia by then-AFSA President lots or taking further steps to effec¬ very recently, to make an inspec¬ Hemenway, and four AFSA tuate the recall pending a hearing tion or otherwise deal effectively Members: Cynthia Thomas, John on the merits of the case. with situations at missions headed Harter, Harris Huston, and On December 2 the Association by non-career appointees. Samuel Parelman. The Complaint filed a motion to dismiss the Com¬ To prevent Schedule-C-Type named as defendants AFSA, all plaint, on the grounds that the FSR appointees from sneaking into thirteen other Board Members, and plaintiffs had failed to exhaust or to the career Foreign Service in the the Chairman and four members of pursue their administrative re¬ final days of the Ford Administra¬ the Recall Committee. The Com¬ medies through the Employee- tion, we have written to the De¬ plaint alleged that the recall pro¬ Management Relations Commis¬ partment asking that they be iden¬ cess was designed to punish the sion and the Department of Labor; tified and that the Department take plaintiffs for exercising their rights that the will of the Membership appropriate measures. We would as citizens and AFSA Members, should be allowed to stand, and also like to tighten up, and establish and violated applicable legal re¬ that the Court lacked jurisdiction quality control, over the entire pro¬ quirements. In addition to stopping over organizations of federal gov¬ cess of conversion from FSR to the recall, Mr. Hemenway sought ernment employees. The plaintiffs FSRU. We hope to begin consulta¬ $100,000 in “compensatory and have 10 days to reply. We do not tions soon on these interrelated is¬ punitive damages.” know when the Court will act. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 39 NEW AID REP AFSA BUDGET PROBLEMS Earlier this year the Governing forced to eliminate some current Board approved a $404,420 cash programs in order to live within its flow budget for FY-77 for operat¬ income. The only viable alternative ing expenses. That required some to reduction in our activities is a stringent spending controls and re¬ larger active membership. ductions in the salaries of some The membership drive launched AFSA staff, plus the termination of last month is beginning to produce one employee. The budget was some positive results but this effort based on estimated dues income to recruit new members must con¬ from 6,100-plus active members. tinue to be given top priority. During the fall months the As¬ AFSA Keypersons in Washington sociation experienced a further de¬ have held a series of meetings and cline in membership and suffered more are being scheduled. Letters several unanticipated expenses, in¬ have been sent to AFSA Reps cluding legal costs resulting from abroad suggesting how their local attempts by the former President to membership drives can be more obtain a court order restraining the successful. Here in Washington, recall process. This has left us now letters are being sent to all non¬ with an anticipated deficit for the member Foreign Service personnel fiscal year unless we have a sub¬ pointing out what AFSA has done, stantial increase in membership is doing, and will be doing to win early this year. If this does not better working conditions and oth¬ occur the Association may be erwise make AFSA more effective. William S. Lefes was bom in Mercer County in Western GRIEVANCE REPORT Pennsylvania and grew up on his The new statutory grievance sys¬ the new system. father’s dairy farm near Sharps- tem has been in effect for six We are in the process of prepar¬ ville, Pennsylvania. He attended months now, and this seems an ap¬ ing an AFSA Grievance Checklist Thiel College in nearby Greenville propriate time to make a status re¬ for inclusion in the AFSA Chapter where he received a B.S. in port. The Foreign Service Griev¬ and Keyman Manual and hope to Chemistry and Biology in 1951. ance Board inherited a backlog of distribute it shortly. If you would Bill joined ICA in 1960 and 44 cases when the Board was acti¬ like advice on a grievance, write to served in the Somali Republic from vated on June 23, 1976, due to the the AFSA Grievance Committee, 1960 to 1964 as an Agriculture Pro¬ accumulation of cases since the or to our Counselors, Cathy Wael- gram Assistant and Assistant Pro¬ public members of the Interim der or Wilbur Chase, at Rm. 3644, gram Officer. His next assignment Foreign Service Grievance Board N.S. was in Uganda as Assistant Pro¬ resigned the previous July. As of gram Officer from 1964 to 1967 early December, the Board reports SALARY RAISE FOR SENIORS after which he attended the FSI that 16 of those cases have been The Quadrennial Commission on Economics course. While in closed, and most of the remainder Executive, Legislative, and Judi¬ AID/W he served on the Ethiopia are in preparation and may be ex¬ cial Salaries has forwarded its re¬ Desk, Africa/DP and PPC/RB. pected to be decided very shortly. commendations to the President. In 1971 he was assigned to Overall, the cases may be broken The proposed Executive Level V Saigon as USAID Evaluation Of¬ down very roughly as follows: 45% salary is $49,000, which would be¬ ficer for 2 years. In April 1973, he financial and administrative prob¬ come the new limit imposed on the joined PHA/PRS as Evaluation Of¬ lems; 27% falsely prejudicial mater¬ general schedule. The President ficer and in December 1974, he was ial in official personnel files; 25% should include this proposal or assigned to his present position as selection-out or related termination another version in the January Chief of the Program Division in problems; and several miscellane¬ budget message to Congress. ASIA/DP. ous problems. Either House of Congress could Bill is married to the former Sue AFSA has been active through¬ block the proposal by action taken Nichols of Raleigh, North Caro¬ out in counseling and assisting em¬ within 30 days. The new Executive lina. Sue was North Carolina’s 4-H ployees with grievances and other V pay level establishes the ceiling delegate to the International Farm personnel problems, helping in the on the F.S. salary schedule. Youth Exchange Program in Au¬ preparation of grievance cases, and AFSA filed a strongly worded stralia in 1951. They have two chil¬ representing individuals before the statement in support of the upward dren, William Lee, at the Univer¬ Foreign Service Grievance Board. revision with the Commission dur¬ sity of Chicago and Patti Sue at We are currently the designated ing its hearings held prior to making Duke. Lee is interested in the phys¬ representative in 25 of the formal its recommendations to the ical sciences while Patti’s interests cases before the Board, and we President. We cannot predict at are in language and political sci¬ represent approximately 40 others this time the reaction of either the ence. in various earlier phases of griev¬ President or the Congress, but we The Lefeses live in Vienna, Vir¬ ance proceedings. AFSA has ap¬ trust that enough concern has been ginia and are members of Wesley peared on behalf of grievants in five expressed to obtain some favorable United Methodist Church. of the formal hearings held under action for our senior officials. 40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 NOTE: The two papers appearing on these three pages of AFSA News, because rational discussion will best ensure their fair exposure in the world marketplace “USIA and the Future of Public Diplomacy” and “The Future of the Voice of ideas. of America,” do not reflect AFSA positions. Each of these papers has, Dialogue involves listening as well as however, been supported and signed by a large number of Washington-based speaking. USIA has traditionally reported employees of USIA and VOA. AFSA presents these points of view as,a on foreign public opinion. We urge that this service to members of the foreign affairs community. role continue. Otherwise the dialogue we advocate becomes a monologue—we speak and they listen. Even if government action is infrequently influenced by foreign public opinion, it should at least be heard before USIA and the Future policy is formed. In summary, we urge the promotion of re¬ sponsible discussion abroad of American of Public Diplomacy policies and purposes, and the repudiation of the sometimes captivating but superficial notion that USIA's goal should be simply to Introduction propaganda could be directed against the win friends and influence people. There is, enemy in wartime, it was argued, why not we submit, a considerable difference be¬ Those of us who have endorsed this use the same means in peacetime to win tween responsible and representative public statement speak only for ourselves. We be¬ friends? USIA has long since outgrown that diplomacy (which we advocate) and public lieve our views are shared by many of our simplistic view. We know that manipulation relations (which we reject). colleagues in the Washington elements of through international communication fails USIA and in the 110 countries around the on two counts: its pursuit represents a naive Audiences world in which our programs operate. conception of human nature and a self- Moreover, we believe this statement repre¬ USIA has long been plagued by argu¬ defeating contradiction of the values we sents a positive and reasoned approach to ments over whether we should address mass seek to represent in the world. the conduct of American public diplomacy. audiences or opinion leaders. We dispute We also know that USIA is a compara¬ We are convinced that the overseas in¬ those who would exclude either; the rela¬ tively small voice in an increasingly sophis¬ formation and cultural programs of our gov¬ tionship is clearly complementary. More¬ ticated and noisy communications environ¬ ernment can be made more responsive and over, a nation which represents the Jeffer¬ ment. Our role must be carefully defined, more effective. To that end, we propose re¬ sonian principle of full public participation lest our message be lost in the babble of defining the function of USIA, and reor¬ in decision-making can hardly disavow this competing voices. ganizing it to support that function. ideal abroad by channeling its efforts only to The basic task of USIA has always been Much of what we propose is not new. We elites. In fact, it is because of our concern to support American foreign policy. From believe that a realistic and workable public with publics outside government that the this mission devolves a responsibility not diplomacy can be conducted within the mission of USIA is fundamentally different only for the careful representation of gov¬ framework of the original mandate set out from that of the Department of State. How¬ ernment polices, but also for the candid de¬ for the country’s information and cultural ever, our interest in communicating with the programs in the Smith-Mundt Act of 1948: piction of American society and values. broadest possible audience must be tem¬ “. . .to promote a better understanding of In the long run, the response of foreign pered by budgetary pragmatism and by an the United States in other countries and to nations to our jjplicies will be motivated first awareness of inter-cultural sensitivities. increase mutual understanding between by their own self-interest, and second by their perception of ours. USIA can sharpen As a practical matter, mass audiences are the people of the United States and the accessible, if at all, only through the Voice people of other countries.” these perceptions and can seek understand¬ ing. But we cannot change deep-seated at¬ of America or through materials placed in USIA has been largely ignored by the the indigenous media. With the press, tele¬ Executive Branch and threatened by the titudes. Rather than trying to make policy more palatable, we must strive to make it vision, and other media in most countries Congress over the past decade. Our ac¬ subject to government control or sanction, complishments have come in spite of, rather more understandable. And rather than try¬ ing to make America more lovable, we must ’ placement of all but the least controversial than because of, those to whom we are ac¬ materials is frequently limited. Access to the countable. Not surprisingly, our achieve¬ strive to make it more comprehensible. If this definition of our role as one of rep¬ media in democratic societies is less a ques¬ ments have fallen short of our potential. We tion of ideology than of willingness to accept believe the time has come to establish realis¬ resenting foreign policy and depicting American society is more modest than the materials from a foreign government, even a tic goals and to seek the active support of friendly one. In each case, access is at the the Administration in providing the leader¬ rhetoric of past years we believe it will lead to a program that is more fruitful. pleasure of the media gatekeepers (e.g., ship and resource stability needed to editors, producers, and commentators), achieve those goals. Although what we say is necessarily lim¬ ited by our resources, our message must with whom we must unquestionably seek to Our statement includes three major rec¬ develop a relationship of mutual trust. For ommendations: encompass the diversity of our pluralistic society. We must not fear portraying unless we first establish a dialogue with • government-wide agreement that the America as it is. USIA should be expected those who control the foreign media, we will mission of USIA is not to manipulate to present persuasively the Administration's fail in the broader dialogue between foreign attitudes, but to seek under¬ policies along with responsible non¬ America and the people of other nations. standing of American policy as well as government opinion, even though such opin¬ There are other publics whom we must the society and values from which it ion may at times be critical of those policies. continue to address because of their pre¬ flows; Presenting the diversity of American opin¬ eminent role in the development of ideas: • acceptance of an operating style charac¬ ion produces long-term benefits which far scholars, artists, writers, and government terized by open, frank discussion of is¬ exceed the occaional short-term risks. officials concerned with education, informa¬ sues (including responsible non¬ To represent our society and its values tion, and cultural affairs. We look upon government opinion) and the depiction with candor and to enunciate the policies of them as essential interpreters in the process of American society and culture in all the government with precision, we believe of cross-cultural communications^ its diverse aspects; the proper mode of discourse is the US officials must also maintain close per¬ • integration of the Department of State's dialogue, in the sense suggested by Harry sonal contact with administrators, foreign Bureau of Educational and Cultural Af¬ Ashmore: "As opposed to argument or de¬ affairs officials, military officers, and busi¬ fairs into a revitalized, independent bate, dialogue is not intended to resolve is¬ ness leaders. However, it is clear that other USIA. sues, but to clarify and illuminate. It is es¬ elements of the American mission The Role of USIA sentially a rational exercise by which differ¬ abroad—particularly State, Defense, and ences may be narrowed and perception im¬ Commerce—must bear primary responsibil¬ Our Agency was formed in an age when proved.” ity for these relationships. We can often the media were regarded as powerful We recommend dialogue not because support these contacts with media skills and weapons in the battle for men’s minds. If American views will necessarily prevail, but resources, but our primary concern should

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 41 remain those audiences with whom we bility is the formulation and execution of uniquely share a community of interest. American foreign policy, will find itself par¬ In this information-rich age, we must ticularly uncomfortable with an independent carefully shape our programs in each coun¬ news gathering and reporting organization to try to complement the existing patterns of which the Congress recently granted a char¬ influence, culture, and communication. This ter for news integrity. If USIA becomes an strategy requires both mass communication element of the State Department, VOA’s The Future of and personal contact. special responsibilities must be protected. And if the redefined role we seek for USIA Organization and Leadership is accepted, it, too, will need special guaran¬ USIA has been the subject of a number of tees. of studies. The most recent of these is the As representatives of the US Govern¬ Stanton Panel Report. While we endorse the ment serving abroad, we do not seek or ex¬ Stanton Panel comments on the essentiality pect to be exempted from official accounta¬ of public diplomacy, we disagree with its bility for our actions. Since we are part of proposals for reorganization. They would the American diplomatic mission, our ac¬ compound the fragmentation that already tivities may understandably be regarded by For nearly two years, there have exists in Washington—the separation of others as indicative of the direction of US policy. Where we present, as we must, dis¬ been recommendations and suggestions USIA and CU (the State Department’s for reorganizing the US overseas in¬ Bureau of Educational and Cultural senting voices, they must be identified Affairs)—and would create fragmentation clearly as such. And we accept the neces¬ formation and educational exchange overseas where none exists. sity, in sensitive circumstances, to avoid the operations. By year’s end, the Execu¬ The purposes of public diplomacy are best creation of dangerous confusion over US tive Branch will be reporting to the served, we believe, by an independent or¬ policy directions. Congress on aspects of US interna¬ ganization combining USIA and CU. USIA For this reason, the desire of some em¬ tional broadcasting efforts. President¬ already administers the State Department’s ployees of the Voice of America for com¬ elect Carter has made clear his inten¬ plete and unfettered freedom of action could educational and cultural exchange program tion to organize the entire government overseas. Our programing experience has only be realized were the Voice cut loose from all organizational ties to State or in a more rational and efficient way. • shown that the present distinction between Obviously, some kind of change lies information and cultural programs is arbi- USIA—including access to classified infor¬ tary and awkward. Both relate to policy; mation, the protection and advantages af¬ ahead. Since the professional career both relate to the society we represent. forded by official status for its employees corps of the Voice of America has had By bringing USIA and CU together, we overseas, and the negotiation for and protec¬ no direct input into the numerous can ensure that the dialogue we seek in¬ tion of its overseas transmitters by our em¬ studies looking toward reorganization, volves the flow of ideas and people to, as bassies. some of us felt it would be appropriate well as from, the United States. We are con¬ We think this extreme course inadvisable. to express our own views, at least in fident that this can be accomplished without VOA is an integral part of our information general terms,, of what should and violating the Congressional stricture that program. We believe its employees can per¬ form with journalistic integrity alongside should not be done. We felt it would be USIA not be used.by any Administration to presumptuous to recommend specific pursue domestic political goals, nor to their USIA colleagues, and that the re¬ mobilize American public opinion in support quirement for VOA news to be reliable and details concerning the structural rear¬ of Administration objectives. authoritative can be further protected if our rangements to be made, but that it The Stanton Panel would have USIA join redefined goals are accepted. might be useful for the Congressional the State Department, with the Voice of Whatever structure is chosen, we support committees most immediately con¬ America remaining outside as an indepen¬ the goals proposed by the Department of cerned to have a statement of our views dent agency. In support of this proposal, the State for strengthening a reorganized inter¬ of the present and possible future gov¬ Stanton Panel argued that the differences national communications organization: ernmental relationships affecting our between association with State and con¬ “Encourage respect for America and American policies in our interdependent ability to do our job in full conformity tinued independence “are more cosmetic with the now-legislatively underwritten than substantive.” We wish to argue that the world. This requires coherent articula¬ differences are substantive indeed, and must tion, honest explanation and fidelity to VOA Charter. follow logically from the definition of our commitment to individual liberty and This statement by VOA profession¬ USIA’s role. If that role is primarily advo¬ cultural diversity. als is a serious attempt to remind our¬ cacy of State Department policy, we rightly “Promote interactions which deepen selves and others what we are and do belong in the Department of State. If, on the mutual understanding, encourage rational¬ and how we feel it could be done better. other hand, it is the representation of US ity, and strengthen cooperation among Government policies and the depiction of Americans and other peoples.” We, the professional staff of the Voice of American society, it follows that our con¬ We recognize and strongly support the America, having given long and serious tinued independence must be assured. But need for organizational change. And we be¬ thought to the future of this international neither role is enhanced by the creation of lieve that one organization, not two, should broadcasting institution, have arrived at a new and overlapping bureaucracies. be responsible for international communica¬ consensus of views regarding its present and We advocate the full integration of CU tion. Hence, we reject the Stanton Panel future structural relationship to other ele¬ within a revitalized and rechartered USIA proposals to divide the functions of USIA. ments of the United States Government and committed to the support of American pol¬ We endorse the consolidation of public di¬ of the American society it is charged by law icy through the exchange of persons and plomacy within a restructured, independent to represent. ideas. USIA. The purposes of the Voice of America are There is a second option which we believe Finally, there is the question of leader¬ well and succinctly outlined in “the Char¬ is far less desirable, but still preferable to the ship. If caution is the preserve of the State ter,” a brief document dating from the clos¬ fragmented organization proposed by the Department, boldness must be that of ing years of the Eisenhower Administration Stanton Panel—combining USIA with all USIA. The necessary catalyst for success¬ and in 1976 made the law of the land. That educational and cultural exchange activities ful public diplomacy is leadership which is “Charter,” as revised by the Congress, in a single inter-cultural communications politically sophisticated, culturally sensi¬ reads as follows: agency within the Department of State. This tive, experienced in international communi¬ “The long-range interests of the United position was taken by the State Department cations, and dedicated to the pursuit of ideas States are served by communicating di¬ which, like USIA, has opposed the Stanton and the promotion of understanding. rectly with the peoples of the world by Panel reorganizational recommendations. We believe the national interest is best radio. To be effective, the Voice of Even if the second option is chosen, we served by a public diplomacy based on America (the Broadcasting Service of believe that VOA should remain closely as¬ dialogue. And we believe the considerable the United States Information Agency) sociated with USIA. But we fear that the energy and talent of the Agency’s personnel must win the attention and respect of lis¬ State Department, whose primary responsi- should be directed toward this end. teners. These principles will therefore 42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 fort abroad has recommended maintaining with the speed necessary to compete for the status quo.) radio audiences. We of VOA prefer not to In its nearly thirty-five years, the Voice abdicate or transfer such responsibility. has been administratively located in several VOA wants to work closely and coopera¬ different “parent” institutions and its mis¬ tively with the Department of State—and all sion variously defined and interpreted. In other departments and agencies of govern¬ the Voice every case, VOA has not merely been ment, for that matter—but to be responsible placed in a subordinate position; it has been and accountable for its own editorial and made subservient in every area of manage¬ programing judgments and decisions in re¬ ment and operations, with repeated unwar¬ flecting national policies. We serve the same ranted restrictions on its output, and a gen¬ government, but in vastly different ways, America erally adverse effect on its ability to per¬ and our separateness should be preserved to form. the advantage of both. Now, in 1976, we of the VOA staff have A final note about the relocation of VOA concluded that an independent status within within the government: an earlier tentative govern Voice of America (VOA) broad¬ the foreign affairs community is necessary. proposal that the Voice be placed under the The progressive assertion of “parental” casts: Board for International Broadcasting in control and dominance in recent years has “(1) VOA will serve as a consistently parallel with Radio Free Europe and Radio reliable and authoritative source of significantly reduced the role of VOA’s own Liberty, while superficially plausible in the leadership. All authority and responsibility news. VOA news will be accurate, ob¬ search for economy and efficiency, contains jective and comprehensive. for fundamental VOA decision-making is potentially dangerous implications for the held by the Agency leadership. Even the op¬ “(2) VOA will represent America, not future of the nation’s ability to communicate timists among us have lost hope that a viable any single segment of American society, by radio to the rest of the world, including relationship can ever be achieved between and will therefore present a balanced and an effective, unjammed Voice of America. art organization like VOA, which reaches its comprehensive projection of significant The BIB was established as a governmental audience directly and immediately, and one American thought and institutions. device for getting appropriated funds into like USIA, which is an adjunct of diplo¬ “(3) VOA will present the policies of the the hands of non-governmental radios macy. operating as surrogate national broadcasters United States clearly and effectively, Our long experience and genuine efforts in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. and will also present responsible discus¬ to bridge the gaps prevailing in the present sion and opinion on these policies.” The Board was set up to legitimize, in the system have convinced us that VOA will be American and foreign mind, operations that Since its issuance in 1959, the VOA Char¬ rationally and effectively operated in con¬ had been funded by the CIA for two dec¬ ter has been accepted and supported by each formity with the Charter only when it has succeeding Administration; but in its brevity ades. VOA does not need legitimizing; it is control over its programing, its administra¬ governmental, and requires no special mid¬ and conciseness, it has been subject to a tion, its personnel system, its policy applica¬ dleman between itself and its OMB and range of interpretations based on different tion, and the defense of its operation and Congressional providers. Its being joined viewpoints and perspectives from different exposition of its hopes and plans to the Ad¬ with RFE and RL, even if only in technical locations within the Government. Some ministration and the Congress. The present facilities, could be misinterpreted by foreign outside observers have considered the VOA layering of bureaucracy, both administrative and domestic observers and critics as a de¬ role and function fundamentally impossible and substantive, leads to inordinate delays, layed admission of a long-existing clandes¬ to perform because of the organization’s difficulties and even total omissions in the tine relationship, and seriously damage the position at the intersection of journalism and broadcast treatment of major stories and is¬ hard-won trust and credibility enjoyed by diplomacy. Those of us who have served as sues. The emphasis of the policy mechanism VOA today. Further, the evidence suggests professional international broadcasters in on saying little or nothing on sensitive'is¬ that most foreign governments and behalf of the United States Government sues, which may be at the heart of the lis¬ publics—notably including those in coun¬ over many years consider the unique com¬ tener’s concern, discourages efforts to tries where VOA has major transmitter bination of VOA responsibilities a challenge clarify and explain American foreign policy facilities—are not convinced that those requiring special skills, and we confidently developments and issues to audiences radios’ former connections have in fact been believe it can be met. abroad. It also renders VOA irrelevant to broken. In our view, to connect VOA with We have long urged our colleagues within the interested listener at critical times. The BIB, even tenuously, would be to ask for the government to recognize the uniqueness transient kind of management system, by trouble. The ultimate cost could be very of this organization among the information which foreign service officers are assigned high, not only affecting the US capability of techniques and media available to the to supervise major journalistic and program¬ United States in dealing with other broadcasting to the countries reached by ing elements of the organization for two or RFE and Radio Liberty but, even more im¬ societies; VOA is the only American gov¬ three years, results in a lack of continuity of portantly, to the rest of the world. ernmental medium going directly to the re¬ leadership, and in management by people of cipient without any middleman, American other than broadcasting expertise. We have To summarize: we of the professional or foreign, to interpose another judgment on great respect and high regard for many of VOA staff believe it to be in the national the information conveyed. As a long-lived, our foreign service colleagues, and hope interest to insulate this worldwide, many- responsible, credible and dependable source VOA can continue to “borrow” qualified language broadcasting entity from other of information, VOA provides a context individual officers for appropriate assign¬ radio operations whose missions are of less within which listeners can reach an under¬ ments. than universal scope or interest; from other standing of American foreign and domestic It is obvious to us that VOA has and must foreign information activities that have little policies and actions. continue to have a special relationship with or nothing in common with broadcast jour¬ The question as to where this unique insti¬ the Department of State in order to explain nalism; and from the direct control of that tution should fit within the US Government and interpret American foreign policy deci¬ department of government whose role is pol¬ remains unresolved to this day. A variety of sions and trends accurately and clearly, as icy planning and the conduct of diplomacy. options has been discussed in recent years BBC does so successfully for Great Britain. At a time when freedom of information for relocating and reshaping the organiza¬ We believe that a small policy liaison staff and the right to know are under increasing tion: attached to the VOA Program Manager's threat in the world, we of VOA believe • made an independent entity within the office can provide the kind of useful con¬ strongly in the importance of our work in federal family; tacts with political and public information behalf of those concepts and of this nation. • placed alongside Radio Free Europe and offices in the Department that will enable To succeed over the long term, this institu¬ Radio Liberty under the Board for Inter¬ VOA to carry out its mandate of supporting tion must have the continuing trust of listen¬ national Broadcasting; US foreign policy in the most responsible ers throughout the world. We believe that • returned to the Department of State, and effective way. It has been suggested maintaining such trust depends on VOA’s along with the rest of USIA; that writers on US policy matters should be ability to escape the many-layered bureauc¬ • joined with the Corporation for Public assigned to the State Department and racy of the present and be allowed to assume Broadcasting or National Public Radio. provide analyses and commentaries for full authority for carrying out its unique re¬ (No outside group that has studied the fu¬ broadcast. Experience has shown that such sponsibilities in support of the US national ture of the US information and cultural ef¬ program materials would not be forthcoming interest. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977 43 COLLEGE APPLICATIONS Colleges. AFSA SCHOLARSHIPS DEADLINE APPROACHING 5. The American Council on Edu¬ This is our final notice. All appli¬ In most cases college applica¬ cation’s American Colleges and cations and supplementary mate¬ Universities. tions must be in by January fif¬ rials for the AFSA 1977-1978 Fi¬ 6. The American Council on Edu¬ teenth. If you are still searching for nancial Aid Grants and Merit the “right” college or university cation’s American Junior Colleges. Awards for the dependent daugh¬ 1. A National Directory of Four come and browse through our ters and sons of members of the Year Colleges, Two Year Colleges catalogues and talk to us. We can Foreign Service community, ac¬ and Post High School Training also help those who will be apply¬ tive, retired or deceased, must be Programs for Young People with ing late. postmarked by February 15, 1977. For eleventh graders, now is the Learning Disabilities. For application forms and re¬ time to start thinking about the col¬ All college catalogues are avail¬ lated materials call or write to: able on microfiche at the Library of leges to which you will want to Mrs. Patricia Squire, 2101 E write for catalogues, any time now, Congress, Room 140A, Main Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. Building, Monday-Friday 8:30 and visit, any time after their 1977 20037 (202-338-4045). Please note acceptances are completed in A. M.-9:30 P.M., Saturday 8:30 that a new application must be April. Come in, or if abroad, write A.M.-5:00 P.M., Sunday 1:00-5:00 submitted for each year that a can¬ to us. P.M. didate wishes to be considered. People leaving for assignments Bernice Munsey Seventy Financial Aid Grants abroad whose children are ap¬ Patricia Squire have been made for 1976-1977 rang¬ proaching these years may want to Foreign Service Educational and ing from $350-$ 1500 with a max¬ familiarize themselves with the Counseling Center (FSECC) imum of $2000 to any one family. procedures. 2101 E Street, N.W. Twenty Merit Awards of $500 each We urge you to consider a wide Washington, D.C. 20037 were awarded last June to graduat¬ range of colleges and universities: (202/338-4045) ing high school and preparatory academic strengths and weak¬ school seniors. nesses in the subjects that interest you, geographic location, size. It is College and the Civil Service Commis¬ never wise to count too highly on sion. He is survived by his wife, Eve¬ any one college. lyn, of 6647 Western Avenue, N.W., a We have the following resource Births sister and a brother. books in our library: Perina. A daughter, Alexandra Hether- Rankin. Pauline Jordan Rankin, wife of 1. Patterson’s Annual Guide to ington, born to FSO and Mrs. Rudolf retired Ambassador Karl Lott Rankin, Undergraduate Study, Two-Year Vilem Perina, on September 7, in Ot¬ died on November 12, at Bridgeton, and Four-Year Undergraduate In¬ tawa. Maine. Mrs. Rankin accompanied her stitutions in the U.S. and Canada. husband to all his posts abroad, includ¬ 2. The College Entrance Examina¬ Deaths ing his assignments as Ambassador to China and to Yugoslavia. Ambassador Beyerly. Harold S. Beyerly, FSS- tion Board’s The College Hand¬ Rankin is at his winter address, 140 S. retired, died on November 1, in Vien¬ book. E. Sinclair St., Port Charlotte, Florida 3. Lovejoy’s College Guide. na. Mr. Beyerly entered the Foreign 33952. 4. Barron’s Profiles on American Service in 1920 and served at The Hague, Rotterdam, Belgrade, Panama, Rogers. Dr. Sarah F. Rogers, wife of Budapest, Madrid and Lisbon before FSO-retired J. Thomas Rogers, died SPECIAL his retirement. He is survived by a son, on November 18, in Harrisburg, SERVICES Harold, of Krapfenwaldgasse 9, Pennsylvania. Dr. Rogers accom¬ A-1190 Vienna, Austria, and two panied her husband on assignments to grandchildren. Stuttgart, Berlin, Frankfurt, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Quito and Rawalpindi. PHOTO FINISHING Dean. James C. Dean, FSO, was killed She was named “Outstanding Citizen FREE FILM MAILERS. Our Foreign Service Division in a bus accident on November 24 near of the Year” in 1965 by the Bethesda- Air-Mails all film processing to you pronto. Re¬ Beersheba. Mr. Dean was serving as Chevy Chase Chamber of Commerce. placement roll of Kodak Film also. COUPON first secretary at Tel Aviv at the time of In addition to her husband of 148 Old PHOTO F.S.D., Box7000, Mobile, Alabama 36607 his death. He entered the Foreign Ser¬ Ford Dr., Camp Hill, Penna. 17011, USA. vice in 1967, after serving with the she is survived by four daughters, a BOOKS Peace Corps, and served at San Pedro son, two sisters and her mother. Sula, Santiago and on detail to AID Swanson. Harry O. Swanson, for 36 NANCY'S NOOK, owned by retired AID FSR, will and OAS. He is survived by his wife years with the Internal Revenue Ser¬ give 20% discount on mail orders for fiction and and a three-year-old son. non-fiction in print books. 10% for professional vice, nine in the International Opera¬ and textbooks. 45t mailing and handling Heller. Philip A. Heller, FSO-retired, tions division as Treasury Attache in charges per book. Will mail anywhere. Write died on December 6, in Washington. Ottawa, London and Western Euro¬ Nancy Dammann, Box 368, Hyden, Ky. 41749. Mr. Heller served with ECA from 1959 pean posts, died November 3, in Seat¬ to 1953 and joined the Foreign Service tle. Mr. Swanson was serving as Court THE OWL & THE PUSSYCAT Children's Bookstore in 1955. His posts included Vienna, Commissioner in Point Roberts, Wash¬ gives 10% discount on overseas orders. Knowl¬ edgeable, personal service. Large stock of Bonn, Conakry, Nairobi, Bujumbura ington at the time of his death. He is paperbacks and hardbacks. Also supply adult and Frankfurt. He received the supe¬ survived by his wife, Alice, P.O. Box books. We mail everywhere. Catalogue $1.50. rior honor award in 1967. After retire¬ 191, Point Roberts, Washington 98281, 314 South Ashland Ave., Lexington, Ky. 40502, ment in 1970 he taught courses at a son, Stephen, a daughter, Alice Sterl¬ USA. Georgetown University, Federal City ing, and three grandchildren. 44 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1977

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