Synopsis of Current Three- Dimensional Geological Mapping and Modeling in Geological Survey Organizations Editors Richard C

Synopsis of Current Three- dimensional Geological Mapping and Modeling in Geological Survey Organizations Editors Richard C. Berg1, Stephen J. Mathers2, Holger Kessler2, and Donald A. Keefer1 1Illinois State Geological Survey and 2British Geological Survey

Circular 578 2011 Front Cover: GCS_WGS_ 1984 projection of the world.

Acknowledgments

We thank the many contributors to this document, all of whom provided insights regarding three- dimensional geological mapping and modeling from around the globe. We thank Aki Artimo from Turun Seuden Vesi Oy (Regional Water Ltd.), Turku, Finland, and Jason Thomason from the Illinois State Geological Survey for their thoughtful review comments; Cheryl K. Nimz for technical editing; and Michael W. Knapp for graphics support and layout.

DISCLAIMER: Use of trade names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement.

© 2011 University of Illinois Board of Trustees. All rights reserved. For permissions information, contact the Illinois State Geological Survey. Synopsis of Current Three- dimensional Geological Mapping and Modeling in Geological Survey Organizations Editors Richard C. Berg1, Stephen J. Mathers2, Holger Kessler2, and Donald A. Keefer1 1Illinois State Geological Survey and 2British Geological Survey

Circular 578 2011

ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Prairie Research Institute University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 615 East Peabody Drive Champaign, Illinois 61820-6964 217-333-4747 www.isgs.illinois.edu Contributors Gerald W. Bawden (USGS), Richard C. Berg (ISGS), Eric Boisvert (GSC), Bernard Bourgoine (BRGM), Freek Busschers (TNO), Claire Castagnac (BRGM), Mark Cave (BGS), Don Cherry (DPI), Gabrielle Courioux (BRGM), Gerold Diepolder (LfU), Pierre D. Glynn (USGS), V.J.S. Grauch (USGS), Bruce Gill (DPI), Jan Gunnink (TNO), Linda J. Jacobsen (USGS), Greg Keller (MGS), Donald A. Keefer (ISGS), Holger Kessler (BGS), Charles Logan (GSC), Gaywood Matile (MGS), Denise Maljers (TNO), Stephen J. Mathers (BGS), Bruce Napier (BGS), Randall C. Orndorff (USGS), Robert Pamer (LfU), Tony Pack (GA), Serge J. Paradis (GSC), Geoff Phelps (USGS), Tim Rawling (GSV), Martin Ross (University of Waterloo), Hazen Russell (GSC), David Sharpe (GSC), Alex Smirnoff (GSC), Hans-Georg Sobisch (INSIGHT GmbH), Jan Stafleu (TNO), Harvey Thorleifson (MSGS), Catherine Truffert (BRGM), Keith Turner (Colorado School of Mines), Ronald Vernes (TNO) Contributing Organizations BGS INSIGHT GmbH British Geological Survey Hochstadenstrasse 1-3 Kingsley Dunham Centre 50674, Cologne, Germany Keyworth NG12 5GG United Kingdom ISGS BRGM Illinois State Geological Survey BRGM (French Geological Survey) Institute of Natural Resource Sustainability 3, avenue Claude-Guillemin 615 East Peabody Drive B.P. 300 Champaign, Illinois 61820 USA 45060 Orléans cedex 2, France LfU CSM Bayerische Landesamt fur Umwelt (Bavarian Environment Colorado School of Mines Ministry) 1500 Illinois Street Lazarettstrasse 67 Golden, Colorado 80401 USA 80636 Munich, Germany DPI MGS Department of Primary Industries Manitoba Geological Survey 1 Spring Street 360-1395 Ellice Avenue Melbourne VIC 3000, Victoria, Australia Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3G 3P2 GA MSGS Geoscience Australia Minnesota Geological Survey Cnr Jerrabomberra Avenue and Hindmarsh Drive 2642 University Avenue West Symonston ACT 2609, Canberra, Australia St Paul, Minnesota 55114-1057 USA GSC TNO Geological Survey of Canada/Commission géologique Nederlandse Organisatie voor Toegepast Natuurwetenschap- du Canada Natural Resources Canada/Ressources pelijk Onderzoek (Geological Survey of the Netherlands) naturelles Canada Princetonlaan 6 601 Booth Street/rue Booth PO Box 85467 Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0E8 3508 AL Utrecht, The Netherlands GSV USGS GeoScience Victoria U.S. Geological Survey 1 Spring Street USGS National Center Melbourne VIC 3000, Victoria, Australia 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, Virginia 20192 USA CONTENTS

PART 1: BACKGROUND, ISSUES, AND SOFTWARE 1 Chapter 1: Background and Purpose 3 Introduction 3 What Is a GSO? 3 Geological Mapping: A Brief History 3 Applications Benefiting from 3-D Geologic Maps 4 Chapter 2: Major Mapping and Modeling Issues 6 An Overview of Major 3-D Geological Mapping and Modeling Methods 6 Scale and Resolution 7 Uncertainty in Modeling 7 Chapter 3: Logistical Considerations Prior to Migrating to 3-D Geological Modeling and Mapping 11 Commingling Initial Mapping Strategies with Eventual Outcomes 11 Resource Allocation Strategies 11 Data Management Standardization 11 Necessary Data Sets 11 Digital Terrain Models 12 Borehole Drilling Logs 12 Lithologic Dictionaries and Stratigraphic Lexicons 12 Color Ramps 12 Optional Data Sets 12 Chapter 4: Common 3-D Mapping and Modeling Software Packages 13 3-D Geomodeller 13 ArcGIS 13 EarthVision 14 Cocad 14 GSI3D 14 Multilayer-GDM 15 Other Software 15 GeoVisionary 15 Isatis 15 Move 15 Petrel 15 Rockworks 15 SKUA 15 Surfer 15 Surpac 16 Vulcan 16 PART 2: MAPPING AND MODELING AT THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ORGANIZATIONS 17 Chapter 5: Geoscience Australia and GeoScience Victoria: 3-D Geological Modeling Developments in Australia 19 Introduction to 3-D Geology in Australia 19 Geoscience Australia 19 GeoScience Victoria 20 Modeling Workflow 21 Value-Added 3-D Geological Models 24 3-D Hydrogeology in Victoria 24 Chapter 6: British Geological Survey: A Nationwide Commitment to 3-D Geological Modeling 25 Geological Setting 26 Data Sets for Modeling 26 The BGS LithoFrame Concept 26 Example Models 27 National Model of Great Britain 27 Regional Model: The Weald 29 Detailed Model: Southern East Anglia, Eastern England 29 Site-Specific Resolution: Shelford, Trent Valley 30 Chapter 7: Geological Survey of Canada: Three-dimensional Geological Mapping for Groundwater Applications 31 Introduction 31 Geological Survey of Canada 31 Hydrogeological Framework of Canada 32 Methods 32 Basin Analysis 34 Stratigraphic Approaches 35 Interpretive Methods 35 Modeling Software 36 GSC Case Studies 36 Case Study 1: Cross Sections 36 Case Study 2: Expert Systems 37 Case Study 3: 3-D Geological Model of the Okanagan Basin, British Columbia, with the Support Vector Machine 38 Summary 41 Acknowledgments 41 Chapter 8: French Geological Survey (Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières): Multiple Software Packages for Addressing Geological Complexities 42 Geological Setting 42 Major Clients and the Need for Models 43 Modeling at BRGM 44 Methodologies Used for 3-D Modeling 44 Initial Data Consistency Analysis 44 Shallow Subsurface Modeling 44 Sedimentary Basin Modeling 45 Modeling Structurally Complex Geology 45 Choice of 3-D Modeling Software and Methodology 46 Lessons Learned 47 Chapter 9: German Geological Surveys: State Collaboration for 3-D Geological Modeling 48 Organizational Structure and Business Model 48 Geological Setting 48 Major Clients and the Need for Models 49 Software, Methodology, and Workflows 50 Lessons Learned 51 Chapter 10: Illinois State Geological Survey: A Modular Approach for 3-D Mapping that Addresses Economic Development Issues 53 Organizational Structure and Business Model 53 Geological Setting 53 3-D Geological Mapping Priorities 54 Funding Sources for 3-D Geological Mapping 55 3-D Mapping Methods 56 Mapping Software and Staffing Strategy 57 Data Collection and Organization 58 Interpretation, Correlation, and Interpolation 58 Basic and Interpretive Map Production 59 Lessons Learned 59 Chapter 11: Manitoba Geological Survey: Multi-scaled 3-D Geological Modeling with a Single Software Solution and Low Costs 60 Organizational Structure, Business Model, and Mission 60 Geological Setting 60 Major Clients and the Need for Models 60 Model Methodology 60 Cross Section Method (Quaternary to Precambrian Surface for Southeastern Manitoba) 61 Direct Data Modeling Method (Phanerozoic to Precambrian Surface) 61 Digitization Modeling Method (Chronostratigraphic Rock Units to Precambrian Surface) 62 Advantages of the MGS 3-D Mapping Approach 62 Lessons Learned 62 Chapter 12: TNO–Geological Survey of the Netherlands: 3-D Geological Modeling of the Upper 500 to 1,000 Meters of the Dutch Subsurface 64 Organizational Structure, Business Model, and Mission 64 Geological Setting 64 Three Nationwide Models 65 DGM: The Digital Geological Model 65 REGIS II: The Regional Geohydrological Information System 65 GeoTOP: A 3-D Volume Model of the Upper 30 Meters 65 Major Clients and the Need for Models 65 Software 65 Workflow for Digital Geological Modeling 66 Data Selection 66 Stratigraphic Interpretation 66 Fault Mapping 66 Interpolation 66 Stacking the Units 67 Workflow for GeoTOP 67 Boreholes 67 Stratigraphic Interpolation 67 2-D Interpolation of Stratigraphic Units 68 3-D interpolation of Lithology Classes 68 Physical and Chemical Parameters 68 Chapter 13: U.S. Geological Survey: A Synopsis of Three-dimensional Modeling 69 Mission and Organizational Needs 69 Business Model 69 Geological Setting 69 Major Clients and the Need for Models 71 3-D/4-D Visualization for Geological Assessments 71 3-D/4-D Analyses and Use of LiDAR Imagery in Geological Modeling 73 Case Study: The Hayward Fault—An Example of a 3-D Geological Information Framework 73 Model Construction Methodology 74 Output 75 Observations, Suggestions, and Best Practices 75 Case Study: Santa Fe, New Mexico, 3-D Modeling as a Data Integrator 75 3-D/4-D Visualization and Geological Modeling for Hydrologic and Biologic Assessments 76 Lessons Learned 78 Workshops 78 User Survey 79 3-D Systems Database 79 PART 3: INFORMATION DELIVERY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 81 Chapter 14: Methods of Delivery and Outputs 83 INSIGHT GmbH Sub-surface Viewer 83 GeoScience Victoria Storage and Delivery of Information 84 Web Delivery at Geoscience Australia 84 ISGS 3-D Geologic Map Products 85 Chapter 15: Conclusions and Recommendations 86 References 87 Figures 2-1 Uncertainty drape on a model of central Glasgow, United Kingdom 7 2-2 Example of data density uncertainty plot for geological unit WITI using an influence distance of 200 m 8 2-3 Uncertainty assessment showing drill locations and drill type, and a grid of the average assumed error for geological surfaces 9 2-4 Cross section through a tidal channel in Zeeland, the Netherlands, showing the probability that a grid cell belongs to the tidal channel lithofacies 9 2-5 Probability that the Ashmore Member sand and gravel is greater than 10 feet thick in Kane County, Illinois, USA 10 4-1 Arc modeling in Lake County, Illinois, USA, showing data, cross sections, and surficial and 3-D geology 13 4-2 The GSI3D workflow 14 5-1 Australia’s Land and Marine Jurisdictions 20 5-2 Gawler Craton 3-D crustal VRML model 21 5-3 Mt. Warning, New South Wales, from Geoscience Australia’s 3-D Data Viewer showing surface geology (lithostratigraphy) with contacts and terrain hill shading 21 5-4 Three-dimensional geological model of Victoria incorporating Paleozoic and older basement as well as younger onshore and offshore basin fill and overlying volcanic cover 22 5-5 Numerical simulation results from 3-D Victoria modeling program. (a) Fluid flow associated with orogenic gold mineralization within an accreted Cambrian ocean basin; (b) strain partitioning around a Proterozoic basement block accreted during the same event 22 5-6 Four 3-D block diagrams of a study area in central Victoria (Spring Hill groundwater management area) 23 6-1 Bedrock geology of Great Britain 25 6-2 Superficial geology of Great Britain 25 6-3 Schematic section showing effective depth of modeling and definition across the LithoFrame 250, LithoFrame 50, and LithoFrame 10 resolutions 27 6-4 The LithoFrame 1M resolution onshore model of Great Britain 29 6-5 Example LithoFrame 250 model covering the Weald and adjacent parts of the English Channel 29 6-6 Scheduled availability of LithoFrame 250 resolution regional models for England and Wales 29 6-7 The LithoFrame 50 resolution southern East Anglia model of the Ipswich-Sudbury area covering 1,200 km2 30 6-8 The site-specific Shelford model 30 6-9 Current LithoFrame 10 and LithoFrame 50 coverage for Great Britain 30 7-1 Hydrogeological regions of Canada and key Canadian aquifers 33 7-2 Simplified basin analysis approach used in regional hydrogeological analysis of key Canadian aquifers 34 7-3 Example of an event stratigraphic model and integration of existing lithostratigraphic framework for the Oak Ridges Moraine Area 35 7-4 Example of the geological framework model for the Mirabel area 36 7-5 An isopach map and thickness histogram for the Newmarket Till unit 38 7-6 South Nation Conservation Authority model area showing a glaciofluvial isopach (eskers) draped over topographic digital elevation model 38 7-7 Input and output of support vector machine (SVM) modeling: (a) Geological coded input data set imported in Gocad; (b) the SVM classification result as a Gocad voxel object with local water bodies added on top of geological units 40 8-1 Geological map of the geology of France 42 8-2 Simplified map of the geology of France 43 8-3 Three-dimensional model of the Tertiary strata of the Aquitain Basin 44 8-4 Three-dimensional lithofacies model of Middle Eocene formations in Essonne Department 45 8-5 Location of two projects modeling the Trias and Dogger Formations of the Paris Basin 45 8-6 Three-dimensional static model of the Trias Formation in the southern Paris Basin for geothermal studies 46 8-7 Three-dimensional structural and petrophysical properties models of

the Dogger Formation in the southern Paris Basin for CO2 sequestration 46 8-8 Three-dimensional producer facies and porosity model of the Oolitic unit of the Dogger Formation (southeastern Paris Basin) 46 8-9 Estimation of the thermal resources in syn-sedimentary faulted deposits of the Limagne graben in central France 46 8-10 A 3-D model of a coal basin based on a cartography field trip (Alès, South-East of France) and building of the model from field observations 47 8-11 Geotechnical studies for a tunnel through the Alps between Turin (Italy) and Lyon (Alps) 47 9-1 Geological map of Germany 49 9-2 State of 3-D geological modeling in Germany 50 9-3 Part of a Gocad model depicting folded Carboniferous, coal-bearing strata of the Ruhr area 51 9-4 Structural model for monitoring an abandoned mining area underneath the city of Zwickau 51 9-5 Volume grid of Bavaria subdivided into four layers (crystalline basement, Mesozoic sediments, Upper Jurassic aquifer; omitted: Tertiary sediments of the Molasse) 52 10-1 Quaternary deposits map of Illinois 53 10-2 Kane County aquifer sensitivity map 54 10-3 Examples of 3-D maps and models of the Mahomet Bedrock Valley 55 10-4 GeoVisionary rendering of standardized lithologic borehole logs with a 1-m LiDAR-based digital elevation model 56 10-5 Kane County major Quaternary aquifer map 57 10-6 Visualization laboratory image on screen on GeoVisionary 58 11-1 Index map outlining the location of the various 3-D geological modeling activities in and around Manitoba 61 11-2 Three-dimensional geological Gocad model of southeast Manitoba including the Winnipeg region 61 11-3 Three-dimensional geological Gocad model of the TGI Williston Basin project area 62 11-4 Three-dimensional geological Gocad model of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin spanning Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta 62 12-1 Location and schematic geological map of the Netherlands 64 12-2 Fault data stored in GIS and extracted for modeling 66 12-3 Schematic representation of two ways to assist interpolation: channel incision and thinning out near the limit of extent 67 12-4 Cross sections through the nationwide digital geological model 67 12-5 Part of the 3-D model of the central part of Zeeland, southwestern Netherlands 68 13-1 Simplified version of the geologic map of the conterminous United States 70 13-2 Map showing the location of the San Francisco Bay region 74 13-3 (a) Three-dimensional geologic map of the Hayward fault zone and (b) the Hayward fault surface with accompanying earthquake hypocenters 74 13-4 Work flow that uses 3-D modeling to integrate and synthesize diverse types of geological and geophysical information for a basin study near Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA 76 13-5 Perspective view of the greater Los Angeles region with InSAR imagery showing greater than 6 cm of groundwater pumping-induced subsidence 77 13-6 Three-dimensional images from seismic surveys of the speed of shock waves through sediment 13-7 Fracture model of the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory 78 14-1 Options for delivery of British Geological Survey models 83 14-2 The Subsurface Viewer Interface showing the Southern East Anglia Model in the Subsurface Viewer with stratigraphic and permeability attribution 84 14-3 Villa Grove 7.5-minute Quadrangle map sheet 85

Tables 6-1 Main features of the LithoFrame resolutions 27 6-2 Geological detail possible at the various LithoFrame resolutions 28 7-1 Key Canadian aquifers grouped according to hydrogeological regions 32 7-2 Grouping of key Canadian aquifers according to host geology 33 7-3 Input data set statistics and support vector machine (SVM) classification results 41 13-1 The 3-D modeling and visualization software programs used by the USGS 72 PART 1 BACKGROUND, ISSUES, AND SOFTWARE

Chapter 1: Background and Purpose Stephen J. Mathers1, Holger Kessler1, Richard C. Berg2, Donald A. Keefer2, and Keith A. Turner3 1British Geological Survey, 2Illinois State Geological Survey, 3Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado

Introduction 2-D to a 3-D mapping and modeling What Is a GSO? culture. Since 2001, six workshops on three- A GSO is a not-for-profit government dimensional (3-D) geological mapping A similar workshop held in July 2009 in organization responsible for a range of have been conducted in association Madrid involved key players from GSOs tasks that generally include with meetings of the Geological Society of seven European countries (France, of America (GSA) and the Geological Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, • geological surveying (mapping) of Association of Canada. The workshops Spain, and United Kingdom). The goal the nation, state, or province; have documented progress and estab- of that workshop was to take the first • conducting geological research to lished working relationships among steps toward establishing agreement support economic development, an international group of geologists and standardization of 3-D geological public health, and environmental who have been developing new meth- modeling approaches in Europe. The protection; ods for geological mapping largely to conclusions from that workshop were • distributing geoscience information; address the transition from traditional similar to those reached at Portland, and two-dimensional (2-D) to 3-D geologi- and many of the Madrid workshop par- cal mapping (also referred to as 3-D ticipants contributed material for this • advising government at various geological modeling). This transition present report. levels regarding water, mineral and has been the direct result of increased energy resources, environmental societal need for a more detailed, In this report, we have tried to capture issues, and earth hazards. improved understanding of the subsur- the state-of-the-art of 3-D geological Each country has its own governmental face to address critical land- and water- mapping in these participating GSOs. structure of ministries, departments, use issues (Thorleifson et al. 2010), Throughout this document the terms and bureaus. Although not all of the coupled with significant technological “mapping” and “modeling” will be organizations involved in public sector advancements in Geographic Informa- used interchangeably to recognize the 3-D geological modeling worldwide are tion Systems (GIS), digital cartography, strong institutional preferences of the geological surveys, these non-survey data storage and analysis, and visual- participating GSOs. Each approach organizations are still responsible for ization techniques (Whitmeyer et al. (see Chapters 5 through 13) is unique overseeing national or state geological 2010). and reflects geological aspects of the modeling. nation or state, the drivers for geosci- The October 2009 workshop in Port- ence information, the stakeholders Some nations have a single national land, Oregon (Berg et al. 2009), was sig- commissioning maps and models, the geological survey (for example BRGM nificant because of the unprecedented external and internal organization of in France and the BGS in Great Brit- representation from the world’s leading GSOs within the nation or state, the ain); in other countries, responsibilities geological survey organizations (GSOs) available data resources, and funding. are shared by both state/provincial and in 3-D geological mapping. During This document is intended to help federal organizations (USA, Canada, the workshop it became very apparent others learn from our successes and Australia, and Germany). that, although these GSOs share the mistakes and to help them make the same visions for the use of 3-D geologic transition into the world of 3-D geolog- maps, the methodologies, software ical modeling. Growth of this commu- Geological Mapping: tools, underlying mapping and model- nity may eventually lead to stabiliza- A Brief History ing strategies, and business models are tion of methods and the development Geological mapping has been a funda- highly varied. and international use of geoscience mental activity of GSOs since the early data exchange standards. Discussions at the workshop suggested 1800s, when governments began a sys- that the time was right to produce a This report has benefited from the tematic search for mineral resources to report documenting the current state- excellent contributions received from fuel economic growth and industrial- of-the-art for 3-D geological mapping staff serving in GSOs and allied bodies ization. Beginning with William Smith’s in GSOs. Part of the motivation for this in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, 1815 map, A Geological Map of England report was the need for advice to GSOs the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the and Wales and Part of Scotland, and its that are beginning to migrate from a United States (USA). included cross section showing subsur-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 3 face rock layers, geologists have sought that serve the client community well, Many of the 3-D geological models ways to best portray geological infor- as shown by maps from the Ohio Geo- constructed at GSOs have been com- mation on 2-D maps. logical Survey in the USA (Shrake et al. missioned by industrial and govern- 2009). ment clients. In those situations, the The most conventional technique for mapping units and resolution are portraying successions of geologi- The availability of personal computers dictated by their needs. Such models cal strata in the subsurface has been (PCs) in the 1980s and the rapid evolu- generally require considerable modi- through the use of cross sections and tion of hardware and software led to fication to be used for other purposes maps of the top or bottom surfaces of a revolution in geological mapping. and for other users. For example, when strata. Although cross sections provide Currently, several software applica- shifting from regional to local site- a sense of geological structure and the tions are available for PCs that allow for specific 3-D mapping and modeling continuity of geological units in the the development and visualization of efforts, powerful data management third dimension, they only provide maps for geological surfaces from land tools are a prerequisite for integrating information for a single plane cut surface to any depth (Whitmeyer et al. databases with 3-D modeling (Artimo through the Earth, and they do not 2010). Geological modeling and map- et al. 2008). provide a clear sense of the 3-D nature ping, as discussed in this publication, of the geology. Even with multiple cross refers to the use of PCs and software Regional 3-D geological models pro- sections, there are significant voids in to build, visualize, and analyze the vide the context and framework for information that the user must infer. In subsurface geology in 3-D. This use has detailed investigations by various addition, top and bottom surface maps resulted in a wide range of mapping clients interested in different aspects provide insight only on the distribution and modeling approaches, many of of earth resource assessments. These of individual deposits and do not give a which are documented in this report. more detailed investigations generally clear sense of the full succession. provide the best examples of economic benefits of 3-D mapping and modeling Stack-unit maps improved the under- Applications Benefiting (Curry et al. 1994, Artimo et al. 2003), standing of the three-dimensionality of from 3-D Geologic Maps and, perhaps more significantly, they geological information by using alpha- increase the awareness of the impor- Three-dimensional geologic maps are numeric codes or colors and patterns tance of 3-D mapping investigations to an extension of traditional 2-D geo- to represent the vertical succession of local decision makers and politicians. geological units to a specified depth. logical maps into the third dimension. This mapping was termed “three- These maps can portray subsurface Two detailed economic assessments, dimensional mapping” because of stacked layers showing depths, thick- as examples, highlight various site- the extensive and detailed subsurface nesses, and material properties within specific applications derived from information that could be displayed. a 3-D volumetric space. The output is a geological mapping. Bhagwat and Ipe fully attributed and digital 3-D model (2000) conducted a cost:benefit study The Dutch (e.g., Rijks Geologische created by geological interpretation of a statewide 2-D mapping program Dienst 1925) pioneered the stack-unit and rigorous use of raw data geological in Kentucky (USA). The study was technique beginning in the 1920s by knowledge and statistical methods. based on a detailed questionnaire to mapping the geology in the upper 1 hundreds of map users following more Both 2-D and 3-D outputs are pro- or 2 m. This technique was enhanced than 20 years of geologic map use in duced using a similar classification of considerably between the early 1970s that state. Those researchers estimated geological units and are presented at a and the mid 1990s (e.g., Berg et al. that project costs increased by up to range of scales or resolutions aimed at 1984), as vertical successions com- 40% if geologic maps are not avail- specific uses and stakeholder groups. monly were extended to depths of able. Using very conservative assump- The North American 3-D mapping 6, 15, or 30 m at large scale (1:24,000 tions, they also reported a return of workshops have targeted hydrogeo- to 1:100,000). This mapping activity, $25 to $39 for each government dollar logical applications, but 3-D geological mainly done by GSOs, was in response invested in geological mapping. Fur- models are finding receptive clients to requirements for detailed mapping thermore, the Kentucky maps, com- who need information about a range of in support of land- and water-use deci- pleted originally to boost the mineral earth science issues because (1) result- sion making. Most of the stack-unit and energy industries at a cost of more ing 3-D geologic maps can explain mapping was accomplished before than $112 million (year 2010 dollars), and portray complex geology with computers were widely applied to have been used primarily to address numerous map views in understand- geological mapping. The primary limi- water supply and protection issues, able formats, (2) various derivative or tation of stack-unit mapping was that growth and development, environ- interpretive maps can be produced and map depth was generally restricted mental problems, and mitigation of a updated as new information becomes because map unit labeling could variety of natural hazards. A similarly available, and (3) all can be released be overly complex. However, with designed benefit:cost assessment was on demand and customized for clients improvements in digital mapping tech- performed by the Instituto Geológico with specific needs for earth resource nology, sophisticated stack-unit maps y Minero de España (Geological and information. to any depth now can be constructed Mining Institute of Spain) by Garcia-

4 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Cortes et al. (2005). That study reported paved surfaces, and over-applica- environment as a result of construc- that an initial investment of ¡122 mil- tion of fertilizers, sewage sludge, and tion projects (e.g., environmental lion for geological maps produced a chemicals onto agricultural fields. impact assessments). savings to the Spanish economy of ¡2.2 Hydrocarbon, Energy, and Carbon Archaeology billion (18:1 benefit:cost ratio). The Capture and Storage • Characterizing shallow deposits to greatest uses of geologic maps were for • Characterizing and mapping of oil evaluate preservation potential and evaluating groundwater resources and and gas reservoirs. ground conditions. industrial minerals, building and foun- dation construction projects, landslide • Modeling for evaluation of thickness • Establishing and mapping archaeo- assessments, and waste site locations. and quality of coal resources. logical stratigraphy. • Evaluating geothermal potential. Mineral Resources The main sectors currently request- ing 3-D geological models from GSOs • Modeling of reservoir capacity • Conducting regional and site-scale include those dealing with the follow- and suitability for sequestration of appraisals of mineral resources ing issues: carbon dioxide. and reserves, including long-term impacts on the environment. Land-Use Planning and Water Local Decision Making • Finding a well-balanced approach • Delineating the distribution and • Characterizing the surface and near- to mining and land use ensuring thickness of aquifers and non- surface to aid land-use planning in that nearby economically available aquifers for input to groundwater urban, suburban, and rural areas mineral resources are not made flow models or for developing inter- by helping to balance economic unavailable because of competing pretive maps to support decisions development with wise use of water land uses. relating to groundwater manage- and mineral resources and ensuring Research ment, withdrawal, protection, and their protection. recharge. • Conducting research and scientific • Protecting shallow groundwater discovery in earth sciences (e.g., • Conducting more localized studies through green planning restrictions, stratigraphy, tectonics, Quaternary for groundwater flooding, river flood protecting vulnerable shallow aqui- evolution, and soil science). protection, contaminant transport, fers, and providing unbiased infor- and wetland construction, protec- • Conceptualizing and portraying all mation for industrial permitting, tion, and maintenance. surfaces, depths, thicknesses, and property tax assessments, and land geological processes over broad Waste Disposal, Management, and acquisitions. geographic areas in ways that were Contamination • Evaluating sites for city zoning and previously not possible and, in so • Characterizing shallow and deep establishment of building codes. doing, predicting the distribution of groundwater systems to assess risks materials into regions of sparse data Civil Engineering and Infrastructure associated with long-term disposal and visually analyzing and interpret- of nuclear wastes and the disposal • Conducting site-specific investiga- ing the geology and its history. and storage of municipal and haz- tions for construction projects such Education and Outreach ardous wastes. as highways, tunnels, sewers, railroads, pipelines, dams, dikes, locks, • Visualizing the “full cube of geology.” • Evaluating the contamination building foundations, linear route potential of shallow groundwater • Communicating the existence and alignments for communications from construction refuse sites, relevance of specific geological fea- and utility infrastructure, and large underground storage tanks contain- tures. transportation infrastructure proj- ing gasoline and other chemicals, • Increasing public understanding of ects (mega sites). septic systems, large animal con- geoscience-related issues, and using finement facilities and associated • Providing geological information to geological information for teaching waste lagoons, chemical spills, use help determine risks from natural endeavors at all levels. of road salts and other deicers on hazards and impacts on the natural

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 5 Chapter 2: Major Mapping and Modeling Issues Donald A. Keefer1 , Holger Kessler2, Mark Cave2, and Stephen J. Mathers2 1Illinois State Geological Survey, 2British Geological Survey

An Overview of Major In GSOs, it is generally important for The other common type of 3-D model geologists to constrain geological delineates deposit boundaries and 3-D Geological Mapping mapping software by insight gained explicitly defines the potential distri- and Modeling Methods through years of training and from bution of material properties within work that assimilates intangible these deposits. Typically, these models A wide range of software applications aspects regarding the distribution and include plausible distributions of pet- can be used for 3-D geological mod- character of deposits. The editors and rophysical properties (e.g., porosity, eling. Some methods use common authors of this report feel strongly permeability) and are used as input to interpolation routines to make geologi- that any individual or organization flow simulation models. Alternatively, cal surfaces; others use sophisticated involved with 3-D geological modeling any property can be simulated in this statistical methods; and still others use needs to choose software and methods manner. The methods for developing methods more akin to traditional geo- that allow them to provide significant these property models typically involve logical mapping. These applications do geological control on the distribution geostatistical tools and require signifi- not fully constrain the user in how they and character of the deposits they are cant expertise to apply them reliably. are used; therefore, the range of work- portraying. Although not always easy, it It is important to note that these prop- flows for conducting a 3-D geological is increasingly possible to find software erty models should be developed using modeling project is almost as large as that simplifies the use of geological the same significant involvement by the number of practitioners who are constraints on 3-D geological mapping. geologists familiar with the basic unit conducting the mapping and modeling The discussions from the individual distributions and also with the likely exercises. GSOs provide a diverse guide to differ- characteristics of the modeled proper- Using software to map geology requires ent ways to model in this context. ties. It is also important to understand geologists to explicitly define consid- that property models involve much The specific approaches to geological erations that were traditionally part more inference in the interpolation modeling at GSOs largely have been of the intuitive science of geological stage and should be expected to be driven by the need to develop 3-D mapping. It is generally very difficult much more uncertain than the maps maps of geological successions for for most geologists to understand showing the distribution of basic units. various areas. The terms used for these how to translate their geological The TNO–Netherlands Geological 3-D products vary by organization knowledge into the parameters con- Survey GeoTOP model, discussed in and sometimes by individuals within tained in most mapping software. If Chapter 12, is a good example of 3-D an organization. The use of the terms a mapper loads data into a common property modeling based on extensive modeling and mapping are used inter- interpolation package and relies on databases of measured physical prop- changeably in this document because the software to “know” how the data erties in numerous well-distributed of a recognition that conventions are should be mapped, little real geological boreholes. already established in various groups, knowledge is being used in the map- and it is not the objective of this docu- Finally, the importance of geologists ping because only the information ment to propose standards in termi- being able to visualize their data at contained in the data is used, and the nology or method. various stages of the mapping and information is limited to the locations modeling process is key for better where the data reside. Statistical meth- It is important to recognize that there understanding of the conceptual geo- ods of interpolation capture additional are two basic types of 3-D geologic logical framework, resolving multiple information on spatial variation, but maps or models. The most common working hypotheses regarding geologi- alone do not naturally portray the type involves only the delineation of cal process responsible for depositing complete spatial structure of specific the distribution of specific map units. various sediments, and for advancing depositional environments or the These models do not explicitly define applications of software packages. effects of certain faulting, and so the any distribution of material properties Particularly, the 3-D visualization of value of this information is limited. within their boundaries. Sometimes, raw data early in the modeling process These more automated approaches to within this type of 3-D model, the allows the geologist to immediately mapping seem to be most common in mapped deposits can be divided into “see” data trends and to begin the academia, where students and faculty broad zones where each zone has dis- process of evaluating data quality and are exploring insights gained by new tinct patterns in the variability of tex- distribution. methods and not necessarily trying to ture, porosity, or some other important produce the most geologically accurate characteristic. map.

6 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Scale and Resolution interactive, and if appropriate software assessment, increasingly new methods is available, users can zoom in and out, are being used that are based less on As with geologic maps of the land sur- effectively redefining the scale of the statistical methods and more on geolo- face, maps and models of subsurface viewing window. In these situations, gist insight about the reliability of data geological units can be constructed to it is possible for digital 3-D geologi- and interpretations. These uncertainty show features of a certain minimum cal models to be enlarged and used at assessments are being used to help size. In traditional geological mapping, resolutions beyond their limits of reli- GSOs convey the mapper’s sense of map scale is the parameter that dic- ability. confidence with the data or interpreta- tates the minimum feature size, or level tions in any mapping project. of detail, expected on a map. The scale of a geologic map is originally derived Uncertainty in Modeling This section provides examples of from the scale of its base map. With the increasing use of 3-D geologi- uncertainty assessments that have been developed and applied by GSOs. The concept of scale has always had cal models, it is generally helpful to assess the uncertainty of the modeled They illustrate various issues being limitations in geological mapping addressed in these assessments and because the distribution of data is deposits and their properties to ensure that end users can better understand the ways uncertainty are being charac- always irregular, which is particularly terized for various mapping applica- a problem for mapping subsurface the major limitations of the models and map products that are developed tions. These examples do not represent geological units where data density an exhaustive list of applicable meth- generally decreases with depth. Maps from them. The uncertainty of 3-D geological models is not only restricted to ods, but they can be used as a starting in areas with a high data density typi- point for future studies. cally contain more detail than expected the algorithms and data of the model, for the scale, whereas areas of low data but also involves the geological infer- A simple depiction of uncertainty can density have much less detail than ences and interpretations that are be produced as a color ramped layer expected. Map scale also is a concept used for the final models. Tradition- for a model. Figure 2-1 is an example that is difficult for non-geologists to ally, modeling uncertainty in geologic of a 5-km × 5-km part of the Glasgow understand. The term “resolution” has maps relied rigorously on geostatistical urban area in the United Kingdom been used increasingly in the digital models and assumptions that were (UK) where the reddish areas indicate world, often in the context of digital often violated when the real sediment high uncertainty (low data density), images or photographs. The reference successions became complex. These and the green areas indicate low to the resolution of a geologic map or uncertainty assessments were com- uncertainty (high data density). This model is increasingly common, as it monly applied in the mineral extrac- scheme tends to reflect the distribu- can accommodate the fuzziness, or tion and petroleum industries. Special- tion of boreholes, but the locations variation, in detail across a map better ized statistical expertise is required to here are buffered or blurred to take than just referring to differences in apply these methods reliably. Although into account the use of confidential map scale. Reference to resolution of some GSOs are exploring the use of borehole logs in the modeling exercise geological models, although more flex- geostatistical methods of uncertainty ible in connotation than the concept of map scale, does not change the fact that geological models are limited in the resolution they capture and cannot reliably predict the distribution of higher (more detailed) resolution map features. The physical, static nature of printed maps makes them difficult to use at scales beyond their publication. Unlike printed maps, digital maps and models are not physically bound or static in how they are used. Therefore, it is important when models and model data are distributed that a clear indi- cation be made of the reliable level of detail and the limits of reliability within the models and also that recom- mended map uses be clearly defined to discourage misuse. W N Three-dimensional maps and models, because of their digital nature, can be Figure 2-1 Uncertainty drape on a model of central Glasgow, United Kingdom.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 7 because precise locations could not be customized BGS software developed in the order of ±10 m in XYZ (e.g., those divulged. Matlab programming language to mea- blue areas of the WITI uncertainty sur- sure data density and geological com- face on Figure 2-2). A more sophisticated approach has plexity. The output is a grid file ranked been applied to the modeling of the from relatively low (0) to relatively high Average uncertainty (average confi- Glasgow urban area using the proce- uncertainty (100). A 200-m radius of dence) areas = 3 are those areas that dure described by Lelliot et al. (2009). influence and a lowest to highest rela- are constrained by some geological Full details of the method are given in tive uncertainty of 0.5 to 100 were used data and where the geology is moder- that publication, but, in summary, the to calibrate the output (Figure 2-2). ately complex (e.g., faulted or folded). method combines the 2-D spatial den- In these areas, the error on the model sity of the boreholes used to construct The combined uncertainty scale might be considered to be on the order the surface with the geological com- (Figure 2-2) must be translated by the of ±30 m in XYZ (e.g., the green to tur- plexity of the surface, where geological user into uncertainty categories; the quoise areas on Figure 2-2). complexity refers to the relative change lowest number represents the lowest in curvature of the surface or the “tor- uncertainty and the highest number Highest uncertainty (lowest confi- tuosity” of the surface. That is, if the the highest uncertainty. For the Clyde dence) areas = 5 are those areas that data density is high, then the uncer- Gateway model, five categories could are not constrained by any geological tainty is lower (or vice versa), and if the be considered. In ArcGIS this would data and where the geology is complex geological complexity is low, then the be easy to achieve on the uncertainty (e.g., faulted or folded). In these areas, uncertainty is lower (or vice versa). The raster grid by symbolizing using five the error on the model might be con- empirical uncertainty obtained from classes. sidered to be on the order of ±70 m in this approach is then calibrated into XYZ (e.g., those red to orange areas of either an estimated absolute uncer- Lowest uncertainty (highest confi- the uncertainty surface on Figure 2-2). tainty or a relative scale using expert dence) areas = 1 are those areas that are well constrained by geological data The surficial deposits uncertainty judgment. To calibrate the uncertainty layers are supplied as ArcGIS 9.2 raster the expert provides three pieces of and where the geology is relatively simple. In these areas, the error on the grid format and in the subsurface information: the estimated absolute viewer. uncertainty of the surface at the bore- model might be considered to be on hole (i.e., the uncertainty in depth in the borehole log); the estimated worse case uncertainty on the surface where least information is available; and the distance from the borehole that the expert has confidence to predict the surface (the radius of influence of the borehole). In the examples shown here, the uncertainty has been expressed on a relative scale of 0 to 100 with 0 being very low uncertainty and 100 being very high (Figure 2-2). The majority of the available boreholes were evaluated in the data selection process, and the deepest, best-logged bores were used to construct the model. A total of 1,852 boreholes (of 13,000) were specifically selected to construct the cross sections on which the surficial model was based. In addition, many more boreholes not directly lying on specific cross section alignments were also considered during the construction of the cross sections so that the overall construction of the model is based on an assessment of approximately 8,000 boreholes. The uncertainty for the WITI geological unit for the Glasgow urban area was calculated using the procedure Figure 2-2 Example of data density uncertainty plot for geological unit WITI using outlined by Lelliot et al. (2009) using an influence distance of 200 m. Blue crosses indicate data points.

8 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Lelliott et al. (2009) provides example outputs (Figure 2-3) for the use of this method for assessing a 3-D geological model of shallow surficial deposits, where a sequence of river terrace gravels and alluvial deposits overlie mudstone bedrock. Values in red show a wide range of calculated elevations (high uncertainty); values in blue show the most consistent values (low uncertainty). The study concluded that the results agreed with intuitive expectations for the uncertainty, but that drilling should be undertaken to validate the uncertainty assessment of the model. The TNO–Netherlands Geological Survey GeoTOP model, discussed in Chapter 12, uses stochastic techniques during model construction to compute the probability for each grid cell to belong to a specific lithostratigraphic unit and lithofacies. These probabilities provide a geostatistically based measure of model uncertainty. Figure 2-4 shows the results for a tidal channel in the province of Zeeland. The colors indicate the probability that a grid cell contains the sandy tidal channel litho- Figure 2-3 Uncertainty assessment showing drill locations and drill type, and a facies. At the center of the channel, grid of the average assumed error for geological surfaces (Lelliott et al. 2009). this probability is high (100%). In the upper part of the channel, the green and yellow colors reveal much smaller probabilities. In this upper part, more clayey tidal flat deposits are expected. Similarly, probabilities are lower at the bottom of the channel where shells and shell-rich sand deposits are expected. A study at the Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS) recognized the difficulty of traditional geostatistical approaches to adequately capture geological knowledge of the data, deposits, and interpretations that are particularly relevant to making accurate uncertainty assessments. The ISGS recognized the impact of four factors that contribute to uncertainty in geologic maps: (1) variations in data quality, (2) variations in data density, (3) general- izations in texture, and (4) generaliza- tions in thickness (Dey et al. 2007d). The contributions of these factors to map uncertainty were evaluated with respect to terms of their likely impact on the predictive accuracy of a regional groundwater flow model that would use the 3-D geologic map. Figure 2-4 Cross section through a tidal channel in Zeeland, the Netherlands, showing the probability that a grid cell belongs to the tidal channel lithofacies.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 9 significantly improving the reliability of resultant maps. Analysis of data errors showed that, after sediment texture reporting errors were accounted for, the reporting errors remaining within the well logs had little impact on the reliability of identifying and correlating unconsolidated deposits more than 5 feet thick and generally more than 0.5 miles wide and several miles long, and in correlating bedrock units. Dey et al (2009d) recognized that errors in thickness interpretations were dependent on data density, data accuracy, and the underlying complexity of the geologic deposit being mapped. To evaluate the potential error in thickness estimates, they used a novel application of geostatistical methods. In the first stage of analysis, the isopach maps for each map unit were taken from the completed 3-D model and used as best estimates of the geologist’s conceptual models. Semivariograms modeled directly from the isopach grid values showed a relatively small variation in thickness for each map unit. These semivariograms were used in a stochastic simulation to estimate the amount and location of errors in the isopach maps. In the second stage of analysis, semivariograms modeled using the thickness values from the borehole data showed relatively large thickness variations for each unit. These semivariograms were used in a stochastic simulation to produce alternative estimates of the amount and location of error in the isopach maps. These sets of simulations allowed for calculations of the probability that map units were less than or greater than various thickness thresholds. For example, maps were created to estimate the probability of a unit being Figure 2-5 Probability that the Ashmore Member sand and gravel is greater than thicker than 10 feet or thinner than 10 feet thick in Kane County, Illinois, USA. 1 foot. These paired simulations provided more insight on the likely uncertainty in the occurrence of mapped The evaluation of variations in data result in errors in elevation, which units than would be found under tradi- quality mirrored results from other translates to errors in deposit depth tional geostatistical evaluations. studies (Russell et al. 2001): water and in correlation. To address loca- well drillers tended to make system- tion errors, the ISGS study committed Figure 2-5 from that study illustrates atic errors in reporting the textures significant resources to verifying and the probability that one sand and they encountered, and locational correcting the locational coordinates gravel deposit, the Ashmore Member of coordinates of boreholes were com- of every borehole used in mapping, the Henry Formation, is greater than 10 monly incorrect. Errors in locations feet (3.0 m) thick.

10 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Chapter 3: Logistical Considerations Prior to Migrating to 3-D Geological Modeling and Mapping Holger Kessler1, Stephen J. Mathers2, and Donald A. Keefer2 1British Geological Survey, 2Illinois State Geological Survey

The migration from 2-D to 3-D geo- how the 3-D mapping will be con- products that cannot be easily incor- logical modeling or mapping for any ducted. As this report highlights, the porated into existing product lines or GSO will benefit from consideration software for the various approaches to centralized database systems. Whether of several important issues. This sec- 3-D geological mapping and modeling a GSO uses a fully standardized and tion briefly discusses these issues and needs to be specialized. Centralization centrally managed suite of software provides some insight on the conse- of various components of mapping and data or a more flexible or modular quences of different decisions. (e.g., data management, data analy- approach to mapping, the organiza- sis, mapping, and visualization) can tion needs to develop a consistent simplify efforts for the mappers, but approach to (1) ensure interoperability Commingling Initial often requires a larger investment in between software packages and dif- Mapping Strategies software and specialists in these areas. ferent mapping projects; (2) ensure Less standardization in these compo- long-term accessibility to raw data, with Eventual Outcomes nents creates a more flexible environ- interpretations, and final products; and Regardless of scale, 3-D geological ment for the mappers, but can result in (3) promote effective communication mapping and modeling investiga- fragmentation of staff expertise, data and workflow between staff working tions should be integrated with other requirements, and output file formats. on various aspects of mapping and activities of a project at an early stage These various consequences can be modeling projects. One standard that so project outcomes and deliverables positive or negative, depending on how needs to be established for each 3-D reflect a client’s needs and are accom- they are accommodated by the GSO. mapping project is map projection. In plished within the capacity of those It takes time to research the costs and general, all data, maps, grids, sections, producing the information. Artimo et benefits of various options. However, etc., should have the same coordinate al. (2008) stated the importance of new without careful research, GSOs can system to ensure positional accuracy and updated geological information meander through combinations of the throughout a project. Although some that can be instantaneously integrated various options until they find some- software applications can reproject into the daily planning and guiding thing that satisfies their needs. Pilot data on the fly, care should be taken of a project, which underscores that studies (e.g., Lasemi and Berg 2001, when using data with different projec- “geological studies should not be con- Barnhardt et al. 2005) can be help- tions, as errors have been known to sidered as single linear project events ful for developing new 3-D methods, occur, and subtle differences may not that are separated from the technical testing new software, and helping to always be readily identifiable. and legislative planning resulting from identify the issues involved with spe- the geological investigations.” Having cific changes to a mapping workflow. The solution to interoperability is a robust database and allowing for It also can be helpful for those wanting unique to each GSO and, like the integration of other contributing scien- to initiate 3-D modeling programs to approach to determine resource tific information (e.g., hydrogeological contact colleagues in other GSOs to allocation strategies, can benefit modeling, geophysical investigations, inquire how they addressed specific from a cost:benefit analysis of the and geochemical data) help shape and issues. This document is designed to various options. The individual GSO refine 3-D geological interpretations help describe the pros and cons of vari- discussions in Chapters 5 through at various stages of geological under- ous approaches. 13 highlight various options that are standing and 3-D model development. being used to manage the data, maps, models, and products at these organi- Data Management zations. Resource Allocation Standardization Strategies An issue that needs particular atten- Necessary Data Sets Three-dimensional geological mod- tion is the development of various data There is a suite of data sets that ranges eling and mapping require different management standards throughout the between obligatory and helpful for the allocations of human, hardware, and mapping workflow. Data management development of a sound 3-D geologic software resources than does 2-D geo- issues need to be identified relatively map or model. The determination of logical mapping. The exact differences early in the organizational shift to whether a specific data set is obligatory depend both on how 2-D mapping is 3-D mapping to prevent unexpected or optional can be somewhat subjec- currently accomplished at a GSO and incompatibilities or development of tive and is dictated by the specific

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 11 software and workflow or the perspec- Additionally, the quality of the geologi- Optional Data Sets tives of the geologists involved with the cal descriptions can vary dramatically Several optional data sets are com- mapping. between individual records, which monly used in 2-D and 3-D mapping can significantly affect the value of that are worth considering: these data for any mapping project. Digital Terrain Models Finally, when potentially thousands • Collection and compilation of digital A digital terrain model (DTM) of the of raw borehole data points are being versions of additional borehole data, proper resolution and extent for the visualized in 3-D, many points at vari- outcrop descriptions, additional map area, also known as a digital ous sites can be in the same general field observations, geophysical bore- elevation model (DEM), is probably location. This creates a problem when hole logs, and geophysical profile the most necessary data set for any creating associated databases, and, data can all be helpful in providing 3-D mapping project. Because some to ensure data quality, the “best” data additional insights on the distribu- 2-D mapping workflows still rely on point should be selected to represent tion and character of the mapped hand drawing contacts on topographic the site. deposits. maps, a given GSO may not be familiar with the requirements of acquisition • Surficial geologic maps often are and management of DTMs that meet Lithologic Dictionaries and available for an area before 3-D the needs of specific 3-D mapping Stratigraphic Lexicons modeling efforts begin. These maps can be very helpful in expedit- projects. Depending on the country, Lithologic dictionaries and strati- ing a subsurface mapping effort, province, or state, acquisition of the graphic lexicons are two additional regardless of the software used. It is necessary DTMs can range from easy geological data sets that should be common, however, for the surficial to impossible and from free to prohibi- considered when beginning the move maps to be generated during the tively expensive. to 3-D geological modeling. Although 3-D mapping effort, so these maps a dictionary that assigns standard may not be available at the onset of lithologies to borehole driller’s descrip- Borehole Drilling Logs a project. tions may not be required for a given After acquisition of a suitable DTM, software package or workflow, every • Access to digital topographic maps the availability of digital borehole project needs to define the formal can be of significant value, depend- driller’s descriptions is probably the mapping units that are included in the ing on the products to be generated next most important data set. Data map area. The format of these data sets from the 3-D mapping effort. These quality issues associated with borehole is wholly dependent on the software topographic map layers should be logs must be evaluated, because these used for modeling. appropriate in scale to the resolu- data, depending on their location or tion of mapping and to the desired quality, might not meet the needs of scale of final map products. Color Ramps the project or mappers. The quality of • Finally, available cross sections and these data must be evaluated early, as One of the last required data sets for other profile data can be scanned unidentified errors can result in bore- any mapping project is the definition and georeferenced for position and holes being mislocated by significant of a consistent color scale for all mod- used in many mapping software distances. The referenced land-surface eled units and properties. Develop- applications. The value of including elevation of the borehole data must ment of internal standards can be these types of images needs to be also be given consideration. Common worthwhile, but must be recognized weighed against the mapping objec- practices suggest that the borehole as another option that each GSO must tives, timeline, and expense (time elevations should be taken from the consider based on its resource base, and staffing) of digitizing and geore- most detailed elevation source, regard- timeline, and mapping project priori- ferencing these data. less of the resolution of DTM used. ties.

12 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Chapter 4: Common 3-D Mapping and Modeling Software Packages Holger Kessler1, Stephen J. Mathers1, Donald A. Keefer2, and Richard C. Berg2 1British Geological Survey, 2Illinois State Geological Survey

The most common software packages • general orientations and polarities ware and is widely used within work- used for building 3-D geologic maps of structures (gradients), and flows at GSOs for assembling and visu- and models in many GSOs include • existence of discontinuities (faults). alizing 2-D maps and, increasingly, for ArcGIS, Gocad, EarthVision, 3-D Geo- developing and visualizing 3-D geolog- Modeller, GSI3D, Multilayer-GDM, and This method is actually very close to ical models. Even though much of the Isatis. Of these, GSI3D, 3-D GeoMod- “geological thinking.” A geological ArcGIS data structure and functionality eller, and Multilayer-GDM have been model comprises a set of different hori- are focused on 2-D spatial data, ArcGIS developed by GSOs to meet custom- zons that are assembled with respect to is gradually increasing its capability for ized geological mapping and modeling their chronology and relationships. In analyzing and rendering 3-D spatial needs of their organizations. Many addition, full tensor inversion gravity data. The ArcScene module allows for other software packages are also used and magnetic modeling is an integral the 3-D visualization of a wide range in GSOs worldwide as part of modeling part of the software, which makes it an of geological data sets that are used in workflows, and these include software original environment in which to com- 3-D geological modeling (Figure 4-1). for GIS, geostatistical analysis, seismic bine geological modeling and valida- ESRI also allows customization and depth conversion, visualization, and tion through geophysical inversion. extension through VBA (Visual Basic property modeling. 3-D Geomodeller has been used for Applications) and the .net environ- extensively at BRGM and in public ment, and custom tools and toolbars are being used to extend 3-D geological 3-D Geomodeller and private sector organizations, particularly in Australia and Canada. modeling capability. At the ISGS, for 3-D Geomodeller was developed as a (More information about 3-D Geo- example, workflows have developed result of a requirement by the French Modeller can be found at http:// around custom tools to create cross Geological Survey (BRGM) to create www.geomodeller.com/geo/index. sections, make stratigraphic picks on a “geological editor” instead of using php?lang=EN&menu=homepage/.) 3-D boreholes, and generate surface CAD or GIS techniques. The BRGM maps of the tops or bottoms of map thought it was unnatural to force units, all as part of a robust 3-D geo- geologists to think in a way that was ArcGIS logical modeling program. contrary to their training in order The ArcGIS suite of products by ESRI is to create a 3-D model. A research currently the global leader in GIS soft- and development project, known as GeoFrance 3-D, was established and ran for six years developing the prototype 3-DWEG (3-D Web Edit- eur Geologique) tool, which was the precursor to 3-D GeoModeller. At the same time, Intrepid Geophysics was optimizing the use of modern airborne geological data sets to aid geological interpretations. A joint venture was formed between BRGM and Intrepid to commercialize and further develop 3-DWEG under the 3-D Geomodeller brand name. 3-D Geomodeller is based on an implicit modeling of surfaces where each horizon is built by a 3-D interpolation function (potential field co- kriging) that simultaneously takes into account Figure 4-1 ArcScene modeling in Lake County, Illinois, USA, showing data, cross sections, and surficial and 3-D geology (Illinois State Geological Survey screen • data points on horizon locations capture). (isopotential values),

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 13 EarthVision use the software, which has led to its development project (2007 through widespread acceptance and imple- 2010) to extend the capability of GSI3D, EarthVision by Dynamic Graphics is mentation as demonstrated at the BGS. including the functionality to model a high-end 3-D geological modeling Furthermore, GSI3D is programmed more complex bedrock environments. and visualization application that was to be part of a systematic, iterative, The intention is to maintain the simple developed to support a range of geo- and interpretative geological mapping intuitive approach of the software and logical modeling applications. Earth- process. methodology to enable deployment Vision is well suited to modeling for oil to all BGS scientists. Version 2.6 of the and gas resources, mining applications, Based on the acceptance of the soft- software for use in Quaternary and and surficial and near-surface geologi- ware and the increasing demand for simply stratified bedrock geology is cal mapping and modeling projects 3-D models across a wide range of available through the GSI3D Research (Soller et al. 1999, Artimo et al. 2003). geological settings in the UK, the BGS Consortium (http://www.gsi3D.org/). embarked on a 3-year research and Gocad Gocad (Geological Object Computer Aided Design) software was developed out of a project started in 1989 by Pro- fessor Jean-Laurent Mallet at Nancy Université in France that evolved into a Gocad Research Group. Most a Geological map new technology created in the Gocad b Correlated section Research Group was made available through plug-ins to the core Gocad software. The software is now owned and marketed by Paradigm Geophysi- cal. Gocad has been in use for model construction by specialized 3-D modelers within many GSOs and the hydrocarbon industry for at least a decade. As its name suggests, Gocad is a CAD c Fence diagram system, requiring the input of data and then the application of complex, proprietary interpolation and surface d Unit distribution fitting algorithms. (More information is available at http://www.pdgm.com/ products/gocad.aspx/.) Gocad is probably the most extensively used modeling package in GSOs worldwide. It has been deployed successfully in most of the organizations contributing to this e Calculated block model report.

SB 2 (84.07)

80.67 loft GSI3D 78.07 gsgb1 GSI3D (Geological Surveying and Investigation in three dimensions) is a methodology and associated software 56.84 cfb tool for 3-D geological modeling devel- f thickness grid oped by Hans-Georg Sobisch over the 43.44 tham last 17 years, initially in collaboration with the Geological Survey of Lower 27.82 llte Saxony (Germany). For the past 8 years, the British Geological Survey has been acting as a test bed for the accelerated development of the system.

GSI3D is programmed in Java and g Synthetic borehole h Ground sliced at 20 m OD simply replaces common working practices of geologists with software. Therefore, it is easy to train people to Figure 4-2 The GSI3D workflow. Abbreviation: OD, outside diameter.

14 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey The GSI3D methodology and workflow tries. An alphabetical listing of the Petrel (Figure 4-2) requires the geologist to most prominent of these follows. Petrel by Schlumberger is a high-end conduct five tasks: 3-D geological framework and prop- • define the stratigraphic succession GeoVisionary erty modeling package designed for (topology rules), GeoVisionary by Virtalis, in partner- the petroleum industry. It has very sophisticated tools for integration of a • survey the area to produce a geo- ship with the BGS, is a high-resolution wide range of data types, including 3-D logical map (if none exists already), 3-D and stereo-visualization package enabling the visualization and seismic, but does not work easily with • code and classify available logs of analysis of landforms, surficial and surficial and near-surface geological boreholes, subsurface geologic maps, boreholes, modeling. (More details can be found • draw cross sections, and cross sections, and geophysical data. at http://www.slb.com/content/services/software/geo/petrel/geomodel- • draw maps of the distribution (out- GeoVisionary specializes in the man- ing.asp.) crop and/or subcrop) of each geo- agement and rendering of very large logical unit. data structures and can accommodate elevation and imagery files covering The model cap is formed by a DTM. Rockworks entire countries. Although GeoVision- The 3-D spatial model is calculated by Rockworks by Rockware is a PC-based ary has limited data editing capabili- triangulation that interpolates between system supporting a wide range of 2-D ties, it interfaces directly with ArcGIS to the correlation line nodes in sections and 3-D geological mapping and mod- facilitate interactive map creation and and along geological boundaries (Kes- eling techniques for visualizing, inter- editing. (More details can be found at sler and Mathers 2004). preting, and portraying surficial and http://www.virtalis.com/systems-a- subsurface information. It interpolates services/geovisionary.) surface and solid models, computes Multilayer-GDM reserve and overburden volumes, and Multilayer-GDM, developed by BRGM, Isatis can display maps, logs, cross sections, is especially suited for data control Isatis by Geovariance is an advanced fence diagrams, solid models, reports, and for layered models with vertical spatial analysis and geostatistical pack- and animations. (More details can be faults where traditional geostatistics age that can be used for sophisticated found at http://www.rockware.com/ are particularly applicable. The Mul- spatial data analysis, geostatistical product/overview.php?id=164.) tilayer-GDM software utilizes BRGM’s modeling and simulation, statistically borehole and geological map data sets based assessments of uncertainty, and including fault traces, outcrop infor- SKUA 3-D visualization. It is widely used in mation, existing cross sections and SKUA by Paradigm Geophysics is a GSOs where it is a common tool for outcrop-subcrop distributions, and 3-D modeling package that is designed modeling porosity and permeability a DEM. The software performs con- primarily for the petroleum indus- distributions and for modeling the sistency checks between these varied try. However, because its methodol- uncertainty in the distribution of strati- sources. The model is controlled by a ogy embeds a full 3-D description of graphic map units. (More details can stratigraphic sequence file with rules faulted volumes, it has application for be found at http://www.geovariances. concerning the nature of bounding GSOs mapping in structurally complex com/en/isatis-ru324.) surfaces (e.g., erosional, onlap). Once geological settings where modelers can the data are internally consistent, geo- create grids consistent with true stra- statistical techniques, including the Move tigraphy and structure while honoring Isatis package, are used to calculate Move by Midland Valley Software data and geological rules. (More details the model. The produced model then focuses on structural geology and asso- can be found at http://www.pdgm. can be used to generate automated ciated analytical geological modeling com/products/skua.aspx.) maps and sections and then deliver the tools built upon tested geological algo- information using a viewer. There are rithms. Geological models are designed Surfer many similarities in approach between to evolve both forward and backward Surfer by Golden Software is limited GSI3D and Multilayer-GDM. (More through time, allowing geologists to to the interpolation and visualiza- details can be found at http://gdm. check assumptions and verify data. tion of 2-D surface models. Surfer has BRGM.fr/?lang=fr/.) The software can help geologists cap- the capability to simultaneously view ture data, build models, and field test stacked sets of independent surfaces in interpretations. Move has been used to Other Software 3-D space. (More details can be found build and test 3-D subsurface models at http://www.goldensoftware.com/ Other 3-D geological modeling and for major geotechnical and civil engi- products/surfer/surfer.shtml.) geostatistical packages in use in GSOs neering projects. (More details can be include many that have their roots in found at http://www.mve.com/.) the hydrocarbon and mining indus-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 15 Surpac can be found at http://www.gemcom- tools that allow geologists to access software.com/products/surpac/.) and view drill hole data, define the Surpac by GemCom is used to support geology, and accurately model ore open pit and underground mining bodies and deposits. Vulcan includes operations and exploration projects. Vulcan database management and geophysi- The software employs 3-D graphics Vulcan by Maptec is designed specifi- cal modules, and resource, geotechni- and workflow automation that can cally for the mining industry to validate cal, and ore control tools. (More details accommodate a client’s specific pro- and transform raw mining data into can be found at http://www.maptek. cesses and data flows. (More details 3-D models by providing 3-D software com/products/vulcan/.)

16 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey PART 2 MAPPING AND MODELING AT THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ORGANIZATIONS

Chapter 5: Geoscience Australia and GeoScience Victoria: 3-D Geological Modeling Developments in Australia Don Cherry1, Bruce Gill1, Tony Pack2, and Tim Rawling3 1Departmant of Primary Industries, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 2Geoscience Australia, Canberra, Australia, and 3GeoScience Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Introduction to 3-D • the exploitation of resources, gency management requirements, natural risk assessment, and marine Geology in Australia • the management of the environment, zone management. Australia’s Land Australia is similar to the USA, Canada, and Marine Jurisdictions are shown in and Germany in that the country is • the safety of critical infrastructure, Figure 5-1. a federation of states held together and under a national government. For • the resultant well-being of all Aus- Geoscience Australia uses a range of the geosciences, this results in each tralians. different 2-D and 3-D modeling applications including Gocad, ArcGIS, ER state having a jurisdictional geological Excluding the Australian Antarctic Ter- survey or geoscience department and Mapper, and PetroMod, depending ritory, GA’s activities cover a land area on the professional subject area, the the federal government also having a of 7.7 million km2 (the world’s sixth nationally focused department, known type of data being processed, and the largest country and smallest continent) desired output. as Geoscience Australia. and a marine jurisdiction of 11.38 million km2 (the world’s third largest) Most 3-D geological models are cre- In the development and use of 3-D 2 geology, Geoscience Australia and Geo- including 2.56 million km of extended ated using specialized and expensive science Victoria have been the most continental shelf confirmed by the software and have fairly large stor- active GSOs in Australia. The use of 3-D United Nations Convention on the age requirements. As a result, online geological methods for hydrogeologi- Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in April 2008 publishing of 3-D models has been cal purposes has been a more recent (http://www.ga.gov.au/ausgeonews/ restricted. Model data are being dis- development, with the study carried ausgeonews200903/limits.jsp). tributed via CD, DVD, portable hard out by Cherry and Gill in Victoria, drives, and restricted and constrained The onshore activities of GA focus on downloads. which is summarized in this article. enhancing mineral exploration and An Australian national 3-D hydrogeol- environmental land-use planning by In an effort to improve access to its 3-D ogy workshop held in September 2009 producing geological maps, databases, models, GA has been converting 3-D brought together a range of govern- and information systems and conduct- geological models into Web-viewable ment and university researchers to ing regional geological and mineral formats for distribution and publica- present their work and discuss the systems research. Activities also con- tion online. development of national objectives for tribute to safer communities and criti- 3-D geology-based groundwater map- cal infrastructure and the maintenance Initially, models were converted to ping. The workshop extended abstracts of fundamental gravity, geomagnetic, VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Lan- can be found at http://www.ga.gov.au/ and seismic networks. guage) and, since 2007, to X3D (Exten- image_cache/GA15507.pdf sible 3-D), the XML-based successor Offshore activities focus on providing to VRML. Both these formats are open pre-competitive data and information source ISO standards for 3-D graphics Geoscience Australia to assist in identifying new areas for on the Web developed and supported Geoscience Australia (GA) was estab- petroleum exploration and the geologi- by the Web3D Consortium (http:// lished in 1946 as the Bureau of Mineral cal storage of carbon dioxide. Addi- www.web3d.org). Resources, Geology and Geophysics tional activities also include mapping Both X3D and VRML allow interaction (BMR) to provide geological and geo- and documentation of Australia’s mari- with the 3-D data using a Web browser physical maps of Australia to underpin time boundaries, studies of the marine plug-in; hence, 3-D Web mapping. mineral exploration. environment, and sea floor mapping. Both VRML and X3D have proven to be Today, GA’s role has expanded to pro- Spatial information activities focus very effective methods for communi- viding geoscientific information and on providing key spatial informa- cating large amounts of complex 3-D knowledge to enable government and tion of Australia with an emphasis on geoscientific and geospatial informa- the community to make informed response to rapid and slow onset haz- tion to a wide audience. Since 2000, decisions about ards, the detection of change, emer- over 40 unique 3-D Web models have

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 19 Industries, the Australian state government agency responsible for mapping the geology of Victoria. It originally was founded in 1852 during the Victorian gold rush era. In 2004, its name was changed from the Geological Survey of Victoria after it merged with the Petro- leum Development Branch. The Earth Resources Division (ERD) of the Department of Primary Industries has about 130 staff in four branches across Victoria. The key responsibilities of GSV are • managing geoscience information on behalf of the State, • assessing and promoting the minerals and petroleum exploration potential to investors and government, • providing regional geological frameworks for mineral exploration entities and other stakeholders, and • providing geoscience advice to government and industry. Key stakeholders of the GSV are Vic- toria’s government ministers; local, state, territory, and commonwealth government organizations; extractive, geothermal, mineral, and petroleum industries and industry bodies; explorers and producers and their agents; and the broad community including recreational prospectors, community, environment, special interest groups, and students. The minerals, petroleum, geothermal, and extractive industries make a major contribution to Victo- ria, generating some A$5.4 billion per annum for the economy. For decades, exploration geologists in Figure 5-1 Australia’s Land and Marine Jurisdictions. the coal, oil, and gas industries and, more recently, in the minerals industry have been using 3-D modeling soft- been produced, some of which are Wales, with surface geology from the ware to collate, visualize, and analyse available online (Figure 5-2). 3D Data Viewer at 1:1,000,000 scale. their data sets. Generally, this effort has Subsurface data such as seismic lines, been focused at the reservoir/field or Since 2008, GA has been exploring the earthquakes at depth, and 3-D geology deposit/camp scale, and few regional, use of NASA’s World Wind software are being explored for future releases. full-crustal 3-D geological models have development kit to allow the public (http://www.ga.gov.au/resources/mul- been developed. to explore and compare Australia’s timedia/world-wind.jsp and http:// continental data sets, such as radioele- worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/java/) In 2002, GSV recognized the need to ments, surface-related uranium, grav- provide regional-scale 3-D models ity and magnetic anomalies, and other of Victoria’s geology. Soon after, the mapping layers and to show the data GeoScience Victoria Victorian government committed to draped over the Australian terrain in GeoScience Victoria (GSV) is the providing to industry the next gen- three dimensions. For example, Figure mining and geology branch within eration of exploration tools for the 5-3 shows Mt. Warning, New South the Victorian Department of Primary mineral resources of Victoria. After

20 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Gawler Craton 3-D crustal model snapshots As a result of taking this “Moho to the sky” approach (e.g., Figure 5-4), that the modeling workflows needed to be flexible and allow incorporation of numerous geophysical data sets and their derivatives to aid in the interpretation of the 3-D structure of the Earth at depths beyond the scope of drilling control (as much as 40 km in places).

Modeling Model interface, with DEM and Modelled cross sections Workflow coastline GeoScience Victoria’s 3-D modeling team developed a model-building workflow that is applicable to both onshore and offshore settings and includes integration modeling between basement and basin blocks. The workflow is based on the following steps: • Integrate all available surface mapping, drilling constraints, potential field data sets, 3-D inversion models, seismic data, and other 2-D and 3-D data sets into a 3-D storage and visualization environment. Magnetite isosurface with Gradient points for susceptibility prospect sites • Define an agreed upon stratigraphy for the model region. Figure 5-2 Gawler Craton 3-D crustal • Construct serial cross sections based VRML model. on surface geology and geophysical constraints perpendicular to major

Interactive volume slices

Mt Warning consulting with numerous exploration geologists, researchers, and government geologists, it was recognized that 3-D geological models would provide critical tools to explorers interested in understanding not only the distribution and history of mineral deposits as well as energy and water resources, but Byron also the entire Earth system that was Bay responsible for their development. To that end, GSV established a 3-D modeling program in 2004, and a well-funded 3-D geological modeling project began in 2007. This project was designed to develop a sophisticated, fully attributed 1:250,000-scale 3-D model of the Figure 5-3 Mt. Warning, New South Wales, from Geoscience Australia’s 3-D Data whole crust incorporating the onshore Viewer showing surface geology (lithostratigraphy) with contacts and terrain hill and offshore geology of the state. shading. 1:1,000,000.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 21 structural trends with some tie sections parallel to trend if there is sufficient structure to constrain the geometry in this direction. • Digitize serial cross sections into a 2-D/3-D⁄4-D potential field forward modeling package such as Model- Vision or GMsys. These programs allow the measured potential field response of the section to be compared with the calculated response for the interpreted section based on the geometry and rock properties assigned. Although the cross sections are essentially 2-D, the 2-D/3- D/4-D forward modeling algorithms allow the strike of the geology to be at an angle to the section (i.e., not perpendicular) and allow bodies that terminate out of the plane of the model to be included and contribute to the calculated signal. For- ward modeling of this type allows a first-order assessment of the validity of the starting geometry. • Use a combination of implicit and explicit modeling methodologies (primarily SKUA, Gocad, and Geomodeller). Implicit modeling (e.g., SKUA, Geomodeller) requires that contacts and observations Figure 5-4 Three-dimensional geological model of Victoria incorporating Paleozoic are assigned geological types and and older basement as well as younger onshore and offshore basin fill and overly- are placed within a defined strati- ing volcanic cover. 1:1,000,000. graphic column. The model is then constructed from the constraining data by the software and respects a b the defined relationships. This approach is ideal for organizations such as GSV because (1) models can be regenerated easily if new data become available, (2) higher resolution models for smaller project areas can be derived from the same set of constraint data, and (3) the model surfaces match exactly, which is important if the outputs are to be used for subsequent finite element analysis. The implicit approach is data driven, so where there is a vast amount of available data, the regional models can contain complex overprinting relationships, and the implicit algorithm can be slow or unstable. As a result, GSV typically combines this approach with a traditional CAD-based explicit model- Figure 5-5 Numerical simulation results from 3-D Victoria modeling program. ing approach using Gocad. Models (a) Fluid flow associated with orogenic gold mineralization within an accreted are also refined and visualized in Cambrian ocean basin; (b) strain partitioning around a Proterozoic basement block Gocad. accreted during the same event. Abbreviation: Ma, million years ago.

22 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Figure 5-6 Four 3-D block diagrams of a study area in central Victoria (Spring Hill groundwater management area). The top two diagrams show aerial photography and geology draped on the digital terrain model; the lower two are voxel models of the area. The second bottom image is colored according to water salinity range. The lowermost voxel image contains a water table change surface that shows the decline in level over the period 2000 to 2009 (the water table in the orange area has declined as much as 20 m).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 23 • Run 3-D potential field inversions blocks entrained in accretionary envi- cation research project arose inde- on the model (or its individual ronments. This simulation has allowed pendently of the GSV work, the 3-D parts), ensuring that the 3-D geo- investigation into the controls of basin hydrogeology project gained support logical model is consistent with formation during subsequent rifting from the larger GSV initiative in terms the available geophysical data sets. and has direct application to hydro- of in-principle support, expertise, and These inversions can highlight carbon exploration, geological storage experience in the use of Gocad, data regions where the model’s predicted of carbon, geothermal energy, and sharing, and use of a 3-D visualization potential field response varies from groundwater resource investigations. facility. the measured data. Here, the rock properties (such as density or mag- Finally, derivative 2-D data sets from The Victorian 3-D hydrogeology netic susceptibility) can be modi- the 3-D models have been produced project has focused on three areas of fied within a rock volume to better to allow stakeholders who do not have interest to develop, test, and demon- match the measured response, thus access to sophisticated 3-D applica- strate the new methods: two intensely potentially indicating zones of alter- tions to take advantage of the model developed groundwater resource man- ation associated with mineraliza- outputs. These include depth surfaces agement areas and an area of surface tion, or the shape of model surfaces for major stratigraphic contacts, depth water–groundwater interest. Progress or volumes can be modified again to to basement surfaces, granite thick- to date has been to assemble the avail- better match measured responses. ness maps, fault maps, and inflection able geological data into suitable 3-D The results of these inversions are point layers. All of these can be loaded geology databases; explore the use of fed back into the modeling work- into a traditional 2-D GIS application Gocad to model the main aquifers, flow, further enhancing the model. and used as inputs to area selection faults, groundwater data; and develop mapping or weights of evidence style visualizations of the data (Figure 5-6). • Visualize the modeling, primarily predictive analysis. The virtual models of the main aqui- done using Gocad, where the model fers have greatly improved conceptual constrains serial and seismic sec- models of the groundwater system in tions, and any other appropriate 3-D Hydrogeology each area to be developed. An immedi- data sets and surfaces are visualized in Victoria ate benefit has been the ability to iden- and analyzed. tify more logical boundaries for the Within the Victorian Department of groundwater resource management Primary Industries, the Groundwater area as well as to identify flow constric- Value-Added 3-D Research Group developed an interest tions in the aquifers. Geological Models in using 3-D geological mapping meth- 3-D models are useful visualization ods for hydrogeological investigations Using query tools in Gocad, the aquifer and analysis aids that provide the third when Mintern (2004) wrote a paper volumes have been calculated. A cru- dimension to traditional 2-D map- on the potential of the techniques for cial step for calculating groundwater based approaches. However, using a Murray Darling Basin Groundwater movement into and out of each area them in this way underutilizes their Conference. The paper was inspired by was to use the software to measure true power, which is unlocked when developments at the Alberta Provincial aquifer cross sectional areas at key the 3-D model outputs are used to Geological Survey in Canada following points in the aquifer flows paths. Mass constrain numerical simulation models a study tour in 2003. balance models were then constructed using finite element or particle model- on the basis of the virtual model calcu- Cherry (2006) undertook a review of ing codes to investigate Earth system lations, allowing groundwater resource software platforms suitable for 3-D behavior in 3-D or 4-D. estimates to be made. Reducing the hydrogeology applications to establish uncertainty in the physical dimensions the foundations for a more substantial The outputs of the 3-D Victoria model- of the aquifers also reduces uncer- study into 3-D hydrogeology appli- ing program (Figure 5-5) have been tainty in mass balance modeling of the cations for Victorian groundwater used to develop finite element models groundwater resource. The aquifer sur- resource management needs. During that predict the behavior, throughout faces are also able to be exported into this review, the value of workshops the crust, of gold-bearing fluids associ- numerical modeling packages (such as sponsored by the Illinois State Geo- ated with mineralizing events. These MODFLOW) to simulate the dynamic logical Survey, Geological Survey of models are tested in regions of known behavior of the aquifer system. For Canada, and Minnesota Geological geology and then are used predictively groundwater resource assessment Survey became apparent (e.g., Berg in greenfield regions where the major purposes, the use of 3-D geology shows et al. 2009). The experiences of others elements of the geology are understood great promise in improving the tech- around the globe in utilizing these (e.g., from geophysics under shallow nical understanding of groundwater new methods helped establish the cover), but few deposits have yet been resources and in allowing groundwater validity of the emerging technology discovered. Numerical simulation of users and administrators new ways of and brought sufficient evidence of the geodynamic processes, also based on developing a shared understanding of potential of the techniques for a more regional 3-D control, has also allowed the resource. investigation into the nature of strain substantial project to be developed in partitioning around Proterozoic crustal 2006. Although the hydrogeology appli-

24 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Chapter 6: British Geological Survey: A Nationwide Commitment to 3-D Geological Modeling Stephen J. Mathers, Holger Kessler, and Bruce Napier British Geological Survey

The British Geological Survey (BGS), The BGS undertakes an integrated Of the 500 BGS scientific staff, about founded in 1835, is the national geo- core program of geological mapping 30% have been trained to use 3-D geological survey for Great Britain (includ- and modeling with an annual budget logical modeling techniques and to ing England, Scotland, and Wales). In of about £5 million, and commercial employ these tools in primary surveys; addition to its government core fund- contracts raise an additional £1 million coastal, urban, and engineering site ing, the BGS earns around 50% of its per year for these activities. The BGS remediation; and groundwater stud- income through commercially funded program produces digital geological ies. Approximately 20 scientists are projects, services and sales. Its total maps (DigMap) and attributed 3-D engaged in 3-D modeling on a daily annual turnover is around £55 million. geological models (LithoFrame) as its basis. The modeling community is primary outputs. supported by a help desk and training courses.

Upland peat

Glaciated uplands

Glaciolacustrine deposits

Wash Glaciated embayment uplands Lowland till sheets

Glaciofluvial outwash Maximum extent of glaciation

Periglacial deposits

Figure 6-2 Superficial geology of Great Britain. Figure 6-1 Bedrock geology of Great Britain.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 25 Geological Setting deposited. The succeeding Triassic hole logs, geological map linework cap- sequences are almost exclusively ter- tured as a series of themes (or layers), Great Britain is the largest of the Brit- restrial red beds recording a diverse and key national geophysical data sets ish Isles lying in northwest Europe history of independent basin evolu- and seismic lines. and covering an onshore area of about tion in the post orogenic extensional 2 210,000 km . The island is geologi- tectonic regime. They include the Additionally, digitally georectified cally diverse; the oldest rocks occur in important Sherwood Sandstone Group nationwide topographic maps includ- the north and west and progressively that is widely exposed in the English ing historic versions, aerial photo- younger rocks occur to the south and Midlands and comprises both a major graphs, satellite imagery, and DEMs east toward the still subsiding southern aquifer and a hydrocarbon reservoir. were licensed or purchased, and the North Sea Basin (Figure 6-1). The succeeding Jurassic and Creta- availability of such data sets has been maintained and upgraded where new Archean gneissose rocks of the Lewis- ceous sediments record sedimentation in epeiric shelf seas culminating in and improved products have become ian Complex are found in northwestern available. Scotland and belong to the Laurentian the globally high sea levels and sedi- craton of North America. Elsewhere in mentation of the Chalk Group across northern Scotland, deformed Neo-Pro- much of western Europe in the Upper The BGS LithoFrame Cretaceous. Due to subsequent ero- terozoic metasediments of the Moine Concept and Dalradian supergroups are wide- sion, the Chalk is now only exposed spread together with Lower Palaeozoic in southeastern England where it also The BGS models are branded under the sediments and volcanics in southern constitutes a major aquifer. name LithoFrame. They represent the extension of the 2-D geological map Scotland, Wales, and the Lake Dis- Initial rifting associated with the open- into 3-D (Tables 6-1 and 6-2). trict of England. These rocks were all ing of the North Atlantic resulted in deformed during the Caledonian Orog- the volcanic rocks of the Hebrides in Central to the LithoFrame concept eny at the end of the Silurian Period northwestern Scotland; in southeast- is that varied resolutions are consis- and are divided into a series of distinct ern England, terrestrial and marine tent with one another so that collec- structural terranes by major northeast- Palaeogene sediments accumulated. tively they form a seamless transition southwest aligned faults. Numerous These sediments were then folded from the general national model to a granitic plutons were intruded into during the Miocene-Oligocene in detailed site-specific one. Figure 6-3 these sediments during the orogeny. response to reactivation of underly- shows that the highest-order strati- The largely terrestrial Devonian red ing Variscan basement structures in graphic units (regionally extensive and bed rocks accumulated in fault-con- southern England during the Alpine well defined) shown in dashed red lines trolled basins within this Caledonian Orogeny. should be defined first and be included in all models of a higher (more structural framework, and the overly- Most of Great Britain has been glaci- detailed) resolution. Here the major ing initially marine Carboniferous ated several times during the Qua- stratigraphic boundaries selected at shelf carbonates gradually gave way ternary, resulting in the deposition LithoFrame 250 are applied to the to extensive fluviatile and deltaic sedi- of extensive sheets of till in lowland higher resolution 50 and 10 models. At mentation leading to the accumula- areas (shown in blue in Figure 6-2) LithoFrame 50, more detail is applied, tion of major coal resources during and glaciated uplands in Wales and showing seven rather than two units, the Pennsylvanian. These have subse- Scotland. These deposits are associated but this detail is likely to be observed quently acted as source rocks for the with large spreads of glaciofluvial sand and depicted to a shallower depth. oil and gas reserves that are trapped in and gravel (pink) and glaciolacustrine These units then extend through the the overlying sediments. The Variscan sediments (brown) in proglacial and more detailed LithoFrame 10 model, (Hercynian) Orogeny at the close of ice-marginal settings. The extreme and more detail (here 17 units) is the Carboniferous is well recorded southern part of England remained nested within them in the shallow sub- by the deformation of the Devonian- ice-free throughout, and there peri- surface. Similar simplification of fault Carboniferous sediments of south- glacial mass movement and aeolian networks is shown on the right side of western England, where a large granitic sediments and permafrost structures Figure 6-3. batholith at depth is evidenced at the are widespread. Holocene deposits are surface by a string of granite bosses. located along major river courses and The depth of modeling reflects the Elsewhere in southern England the in coastal plains (yellow) including the available data and the importance of rocks deformed by the Variscan Orog- large Wash embayment. seismic lines and deep boreholes to eny lie buried beneath Mesozoic and provide information when building Tertiary cover. Data Sets for Modeling low definition models, whereas the The succeeding Permian deposits of detailed LithoFrame 50 and 10 reso- northeastern England fringe the large In the 1990s, BGS converted its key lutions rely more heavily on surface Zechstein continental basin that devel- national data sets into digital form and geological mapping and shallow bore- oped across northwestern Europe in produced supporting dictionaries and holes. Hence, deeply buried surfaces which thick evaporate sequences were lexicons for these databases. The data constructed at LithoFrame 250 resolu- sets include borehole index and down- tion in some areas can be constructed

26 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Table 6-1 Main features of the LithoFrame resolutions.1 LithoFrame 1M LithoFrame 250 LithoFrame 50 LithoFrame 10 Feature (National) (Regional) (Detailed) (Site-specific) Proposed Entire onshore and UK Entire onshore and Onshore UK Major urban and coverage continental shelf UK continental shelf development areas; (long-term) areas of complex and classic near-surface geology Tile size Single tile 100 x 100 km 20 x 20 km 5–10 km x 5–10 km Resolution of 1 km 500 m 100–200 m 50–100 m grid output Depth 50 km 5–10 km 1–2 m 100–200 m or base of surficial deposits if deeper Uses Visualization, national Visualization, popular Analysis, the Detailed analysis and and international science, overviews for standard output, problem solving; site- collaboration, public the energy and water hydrocarbons, specific and detailed understanding of sectors, deep aggregates, bulk studies of all kinds science, education structural studies minerals, aquifers, planning, major infrastructure Key data sets Geological linework Geological linework Geological linework Geological linework Digmap 625 deep Digmap 250 seismic Digmap 50 seismic Digmap10 all seismic lines, national lines and regional lines, boreholes, boreholes and mining and regional magnetic magnetic and gravity deep mining data data and gravity data, very data, deep boreholes deep boreholes Commercial Low; popular Modest; contextual Moderate to high; Very high, custom potential publications, atlases models for energy, the standard product models to resolve water sectors for geoscientists and problems and deliver allied professions geoscience solutions at a detailed site- specific level 1LithoFrame scales: 1M, 1:1,000,000; 250, 1:250,000; 50, 1:50,000; 10, 1:10,000.

considering all the available data, and STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS FAULTS therefore they can be magnified to form the deeper parts of the higher res- Mapping and lots Site-specific of boreholes olution, LithoFrame 50 and 10 models 17 Some 1:10,000 boreholes if required. This concept reinforces the projection 7 of crop Detailed suggestion that key surfaces should be 1:50,000 first defined for low-resolution models Seimic some deep boreholes and then used to form the framework only guesswork for nested detail at higher definition for more detailed models. 2 Regional INFORMATION 1:250,000 Example Models National Model of Great Britain An onshore LithoFrame 1 M model Figure 6-3 Schematic section showing effective depth of modeling and definition (1:1,000,000 scale) (Tables 6-1 and 6-2) across the LithoFrame 250, LithoFrame 50, and LithoFrame 10 resolutions. has been produced for Great Britain. The model is principally derived from

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 27 Table 6-2 Geological detail possible at the various LithoFrame resolutions.1 LithoFrame 1M LithoFrame 250 LithoFrame 50 LithoFrame 10 Detail (National) (Regional) (Detailed) (Site-specific) Stratigraphic Major stratigraphic Group level likely to Formation level likely Members and resolution systems and deep be the most to be the most scientifically or (bedrock) crustal layers to the commonly applied commonly applied economically Moho picking out level, especially for level, especially for important beds down overall structure concealed strata concealed strata to 1-m-thick lenses Stratigraphic Not depicted Superficial undivided Major units modeled Detailed modeling of resolution beds, lenses, etc. as (superficial) required Unconformities Delineated at major Major unconformities Unconformities Minor unconformities system boundaries delineated by delineated by revealed by detailed stratigraphic stratigraphic stratigraphic units boundaries boundaries Folding Depicted by overall Depicted by overall Detailed form Very detailed form form of major form of major depicted using depicted by thin sedimentary packets sedimentary packets structural sedimentary packets observations in and structural Digmap 50 observations at Digmap 10 scale Faulting Major faults Those with throws of Faults with throws of Faults with throws of bounding domains of hundreds meters or more than 50 m; also more than 10 to 15 m; British geology, e.g., lateral displacement slightly smaller faults also slightly smaller Great Glen, Highland of several kilometers where these are faults where laterally Boundary faults; likely to be included laterally persistent or persistent or strongly vertical displacements in the model strongly influence the influencing the outcrop of kilometers and/or outcrop pattern; pattern; subparallel significant lateral subparallel faults faults amalgamated displacements of amalgamated where where their spacing 100 km spacing is <200 m is <50 m Intrusions Major plutons such Plutons with Plutons with Plutons with and lavas as the southwestern outcrops-subcrops outcrops-subcrops of outcrops-subcrops of England and Lake of at least 10 km2 at least 5 km2 should at least 1 km2 sheet District batholiths should be included; be included; thick intrusions at least 5 m covering several major lava piles lava sequences and thick; individual lava hundred square major sheet intrusions flows and sheet kilometers in extent intrusions Artificial ground Not shown Not shown Large pits and Quarries worked quarries worked and/or infilled, and and/or infilled, and large mappable extensive thick areas areas of made of made ground ground 1LithoFrame scales: 1M, 1:1,000,000; 250, 1:250,000; 50, 1:50,000; 10, 1:10,000. the compilation of contoured strati- model extends to a depth of about 30 Surfaces modeled include these bases: graphic surfaces, deep boreholes, seis- km; the lowest, purple surface repre- mic profiles, and regional geophysical sents the base of the crust (Moho). The • Palaeogene interpretations (Whittaker 1985). The model is mainly used for educational • Cretaceous model (Figure 6-4) was constructed purposes, visualizations of the nation’s • Jurassic in Gocad by the BGS and shows the geology, and a basic spatial framework base of major geological units as 2-D for more detailed modeling exercises. • Triassic surfaces (”flying carpets”). Also shown (For more information, see http:// • Permian are the foci of significant earthquakes, www.bgs.ac.uk/science/3dModeling/ • Carboniferous major faults, and igneous plutons. The lithoframe1m.html.)

28 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey 2007

2008

2009

2010–2012

Figure 6-4 The LithoFrame 1M resolution onshore Figure 6-6 Scheduled availability of LithoFrame 250 resolution model of Great Britain. regional models for England and Wales.

the Weald-English Channel model is north and west and extensive perigla- shown in Figure 6-5. This model was cial and ice-marginal glaciofluvial sand developed in Gocad and is based on and gravel deposits (pink) underlying extensive depth-converted seismic the till and exposed in the south and interpretations, deep boreholes with west of the area. The geometry of the downhole geophysics, and surface latter deposits is especially important geology. The progress toward regional as they constitute a major aggregate LithoFrame 250K coverage is shown in resource. The bedrock comprises Plio- Figure 6-6. Pleistocene shallow marine sediments (Crags in deep purple) and Palaeogene marine and marginal sediments domi- Detailed Model: Southern nated by clays (blue and red). The dis- East Anglia, Eastern England tribution of these clay-rich Palaeogene A systematic LithoFrame 50 (1:50,000 strata is crucial as they act as a protec- Figure 6-5 Example LithoFrame 250 scale) detailed model (Tables 6-1 and tive seal for the underlying Upper Cre- model covering the Weald and adjacent 6-2) has been built for 1,200 km2 of taceous Chalk Group aquifer (green). parts of the English Channel. southern East Anglia in the Ipswich- The model extends to the base of the Sudbury area. Modeling was carried Chalk Group at an average depth of out in conjunction with a primary geo- about 300 m. The Chalk is one of Brit- • Devonian logical survey of much of the area. The ain’s principal aquifers, and this model • Lower Palaeozoic model was constructed as the survey has been licensed to the Environment • Precambrian progressed in 10-km × 10-km tiles, Agency of England and Wales for use and then the various tiles were merged by the hydrogeological consultants to • Crust (Moho) (Figure 6-7). investigate issues of aquifer protection, recharge, and groundwater manage- Regional Model: The Weald The model contains the major artificial ment. The model is also used to gener- deposits, about 25 superficial layers, At the next level of detail, regional ate borehole prognoses for site-specific including a complex, interleaved, LithoFrame 250 resolution models inquiries and has improved scientific Anglian glacial succession and bed- (1:250,000 scale) (Tables 6-1 and 6-2) understanding of the complex glacial rock. The glacial succession includes are being constructed for the whole of succession of the area. a widespread till sheet (in blue) in the England and Wales. An example from

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 29 • precise positioning of hard thin silt stone beds (skerries) within the bedrock Gunthorpe Member of the Mercia Mudstone Group, and Ipswich Sudbury • resolution of the lithologic variability of the sediments within the river terrace deposits. This study demonstrates the potential for combining many and varied data sets within a single spatial reference N system (GSI3D) to maximize the interpretation of subsurface conditions. 10 km 300 m Such investigations are very well-suited to ground investigations for major civil engineering and infrastructure projects, together with site-based evaluation for environmental problems such Figure 6-7 The LithoFrame 50 resolution southern East Anglia as evaluating and tracking of pollution model of the Ipswich-Sudbury area covering 1,200 km2. plumes. Similar resolution models have also been constructed for archae- ological investigations and to model the chronology of artificial deposits. The distribution of detailed and site- specific models produced by the BGS is shown in Figure 6-9.

Figure 6-8 The site-specific Shelford model.

Site-Specific Resolution: trical resistivity tomography (ERT), and Shelford, Trent Valley automated resistivity profiling (ARP). The site covers about 2 km2 and con- An integrated geological, geophysical, sists of a Triassic mudstone overlain and remote sensing survey was under- by Quaternary sand and gravel river taken to construct a high resolution terrace deposits and the modern flood- 3-D LithoFrame 10 (1:10,000 scale) plain deposits of the River Trent. Addi- site-specific model (Tables 6-1 and 6-2) tionally, soil horizons were modeled of the shallow subsurface geology of together with areas of artificial deposits part of the Trent Valley in Nottingham- (Whitaker 1985, Tye et al. 2010). shire, UK. The 3-D model (Figure 6-8) was created using the GSI3D software The combined investigations enabled package to evaluate the 1:10,000-scale several advances in the understanding geological survey, borehole data, and of the area including remote sensing images, plus verti- Figure 6-9 Current LithoFrame 10 cal and horizontal profiles derived • delineation of a buried river cliff and LithoFrame 50 coverage for Great from geophysical techniques such as forming the southern limit of the Britain. ground-penetrating radar (GPR), elec- incised Trent valley,

30 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Chapter 7: Geological Survey of Canada: Three-dimensional Geological Mapping for Groundwater Applications H.A.J. Russell1, E. Boisvert2, C. Logan1, S.J. Paradis2, M. Ross3, D.R. Sharpe1, and A. Smirnoff2 1Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2Geological Survey of Canada, Québec City, Québec, Canada, 3University of Waterloo, Department of Earth Sciences, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

The Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) cifically 3-D subsurface geological surements. Unlike hand-drafted maps, is a federal agency that operates col- model construction. Modeling tech- digital 3-D models provide a readily laboratively with multiple provincial niques and underlying philosophi- understandable means of visualizing and territorial agencies that have direct cal approaches (basin analysis) are geology and estimating geological unit responsibility for natural resource and reviewed, and three case studies are volumes and also permitting advanced groundwater management. Three- presented to illustrate variations in hydrogeological study by supporting dimensional geological mapping has study approaches. quantitative flow modeling. Conceptu- been embraced at the GSC during ally the differences between the 3-D the past 20 years as data collection, modeling techniques presented here analysis, interpolation, visualiza- Introduction are primarily in the amount of expert tion, and presentation modes have Prior to the widespread use of desktop input utilized. Techniques range from evolved with the advent of increased computing and advanced GIS, text largely automated and data-driven to computer processing capacity, graphic descriptions, geological maps, cross 3-D CAD techniques that rely heavily user interfaces, and 2-D and 3-D GIS sections, and attached stratigraphic on an expert to interpret and construct (Geographic Information Systems). legends were the only way to com- 3-D contacts. Nevertheless, for groundwater stud- municate a 3-D conceptualization of Within the new paradigm of 3-D geo- ies the fundamental requirements complex geological structures and their logical mapping, various groups at for 3-D geological mapping have not interrelationships. This 3-D concep- the GSC have pursued 3-D modeling changed radically from traditional geo- tualization was illustrated using struc- and visualization for mineral resource logical investigations. Basin analysis tural measurements (e.g., strike and development (e.g., Hughes 1993, concepts provide the cornerstone of dip), cross sections, isosurface maps Mossop and Shetsen 1994, de Kemp 3-D mapping at the GSC. Within this (e.g., isopach maps), stratigraphic con- 2007) and for groundwater issues (e.g., framework, emphasis is placed on data cepts (e.g., lithostratigraphy, allo- Logan et al. 2002, 2006; Ross et al. 2005; collection and understanding of the stratigraphy), and depositional facies Sharpe et al. 2007; Smirnoff et al. 2008). geological history of the basin. This concepts (Wather’s Law). Because knowledge base provides a framework paper maps are highly subjective and for interpretation and correlation of based on the skill and experience of Geological Survey disparate data sets necessary for input the author, they convey a unique inter- to interpolation algorithms for the pretation of the available information of Canada construction of 3-D models. Basin (e.g., aerial photographs, field observa- Founded in 1842, the GSC is the analysis has been adapted across the tions). Moreover, correct interpretation oldest government research agency in groundwater program as a common of the map also relies on the ability of Canada. It is part of the Earth Science methodology for 3-D studies. Subse- the end user to understand the 2-D Sector of the Department of Natural quent data processing, interpolation, map components and correctly visual- Resources along with the Canadian and visualization within GIS software ize the implied 3-D structure. Digital Centre of Remote Sensing and Geo- remain discretionary depending upon 3-D modeling techniques that take matics Canada. The GSC has tradi- geographic and geological complex- advantage of innovations in hardware tionally focused on the production of ity, study objectives, and partnership and software (e.g., Thorleifson et al. geoscience knowledge. More recently requirements. 2010) are a logical extension of hand- its mandate has expanded to include drafted geological maps that have for issues pertaining to geological hazards, This paper highlights work completed decades been the norm at the GSC. groundwater, the environment, and in the past 17 years within the GSC’s Like hand-drafted geological maps, climate change. The GSC operates in Groundwater Geoscience Program digital models are realizations of 3-D all 10 provinces and three territories on (and its predecessor activities) toward geology based on extrapolating discreet a cooperative basis with respective pro- mapping key Canadian aquifers, spe- and often sparse observations or mea-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 31 Table 7-1 Key Canadian aquifers to federal government mandates and media flow systems, and they range in grouped according to hydrogeological objectives, the GSC maintains a suite of size up to 60,000 km2 and up to sev- regions. No currently designated key programs that are funded on a 5-year eral hundred meters in depth (Tables Canadian aquifers are identified in the cycle. To fulfill this mandate, the GSC 7-1 and 7-2). In a country considered Maritime and Permafrost regions. has seven offices across Canada: a cen- to have abundant surface water, the tral office in Ottawa and six regional groundwater resources were largely Cordillera offices. The GSC maintains an applied ignored prior to the 1990s. The focus of 1. Gulf Islands research staff of 184 technical staff groundwater research during the 1970s 2. Nanaimo Lowland of which a group of 20 to 25 work on and 1980s shifted to groundwater 3. Fraser Valley groundwater. The annual operating contamination (e.g., Cherry 1996) and 4. Okanagan Valley budget for the Groundwater Program remediation. Nevertheless, groundwa- 5. Shushwap Highlands in 2009 was 2.8 million dollars (ESS ter use in Canada is significant; 30% of Western Canadian Sedimentary 2006) of which more than two-thirds Canadians, and 80% of rural Canada, Basin was allocated to salaries. Study teams depend on aquifers for potable water 6. Paskapoo commonly consist of fewer than 10 supply (Environment Canada). As 7. Buried Valleys staff members, most of whom are might be anticipated in a country of 8. Upper Cretaceous Sand engaged in multiple projects. To sup- almost 10,000,000 km2 with a rather 9. Milk River plement this limited capacity, the GSC modest population (35,000,000) con- 10. Judith River actively develops partnerships with centrated in urban areas, enormous 11. Eastend - Ravenscrag provincial, territorial, and other federal challenges are presented for the devel- 12. Intertill government agencies, industry, uni- opment of a comprehensive under- 13. Manitoba Carbonate Rock versities, and other state and national standing of groundwater resources. 14. Manitoba Basal Clastic unit geological surveys. 15 Odanah Shale 16. Sandilands Groundwater resource investigations Hydrogeological 17. Assiniboine Delta and research at the GSC date back to Framework of Canada 1875 (Brown 1967). In 1972, however, Southern Ontario Lowlands the mandate for water resource man- The geology, groundwater regimes, 18. Oak Ridges Moraine agement (including groundwater) was and hydrology of Canada are complex. 19. Grand River Basin passed to the newly formed Environ- The major hydrogeological domains 20. Credit River ment Canada, and the GSC ceased of Canada have been assigned to nine 21. Waterloo Moraine to be active in groundwater studies. hydrogeological regions (Sharpe et al. 22. Upper Thames River During the late 1980s and early 1990s, 2008). This classification is built on previous work by Brown (1967) and Appalachians client surveys indicated that there was Heath (1988). The delineation of these 23. Annapolis–Cornwallis valleys a demand for increased geological regions is based on geological prov- 24. Carboniferous Bain input to regional water supply studies inces and rock formations, surficial St. Lawrence Platform (e.g., Canadian Geoscience Council 1993). Following an absence from geology, topography, and the extent of 25. Mirabel permafrost. The 30 key Canadian aqui- 26. Châteauguay regional groundwater studies of more than 20 years, the GSC reinitiated work fers form local elements within these 27 Richelieu regions and can be assigned to one of 28 Chaudière on regional hydrogeology in a series of projects in the early 1990s (e.g., Sharpe two principal classes: bedrock aquifers 29. Maurice and surficial sediment aquifers. Within 30. Portneuf et al. 1996, Parent et al. 1998, Ricketts 2000, Thorleifson et al. 2002). Within each of these two categories, the key a decade, these early studies evolved aquifers can be classified based on geological environments (Table 7-2). vincial and territorial agencies to fulfill into a national groundwater program a requirement of the Resources and at the GSC. A collaborative document Technical Surveys Act of 1949 and 1994 between the provinces, territories, and Methods that the Minister of Natural Resources the federal government established Reflecting a long history of encour- “make a full and scientific examination a framework for progress on ground- aging creative problem-solving and of the geological structure and miner- water studies in Canada (Rivera et al. methods development at the GSC, alogy of Canada.” Provinces are vested 2003). Subsequently, the groundwater study teams working on 3-D geological with the primary mandate for natural program of the GSC developed a strat- modeling for groundwater are permit- resource and groundwater manage- egy to map and assess 30 key aquifers ted latitude in how they approach 3-D ment, whereas the GSC has particular across the country (Table 7-1; Figure geological mapping and the tools used interest in areas of federal jurisdiction 7-1). for model construction and visualiza- such as trans-boundary aquifers (Table These 30 key aquifers consist of bed- tion. This approach also implicitly 7-1; e.g., Richelieu, Milk River) and rock and glacial sediment aquifers recognizes differences and prefer- federal lands within provinces (military involving fracture media and porous ences within provincial agencies and and First Nations reserves). To respond the need to maximize collaboration

32 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Table 7-2 Grouping of key Canadian aquifers according to host geology. Index to Style Figure 7-1 Comment Bedrock 1, 2, 5, 8, 15 Areas of fractured bedrock aquifers and secondary porosity (undefined) Fluvial 6, 10, 11, 24 Predominantly braided fluvial systems Carbonate 13, 14 Paleozoic carbonate systems Deltaic-coastal 9 Cretaceous bedrock system Bedrock/surficial 19, 20, 22, 23, Large regional, commonly watershed scale aquifer complexes; contains fracture flow mixed 25, 26, 28 bedrock and porous media in eskers, moraines, and outwash Surficial 3 Likely fluvial (undefined) Moraine 16, 18, 21 Sand and gravel bodies up to 200 m thick overlying erosional unconformities with tunnel channels Esker 27 Linear sand and gravel ridges in clay basins and moraines Buried valley 4, 7, 12 Bedrock and sediment hosted valleys of tens of kilometers scale Delta 17, 29, 30 Kilometer-scale glaciofluvial deltas constructed into paleo-glaciolacustrine and glacio-marine environments Outwash 12 Relatively thin, spatially extensive sand and gravel deposits of braided outwash and valley trains

Cordillera Western Canada Sedimentary Basin Canadian Shield Hudson Bay Lowlands Southern Ontario Lowlands St. Lawerence Platform Appalachian Mountains Maritimes Basin Permafrost Dry Climate Regions Moist Climate Regions

Figure 7-1 Hydrogeological regions of Canada and key Canadian aquifers (base from Sharpe et al. 2009). (http://ess.nrcan.gc.ca/gm-ces/aquifer_ map_e.php.) Case studies are 4, 18, and 25.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 33 and post project utilization of models. in geological environments where geo- development of process-based models Regardless of the methodology, how- logical heterogeneity and flow systems assists geological interpretation and ever, a concept common to 3-D model occur at a hierarchy of scales. development of GIS-based models. construction is the importance of inte- In GIS-based modeling, stratigraphic grating geological knowledge to ensure The basin analysis approach used for interpretations developed in the basin appropriate geological conceptualiza- studies of most key Canadian aquifers analysis approach are used to help tion and subsequent model construc- follows a progression of data compila- interpret more abundant, lower-quality tion. Basin analysis provides a frame- tion, conceptualization, model devel- archival data such as from water-well work that supports this approach. opment, and quantitative analysis of records (Bolduc et al. 2005, Ross et al. flow systems (Figure 7-2; Sharpe et 2005, Logan et al. 2006, Paradis et al. al. 2002) with feedback/interactions 2010). Basin Analysis among components allowing continu- Basin analysis is a methodological ous improvement of the database and To support basin analysis, the GSC framework for regional hydrogeo- models as the study progresses. By employs a multi-disciplinary approach logical analyses that integrates data directly linking geological setting and to data collection that follows a sys- from a variety of sources and scales of basin history to aquifer properties, tematic progression. Initial data collec- investigations (Miall 2000, Sharpe et the basin analysis approach strives to tion and analysis consist of procuring al. 2002). The strength of this approach develop more plausible hydrogeologi- published data and collating archival is its emphasis on geological analy- cal models and supports development data. Surface data such as geological sis leading to the development of an of numeric GIS rendering of data- mapping (Sharpe et al. 1997), evapo- understanding of basin history and, driven models (e.g., Anderson 1989; transpiration mapping (Fernandes et hence, a knowledge base that permits LeGrand and Rosen 1998, 2000). Geo- al. 2007) and DEMs are common exam- development of a predictive frame- logical model development for basins ples (Kenny et al. 1999). A key data set work for understanding the textural, falls into two distinct styles: (1) predic- in Canada is the provincially admin- stratigraphic, and structural controls tive, process-based models, such as istered water-well records. All of the on groundwater flow at a hierarchy of depositional models (e.g., Russell et al. provinces maintain digital databases scales within the basin. It is particularly 2003) and event stratigraphic models with a variety of attributes (Sharpe et appropriate for groundwater studies (Figure 7-3; Sharpe et al. 2002); and (2) al. 2009), and, in a number of cases GIS-based, data-driven models. The (e.g., Ontario and Manitoba), the GSC has worked collaboratively with the provinces to assess the integrity and utility of the water-well databases (e.g., Russell et al. 1998). In the oil-producing regions of the Western Canada Sed- imentary Basin, petroleum boreholes and associated geophysical logs are an QUANTITATIVE important data set (Chen et al. 2007). UNDERSTANDING of groundwater flow system To handle the wealth of data collated from archival and published sources, a variety of database approaches have GROUNDWATER FLOW been adopted at a project level from MODELS -flow and chemical characterization the use of relational databases (e.g., -quantitative analysis (e.g. water balance) Boisvert and Michaud 1998, Russell et -numerical flow modelling al. 1998, Knight et al. 2008) to the use of distributed database and Web ser- HYDROSTRATIGRAPHIC MODELS vices technologies (Sharpe et al. 2009). e.g. -conceptual models Depending on the location and scale -definition and characterization of aquifers and aquitards of the study area, the number of water wells can range from the thousands GEOLOGICAL MODELS to the tens of thousands (Bolduc et al. e.g. -conceptual models 2005, Logan et al. 2006). Subsequent -landform and terrain models -stratigraphic, architectural, and depositional models data collection commonly focuses on geological mapping (e.g., Paradis et DATABASE DEVELOPMENT al. 2010), the collection of geophysical e.g. -compilation of archival data; new data collection and integrataion data (Pugin et al. 1999) for subsurface definition of the stratigraphic architecture, and high-quality boreholes Figure 7-2 Simplified basin analysis approach used in regional hydrogeological (Sharpe et al. 2002). analysis of key Canadian aquifers. The approach leads progressively from database development to quantitative understanding of the groundwater flow system as Geophysical methods have focused the study matures (Sharpe et al. 2002). on 2-D seismic profiling techniques

34 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Age Chrono- However, event stratigraphy (allo- ~ka Lithostratigraphy stratigraphy stratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy; Walker 1992) has been adapted in a ~13 Halton Till number of studies. In common with Oak Ridges Moraine and Oak Ridges sequence stratigraphy, regional uncon- Late Channel sediment Moraine sediment Wisconsin formities forming bounding surfaces

al 14 region u are a key element of this approach n c Halton o (Figure 7-3; e.g., Sharpe et al. 2002;

n Till

20 Newmarket Till o r Cummings et al. 2011). 22 Upper m i

t Thorncliffe Fm y Channel sediment Meadowcliffe Till Unconformity Interpretive Methods Middle Middle Thorncliffe Fm Wisconsin Newmarket Two approaches have generally been

Quaternary Till Seminary Till followed by GSC for rendering 3-D 40 Lower Thorncliffe Fm models: cross section methodology Lower Sunnybrook Till Early sediment and stratigraphic database method. Pottery Road Till Wisconsin Bedrock Both approaches rely heavily on bore- 60 Scarborough Fm Unconformity hole log data for subsurface model 115 Don Fm Sangamonian control. >135 York Till Illinoian The cross section approach provides a

Bedrock direct method of simplifying the geo- Paleozoic logical heterogeneity by allowing the geologist to interpret the data as strati- Figure 7-3 Example of an event stratigraphic model and integration of existing graphic correlations are made (Thor- lithostratigraphic framework for the Oak Ridges Moraine Area (Sharpe et al. 2002). leifson et al. 2002, Bolduc et al. 2005). Interpretations are deterministic in nature, and because the model’s integ- that have evolved from labor-intensive An objective common in many model- rity depends largely on the geologist’s planting and drilling of individual geo- ing approaches has been to establish a ability to apply a set of correlation rules phone and shot holes (e.g., Pugin et al. standard basin (regional) stratigraphic throughout the model area, there is 1999) to semi-continuous data collec- framework for both regional and site- potential for inconsistent stratigraphic tion with a landstreamer system of S- specific hydrogeological applications. correlations from section to section and P-waves (Pugin et al. 2009). More In part because modeling activities and across model iterations. recently, airborne electromagnetic have generally been completed in surveys are being employed in the basins with no previous regional sub- Alternatively, the stratigraphic data- prairies of Manitoba to map conduc- surface model, each project has devel- base method relies on a well-structured tivity contrasts for aquifer delineation oped an approach that is most suited database of coded borehole logs that (Oldenborger et al. 2011). Geophysical to the specific situation (i.e., geological contains contact information on all interpretations are commonly verified setting, available data, available tech- potential stratigraphic units, including by drilling of continuously cored bore- nology and expertise, and partnership those that have a zero thickness in por- holes (Knight et al. 2008) and down- mandates). As a result, a number of tions of the study area (Hughes 1993). hole geophysics (Pullan et al. 2002). approaches have evolved at the GSC Although the ability of humans to Supplementary data commonly used that can be categorized according to recognize patterns and eliminate data to further constrain and refine basin stratigraphic approach, interpola- “noise” helps the cross section model understanding include piezometric, tion choices, and modeling software appear more geologically plausible, the stream flow (Hinton et al. 1998), and selection. In some cases, the geologi- level of expert input is variable from hydrochemistry data (e.g., Cloutier et cal model is constructed with direct place to place throughout the model. al. 2006). consideration of subsequent numerical The stratigraphic assignments in a flow modeling (Rivera et al. 2003). In stratigraphic database are also deter- Data standardization has been accom- other cases, the model has been devel- ministic in nature, but once made and plished on an ad hoc basis within oped as a stratigraphic repository that vetted, they can be combined with new respective projects, collaboratively could be used for various applications data and reinterpolated without having with provincial agencies (e.g., Russell by extracting the needed (simplified) to repeat the borehole interpretation et al. 1998), and through participation information (e.g., Ross et al. 2005). and stratigraphic coding process. The in distributed database development data-driven stratigraphic database (Sharpe et al. 2009) and developments model can, however, display unlikely of GroundWater Markup Language Stratigraphic Approaches geological structures due to interpola- (GWML) (Boisvert and Broderic, The standard stratigraphic approach tion of sparse data coverage or poor unpublished data) and participation in in surficial (glacial) basins remains data. GeoSciML (http://www.geosciml.org). lithostratigraphy (Paradis et al. 2010).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 35 Based on these two methods, a variety GSC Case Studies Case Study 1: of approaches have been used to pro- Cross Sections duce subsurface GIS-based geological Work within the Groundwater Pro- models (commonly 2.5-D models). gram has generally focused on sound A number of studies have adapted the Manually interpolated cross sections geological framework development to traditional cross section method of are either extruded using manually support predictive decision making model construction to the digital envi- drawn tie lines or converted at defined beyond that permitted by the data ronment. Five studies have used this intervals into “pseudo-sections” and input. Data collection has focused approach in combination with Gocad. interpolated using inverse distance on geological mapping, most com- The Manitoba study (Thorleifson et weighting (IDW), discrete smooth monly with a focus on surficial geol- al. 1998) is more fully documented in interpolation (DSI), kriging (case study ogy, sedimentological investigations, Chapter 11. Two other studies in the 1) and other common techniques. The and borehole data analysis followed late 1990s and early 2000s developed data in a stratigraphic database are by geophysical surveys and verifica- 3-D geological models of distinctly interpreted; assembled into XYZ point tion with continuous cored boreholes. different glaciogenic basin fills. In the data sets; and rendered into strati- Consequently, the following case stud- Mirabel area north of Montreal, Ross et 2 graphic surfaces using similar spatial ies highlight some of the differences in al. (2005) developed a 1,400-km model interpolation techniques (case study computer-based model development of the glaciogenic sediment fill of a gla- 2; Logan et al. 2006, Ross et al. 2005). adopted at the GSC. Much of the mod- cimarine basin within the St Lawrence Alternatively, a hybrid approach using eling output at the GSC has been in a Lowlands (Figure 7-1). Further to the cross section input and point data 2-D format of structural, isopach, and north on the Canadian Shield, Bolduc is implemented using either Gocad probability maps (e.g., Sharpe et al. et al. (2005) modeled an esker aquifer (Ross et al. 2005) or the support vector 2007; Desbarats et al. 2001, 2002), and in a glaciogenic clay basin (Figure 7-1). machine methodology (e.g., Smirnoff a limited number of solid models (e.g., Both studies used a discrete modeling et al. 2008; case study 3). Bolduc et al. 2005, Ross et al. 2005). approach, whereby discrete triangu-

Modeling Software Fault-related depressions St. Therese Esker

The most commonly chosen model- a Oka Hills b ing software at the GSC has been Gocad (Bolduc et al. 2005, Ross et al. 2005) (Figure 7-4); MapInfo and Verti- cal Mapper also are used (Logan et Riviére du Nord al. 2002, 2006, 2009) along with other glaciofluvial complex 2-D GIS software solutions (e.g., ESRI ArcInfo, Surfer). For smaller model areas and smaller data sets, Gocad c d has proven to be a very effective tool (Bolduc et al. 2005, Ross et al. 2005). For larger study areas and larger data sets, data handling and interpolation has been more efficiently dealt with using traditional GIS software. With the emergence of 64-bit processing and increased memory access, some of these issues have been resolved. Low terrace sand (upper aquifer) For the Oak Ridges Moraine study e High terrace sand (upper aquifer) area in Ontario, where modeling was initially completed during the mid Lucustrine sand (upper aquifer) 1990s, a low-cost GIS software solu- Marine sublittoral and littoral sediments (upper aquifer) tion was considered important in an Marine silt and clay (aquiclude) attempt to encourage model adop- tion by local watershed conservation Glaciofluvial sediments (aquifer) authorities. Similarly, Ross et al. (2007) Late Wisconsinan till (aquitard) have addressed data exchange issues 05 5 10 km Undifferiated Pleistocene sediments (small buried aquifer) to encourage broader application of Oka Hills Undifferiated berock geological models by groundwater (regional aquifer) modelers.

Figure 7-4 Example of the geological framework model for the Mirabel area (Ross et al. 2005).

36 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey lated surfaces were constructed from exercise due to data clustering in site- data-driven, except for one intensively points and open and closed curves specific areas. studied esker near Vars, Ontario, for and then modified by applying the DSI which a series of parallel seismic sec- algorithm, which minimizes the rough- tions were extrapolated to produce a ness while honoring linear hard and Case Study 2: soft data set to enforce a more realistic soft constraints. Hard constraint refers Expert Systems shape of the esker. to cases where the surface honors the An expert systems approach has been The stratigraphic models are based on data and does not move at that loca- applied in two study areas in south- extending surficial geological mapping tion during subsequent interpolation. ern Ontario, the Oak Ridges Moraine into the subsurface, which comprises By contrast, soft constraint refers to (ORM) (Logan et al. 2006) and the the most reliable and spatially exten- areas where the surface only tries to South Nation River watershed (Logan sive data set. Boreholes and seismic approach the data while keeping the et al. 2009). For each of these studies, a profiles provide subsurface control, roughness low. Data management was 3-D model of the regional stratigraphy and DEMs provide a common eleva- completed in Microsoft Access. was produced to visualize the archi- tion reference for all data. In Ontario, tecture of the aquifers and support The initial data correlation and inter- the most commonly used source of quantitative hydrogeological model- polation were completed in 2-D as it borehole data is the Ontario Ministry ing. A combination of basin analysis was easier for the geologist to under- of the Environment water-well records. and event stratigraphy was used to stand data relationships in this envi- Ontario water-well data, however, is provide a sound geological basis for ronment. Geological cross sections typically fraught with both location modeling. The stratigraphy of the two were built directly in the 3-D graphic, errors (Kenny et al. 1997) and non-rig- basins provided modeling challenges geo-referenced environment using ver- orous material/depth logging (Russell due to stacked and nested erosional tical 2-D working planes and data buf- et al. 1998). valley systems (tunnel valleys) in the fers to select data for correlation along ORM and to buried esker systems in specific planes and to help reduce data Interpreting material/depth logs in the South Nation study. In both stud- transfers. It also exploited the 3-D visu- water-well records using expert system ies, and particularly the ORM study, alization capabilities that were used rules within a geospatial framework strata are laterally discontinuous, and to interactively test the consistency of of more reliable data is the central multiple stratigraphic units may be a newly built cross section with other concept of the modeling technique absent locally due to erosion or non- data in the system. For the Mirabel (Logan et al. 2006). Initial data assem- deposition. Early, in 1994, in the ORM model, more than 40 cross sections bly involved processing geological map study, a decision was made to use a were constructed as the basis of the data, topographic data, water-well fully data-driven, semi-automated 3-D framework. data, geotechnical borehole data, and approach in conventional GIS software geophysical data. These data were To ensure stratigraphic consistency with a relational database for support. checked for location and geological away from the input cross sections, an This methodology evolved into the errors and standardized to a common increased mesh density and minimum final expert model system approach geological coding system. Data were thickness constraint were applied that was implemented for the 10,000- classified as either training data or locally to reduce inconsistencies km2 area of the ORM (Logan et al. 2002, low-quality data (water wells). For between structural surfaces. Remain- 2006). training data, stratigraphic coding was ing crossovers were removed manually completed interactively by geologists. Based on data analysis and new data by adjusting triangle nodes, but this Subsequently, the DEM, surficial map collection, a new stratigraphic model can result in discontinuities within polygons, and training data were used for the ORM was proposed based on the model. To exploit the data set to to help interpret less-reliable water- allostratigraphic principals and a rec- the maximum degree possible, shal- well data. The water-well record mate- ognition of regional unconformities low boreholes that do not penetrate rial descriptions were assigned strati- characterized by drumlins and large to bedrock were incorporated in order graphic codes using a system of expert buried valleys (Figure 7-3). The high to respect minimum thickness con- rules developed from surface mapping, quality of the data collection permitted straints. Crossovers and other thick- seismic data, and sedimentological iterative improvements to the geo- ness problems were thus corrected and stratigraphic studies. Because logical model. Similar improvement locally using an interactive approach. the stratigraphy is subhorizontal and in understanding the South Nation undeformed, propagating stratigraphic stratigraphy was achieved from analy- A compilation of data and their asso- coding with depth was straightforward. sis of integrated sedimentological and ciated reliability factor (training data To ensure stratigraphic integrity, miss- geophysical data sets. The ORM 3-D versus low quality data) indicated that ing strata were recorded with a zero model is data-driven, without subjec- only 40% of the database was used for thickness interval in a comprehensive tive surface editing or corrections, constructing the groundwater flow stratigraphic data table. Following resulting in a variety of interpolative model. However, this did not mean that the initial stratigraphic coding of the artifacts in areas of buried valleys. The 60% of the boreholes were unreliable. water-well records, the codes were South Nation Conservation Authority In fact, many consistent data (training) checked against neighboring training were not integrated in the modeling (SNCA) regional model is also largely

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 37 data to ensure consistent stratigraphic assignments. With a complete stratigraphic database, the model was built by interpolating a series of surfaces from extracted stratigraphic contact elevations. Surfaces were further enhanced by identifying and incorporating well intervals that ended within, and not fully penetrating, a stratigraphic unit. Called “push-down” points, these elevations were only utilized if they were below the elevation of a preliminary model surface that had been interpolated without them. The model surfaces were forced to conform to the surficial geology mapping, and stratigraphic integrity was ensured for each of the five stratigraphic surfaces. The model consists of a series of structural and derived isopach DEM surfaces built on a 100-m grid (e.g., Logan et al. Figure 7-5 An isopach map and thickness histogram for the Newmarket Till unit. 2006, 2009; Sharpe et al. 2007). Pale areas indicate areas of no Newmaket Till. These areas represent areas of Aquifer thickness maps (isopachs) inferred erosion of the till unit, commonly along northeast-southwest–trending tun- generated from the ORM model (Figure nel valleys (Sharpe et al. 2007). 7-5) and the SNCA model (Figure 7-6) accurately depict the available data support and are regarded as geologically plausible at a regional scale. Locally, unrealistic discontinuities in channel fill and eskers reflect sporadic data coverage. As was done for the Vars esker, more targeted hydrogeological modeling should use expert-derived synthetic data, extrapolations, and corrections based on these regional, data- driven models for guidance.

Case Study 3: 3-D Geological Model of the Okanagan Basin, British Columbia, with the Support Vector Machine One of the most robust and best- performing classification algorithms known to date is the support vector machine (SVM) (e.g., Cristianini and Shawe-Taylor 2000). This algorithm is based on statistical learning theory (Vapnik 1995) and uses a set of samples with known class information to build Figure 7-6 South Nation Conservation Authority (SNCA) model area showing a a plane that separates samples of dif- glaciofluvial isopach (eskers) draped over a topographic digital elevation model. ferent classes. The initial data set is Esker volumes are more accurate to the west where data support is high. The known as the training set, and every large, thin volumes in the east reflect overestimated interpolation due to poor data sample within it is characterized by coverage (Logan et al. 2009). features upon which the classification is based. In nonlinear cases, the task

38 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey of discovering the optimal separa- To make the labor-intensive process of the classical SVM task is binary (two- tor is turned into a linear problem by building cross sections more efficient class) classification, a number of meth- transferring input data into a higher- and reliable, a software tool was devel- ods have been developed to support dimensional space known as the fea- oped (Paradis et al. 2010) to extract the multi-class problems (see references ture space. The solution takes a non- relevant geological information from in Hsu and Lin 2002). More detailed linear form when projected back in the the log database and DEM along an descriptions of the SVM algorithm are original data space. Once the equation arbitrary traverse of the study area. The available from a number of sources for the optimal classifier is found, new logs are integrated into a traverse when (e.g., Cristianini and Shawe-Taylor data with unknown class information they occur within a specified buffer 2000, Abe 2005). can be classified based on their posi- distance. The closest logs are marked tion with regard to the plane. as being of primary importance. The Previous experiments demonstrated traverse does not have to be straight that the SVM can be an efficient tool The use of the SVM for data interpola- and can change direction to maximize in geological modeling (Smirnoff et al. tion at the GSC was first tested using the proximity of available boreholes. 2008). For this project, the SVM classi- the Esker/Abitibi project (Bolduc et The tool also reports when the traverse fier was built using sample coordinates al. 2005) as a test case (Smirnoff et al. crosses other traverses to increase as classification features and samples 2008). This area provided a Gocad-gen- interpretation accuracy and minimize with known geology as a training set erated model developed using numer- redundancy. (for details, Paradis et al. 2010).Then, ous cross sections as a benchmark the rest of the data set points were clas- model against which to compare a To facilitate initial data viewing and sified into eight geological units based SVM-generated model. The successful interpretation, linear maps were gen- on their coordinates (Table 7-3; Figure demonstration of the SVM-generated erated along transects with selected 7-7b). model provided the confidence for the boreholes within a 300-m buffer. Cross application of this modeling approach sections were generated as a series of For final visualization and analysis, the in the Okanagan Valley of British scalable vector graphics (SVG) files, classification results were presented in Columbia for an area of 8,200 km2. imported to CorelDraw, and printed. Gocad as a high resolution voxel model The three-year project (2006 to 2009) Stratigraphic correlations were then (volume element, representing a value included surficial geological mapping, completed on paper by a geologist and on a regular grid in 3-D space; Figure borehole drilling, seismic profiling, and digitized back in CorelDraw, where unit 7-7a). The stratigraphic succession is other activities (Paradis et al. 2010). All codes were assigned. The data from controlled by the bedrock valley topog- data were stored in a relational data- seismic surveys were handled similarly. raphy and depositional environments. base for further analysis and general- Along its axis, the valley is overlain by ization. One of the major objectives of The resulting stratigraphic data set undifferentiated old sediments. The the data analysis was to produce a 3-D was reprojected from the cross section Rutland Formation represented by model reflecting the surficial geology of coordinate system to a real 3-D coordi- sand and gravel is also aligned with the the study area. nate system and formatted as a Gocad valley trends and fines stratigraphically vertex set containing unit-type code as upward. A thick layer of Fraser Till As in the other two case studies, data the single property. For approximately blankets elevated areas in the east; in originating from surficial geology map- 300,000 points (24%), the stratigraphic the west, till distribution is discontinu- ping (Paradis 2009) provided the most unit was identified from cross section ous. Glacial ice-contact sediments are spatially continuous and reliable data and DEM sampling. For the remain- generally observed at lower elevations for constraining all subsurface units ing points, the stratigraphic unit was and somewhat closer to the valley with surface expression. The subsur- not coded, and the property value was bottom except for the southeastern face stratigraphic information was set to zero. This value was determined part of the basin where they are inter- mainly provided by a small number of later, during the modeling phase. spaced with till. These are overlain by borehole logs (about 6,800) and seis- lacustrine (Penticton) and fluvial sedi- mic profiles. These data cover an insig- The input data set was loaded in Gocad ments centered directly in the valley. nificant portion of the target model 3-D GIS software for verification and Finally, two small areas of unclassified volume (<10%). Therefore, the data analysis (Figure 7-7a). The modeling and/or organic deposits are visible in needed to be further analyzed, inter- task was then to identify the strati- the central and northwestern parts of preted, and generalized to increase the graphic units for previously unclassi- the basin. number of points controlling stratified points (shown in white in Figure graphic interpolation. This generaliza- 7-7). The latter can be treated as a pure This project confirmed that the SVM tion was accomplished by creating a classification problem. can be efficiently applied in modeling series of mutually consistent cross sec- surficial geology from data of various Being a boundary classification origins. With SVM, surface geology, tions that were then subsampled, and method, the SVM is not sensitive to the resulting data set was combined borehole logs, and geophysics data data clustering. Therefore, the variable were combined to produce a single with the surficial information to pro- density of sampling points does not duce the input point data set. input set for the algorithm. To increase influence the final solution. Although the number of control points, the origi-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 39 a

Figure 7-7 Input and output of support vector machine (SVM) modeling: (a) Geological coded input data set imported in Gocad. The white points are unclassified and will be classified by the support vector model (SVM); (b) the SVM classification result as a Gocad voxel object with local water bodies added on top of geological units. From south to north, the water bodies are lakes Okanagan, Ellison, Wood, and Kalamalka. Ellison Lake is about 800 m wide.

40 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Table 7-3 Input data set statistics and support vector machine (SVM) classification fers. This basin analysis approach is results. Units with codes 3 and 4 were merged with code 2 prior to SVM analysis common across aquifer studies within and are missing from the table. the groundwater program, whereas the SVM SVM choice of modeling and visualization Known Known classified classified software and model construction algo- Unit Geological points (no.) points (%) points (no.) points (%) rithms remains discretionary, providing individual studies with the flexibil- Bedrock 1 86,038 6.84 780,233 81.67 ity to respond to a host of geographic, Old sediments 2 12,820 1.02 14,609 1.53 geological, data availability, political, and funding variables. Distributed Rutland (sand 5 20,280 1.61 33,986 3.56 database technologies and Web-based and gravel) delivery mechanisms are being used to Fraser Till 6 48,111 3.82 34,526 3.61 encourage improved data delivery to Glacial (ice) 7 33,625 2.67 21,345 2.23 clients and improved infrastructure for contact collaborative analysis of key aquifers, both at the GSC and externally. Penticton 8 44,292 3.52 39,778 4.16 (lacustrine) The mandate of the GSC is to pursue Fluvial 9 56,374 4.48 30,728 3.22 regional studies and develop an sediments improved geological knowledge base for the country. Systematic mapping Other 10 1,500 0.12 121 0.01 is not necessarily a component of that sediments mandate, and, consequently, studies All units - 303,040 24.08 955,326 100.00 focus on methods development, application of emerging methods to Cana- dian geological settings, and improved nal data were pre-processed, the data Within the Groundwater Program of geological models. were validated, and geological exper- the GSC this new technology has been tise was integrated. embraced to bridge the gap between data needed with traditional geologi- Acknowledgments cal products and the input required for The clarity of this chapter was Summary numeric groundwater flow modeling. improved by internal reviews at the Three-dimensional geological map- Nevertheless, the emphasis remains GSC by R. Knight and M. Hinton. This ping has undergone a transformation on high-quality data collection within paper would never have been sub- in 20 years from traditional approaches a basin analysis framework that will mitted without the ongoing encour- of cross sections and planar maps provide a knowledge framework for agement by R. C. Berg. This paper is with structural measurements and understanding the geological history completed as part of the Groundwater embedded stratigraphic relation- of the basin. This understanding pro- Program of the Geological Survey of ships to fully interpolated structural vides the means to interpolate between Canada, Earth Science Sector, Natural surfaces and volume models that can sparse data and make predictions on Resources Canada. It is contribution be manipulated in 3-D visualization the spatial extent and heterogeneity 20100285 of the Earth Science Sector. software (Thorleifson et al. 2010). of sedimentary units forming aqui-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 41 Chapter 8: French Geological Survey (Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières): Multiple Software Packages for Addressing Geological Complexities Claire Castagnac, Catherine Truffert, Bernard Bourgine, and Gabriel Courrioux French Geological Survey, Orléans, France

The French Geological Survey is the and Natural Risk Assessments. The ment and Geothermy Department; Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et core staffing expertise for geological • 3-D geomodeling of bedrock terrain Minières (BRGM). It was founded in mapping and modeling lies within the for mineral and energy resources is 1959 as a public corporation closely Geology Department where 3-D geo- managed in collaboration with the aligned with commercial and industrial modeling in the shallow subsurface Mineral Resources Department. interests. However, the roots of the and regolith is a principal activity that organization go back to 1941 when it is solely managed by the department. was called the Bureau de recherches Work is done on a wide variety of dif- Geological Setting géologiques et géophysiques (BRGG) ferent projects in collaboration with Figure 8-1 shows the diversity of the within the Ministry of Industry. other departments: geology of France; however, there are three main structural settings: BRGM research focuses on increas- • 3-D geomodeling of deep sedimen- ing the knowledge of the geosciences tary basins is managed in collabora- 1. The Palaeozoic and Hercynian Ter- through the development and validation with the Hydrogeology Depart- ranes, shown in orange on Figure tion of models, processes, instruments, and software. By developing new techniques and methodologies and distributing high-quality information, the BRGM provides public agencies with the geological information needed to manage surface and subsurface issues for regional economic development and planning, including evaluating and mitigating natural hazards and contamination problem areas. The BRGM has 22 regional centers in France and 7 centers in French over- seas territories. Its 2005 budget was over ¡84 million, and BRGM had about 850 employees. Internationally, the BRGM works either as part of a cooperative effort or as a commercial institution in over 40 countries with governments, public-sector firms, industry, and international funding institutions. The BRGM offers technology transfer in all earth science subdisciplines via geological investigations, support programs, various types of technical support, and training. (An overview of the BRGM scientific missions can be found at http://www.brgm.fr/inc/bloc/apro- pos/mission.jsp.) Six departments in the BRGM utilize geological mapping and modeling: Geology, Mineral Resources, Hydro- geology, Environment, Geothermy, Figure 8-1 Geological map of the geology of France (http://infoterre.BRGM.fr/).

42 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey 8-2, include the Armorican and the west, on the Massif Central Cenozoic sedimentary strata of the Massif Central Mountains together Mountains to the south, and on the Tethys, and these were pushed against with small parts of the Vosges Ardennes and the Vosges Mountains the stable Eurasian landmass by the Massif and Ardennes Massif. The to the east-northeast. To the north, northward-moving African landmass. Armorican Massif, which covers a its strata can be readily correlated Most of this deformation occurred large area in northwestern France, with those beneath the English during the Oligocene and Miocene is composed of metamorphic and Channel and in southeastern Eng- Epochs. The collision formed great magmatic rocks affected by the land. The Aquitaine Basin is the recumbent folds and gigantic thrust Hercynian or (Variscan) earlier second largest Mesozoic and Ceno- faults with the underlying crystalline Cadomian Orogeny. The region was zoic sedimentary basin, occupying basement rocks becoming exposed in uplifted when the Bay of Biscay a large part of the country’s south- the higher central regions. The Alpine opened during the Cretaceous western quadrant. The sedimentary Orogeny is also responsible for the Period. The geological evolution of process in the Aquitaine Basin important outbreak of Cenozoic volca- Massif Central started in the late began in the Lower Triassic over the nism in the Massif Central. Neoproterozoic and continues to Variscan basement and close to the this day. Massif Central has been North Pyrenean Thrust. From here The Pyrenees are older than the Alps. shaped mainly by the Caledonian it slowly started spreading farther to Their sediments were first deposited and Variscan Orogenies. Structur- the north. in coastal basins during the Paleozoic ally it consists mainly of stacked and Mesozoic Eras. During the Lower 3. The Ceno-Mesozoic orogenic belts Cretaceous Period, the Bay of Biscay metamorphic basement rocks with are shown in blue on Figure 8-2. recumbent folds. opened up and pushed present-day These include the Alps, Pyrenees, Spain against France causing compres- 2. The Ceno-Mesozoic basins, shown and Jura Mountains; the Rhine and sion. The intense pressure and uplift- in yellow on Figure 8-2, include the Rodanien horsts; and the Massif ing first affected the eastern part of the Paris Flandres Basin and the Aqui- Central volcanics. Pyrenees and then stretched progres- taine Basin. The Paris Basin is the The Alps form an extensive Tertiary sively to the entire chain, culminating largest Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedi- orogenic belt that extends through during the Eocene Epoch. The eastern mentary basin in France. It overlies southern Europe and Asia all the way part of the Pyrenees consists largely geological strata disturbed by the to the Himalayas. The Alps were pro- of granite and gneissose rocks; in the Variscan Orogeny and forms a broad duced as a result of the collision of the western parts, the granite peaks are shallow bowl in which successive African and European tectonic plates, flanked by layers of limestone. marine deposits have accumulated in which the western part of the Tethys from the Triassic to the Pliocene. Ocean closed. Enormous stress was The borders of the Paris Basin lean exerted on the Mesozoic and early Major Clients and on the Armorican Mountains to the Need for Models The BRGM works on 3-D modeling projects in three main areas: public services, international projects, and research activities in collaboration with many partners and clients: • Public services: the European Union, the French State, regional government, and town authorities; • International projects: private sector companies and foreign governments; • Research: laboratory and university collaborations. The major applications of BRGM’s 3-D modeling activities are geological surveying, aquifer protection and management, urban geology, seismic risk evaluation, civil engineering, carbon capture and storage research, geothermal potential, mineral resource extrac- Figure 8-2 Simplified map of the geology of France (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ tion, and post-mining evaluations. File:Domaines_geologiques_france.png).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 43 Modeling at BRGM the compilation of the databases, and maps, borehole information, and verti- geostatisticians use statistical methods cal faults system. By considering litho- About 10 geologists in the Geology (e.g., histograms, scattergrams, and logic relationships, 2-D surfaces are Department regularly work on 3-D variance and covariance values) to organized so that they build 3-D lay- modeling. Ten additional staff are discriminate the abnormal data before ered geological models. An example of involved with modeling activities from beginning the actual 3-D geomodeling this process and a typical output is the other departments (e.g., Water, Geo- process. 3-D layered model of the Tertiary strata thermy, and Mineral Resources). of the Aquitain Basin (Figure 8-3). In serving its customers and meeting Shallow Subsurface To populate such models with material international standards, the BRGM Modeling properties, stratigraphically interpreted uses these commercial software pack- boreholes are used to perform the final The purpose of 3-D modeling is to ages: 3-D stochastic simulations and to fill provide the public and geoscientists the model with lithologic (limestone, 1. Petrel (Schlumberger) and EarthVi- with a homogenous digital geologi- sandstone, clay, and marl) and pet- sion (Dynamic Graphics) for simple cal data set of the model. These 3-D rophysical properties. The stochastic geology and basin analysis; models are built with Multilayer-GDM geostatistical techniques usually used or EarthVision and take into account 2. Isatis (Geovariance) for studies that to fill 3-D models are sequential Gauss- published geological maps (CHARM need geostatistical analysis and ian simulations (SGS) and sequential database) and boreholes (LOGISO quantification of uncertainty to indicator simulations (SIS) (Goovaerts database). In building 3-D models, the assess resources; 1997). Many simulations are done to BRGM defines a lithostratigraphic table 3. Surpac (GemCom) for mining proj- compute the probability for each grid (stratigraphy) and specifies the type of ects that require construction of 3-D cell of the various lithofacies and pet- contacts between various units (e.g., geological models for assessment of rophysical properties. These probabili- conformable, onlap, or eroded), and resources; ties quantify the uncertainty of the 3-D faults are always considered as vertical volume model. 4. 3D GeoModeller (BRGM-Intrepid objects. Kriging methods are used to Geophysics) for helping to define calculate 2-D lithologic surfaces (top, This methodology is also becoming complex 3-D geology based on base, and thickness) using geological more popular for hydrogeological and implicit modeling of surfaces; and 5. MultiLayer/GDM (BRGM), which is specially suited for data control and for layered models where traditional geostatistics is particularly efficient. In addition to these software packages, the BRGM has developed two in-house tools that are adapted to model the geometry in different geological settings.

Methodologies Used for 3-D Modeling

Initial Data Consistency Analysis This stage is the key to success for 3-D modeling. To build 3-D models of the subsurface, sedimentary basins, and regions of complex geology, large data sets have been compiled originating from geological maps, shallow and deep boreholes, and geophysical measurements, and all these data have been validated (true coordinates, accurate geological description, good geo- referencing, etc.). This part of the process represents about 30% of the 3-D geomodeling process. Data managers Figure 8-3 Three-dimensional of the Tertiary strata of the Aquitain Basin then check the data accuracy during [EarthVision (Dynamic Graphics) and MultiLayer/GDM (BRGM)].

44 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey geotechnical applications to provide a better description of the shallow subsurface (0 to 100 m). Figure 8-4 shows examples of 3-D volume models filled with lithologic and petrophysical properties.

Sedimentary Basin Modeling The BRGM is dealing with new challenges related to climate change. Cur- rent projects are underway for gas and carbon sequestration and geothermal production. To meet these challenges, the BRGM has developed new methodologies, based on approaches from the oil and gas industry, to provide 3-D volume models populated with petrophysical properties. The 3-D geological model is constructed from geophysical surveys, well logs, and stratigraphic interpretations of sedimentary basins. The model is then filled with facies and petrophysical properties by taking into account models of the sedimentology- Figure 8-4 Three-dimensional lithofacies model of Middle Eocene formations in facies, and the geostatistical methods Essonne Department (south of Paris Basin) [Isatis (Geovariance) and MultiLayer/ described. The goal is to model hetero- Gdm (BRGM)]. The model area is 10 km x 15 km x 100 m, and the grid cell size geneities at multiple scales for gas and is 50 m x 50 m x 1m. Lithologies are limestone (blue), sandstone (yellow), clay fluid flow simulations. (brown), and marl (green). Simulation examples include • geothermal assessment of the thermal resource in the deep Triassic aquifer of the Paris Basin (Figures 8-5 and 8-6); • carbon sequestration study to assess the deep aquifer reservoir and to model the heterogeneities of the Dogger Formation in the Paris Basin (Figures 8-7 and 8-8); • further detailed gas sequestration studies in the Dogger Formation of the Paris Basin to model more precisely the heterogeneities in the reservoir using permeability and porosity simulations (Figure 8-9); and • estimation of the geothermal poten- Figure 8-5 Location of two projects modeling the Trias and Dogger Formations of tial of syn-sedimentary faulted the Paris Basin. deposits of the Limagne graben in central France. After the structural plexities as well as to improve knowl- 3-D model was complete, it was Modeling Structurally edge and assess risk. Two examples meshed with a 3-D grid. Each cell of Complex Geology follow: the 3-D grid was filled with geologi- Many projects that have cartographic cal information, and hydrodynamic and geotechnical issues deal with the • In southeastern France, a 3-D model and thermic properties. Then, complex structural geology of France of a coal basin (Alès, France) was simulations in this 3-D grid were and require 3-D geological models to constructed. The complexity of performed to assess the thermal better understand and visualize com- this coal basin is the consequence potential (Figure 8-10).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 45 Impermeable

Producer

Other

N/A

Figure 8-6 Three-dimensional static model of the Trias Formation in the southern Paris Basin for geothermal stud- Figure 8-8 Three-dimensional producer facies (top) and ies [Petrel (Schlumberger)]. The model area is 100 km x 120 porosity (below) model of the Oolitic unit of the Dogger km x 1 km. Formation (southeastern Paris Basin) [Isatis (Geovariance)]. Model area size is 15 km x 10 km x 3 km; grid cells are 100 m x 100 m x 10 m. In the facies model, the blue zones are per- meable, and the yellow zones are impermeable.

Figure 8-7 Three-dimensional structural and petrophysical properties models of the Dogger Formation in the southern

Paris Basin for CO2 sequestration [Petrel (Schlumberger)]. The model area is 100 km x 120 km x 1 km.

Figure 8-9 Estimation of the thermal resources in syn-sed- of different phases of structural the probabil- imentary faulted deposits of the Limagne graben in central deformation over time. This exercise ity of thick- France [3D GeoModeller (BRGM–Intrepid Geophysics)]. The provided an opportunity to apply ness, top, and model area size is 30 km x 30 km x 3 km. unique cartographic techniques base for each in the field and to build a complex geological 3-D model based on field observa- formation likely to be encountered • geological context and degree of tions. The final 3-D geological model during tunneling (Figure 8-11). complexity of the geological objects (Figure 8-10) was built by master’s (e.g., karst, fault networks, dolerite degree students during a field trip Choice of 3-D Modeling intrusions, buried channels); with the BRGM. Software and Methodology • need to mesh models for simulation; • A tunnel route through the Alps The choice of 3-D modeling software • method to populate the models and to connect Turin (Italy) with Lyon and methodology used by the BRGM the kind of properties needed for (France) relied on geotechnical depends on many parameters: population; investigations based on a 3-D geo- • requirement for quantification of logical model. The goal was to pro- • required depth of the models; uncertainty. duce cross sections through the 3-D • type of geological setting; model and then predict and assess

46 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Figure 8-10 A 3-D model of a coal basin based on a cartography field trip (Alès, southeast of France) and building of the model from field observations [3D GeoModeller (BRGM–Intrepid Geophysics)].

Figure 8-11 Geotechnical studies for a tunnel through the Alps between Turin (Italy) and Lyon (Alps) [3D GeoModeller (BRGM-Intrepid Geophysics)].

energy resources, CO storage, and assess portions of the map or model Lessons Learned 2 geothermal resources. that are most reliable. The BRGM has been involved in 3-D geological mapping and modeling for • Data consistency is the key to suc- • The 3-D modeling process should be 10 years. The program began with 3-D cess for 3-D modeling. highly integrated as the BRGM has geological mapping and now includes • Different 3-D modeling software had to enhance links between mod- 3-D reservoir modeling. Lessons packages are used to address dif- eling software packages, databases, learned during BRGM’s 3-D mapping ferent geological conditions and to GIS simulation software, and 3-D and modeling program are satisfy other requirements such as viewers. quality and complexity of the initial • Research projects are currently • 3-D modeling is important for data set and the final purpose of the ongoing to improve methodologies improved understanding of geol- model. and tools for the 3-D modeling pro- ogy and for new applications, such cess. as groundwater evaluations, risk • There must be the capacity for assessment, land use, mineral and determining uncertainty to best

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 47 Chapter 9: German Geological Surveys: Federal- State Collaboration for 3-D Geological Modeling Gerold W. Diepolder Bavarian Environment Agency–Geological Survey, Munich, Germany on behalf of the Study Group 3-D Modelling (Kommunikationsforum 3D) of the German GSOs

Organizational Structure knowledge and information about these structures are a particular focus workflows and best practices and to of 3-D modeling at present. and Business Model define modern, consistent standards In the Central German Uplands, Germany manifests itself in an aggre- for data and data access that facilitate low-grade metamorphic rocks of the gation of 16 independent regional data exchange and enable cross-border Rhenohercynian Zone, predominantly GSOs (cf. InfoGEO 2009), plus the modeling with the aim of producing a Devonian and Carboniferous shales, federal institutes for Geosciences and unified 3-D model of Germany. are exposed in the Rhenish Massif, Natural Resources (BGR) and the Leib- Another focus of the Study Group is which also includes the productive niz Institute for Applied Geophysics to enhance software development, Upper Carboniferous coal-bearing (LIAG), all of which vary considerably especially for Gocad and plug-ins, as strata of the Ruhr area at its northern in regional competence, responsibili- this software is used by all Study Group edge (Figure 9-1). The western part ties, and organizational structures. Of members. features the embayment of the Nieder- the 16 German regional GSOs, 8 cur- rhein Basin filled with Tertiary sedi- rently are actively engaged in 3-D Dealing with the more technical issues ments and large lignite deposits. In modeling, and 2 have assigned 3-D of 3-D modeling is the core function the northeastern continuation of the modeling to local universities. Ter- of the German Gocad user work- Rhenish Massif, the Harz Mountains, ritories covered range from 325 km2 shop, which is jointly organized by low-grade metamorphic rocks are (Bremen) to 70,550 km2 (Bavaria). The the Mining Academy of Freiberg and studded with plutonic bodies. Permian BGR is involved with project-based the Geological Survey of Saxony. The volcanoclastic fillings of channels and geoscientific issues of international Gocad user workshop offers a discus- basins and lower Triassic red sandstone and national interest, whereas LIAG is sion forum once a year to the model- (Bundsandstein) successions cover the a research institution engaged in the ers focused on technical aspects. For large central parts of the Rhenohercyn- application of geophysical methods to minor agencies with only a few people ian Zone and continue far to the south geoscientific problems. involved in modeling, this forum is (Figure 9-1). essential as it gives them the opportu- Accordingly, organizational structures nity to benefit technically from other In southern Germany, Triassic and within the surveys are very diverse. agencies that have more advanced 3-D Jurassic sedimentary rocks are tilted, Staffs range from one-person enter- capability. forming an arch-shaped scarpland. The prises to well-staffed sophisticated sec- youngest cuest-forming unit, Jurassic tions comprising several geoscientists limestone, is partially covered by Creta- and information technology specialists Geological Setting ceous sediments and features the 14.5 implementing elaborate workflows for The complex geology of Germany million-year-old Ries impact crater. all steps of modeling and the pre- and (Figure 9-1) shows an overall tripartite Below the Mesozoic successions are the post-processing of information. arrangement with expansive central crystalline rocks of the Saxothuringian Diversity and multi-faceted GSOs offer uplands separating the Northern and Moldanubian Zone. These middle- many options for cooperation and aug- German Basin from the Alpine Orogen to high-grade metamorphic sediments mentation of geological perspectives and its adjacent Molasse Basin. Within and embedded granitoid intrusions and technological tools to best assess, the northern basin, Permian and Meso- are exposed in the mountain ranges of model, and display the geology. The zoic successions greater than 2 km the Black Forest and Odenwald in the core of the multilateral cooperation is thick are covered by Tertiary sands and southwest and in the Bohemian Massif the Study Group 3-D Modelling (Kom- clays reaching thicknesses greater than (Erzgebirge and Bavarian Forest) in munikationsforum 3D) of the German 3 km and overlain by up to 500 m of the east and southeast. Crystalline GSOs. At present it comprises the two Quaternary deposits. Salt tectonics and rock suites and their Triassic cover are federal agencies (BGR and LIAG) and related structures involving late Perm- sharply cut off along the Oberrhein- 10 regional GSOs actively engaged in ian (Zechstein) evaporites are wide- Graben, a part of the West-European 3-D geological modeling. The main spread. Salt beds and diapirs are suit- rift zone filled with Tertiary sediments objective of the group is to exchange able structures for deep repositories for and volcanic complexes in its southern carbon capture and storage (CCS) as part and northern offshoot.

48 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey while the Adriatic Plate was thrust over the southern margin of Europe. Thick layers of predominantly Mesozoic carbonate rocks characterize the Northern Calcareous Alps, whereas sediments of Kiel the European shelf and the deep-sea trough are wedged in at the orogenic Hamburg front. Güstrow

Major Clients and Bremen the Need for Models BERLIN Hannover All German regional GSOs are indepen- Potsdam dent scientific advisors to their territo- Magdeburg rial governments regarding all geological issues. Similarly, the BGR assists Krefeld the federal government of Germany Halle and German industry. The core func- Düsseldorf tion of all German GSOs is to make the Erfurt Dresden Bonn best existing geological information Weimar accessible to their clients. As geology Freiberg is inherently a 3-D science, 3-D geo- Hof logical models are crucial to transform Wiesbaden Sitz einer geologischen abstract geoscientific information into Landes- oder Bundesbehörde tangible products and to communicate Mainz geological findings and benefits to non-geoscientists and policy makers. Saarbrücken Nevertheless, territorial governments and ministries or subordinate agencies Stugart are only indirectly the principal customers of 3-D models. Figure 9-2 shows the current status Bundesanstalt für of 3-D modeling in Germany. Only Freiburg © Geowissenschaften München und Rohsto e in a few cases have deliverables con- G EO Z E N T R U M H ANNOVER sisted of 3-D models. However, GSOs increasingly employ advances in 3-D technology to better visualize and Holozän Kreide Perm Prädevon Paläozoische Vulkanite understand natural systems, and many Pleistozän Jura Karbon Kristallin Plutonite tasks assigned to regional GSOs can be performed only, or more easily and Terär Trias Devon Känozoische Vulkanite precisely, by utilization of 3-D models. For instance, the Geothermal Informa- tion System for Germany (Schulz et al. 2007, Schulz 2009, Pester et al. 2010), Figure 9-1 Geological map of Germany (BGR 1995). Locations of the state geo- developed by the LIAG in collaboration logical surveys (effective 1995) are indicated by hammer and pick symbols. with the regional GSOs, extracts 2-D views of geological structures from 3-D models. The 2-D views comprise geo- South of the Danube, the northward utilization of this aquifer is another logical profiles and maps that are gen- thrust of the Alpine Orogen front emphasis of present 3-D activities, erated and retrieved via the Internet caused a downdip of the Mesozoic suc- including modeling of Tertiary sedi- (GeotIS[Geothermisches Informations- cessions including the karstified Upper mentary successions, which are host to system fur Deutschland 2010; http:// Jurassic. Beneath the Molasse Basin minor but presently exploited oil and www.geotis.de/). filled with Alpine debris predominantly gas accumulations. Due to the ongoing discussion of of the mid-Tertiary, the Jurassic aqui- The folded Molasse along the north- options for the mitigation of climate fer reaches depths of more than 5 km, change, 3-D activities of German GSOs forming one of the highest potential ern margin of the Alps is part of the alpine nappe structures that emerged are focused on the deeper subsur- hydrogeothermal systems in Ger- face (e.g., for CCS) especially in the many. Structural modeling for efficient during the Cretaceous and Tertiary

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 49 Another major application of geologi- Model released or published cal 3-D models is Web services that provide local information on the effi- Model unpublished or under preparation ciency (and possible restrictions) of shallow geothermal energy facilities as presently realized for greater parts of Baden-Württemberg (LGRB 2009). Other German GSOs are dealing with the same issue. Further applications of subsurface 3-D modeling range from small-scale, high-resolution models (e.g., for infrastructure planning), to topical or general regional models (e.g., Görne 2009, Sattler and Pamer 2009), to statewide models covering areas up to 36,000 km2 (LGRB 2008).

Software, Methodology, and Workflows The most widespread 3-D modeling software used at German regional GSOs is Paradigm’s Gocad. Every GSO actively engaged in geological 3-D modeling owns at least one Gocad base module, and larger surveys utilize several-set bundles plus add-on modules for different purposes. Because Gocad initially was designed for the exploitation of digital seismic mass data existing in the hydrocarbon industry, it lacks many geological rules and constraints, and it is not always capable of reproducing a geologist’s way of 3-D modeling, which is highly iterative, conceptual, and usually implicit. Consequently, some of the GSOs are considering the purchase of additional software packages for particular needs. For pre-processing spatial data, calculating grids, or triangulating unevenly distributed data, (1) GIS tools (mainly ESRI products), (2) CAD programs such Figure 9-2 State of 3-D geological modeling in Germany including the German as MicroStation, or (3) interpolation sector of the North Sea as of December 2009. software such as Surfer are applied. Because the organizational structures, northern German Basin, including a possible preliminary tool for sub- data storage, and data management the 41,540 km2 of the German North surface spatial planning. To promote protocols of German geological surveys Sea sector (accomplished by Lower the economic usability of the under- are very diverse, there are no common Saxony’s LBEG) as well as northeastern ground, subsurface management will standards or script-based routines for Germany, the Rhine-Ruhr area, the become inevitable very soon. Compe- data extraction and data processing Oberrhein-Graben, and the Molasse tition for available subsurface space prior to data import. Methods applied Basin. The models are mainly gen- will strongly increase among those depend completely on the objective eral lithostratigraphic and structural wanting to develop the subsurface for and scope of the projects and are very overviews aimed at a multi-purpose geothermal energy, natural gas storage, different, for example, digitizing analog maps, contour maps, and data such as utilization of the underground and for waste storage including CO2 (CCS), and geothermal energy and its sustainable pressure reservoirs as buffer storage for the Geotectonic Atlas of Lower Saxony exploitation. These 3-D models are wind energy generation. (Baldschuhn et al. 2001) versus com-

50 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey pilation of old paper plots and new 3-D seismic profiling for the Molasse Basin in Bavaria. Generally, geological modeling is very specific to each area of interest, and normally several modeling procedures must be combined to achieve plausible results (Jessell 2001). Nevertheless, using the same standard modeling software at most regional GSOs enables the sharing of model outputs independent of routines or workflows and the ability to customize them to local databases. Also, conceptual parts of workflows and routines covering more general steps of pre- or post-processing are exchanged on demand. Several examples of 3-D subsurface modeling at a German GSO and methodologies implemented are described and illustrated by Pamer and Diepolder (2010).

Lessons Learned Even though it is generally accepted that geological 3-D modeling improves geological data visualization and interpretation, very few people at German Figure 9-3 Part of a Gocad model depicting folded Carboniferous, coal-bearing GSOs are engaged in this essential task, strata of the Ruhr area (GD Nordrhine-Westphalia) because—despite substantial advances in computer technology—model building is still a toilsome task feasible for skilled specialists only. Thus, the accel- eration of model building is a major challenge for surveys with limited staffing and limited 3-D modeling expertise. Figures 9-3, 9-4, and 9-5 show examples of 3-D modeling in Germany. One option for increasing the use of 3-D modeling among more practitin- ers is to provide easy-to-use modeling software to field geologists. Integrating basic 3-D modeling into the GIS-based digital field data capture toolkits not only facilitates cross-validation of field data and communication of tacit knowledge, but it also ensures that only models that are checked for plausibility by local experts will be imported into a central modeling database. However, stepwise model preparation conducted by more than one person requires mandatory workflows for all geological settings and extensive documentation of each step. Implementation of a fully digital workflow for 3-D geological modeling (Smith 2005) should be a key Figure 9-4 Structural model for monitoring an abandoned mining area underneath objective for all German GSOs. the city of Zwickau (LfULG Saxony)

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 51 exchange—as successfully practiced by the German 3-D Study Group on a national level for several years—as well as sharing software developments and best practices, is crucial particularly for small surveys with a limited budget. The Madrid ‘09 workshop on 3-D modeling organized by the Geo3EU- initiative clearly revealed that even the major 3-D modeling agencies in Europe can strongly benefit from inter- agency and cross-border information exchange and cooperation.

Figure 9-5 Volume grid of Bavaria subdivided into four layers (crystalline base- The technical capabilities of agen- ment, Mesozoic sediments, Upper Jurassic aquifer; omitted: Tertiary sediments cies, however, are only one aspect of of the Molasse). Left: Upper Jurassic aquifer gridded with the temperature field a successful 3-D modeling program. derived from deep boreholes throughout the Molasse basin. Right: Volume grids To ensure interoperability, common of seismic velocities within the entire Molasse basin based on deep borehole data standards and subject-specific harmo- and a detailed velocity model of the Greater Munich area including stacking veloci- nization is necessary. Furthermore, as ties of seismic sections (LfU Bavaria). geology and the resources and risks connected with it do not respect political boundaries, common principles in Current plans by German GSOs also Building a model is just one part of line with national and international point at the development of a technol- a whole cascade of pre- and post- requirements are beneficial for cross- ogy that supports storage and manage- processing steps; many different border modeling. Thus, to operate a ment of 3-D data in database manage- processes have to be understood, and complex and continuously evolving ment systems. The objective of these various software packages have to be technology such as 3-D modeling joint efforts is to overcome constraints handled in different ways. To stay up- and to ensure its success and orienta- in model size and/or resolution due to to-date in all aspects is not possible for tion toward the future, cooperation hardware or software limitations. a GSO employing only a few modelers. and exchange must continue to be Therefore, constant mutual knowledge strengthened.

52 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Chapter 10: Illinois State Geological Survey: A Modular Approach for 3-D Mapping That Addresses Economic Development Issues Donald A. Keefer Illinois State Geological Survey, Champaign, Illinois, USA

HUDSON EPISODE 20 Organizational Structure Cahokia Fm; river sand, gravel, and silt 10

WISCONSIN EPISODE and Business Model 15 5 Mason Group 20 10 Thickness of Peoria and Roxana Silts; silt deposited as loess The Illinois State Geological Survey (5-ft contour interval)

(ISGS) was created in its modern form Equality Fm; silt and clay deposited in lakes Henry Fm; sand and gravel deposited in glacial rivers, outwash fans, in 1905, but dates back to the 1850s. beaches, and dunes The ISGS mission is to provide objec- Wedron Group 20 (Tiskilwa, Lemont, and Wadsworth Fms) and Trafalgar Fm; diamicton 15 tive scientific information to govern- deposited as till and ice-marginal sediment End moraine ment, business, and the public (1) to 10 improve the quality of life for Illinois Till plain ILLINOIS EPISODE citizens by providing the scientific 5 Teneriffe Silt; silt and clay deposited in lakes information and interpretations Pearl Fm; sand and gravel deposited in glacial rivers and outwash fans, and Hagarstown Mbr; ice-contact sand and gravel deposited in ridges 20 needed for developing sound environ- Winnebago Fm; diamicton deposited as till and ice-marginal sediment

mental policies and practices, and (2) Till plain 10

to strengthen the Illinois economy by Glasford Fm; diamicton deposited as till and ice-marginal sediment

promoting wise development of the End moraine 5 state’s abundant mineral resources. Till plain The ISGS is a division (since 2008) PRE-ILLINOIS EPISODE Wolf Creek Fm; predominantly diamicton deposited as till and of the University of Illinois’ Praire ice-marginal sediment 20 Research Institute and has an annual Unglaciated appropriated budget (2009) of about 10 US$6 million and total expenditures of 0 20 40 60 mi 5 more than US$13.2 million. It employs 0 50 100 km a staff of 185.

15 10 Geological mapping at the ISGS is 20 a major programmatic priority and one way in which the Survey meets Figure 10-1 Quaternary deposits map of Illinois. its larger statutory responsibilities of defining the geological framework of Illinois and supporting economic able funds, and the complexity of the bedrock reservoirs. This modeling is development and public and environ- geological succession being mapped. being done by staff of the Advanced mental health. Much of the research at Energy Technology Initiative as part of Currently, the staff working on 3-D the ISGS is not focused on production a large project evaluating the viability geological mapping of Quaternary of 3-D maps and models, although of storing large quantities of CO2 in deposits at the ISGS are housed within geological mapping and some 3-D these reservoirs. the Quaternary and hydrology sec- mapping and modeling is still a large tions. There are approximately 25 full- part of the research program. Three- time staff and 12 students involved Geological Setting dimensional geological mapping and with geological mapping, including modeling at the ISGS is being used to The 3-D geological mapping program Quaternary geologists, hydrogeolo- address current problems related to is currently focused on describing the gists, geophysicists, geochemists, GIS groundwater availability or quality, distribution and character of Quater- specialists, and data managers. The carbon capture and storage, support nary glacial and postglacial deposits 3-D geological framework modeling for energy-sector needs, environmental throughout Illinois (Figure 10-1). The and geostatistical simulation of rock health, and geological characterization Quaternary deposits in Illinois have properties is being conducted within for infrastructure development. The been characterized by numerous the carbon capture and storage pro- dimension and resolution of the map- researchers. Key stratigraphic delinea- gram, and that work focuses on model- ping projects are determined by the tions are provided by Willman and Frye ing the geometry and petrophysics of objectives of the funding agents, avail- (1970) and Hansel and Johnson (1996).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 53 88° 14' 19" R. 6 E. R. 7 E. R. 7 E. R. 8 E. 42° 9' 15" Algonquin Barrington 3-D Geological Huntley Hills 62 47 31 25 90 Carpentersville Mapping Priorities Aquifer Sensitivity Classification The 3-D Quaternary mapping prior- Map Unit A: High Potential for Aquifer Contamination Gilberts 68 The upper surface of the aquifer is within 20 feet of the land surface and the Hampshire East aquifer is greater than 20 feet thick. ity areas in Illinois include the major Dundee Aquifers are greater than 50 feet thick and are Sleepy 72 72 A1 within 5 feet of the land surface. Hollow 31 72 90 population and industrial centers of West Dundee Aquifers are greater than 50 feet thick and are A2 between 5 and 20 feet below the land surface.

T. 42 N. Illinois: T. 41 N. Pingree Grove T. 42 N. Aquifers are between 20 and 50 feet thick and T. 41 N. A3 are within 5 feet of the land surface.

Burlington Aquifers are between 20 and 50 feet thick and A4 are between 5 and 20 feet below the land • an 11-county area that includes 20 surface.

Map Unit B: Moderately High Potential for Aquifer Contamination metropolitan Chicago, Elgin The upper surface of the aquifer is within 20 feet of the land surface and the aquifer is less than 20 feet thick. 20 Sand and gravel aquifers are between 5 and 20 B1 feet thick, or high-permeability bedrock aquifers • a 15-county area of east-central are between 15 and 20 feet thick, and either aquifer type is within 5 feet of the land surface. Illinois that overlies the Mahomet South Sand and gravel aquifers are between 5 and 20 Elgin B2 feet thick, or high-permeability bedrock aquifers are between 15 and 20 feet thick, and either Bedrock Valley, and aquifer type is between 5 and 20 feet below the T. 41 N. T. 41 N. land surface. T. 40 N. T. 40 N. Map Unit C: Moderate Potential for Aquifer Contamination Aquifers are between 20 and 50 feet below the land surface, and the • large portions of the Illinois River overlying material is fine grained.

Virgil Aquifers are greater than 50 feet thick and are 64 C1 between 20 and 50 feet below the land surface. corridor in central Illinois. 47

31 Aquifers are between 20 and 50 feet thick and C2 are between 20 and 50 feet below the land Lily Lake surface. The metropolitan Chicago area is 64 Sand and gravel aquifers are between 5 and 20 C3 feet thick, or high-permeability bedrock aquifers 25 are between 15 and 20 feet thick, and either the focus of most of the current ISGS aquifer type is between 20 and 50 feet below the Maple land surface. Park 64 Map Unit D: Moderately Low Potential for Aquifer 3-D mapping and modeling pro- St. Charles Contamination Upper surfaces of sand and gravel or high-permeability bedrock aquifers are 38 between 50 and 100 feet below the land surface, and the overlying material is gram because of the area’s growing T. 40 N. T. 40 N. fine grained. 38 T. 39 N. T. 39 N. Elburn Geneva Aquifers are greater than 50 feet thick and are D1 between 50 and 100 feet below the land surface. population (currently about 8 million

Aquifers are between 20 and 50 feet thick and r e D2 v are between 50 and 100 feet below the land i people). The metropolitan Chicago R surface. Sand and gravel aquifers are between 5 and 20 D3 88 feet thick or high-permeability bedrock aquifers area is experiencing local limitations in are between 15 and 20 feet thick and either aquifer type is between 50 and 100 feet below Batavia the land surface. sand, gravel, and limestone aggregate Map Unit E: Low Potential for Aquifer Contamination Fox Aquifers are greater than 100 feet below the land surface, and the overlying material is fine grained. resources, and there are significant Sand and gravel or high-permeability bedrock E1 aquifers are not present within 100 feet of the land surface. regional stresses on groundwater sup- Haeger Diamicton at the Land Surface T. 39 N. The overprint pattern indicates areas where the Haeger diamicton is at the T. 39 N. 56 T. 38 N. land surface. Diamicton of the Haeger Member of the Lemont Formation is a T. 38 N. plies from both shallow and deep aqui- sandy loam and contains abundant, discontinuous lenses of sand and gravel. North The presence of this diamicton over an aquifer does not offer the same Aurora 88 potential protection from contamination as an equal thickness of finer-grained diamicton. Areas with the pattern have higher sensitivity to contamination fers. Increasingly, county and city plan- than areas without the pattern. Haeger diamicton at the land surface ners are developing plans that encour-

Sugar Grove 30 age recharge to shallow aquifers and 31 Aurora Big Rock protect the quality of these resources. 88 Interstate highways

20 25 U.S. and state routes 47 Three-dimensional geological mapping Other roads Montgomery 25 is being used to delineate the extent, 41° 43' 28" Railroads R. 6 E. R. 7 E. R. 7 E. R. 8 E. 88° 36' 7" 88° 15' 41" Rivers and lakes character, and potential interconnec-

SCALE 1:100,000 Municipal boundaries tions between the sand and gravel 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MILES 1 0 1 2 43 5 6 7 8 9 10 KILOMETERS deposits as well as the depth to the Released by the authority of the State of Illinois: 2007 surficial bedrock aquifer. The 3-D mapping has resulted in the development Figure 10-2 Kane County aquifer sensitivity map (Dey 2007a). of various 2-D maps (e.g., Figure 10-2) developed to assist decision makers in addressing these problems (Dey et al. Quaternary deposits in Illinois are up cated because many of the glacially 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). to 150 m thick and average about 50 originated diamictons are similar in m thick. The areas with the thickest color, texture, and mineralogy. In the The Mahomet Bedrock Valley in east- sucessions of Quaternary deposits subsurface, the correlation of diamic- central Illinois contains thick sand are located in areas with terminal tons is further complicated by the wide and gravel deposits, including the moraines from the late Wisconsin age variability in the thickness and occur- Mahomet aquifer that fills the valley and areas overlying preglacial buried rence of glaciogenic sand and gravel and is the main regional aquifer in bedrock valleys. Most Quaternary deposits. Correlation and mapping of downstate Illinois (Figure 10-3; Soller deposits in Illinois are glaciogenic the glaciofluvial sands and gravels are et al. 1999). Local groundwater extrac- diamictons (poorly sorted deposits, complicated by the prevalence of mul- tions for municipal, industrial, and often rich in clay and silt) or sorted gla- tiple, thin deposits within proglacial agricultural supplies have produced ciofluvial or glaciolacustrine deposits sequences proximal to moraines and significant drawdowns in the piezo- (Lineback 1979). Glaciofluvial sands because of the tendency for episodic metric surface, indicating locally and gravels can be important aquifers scour and local redeposition of thicker significant stress on the aquifer. Three- and are often the main targets in map- sequences of sand and gravel, which dimensional geological mapping is ping of these deposits. Correlation and creates overlapping textural and min- being used to delineate the thickness, mapping of diamictons are compli- eralogical characteristics. character, and extent of the sand and gravel within the valley, the distribu-

54 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Prepared in cooperation with the tion of fine-grained deposits within the U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

89° 88° valley succession, and the distribution WOODFORD CO.

MC LEAN CO. 72 5 6 7 850 5 775 7 0 75 850 0 82 0 82 80 0 5 5

775 7 5 Mackinaw 800 0 800 7 Normal 7 5 75 0 77 40° 30' 700 8 IS CO. and interconnection of sand deposits 2 5 UO 72 5 IROQ 5 Bloomington 850 67 FORD CO. 5 Gibson City 6 87 Paxton 50 5 7 0 5 80 750 0

. 7 7 80 5 O 0

900

FORD CO.

AN C E

L N CO. above the main Mahomet Bedrock

CHAMPAIG

800 775 MC

C Le Roy 725

TAZEWELL CO. 7 A 0 75 00 N Heyworth LOGAN CO. C Rantoul 6 O 725 75

. MC LEAN CO. 72 5 Valley deposits. Products will include DE WITT CO. 70 Atlanta 0 750 800 Farmer City 7 75 775

50 CHAMP 7 V

Mahomet E .

R 600 O

725 MI 5 8 7 77 7 . 0 5 8 0

5 LI 0 T C O 5 2 AI T C 5 O (1) geological framework models of 7 7 G WI N 2 7 50 75 5 TT 25 700 6 N Lincoln IA CO.

Clinton DE CO 5 50 0 P 62 6 75

. Champaign Urbana 700

O 675 G 700 various resolutions for use in regional

DE WITT CO. C

H 0

CO MACON CO. A 5 P 7 2

IA 7

. Monticello

70 .

T CT

Mount Pulaski . 0

0 I O

G 0 O

N 7

O C 40° C

0 N . Tolono

65 C O

O TT

75 C

A PIA M and local groundwater flow modeling 600 6 6 75 7 13F.—Topography of the land surface, which is equivalent to the upper sur- 5 LOGAN CO. 5 face of the Wedron and Mason Groups except where they are covered by 7 Pesotum SANGAMON CO. 6 700 700 thin, discontinuous Cahokia Formation. In the southwestern part of the 725 map area, beyond the limit of ice that deposited the Wedron Group diamic- Decatur tons, thin Cahokia Formation and Peoria Silt directly overlie the upper and (2) maps for guiding sustainable Glasford Formation. 14F.—Elevation of the land surface, which is equivalent to the top of the Wedron and Mason Groups except where they are covered by thin, discontinuous Cahokia Formation. In the southwestern part of the map area (beyond the limit of ice that deposited the Wedron Group diamictons, shown by black line), thin Cahokia Formation and Peoria Silt directly overlie the upper Glasford Formation. management decisions for regional

89° 88°

700 7 WOODFORD CO. 2 5 groundwater and surface water sys- MC LEAN CO.

750 725 Mackinaw 62 7 Normal 5 00 650 40° 30' IROQUOIS CO. 700 7 7 675 25 00 675 Bloomington D CO. tems. FOR 5 Gibson City 57 Paxton 600 650 6

25 .

C O

725 FORD CO. AN

L CHAMPAIGN CO. E

75 C

0 M

C Le Roy

L 650 TAZEWELL CO. E

AN Heyworth LOGAN CO. CO Rantoul The Illinois River is a critical shipping

. MC LEAN CO. 700 Atlanta DE WITT CO. 7 5 0 7 Farmer City 25 675 575 6 70 00 650 0 675

6 V 75 Mahomet E .

AMP

R O M artery connecting the Great Lakes C .

T O LI

650 AI T

I C O T 650 GN W T N E A Lincoln I C

Clinton D CO.

P O.

625 625 Champaign Urbana

0 with the Gulf of Mexico. Landslide 65

O 0 5 5 G 625 62 6

DE WITT CO. C

CO MACON CO. A

M 13E.—Topography of upper surface of the upper Glasford Formation. IA

. Monticello

AIG .

Southeast corner of the map area shows upper surface of the lower Mount Pulaski .

O C

Glasford Formation. Sinuous, high-relief areas in the west and southeast 40° C

N . Tolono

T O

are the result of incision by modern streams (for example, from west to east O C

AT and erosion problems have created

A P

in the southern half of the map area, the valleys of Salt Creek, the M 625 Sangamon River, and Salt Fork). A small topographic high near the south- 625 60 575 0 east corner of the map area is attributed to a key stratigraphic control point LOGAN CO. Pesotum where lower Glasford Formation deposits were found at a noticeably high- SANGAMON CO. 650 er elevation than in adjacent points. Although this data point does not agree with the regional map trend, it was retained (see discussion on sheet Decatur significant sediment water-quality 1 under “An internally consistent geologic model and set of maps,” first paragraph). 14E.—Elevation of the top of the upper Glasford Formation. problems in the river. The ancient Mis-

89° 88° sissippi River, before it was diverted WOODFORD CO. MC LEAN CO.

650 675 650 67 650 5 625 Mackinaw 6 Normal 2 5 6 to its present location about 150 km 40° 30' 675 0 IROQUOIS CO. 0 Bloomington FORD CO. Gibson City 575 Paxton

700 .

FORD CO. AN C ANO C

550 E to the west about 20,350 years ago L CHAMPAIGN CO.

0 C 60 M 5

M 62

C L Le Roy

TAZEWELL CO. E

N Heyworth LOGAN CO. C 0 Rantoul 5 O 6

. MC LEAN CO. (McKay et al. 2008), occupied what is Atlanta DE WITT CO. Farmer City

5 HAM

Mahomet ER 67 . O

M C .

T O L 6 A C 2 I now the Middle Illinois River valley. 5 IT O

I 650 T 6 G W 0 N C T N C Lincoln E 0 Clinton D IA

P O.

6 25 Champaign Urbana

6 00

O 5 7

G Repeated glacial advances and retreats 5

DE WITT CO. C

MACON CO. A

O 5

M 13D.—Topography of upper surface of the lower Glasford Formation. 50 IA

. Monticello

A .

Mount Pulaski .

Sinuous, high-relief areas in the southwest and southeast are the result of IG O

O C

40° C

incision by modern streams (the valleys of Salt Creek and Salt Fork, respec- CO N

. Tolono 625

O TT

tively). A small topographic high near the southeast corner of the map area C 6

. A 6 50

6 I 00

575 00 A 675 P

is attributed to a key stratigraphic control point where lower Glasford M over the area, resulting in numerous Formation deposits were found at a noticeably higher elevation than in adja- 550 625 cent points. Although this data point does not agree with the regional map LOGAN CO. Pesotum trend, it was retained (see discussion on sheet 1 under “An internally con- SANGAMON CO. 650 sistent geologic model and set of maps,” first paragraph). Decatur interactions of glacial ice with the 14D.—Elevation of the top of the lower Glasford Formation. ancient Mississippi River and later the

89° 88°

WOODFORD CO. 600 Illinois River, resulted in a very com- MC LEAN CO. 5 25 6 5 600625 50 62 50 575 5

6 2 0 5 60 Mackinaw Normal 575

40° 30' 6 50 IROQUOIS CO. 5 Bloomington plex geological history and succession 52 FORD CO. 675 Gibson City 0 Paxton 55

N C NO. C FORD CO. EA

L L CHAMPAIGN CO.

C of deposits. The Illinois Department M

MC 5 Le Roy 2 500 5

L CO. EA 60 TAZEWEL 5 0 7 5 N 5 5 Heyworth 0 LOGAN CO. CO Rantoul

. MC LEAN CO. Atlanta DE WITT CO. of Transportation is considering state 575 Farmer City 0 55

Mahomet E 6 .

AM 575 00 R 6 O 5 25 M 5 C .

P 0 I T L

T CO I

I O 5 75 GN 2 N C 5 W TT 5 highway expansion through upland Lincoln E A 0

Clinton D 55 CO

PI O.

. 5 52 Champaign Urbana

AN DE WITT CO. C and lowland areas adjacent to the 525

MACON CO. A

13C . Monticello

.—Topography of upper surface of the upper Banner Formation. P 75 T

5 . 50 T

Mount Pulaski .

5 IG

C O

5 O

2 C

5 O

40° C

N . Tolono

O 550

O TT

5 C

5 A

0 PIA M 575 5 25 Illinois River, and the City of Peoria, LOGAN CO. 600 62 Pesotum 6 5 SANGAM 00 ON CO. 57 625 5 Decatur which is located on the river, has lim- 14C.—Elevation of the top of the upper Banner Formation. ited groundwater resources and prob-

89° 88°

WOODFORD CO. EXPLANATION 575 MC LEAN CO. lems with local groundwater contami- Fluvial (sand and gravel) facies

Mackinaw 550 47 Normal Lacustrine (silt) facies 5 525 40° 30' IROQUOIS CO. 500 Bloomington Where patterns coincide, lacustrine facies FORD CO. Gibson City nation. Three-dimensional mapping is overlies fluvial facies Paxton

500 C O. C

N FORD CO.

CHAMPAIGN CO. 5 52

5 MCLEA 4 00 MC 75 being used (1) to provide insight about Le Roy

TAZEWELL CO. EA

N Heyworth 500 LOGAN CO. CO Rantoul

. 500 550 MC LEAN CO. 525 Atlanta DE WITT CO. 475 the geological conditions expected Farmer City

CHAM

Mahomet ER .

0 M 50 CO . 525

ITT CO O

T G

W N

T N E

CO Lincoln CO. Clinton D IA P in various potential highway corri- 5 47 . 0 0 Champaign 5 13B.—Topography of upper surface of the middle Banner Formation Urbana deposits lying in the Mahomet Bedrock Valley. Includes lower Banner

Formation deposits where in the valley (see discussion on sheet 1 under O 500

“Quaternary stratigraphy,” fifth paragraph). DE WITT CO. C N 25 5 H

MACON CO. AM

O dors (Figure 10-4); (2) to identify the IA

. Monticello

5 TT

2 AIG 5 . 500

Mount Pulaski .

O O

O C

40° 0 C N 0 . Tolono

5 C O

O C

PIATT M 475 distribution, character, and intercon- LOGAN CO. Pesotum SANGAMON CO. Decatur 500 nections of sand and gravel deposits; 14B.—Elevation of the top of the middle Banner Formation. Approximate distribution of fluvial (sand and gravel) and lacustrine (silt) facies of the Mahomet Sand Member is shown by patterns. Sand and gravel commonly occur in the Mahomet Bedrock Valley’s main channel. Silt and clay occur in tributaries because ice or sediment dams in the main channel blocked the tributaries, causing water to pond and fine sediment to be deposited. and (3) to characterize the geological deposits along the banks of the Illinois

89° 88°

Y WOODFORD CO. E Y L E L River and its tributaries as a guide for CO. L MC LEAN L A 475 V A 4 50 V 4 K 25 C 500

4 K 00 O 475 50 DR C 4 375 E 5 O 2 Mackinaw B 4 S R R Normal 00 K DANVE 650 D 4

C E 40° 30' 625 IROQUOIS CO. O B understanding bank erosion problems. Bloomington R O. 350 A FORD C D Gibson City G Paxton 00 E 600 4 Y R B E 75 575 A 3 L L 50 N

W . 5 O 0 A A O 5 35 C 52 V N 550 5 I FORD CO. 500 K 52 0 C 50 475 A 75 EAN L CHAMPAIGN CO. 4 M 4 50 0 4 45 C 2 4 5 M 00 13A.—Topography of the bedrock surface. MC Le Roy

TAZEWELL CO. E Y

N 5 M Heyworth 2 LOGAN CO. 4 LLE CO A 0 Rantoul H 40 VA . O M MC LEAN CO.

E DE WITT CO. Atlanta T K E Farmer City 50 N 4 5 3 3 . 42 400 75 5 OCK N 4 4 4 0 O 5 2 R 7 5 BE C 400 E 0 . 5 5 D 25 0 0 Y 00 T O 4 40 45 D T C C I 450 75 V T 4 HAMP R Mahomet BE 0 ER W T O E 50 5 C D IA M P K 52 I L Funding Sources for B 0 55 A ED 5 0 I

O R 0 I

0 G O 0 75 5 C 52 5 4 T 5 N K 55 4 25 0 57 N C 4 0

Lincoln 5 CO EXPLANATION OF STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS Clinton 40 0 V 37 ME 6

V A 350 O . Figures 13A–F and 16C and F A L 525 L L L E Champaign E Y MAH Urbana Y 525 Wedron and Mason Groups, including 500

Cahokia Formation (Wisconsin and O Hudson Episodes). Unit is assigned a GA

DE WITT CO. C

H 350 minimum thickness of 15 ft

C MACON CO. 3 A 75 P 3 O 75

M IA 400 3-D Geological Mapping

. Monticello

P Upper Glasford Formation (Illinois T

AI . T 4 Mount Pulaski 40 . 2

O 5 4 G

Episode) 25 0 O C

N P

O 40° E

0 N . S Tolono

45 C O 550 O

O Upper Glasford basal sand 475 TTC T 5

C 52

. A U 650 0 4 47 525 50 A 50 50 500 PI M 625 5 55

M 0

0 Lower Glasford Formation (Illinois M 475 00 550 5 6 52 550 50 5 I 4 57 Episode) D B 0 D LOGAN CO. E 55 5 DR 52 Lower Glasford basal sand L SANGAMON CO. O E Pesotum CK 500 Funding for 3-D geological mapping TOW VALLEY N BE Upper Banner Formation (pre-Illinois DROCK VALLEY Decatur Episode) Base from ISGS data that was digitized from USGS SCALE 1:500 000 1:24,000- and 1:62,500-scale topographic maps Middle Banner Formation—mostly 01 0 01 20 MILES Mahomet Sand Member (pre-Illinois Universal Transverse Mercator projection Episode) 10 0 10 20 KILOMETERS at the ISGS can be grouped into four Bedrock (undifferentiated)

14A.—Elevation of the bedrock surface. Bedrock units are undifferentiated. Selected bedrock valleys are identified. Figure 13A–F.—Block diagrams of the map area showing surface topography of bedrock and of five Quaternary stratigraphic units. Vertical faces categories: show variability in thickness of the Quaternary units. Viewpoint is from the Figure 14A–F.—Elevation, in feet above sea level, of the top or uppermost surface of bedrock and of five southeast. To show topographic features, the images are vertically exag- Quaternary stratigraphic units. Refer to discussion on sheet 1 under “Converting to raster format” for gerated approximately 30x. explanation of characteristic jagged boundaries of units on these raster maps. 1. federal and state partnerships; Figure 10-3 Examples of 3-D maps and models of the 2. county, local, and state partnerships; Mahomet Bedrock Valley (Soller et al. 1999).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 55 3. federal, county, state partnerships; and 4. private corporation and state partnerships. Within the federal and state partnership category and the federal, county, state partnership categories, the longest continually funded mapping program at the ISGS is the Great Lakes Geologic Mapping Coalition (GLGMC) (http://www.greatlakesgeology.org). At the ISGS, the GLGMC supports high-resolution 3-D mapping consistent with the detail generally found in 1:24,000-scale maps of surficial deposits. To date, the GLGMC efforts at the ISGS have focused on mapping the Quaternary deposits of extreme northeastern Illinois. Historically, the federal-state partnerships also have Figure 10-4 GeoVisionary rendering of standardized lithologic borehole logs with paid for medium-resolution mapping a 1-m LiDAR-based digital elevation model. of a multi-county portion of the Qua- ternary deposits above the Mahomet • data collection and organization; A significant amount of time in this Bedrock Valley in east-central Illinois phase of a mapping project also is (Figure 10-3)(Soller et al. 1999). • interpretation, correlation, and interpolation; and spent verifying the location of the data Partnerships of county and local gov- points. This step is important because • production of basic and interpretive ernment agencies matched with state many of the map units can be very maps. funding from the ISGS have typically thin to discontinuous, and errors in supported 3-D geological mapping at The first phase of any ISGS mapping location can result in vertical shifts in a medium resolution that is compat- project is compilation of existing data the reported elevation of individual ible with geological characterization within the mapping area. Most of these deposits and can introduce errors into in support of regional groundwater data are driller’s logs from water wells. correlations and the final map. Finally, flow modeling. These efforts have been Other, more reliable data used in map- priorities for new data collection are conducted in central and northeastern ping projects include stratigraphic bor- typically identified at this phase of the Illinois. ings and core descriptions collected by project. When funds allow, new data ISGS geologists, geophysical borehole are collected during various parts of Partnerships between private corpo- logs from water supply or observation the project cycle (e.g., from test drill- rations and the state to support 3-D wells, previously published maps or ing). geological mapping have been rare, but reports, and existing field and outcrop important. Currently, a high-resolution descriptions. Water-well driller’s logs The second phase of each 3-D geo- 3-D geological mapping program is in (about 450,000 in Illinois) are generally logical mapping project involves the progress in and around Champaign in their original form and include basic iterative processes of interpretation, County in east-central Illinois. The lithologic descriptions of the materi- correlation, and interpolation. Early geological mapping for this project is als that were encountered. To simplify steps are the identification of the map- being funded by the local water utility the interpretation and correlation of ping objectives, the determination of and is designed to support subsequent water-well data, the driller’s lithologic the detail required in final products, groundwater flow modeling and long- descriptions are matched with a set and the identification of the main term sustainable management of the of standard lithotypes. This process is mapping units. As part of this process, groundwater resources. accomplished using a custom Micro- the selected data are reviewed, and the soft Access database and user inter- mapping team examines available core face that facilitates the assignment of samples to identify the likely deposi- 3-D Mapping Methods standard lithotypes. Visualizing this tional environments and then delin- While 3-D geological mapping projects lithologically standardized borehole eates the map-unit framework for the are not required to follow a standard- data has become an important element area. Cross sections are made, either ized mapping protocol at the ISGS, of the ISGS mapping protocol, as it by hand or via computer, alternate the basic mapping workflow is fairly provides a first glimpse of data distri- conceptual models are explored, and consistent: bution and quality in 3-D space (Figure initial map unit assignments are made. 10-4). From these initial interpretations, geologists use one of two approaches

56 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey 88° 14' 19" R. 6 E. R. 7 E. R. 7 E. R. 8 E. 42° 9' 15" Alternatively, ISGS geologists have 700 700 Algonquin Barrington Huntley Hills 700 650 62 been intergrating GSI3D into their 47 31 25 90 700 600 650 Carpentersville mapping projects. GSI3D creates 3-D maps through interpolation fron a 700 700 Gilberts large set of cross sections. 68

750 Hampshire East Dundee 72 72 Sleepy 700 Hollow 31 72 90 The third and final phase of the map- 700 West 650 Dundee 700 750 650 ping project includes the production T. 42 N. 700 600 T. 41 N. Pingree Grove T. 42 N. 800 T. 41 N. of basic and interpretive map layers. 650 Burlington During this phase, the mapping objec- 20 800 700 650 tives and the list of contracted deliv- 700

750 Elgin Major Aquifers (thickness in feet) erables are revisited to determine the 20 St. Charles

650 >100 list of 2-D map sheets that will be pro-

50–100 600 duced. This list always includes both South

650 750 Elgin 700 20–50 structure and isopach maps for each T. 41 N. T. 41 N. Hampshire T. 40 N. T. 40 N. map unit. Interpretive maps are devel- 750 >100 650

50–100 750 oped to address specific issues that E Virgil L 550 64 700 650 G I 47 N 20–50 B E are important to the decision makers 31 D 650 R 700 O Virgil C Lily Lake K V within the map region. Maps showing A >100 700 L 700 64 L 700 E Y 700 25 50–100 the occurrence, depth, and thickness 700

700 Maple 20–50 750 500 700 of major aquifers are commonly gener- Park 64 St. Charles Gilberts 750 750 50–100 ated interpretive maps (Figure 10-5). 38 650 700 T. 40 N. T. 40 N. 38 T. 39 N. T. 39 N. Elburn 20–50 Other interpretive maps can highlight 750 Geneva 600 Carpentersville construction-related issues; predict >100 r 550 e Y v i E R L land shaking for specific earthquake L 50–100

88 K C 700 20–50 scenarios, or address specific shallow 650 O 600 R Y D 650 E E LL Batavia Unnamed B VA K groundwater flow issues. Often, the N C R RO >100 U D Fox 700 B 650 BE L 550 ES E RL HA set of surface grids that form the 3-D T. C 50–100 S600

600

600 650 20–50 geologic map are exported for use in 600

650 650 650 T. 39 N. T. 39 N. 56 groundwater flow models. This process T. 38 N. T. 38 N. 650 650 550 North Aurora 650 does not involve the creation of new 650 88 Bedrock surface elevation 750 Contour interval 50 feet 650 (above mean sea level) published map products; it typically 600 88 Interstate highways involves only the reformatting of the 600 550 20 25 650 650 U.S. and state routes 30 Sugar Grove 31 600 Aurora Other roads surface map files into a form that can Big Rock 600 Railroads 550 be easily input to software used by col- 500 Rivers and lakes 600 600 550 47 laborating groundwater flow modelers. 600 600 600 Municipal boundaries Montgomery 25 600 Depending on the software available, 600 41° 43' 28" R. 6 E. R. 7 E. R. 7 E. R. 8 E. 88° 36' 7" 88° 15' 41" 3-D block models and animations can be generated to highlight important SCALE 1:100,000 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MILES geological features that were identi- 1 0 1 2 43 5 6 7 8 9 10 KILOMETERS fied during mapping and that highlight Released by the authority of the State of Illinois: 2007 critical mapping objectives.

Figure 10-5 Kane County major Quaternary aquifer map (Dey et al. 2007c). Mapping Software and Staffing Strategy to mapping. In the more traditional to express the desired geometry. The Over the past 5 years, the ISGS has approach, structure and isopach maps conceptual model is used to determine explored various software options to are generated to evaluate the distri- the order and relationships between support 3-D geological mapping over bution and thickness of key marker the various map units. Erosional and a range of spatial scales, from site-spe- horizons or important map units. onlap relationships are identified, and cific to thousands of square kilometers. Typically these maps are generated grid-to-grid mathematical routines are The ISGS evaluated high-cost pack- using computer interpolation software used to create the correct relationships ages developed to support petroleum and then stored as uniformly gridded between pairs of surfaces. This process and mining applications and mid- to data sets. Each surface is evaluated is repeated until the entire set of sur- low-cost packages developed to sup- against both the data and the set of face maps meets the interpretations of port the environmental consulting and other surfaces that constitute the 3-D the mapping team. Depending on data regulatory industries. The cost and map. When a surface map does not fit quality and geological complexity, this value of developing custom software the conceptual model, the data, or the can be a very slow process. for 3-D mapping and visualization other surfaces, that map is corrected

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 57 were explored as was the feasibility of assistance from support staff in GIS staff while allowing the geophysicists using modular, ad hoc combinations of and surface interpolation to help con- to manage, update, and interpret these desktop software to generate 3-D geo- struct the structure and isopach maps, files at any time. logic maps. and to build and cross-check the various surfaces as 3-D maps and models After years of evaluation and discus- are built. Interpretation, Correlation, sion, the ISGS selected the modular, ad and Interpolation hoc combination of software for creat- Currently, the 3-D mapping program Software used for data analysis ing 3-D geologic maps. This modular relies on a suite of software for the fol- includes ArcGIS, Excel, and Isatis. approach allows mappers the flexibility lowing phases and tasks in the ISGS Custom programs also have been of efficiently improving their map- mapping workflow. developed to work with ArcScene to ping approach as software evolves to visualize 3-D borehole data. These improve its support of various parts of in-house programs also allow for bore- the mapping workflow. This approach Data Collection hole data interpretations, assigning allows for continual use of the enter- and Organization mapping unit interpretations to the prise database of wells, borings, and Well logs, core and sample descrip- underlying database, and simplifying outcrops and for utilization of a stan- tions, and outcrop descriptions are the construction of cross sections and dardized, open data structure for man- managed using both Oracle and Micro- surface maps. aging geophysical data types, as well soft Access. The ISGS is moving to cen- as images, cross sections, surface map tralization within the enterprise data- Three-dimensional visualization is grid files, animations, etc. Custom pro- base under Oracle and reliance on vari- currently being handled by three soft- grams and scripts can be easily inte- ous user interfaces, some via Microsoft ware packages, GeoVisionary (Figures grated to provide desired functionality, Access. New Web-based interfaces to 10-4 and 10-6), ArcScene, and GSI3D. and there is no need to completely basic data access are expected to be The ISGS is in the early stages of com- revise the suite of programs, workflow, developed over the next year. bining these two applications into or data structure if the underlying an integrated workflow. These three software changes dramatically. This The directory and file structure are packages are expected to allow for the modular approach also permits the standardized for the management of integration of all data types into a high- integration of routinely used soft- the various geophysical borehole logs resolution 3-D environment and allow ware products (e.g., ArcGIS, Oracle, and geophysical profile data sets. This for interpretations in this 3-D space. Microsoft Access, MAPublisher), and standardization allows the data sets to Visualization of 3-D voxel models of it accommodates new applications be efficiently located and queried by all facies and petrophysical properties are for any aspect of the workflow (e.g., visualization or surface interpolation) as they become available. Finally, this approach allows for the inclusion of software and custom scripts that are user-friendly enough for the tech-savvy field geologists to use and that do not require significant training or time for the mapping technicians or support specialists. The current strategy for ISGS staffing on 3-D mapping projects is fluid and is based on the size of mapping areas, timeframes of projects, budget flexibilities, geological complexities, and technological capabilities of field geologists. Most projects have the assistance of support staff for data management, and all mapping projects receive technical support in the production of map products. Most field geologists are able to manage ArcGIS and surface interpolation software and, for smaller projects, do not require the assistance of support staff in these areas. Larger projects and projects with more geological complexity often have Figure 10-6 Visualization laboratory image on screen on GeoVisionary.

58 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey being handled by the Isatis 3-D Viewer. Lessons Learned rather than having most costs sup- Although these applications will gener- ported by a small number of proj- ally be used in a desktop environment, 1. Pilot studies for 3-D mapping ects. Some funding agents will not a 3-D/stereo visualization laboratory started with high-end, sophisti- allow software charges, however, so recently has been constructed to pro- cated software and required one those costs must be covered by other vide a large collaborative space for technician per mapping project. means. This approach was expensive, but discussing data and interpretations 4. Recently, the ISGS began developing and for developing 3-D geologic maps successful. Some geologists were frustrated that they could not con- 3-D visualization software tools to with the mapping team (Figure 10-6). analyze data and make interpreta- This visualization laboratory houses trol the software themselves and felt disconnected from the process tions from the data. These tools a high-resolution projection with a allow for a much more intuitive pro- rear projection 4.2-m × 2.4-m screen, and resulting maps. Based on this feedback, a system was selected that cess and are preferred by the geolo- conference tables, a white board, and gists who have used them. The over- modular seating for up to 20 people. included user-friendly software. This system requires support for data head for this approach is currently As noted in the previous section, management and some part-time higher, as it requires a staff member the traditional ISGS 3-D mapping help from technicians for creation with expertise in programming. If approach relies on the creation of indi- of traditional surface maps and con- the efficiency and accuracy of the vidual surface maps for tops or bot- struction of integrated 3-D maps. 3-D mapping projects improve with toms of each map unit. These surface this approach, this investment will 2. When the ISGS started the migration be worthwhile. maps are created and managed as 2-D to 3-D geological mapping there was grids using various software applica- no standard data structure that met 5. When the ISGS began its current tions. Currently, ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, the new 3-D mapping needs. A stan- emphasis on digital mapping, Surfer, Rockworks, and Isatis are the dard data structure and in-house geologists experienced significant four main packages used for creating customized tools have recently problems caused by inefficiencies in surface maps. Increasingly, GSI3D is been developed for interacting with map production. At that time, field being intergrated into 3-D mapping data. Although standardization of geologists were allowed to compile workflows. GSI3D is typically easier to mapping software is not part of the and direct the cartographic style of use and allows the geologist to procure planned workflow, the ISGS will only their map products. This flexibility more accurate sets of surfaces in a provide centralized purchasing and seemed worthwhile, but it created much shorter time. The interface and technical support for some software delays in the review and publica- tools are more intuitive than those we packages and will require data and tion process. With time, a standard- use in ArcGIS or Surfer. maps to be saved in standard for- ized approach to map compilation mats at the end of every project to was developed. A professional ensure an enterprise database that cartographer was hired to define Basic and Interpretive the cartographic approach to quad- Map Production includes all map-related data and products. rangle map products, define the ArcGIS, InDesign, and Illustrator are cartographic style of these products, 3. New software for visualization was used by specialists in cartography and and define a map production work- purchased based on a model in digital map production to produce all flow that enables field geologists to which costs are shared by all map- map products. The field geologist’s role provide the geologic map layers to ping projects. This strategy is fairly is to provide the basic map layers to the GIS specialists. The GIS specialists new at the ISGS, and it is not clear if map production specialists and to pro- then use the geology layers with the it can be supported over time. The vide technical input as needed. cartographic standards to quickly cost sharing requires small incre- produce the final products. Through mental costs from every project this process, production of quadrangle maps has soared.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 59 Chapter 11: Manitoba Geological Survey: Multi-scaled 3-D Geological Modeling with a Single Software Solution and Low Costs Greg Keller1, Gaywood Matile2, and Harvey Thorleifson2 1Manitoba Geological Survey, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, and 2Minnesota Geological Survey, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA

Organizational Williston Basin model (TGI II Working Major Clients and Group 2009), the MGS’s commitment Structure, Business to 3-D modeling has grown to include the Need for Models Model, and Mission mapping all of the Phanerozoic ter- To date, 3-D models of the MGS have rane of Manitoba in 3-D. Future plans The Manitoba Geological Survey (MGS) been used by other government include cooperation of the MGS with was founded in 1928. Its mission is to branches, university students, and the Minnesota and North Dakota conduct investigations of the province’s industry to assist in the planning stages Geological Surveys to produce a cross- Precambrian Shield, Western Canada of new pipeline construction, con- border Red River valley 3-D geologi- Sedimentary Basin, and Hudson Bay struction of groundwater models and cal model. This model will combine Basin to improve the understanding chemical flow through these models, the existing North Dakota/Minnesota of Manitoba’s geology and geological and in groundwater exploration drill Fargo-Moorhead regional models processes and, in so doing, encourage holes. The ability to visualize in 3-D is (Thorleifson et al. 2005) with Manito- mineral exploration opportunities and an extremely useful educational tool ba’s 3-D data. Figure 11-1 summarizes contribute to wise land-use manage- for the public, the mineral exploration 3-D mapping activities. ment. Investigations conducted by the industry, and for students interested in MGS include those of exposed bed- a better understanding of Manitoba’s rock, subsurface materials, and surfi- Geological Setting geological landscape. cial sediments including sand, gravel, Manitoba was completely engulfed in and peat. The MGS provides data and Model Methodology products such as geological maps and ice during the last glacial period, and reports, metallic and industrial mineral most of Manitoba is covered with gla- Although more than 25 geologists work deposit reports and databases, mineral cial sediments up to 300 m thick. The at the MGS, only two are responsible resource assessments, targeted geosci- bedrock geology is composed of 60% for 3-D modeling, a geologist and a ence research, development of explora- Precambrian terrane, which is covered GIS/3-D modeling specialist, who work tion models, and maintenance of data by the eastern edge of the Phanerozoic as a team. This synergy works very well, inventories. Williston Basin in the southwestern allowing each scientist to concentrate portion of the province and the west- on his or her field of expertise. Models The MGS is within Manitoba’s Mineral ern edge of the Phanerozoic Hudson are created using data gleaned from a Resources Division along with the Min- Bay Basin in the northeastern portion variety of disparate data sets. The bulk erals Policy and Business Development of the province. The Precambrian ter- of the modeling is based upon well Section and the Mines and Petroleum rane, otherwise known as the Canadian data (water wells, geoscientific and Branches, which are regulatory bodies. Shield, has a discontinuous cover academic wells, and oil and gas wells); Only the geological survey is con- of glacial sediment and is made up however, large lake bathymetry, seis- cerned with 3-D modeling. of deformed crystalline rocks of the mic, digital elevation data, and surficial Archean Superior Province in the south and bedrock geology are also used to Until fairly recently, three-dimensional and east and the Proterozoic Churchill refine the model. The software pack- geological modeling was seen as more Province in the north and west. The ages utilized in the modeling workflow of a novelty than a business require- two Phanerozoic basins have a more include ArcGIS (ESRI), MapInfo (Pitney ment for the MGS. Beginning as a suc- continuous cover of glacial sediment Bowes), Access (Microsoft), and Gocad cessful offshoot of the prairie portion and are composed of a stratified suite (Paradigm). Several different modeling of the Canadian National Geoscience of gently dipping, primarily unde- methodologies have been employed at Mapping Program (NATMAP), through formed, Paleozoic carbonate rocks that the MGS depending on the type of data the 2003 Lake Winnipeg Basin model, in the Williston Basin progress upward available. the 2008 Western Canada Sedimentary to Mesozoic shale. The surface of the Basin (WCSB) model (Keller and Matile Williston Basin comprises a set of 2009), and the recently completed 2009 eastward-facing bedrock escarpments Targeted Geoscience Initiative (TGI) that step up onto younger rocks in a westward direction.

60 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Cross Section Method (Quaternary to Precambrian Surface for Southeastern Manitoba) • Water-well data (over 80,000 holes), along with surficial geology, bedrock geology, and digital elevation data are collected for the study area. • These data are then formatted and plotted onto 54-inch cross section traces depicting a 5-km-wide west- east swath through the study area. • Each cross section trace is then hand-interpreted to define unit tops, which filters data of variable quality based on local trends. • The interpretation is captured every 5 km along the cross section trace and recorded as “virtual drill holes” or predicted stratigraphic points (PSP), which provides a 5-km grid of PSPs for the project area; these data are then imported into Microsoft Figure 11-1 Index map outlining the location of the various 3-D geological mod- Access and formatted. eling activities in and around Manitoba. The southwestern Manitoba model is in • The formatted PSPs are then progress. Yellow blocks indicate areas of higher detail within the Fargo-Moorhead imported into Gocad 3 modeling model. software and combined with unit edges to create a model surface. • Model surfaces are then used to “erode” Gocad stratigraphic grids (Sgrid) to create a filled volume or “solid” for each modeled unit (Figure 11-2).

Direct Data Modeling Method (Phanerozoic to Precambrian Surface) • Five to eight stratigraphically significant deep, detailed drill holes (“golden spikes”) per township (10 km × 10 km) are selected, and formation tops are re-picked for consistency at a high level of detail by stratigraphers over the study area. • The resulting data set of formation tops and a data set of formation edges form the basis of the model.

Figure 11-2 Three-dimensional geological Gocad model of southeast Manitoba • These data are imported into Gocad including the Winnipeg region. and, because this data has been filtered by stratigraphers, can be directly modeled (Figure 11-3).

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 61 Digitization Modeling Method (Chronostratigraphic Rock Units to Precambrian Surface) • To convert the existing paper 3-D model in the atlas of the WCSB into a digital 3-D model (Figure 11-4), structural contours and formation edges for each of the geological periods were scanned from the WCSB (Mossop and Shetsen 1994) and digitized. • The digitized contours were tagged for elevation and, along with the edges, were exported into Gocad and directly modeled. In each of these methodologies, the size of the data cells and/or triangles in the TIN of the resultant model are dependant on data quality and distribution, model size, and available computing power.

Advantages of the Figure 11-3 Three-dimensional geological Gocad model of the TGI Williston Basin project area. MGS 3-D Mapping Approach Using well-established, fairly inex- pensive software for the background work (Microsoft Access, MapInfo GIS, text editors), and a single 3-D software solution (Gocad) keeps costs and workflow manageable. The cross section methodology brings all of the available data together to use in interpreting the stratigraphy. Some data are lost in data-rich areas using this cross section method, but the method allows trends to be projected into data-poor areas. A free data viewer (Geocando) is available for Gocad that allows clients and the general public free access to the models (3-D visualization, rotation, and simple querying).

Figure 11-4 Three-dimensional geological Gocad model of the Western Canada Lessons Learned Sedimentary Basin spanning Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. • Although water-well data are highly variable in quality, they are very useful to fill in data gaps between • Model uncertainty can be calculated holes, compressing all of the drill the “golden spikes,” and data can simply by observing the data den- hole data from a 5-km north-south be filtered by looking for trends sity and geological complexity of an swath to a single cross section trace using the cross section method just area. can make interpretation difficult. described. • In areas with a large number of drill This difficulty is due to the scale

62 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey of the cross section; holes begin to much like steps can be generated vided by a digital elevation model obscure one another as numbers when using contoured data. The will rectify this issue. lack of drill holes makes it difficult to increase, which is particularly sig- • Although buried valleys in south- visualize the trend of the data. nificant in areas with increased local ern Manitoba are only recogniz- relief. • Unit edges that have been drawn in able on the cross sections when • Where data are sparse, the cross sec- plan view without being cognizant they intersect a cross section at an tion methodology can generate par- of local relief can lead to flattened angle approaching perpendicular, allel ridges on the final surface due bedrock escarpments. Updated the cross section method will still to variations in isolated drill data edges drawn with shaded relief pro- be useful for targeting exploration from cross section to cross section, water wells in buried valleys.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 63 Chapter 12: TNO–Geological Survey of the Netherlands: 3-D Geological Modeling of the Upper 500 to 1,000 Meters of the Dutch Subsurface Jan Stafleu, Denise Maljers, Freek Busschers, Jan Gunnink, and Ronald Vernes TNO–Geological Survey of the Netherlands, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Organizational The annual budget for geologists and Geological Setting modelers at TNO–Geological Survey Structure, Business of the Netherlands is about ¡3 million. Introductions to the Quaternary geol- Model, and Mission There are approximately 10 geologists, ogy of the Netherlands can be found in 5 geohydrologists, 4 geomodelers, publications by Zagwijn (1989) and De The present TNO–Geological Survey 4 geochemists, and 4 part-time GIS Gans (2007) among others. The follow- of the Netherlands was founded in experts working on various modeling ing summary is largely adapted from 1997 by merging the governmental projects. From this staff there are 3 descriptions by Rondeel et al. (1996). organization Rijks Geologische Dienst modelers and 1 to 2 geologists working (literally State Geological Survey) and The Netherlands are located on the more or less full-time only on the 3-D the TNO Institute for Groundwater and southeastern rim of the North Sea geological modeling of the subsurface Geo-Energy. The origin of the State Basin (Figure 12-1), and the edges of of the Netherlands. Geological Survey dates back to 1903; this basin are close to the country’s the TNO Institute for Groundwater started its work in 1948. Both institutes have always paid considerable atten- tion to applied geoscientific research. The mission of TNO–Geological Survey of the Netherlands is to provide the society with customized geoscientific knowledge, data, and information based on a thorough knowledge of the subsurface. The Institute employs over 300 geoscientists and has a turnover of about ¡35 million. The Geological Survey of the Netherlands forms part of the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), which was established in 1932. The geomodeling department of the TNO–Geological Survey of the Neth- erlands focuses on the sustainable use and management of the upper 500 to 1,000 m of the Dutch subsurface. The department’s most important task is the characterization and modeling of geological deposits. It develops and maintains three models: DGM (digital geological model), REGIS II (Regional Geohydrological Information System), and GeoTOP (3-D model of the upper 30 m). REGIS II emerged from separate mapping tasks commissioned by the 12 Dutch provinces in collaboration with the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management and with TNO.

Figure 12-1 Location and schematic geological map of the Netherlands.

64 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey eastern and southern borders. The sed- try. In the east, these sediments include GeoTOP: A 3-D Volume iments at the surface are almost exclu- various Mesozoic and Tertiary forma- Model of the Upper 30 sively Quaternary. The thickest Qua- tions, whereas those to the southwest ternary succession (600 m) occurs in are of Pliocene age. In one particular Meters the northwest. Tertiary and older sedi- valley in the hills of the southernmost GeoTOP expresses the shallow subsur- ments are only exposed in the extreme province, Tertiary sands, clays, lignites, face schematically in millions of grid east and south of the country, where and Cretaceous chalk are eroded down cells (blocks), each measuring 100 × the edges of the North Sea Basin were to their Carboniferous substratum. 100 m in the horizontal direction and uplifted and eroded. The southeastern 0.5 m in the vertical direction. Sev- portion of the Netherlands is affected eral parameter values are estimated by a southeast-northwest string fault Three Nationwide for each grid cell. These parameters system, which formed a number of Models include geological characteristics, such horst and graben blocks during the as lithostratigraphic and lithofacies Tertiary and Quaternary. These faults DGM: The Digital units, as well as physical and chemical are still active. Geological Model parameters, such as hydraulic conductivity and chloride content. The cell- The Dutch landscape essentially con- Modern digital mapping of the Dutch based nature of the model allows for sists of a Holocene coastal barrier subsurface started in 1999 with the modeling of the internal heterogeneity and coastal plain and an interior with development of the so-called Digital of lithostratigraphic units in terms of Pleistocene deposits cut by a Holocene Geological Model (DGM; Van Gessel et lithofacies and other parameters. fluvial system. The coastal barrier is al. unpublished.). This model, which interrupted on the south by the estuary is available to both professionals and of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt Rivers the general public (www.dinoloket. Major Clients and and on the north by the tidal inlets of nl), is a 3-D lithostratigraphic frame- the Need for Models the Wadden Sea. The barrier is char- work model of onshore Netherlands. acterized by dunes and is locally up to The DGM consists of a series of REGIS II is widely used by regional 10 km wide. In places the barriers were raster layers. Each lithostratigraphic authorities (i.e., provinces and water reinforced with dikes. unit is represented by rasters for the management agencies) and water top, bottom, and thickness of the supply companies for groundwater The coastal plain covers the western unit. Raster layers are stored in the modeling studies. half of the country and consists mainly raster format of ESRI (ArcGIS). The The lithologic detail that is character- of clay and peat. Much of the plain lithostratigraphic units are at the for- istic for the GeoTOP models is used in would be flooded in the absence of mation level; Holocene deposits are several areas: dikes. The distribution of land and represented as a single layer. water has been strongly influenced by • exploration for aggregate resources humans, and the present-day limited (sand, clay, and shells); extent of peat, for instance, is artificial. REGIS II: The Regional Because peat was historically exploited Geohydrological Information • detailed groundwater and contami- as fuel both in the coastal plain and System nation studies; further inland, moors partially cover • detailed studies of salt penetration A second important step in digital the Pleistocene deposits. from seawater; mapping was the development of the The Rhine and Meuse Rivers enter Regional Geohydrological Informa- • land subsidence studies; and the country from the east and south, tion System (REGIS II; Vernes and Van • planning of large-scale infrastruc- respectively. Throughout the Holocene Doorn 2005), which further subdivides tural works such as tunnels and rail- these rivers formed a thick succession the lithostratigraphic units of the DGM roads of fluvio-deltaic sediments covering into aquifers and aquitards. Represen- the Pleistocene deposits. In many tative values for hydrological param- Software places, the rivers are straightened arti- eters (e.g., hydraulic conductivity and ficially, and virtually everywhere they effective porosity) are calculated and TNO uses a toolbox consisting of sev- are confined by dikes. assigned to the model, making it suit- eral components: able for groundwater modeling on a At the surface, the Pleistocene is largely regional scale. Like DGM, REGIS II • The geostatistical software package sandy and of glacial, fluvial, and aeo- models the Holocene deposits as a Isatis by Geovariance is the main lian origin. Ice-pushed ridges locally single cover layer. REGIS II is down- modeling platform by which sta- reach heights of 100 m, but most of the loadable from the TNO Web site (www. tistical data analysis is performed, Pleistocene occurs as flat-lying land. dinoloket.nl) and is widely used by semi-variograms are constructed, Pre-Pleistocene sediments are only regional authorities and water supply and interpolation procedures are exposed near the borders of the coun- companies for groundwater modeling conducted. studies.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 65 • ESRI’s ArcGIS is used to create addi- Fault Mapping Interpolation tional input data for the modeling, A tectonic map showing all known The depths of the base of each including fault patterns, maps show- major faults in the Tertiary and Qua- lithostratigraphic unit, as derived from ing the extent of lithostratigraphic ternary deposits was constructed the borehole data, are interpolated to units, and geological features such (Figure 12-2). The map is a thorough raster surfaces using the “block-krig- as channel belts. revision of fault patterns from earlier ing” algorithm (Isaaks and Srivastava • All surfaces that result from the 2-D publications, including maps based on 1989, Goovaerts 1997). The top surface interpolations in DGM, REGIS II, seismic data acquired for oil and gas follows indirectly from the joined basal and GeoTOP are stored and pre- exploration. Additional seismic data surfaces of overlying units when all sented in ESRI’s raster format. came from high-resolution surveys in units are stacked (see section on stack- • Gocad is used for visualization of the Roer Valley Graben, which is the ing the units). The base surface was 3-D models and inspection of 2-D most prominent tectonic feature in chosen because this surface is formed surfaces in 3-D displays. the Netherlands. For every lithostrati- by depositional processes that are graphic unit, the faults that have influ- linked to the unit itself, whereas the • There is extensive use of the Python enced the base of the unit are selected top surface is often the result of mul- programming/scripting language and used as “barriers” in the interpola- tiple geological processes (e.g., erosion to create specific programs that tion process. and incision). perform many tasks, for example: (a) converting data from one data format to another; (b) extracting borehole information from the DINO database and preparing it for input to Isatis; and (c) automating lithostratigraphic interpretation of boreholes.

Workflow for Digital Geological Modeling Data Selection The DGM is primarily based on lithologic descriptions of a selection of 16,500 boreholes. This selection aims at an even distribution of good-quality borehole data including key stratigraphic borehole data derived from the Quaternary and Upper Tertiary deposits.

Stratigraphic Interpretation The selected boreholes are stratigraphically interpreted by assigning the revised lithostratigraphic classification (Weerts et al. 2000) to the individual sample intervals. The base of each of the lithostratigraphic units in the boreholes is subsequently used for interpolation and modeling. The basic strategy for lithostratigraphic interpretation is to work from nationwide cross sections to regional-scale cross sections that constitute the geological framework for the final interpretation of individual boreholes. For the interpolation, these individual interpreted boreholes are Figure 12-2 Fault data stored in GIS and extracted for modeling. used.

66 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Block kriging alone often fails to produce a result that corresponds to the geological concept in mind. Therefore, additional information is taken into account, including maps with the maximum spatial extent of each lithostratigraphic unit; trend surfaces showing geological structures (basins) or trends (dip direction and dip angle); and guiding points (“synthetic boreholes”) inserted at locations with specific geological features (e.g., units that pinch out or incised channels). Examples are shown in Figure 12-3.

Stacking the Units Figure 12-3 Schematic representation of two ways to assist interpolation: channel In the final step, the basal surfaces of incision (left) and thinning out near the limit of extent (right). each unit are stacked in a stratigraphically consistent way. In the stacking process, the basal surfaces may intersect. In general, types of intersections are possible: • The upper unit has eroded the lower units; in this case, the lower units are clipped by the upper unit. • The upper unit has been deposited against the relief of the lower unit; in this case, the upper unit is clipped by the lower unit. • The intersection is an artifact of the interpolation process occurring between two conformable units; in this case, the basal surfaces of the two units are adjusted to remove the intersection. The preferred choice of the type of intersection to apply depends on the geological concept that must be appro- priately represented. The stacking process is performed within Isatis, using grid-to-grid operations that are also available in standard GIS software. Figure 12-4 Cross sections through the nationwide digital geological model. An impression of the resulting DGM is shown in Figure 12-4. are situated and the Rhine and Meuse hole descriptions for the Province of Rivers enter the North Sea. A model of Zeeland and more than 50,000 bore- Workflow for GeoTOP the Province of Noord-Holland, includ- hole descriptions for Zuid-Holland. ing Amsterdam and the Schiphol Air- Cone penetration tests will be incorpo- GeoTOP modeling is conducted by port, is currently under construction. rated in the near future, resulting in an provinces using the boreholes in DINO even more extensive data set. and various geological maps created during the last few decades. Following Boreholes Stratigraphic Interpolation the completion of a model of the Prov- The starting point for the GeoTOP ince of Zeeland (70 km × 75 km), mod- models are the borehole descriptions It is virtually impossible to interpret eling focused on the Province of Zuid- stored in the DINO database. This 400,000 boreholes stratigraphically Holland (65 km × 65 km) where major database provides about 23,000 bore- using the manual cross section tech- cities like Rotterdam and The Hague nique used in DGM. Therefore, Python

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 67 scripts were developed that use lithologic borehole descriptions within a context of digitized geological maps to assign lithostratigraphic labels to the borehole intervals.

2-D Interpolation of Stratigraphic Units During the second modeling step, 2-D bounding surfaces are constructed. These surfaces represent the top and base of the lithostratigraphic units and are used to place each 3-D grid cell in the model within the correct lithostratigraphic unit. The procedure used to construct 2-D bounding surfaces is basically the same as the one used in DGM. However, in contrast to DGM, a stochastic interpolation technique is used (sequential Gauss- ian simulation; Goovaerts 1997), which allows for uncertainty to be estimated.

3-D Interpolation of Lithology Classes The lithologic units in the boreholes Figure 12-5 Part of the 3-D model of the central part of Zeeland, southwestern are used to perform a final 3-D sto- Netherlands. chastic interpolation of lithology (e.g., clay, sand, peat) and, if applicable, three dimensions. Examples of physi- sand-grain size class data within each Physical and cal and chemical parameters include lithostratigraphic unit. After this step, Chemical Parameters (1) horizontal and vertical hydrau- a cell-based (100 × 100 × 0.5 m) 3-D In addition to the modeling just lic conductivity, which is crucial in geological model is obtained. The 3-D described, physical and chemical groundwater models, and (2) the reac- interpolation is conducted for each parameters are collected and mea- tivity of sediments, which is used in lithostratigraphic unit separately using sured. The sampling strategy is such the modeling of contaminant plumes. a stochastic interpolation technique that measured values can be assigned The choice of parameters to include called sequential indicator simulation to lithostratigraphic and lithofacies in the models is based on the needs of (Goovaerts 1997). An example of a 3-D units, making it possible to obtain researchers at Deltares, TNO, and other model is shown as Figure 12-5. insights into the spatial variability of organizations. physical and chemical properties in

68 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Chapter 13: U.S. Geological Survey: A Synopsis of Three-dimensional Modeling Linda J. Jacobsen1, Pierre D. Glynn1, Geoff A. Phelps2, Randall C. Orndorff1, Gerald W. Bawden2, and V.J.S. Grauch3 U.S. Geological Survey: 1Virginia, 2California, 3Colorado

Mission and The USGS seeks to expand its 3-D/4-D The USGS has a workforce of approxi- capabilities in monitoring, interpret- mately 9,000 distributed in three large Organizational Needs ing, and distributing natural resource centers (Reston, Virginia; Denver, The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is information, both by adopting and/ Colorado; Menlo Park, California) and a multidisciplinary agency that pro- or developing new 3-D/4-D tools and in numerous smaller science centers vides assessments of natural resources frameworks and by promoting and across the 50 states. Scientific work (geological, hydrological, biological), enabling greater use of available tech- is organized into “projects” run by the disturbances that affect those nology. principal investigators (PIs) who have resources, and the disturbances that significant latitude in planning and Everything that shapes the Earth or affect the built environment, natural conducting research, including acqui- affects its functions does so in 3-D landscapes, and human society. Until sition of the resources (e.g., equipment, space: water flowing over rocks, now, USGS map products have been computers, software) needed to carry through aquifers, or as ice in glaciers; generated and distributed primarily as out their studies. Due to the distributed plants growing up into the atmosphere 2-D maps, occasionally providing cross nature of management and personnel and down into the soil; the move- sections or overlays, but rarely allowing and due to the independence of the ment of animal life and pathogens the ability to characterize and under- PIs, finding common organizational within ecosystems; the movement of stand 3-D systems, how they change solutions is often a challenge. For tectonic plates driven by deep con- over time (4-D), and how they inter- example, concerns regarding optimal vection beneath the crust; volcanic act. And yet, technological advances use of 3-D/4-D technology within the eruptions, floods, debris flows, and in monitoring natural resources and USGS include these: fires; the extraction, sequestration or the environment, the ever-increasing migration of carbon, nutrients, con- • Many tools and solutions are expen- diversity of information needed for taminants, biota, minerals, energy, sive. holistic assessments, and the intrinsic and other resources. Until recently, 3-D/4-D nature of the information • The user community is not well the computational and visualization obtained increases our need to gener- coordinated and sometimes does power necessary to understand these ate, verify, analyze, interpret, confirm, not buy or share software licenses complex systems was limited to a store, and distribute its scientific infor- as a group. Buying power is not cur- handful of supercomputing centers or mation and products using 3-D/4-D rently maximized. industrious scientists. This situation visualization, analysis, modeling tools, has now changed: personal computers • Pockets of specialists are emerging, and information frameworks. equipped with fast video cards and vast but there are few forums for sharing ideas and expertise. Today, USGS scientists use 3-D/4-D storage allow wide access to 3-D/4-D tools to (1) visualize and interpret geotools and visualization. • Staying abreast of rapidly evolving logical information, (2) verify the data, technologies is difficult. and (3) verify their interpretations and Business Model models. 3-D/4-D visualization can be Geological Setting a powerful quality control tool in the The annual USGS budget is approxi- The United States has a large variety of analysis of large, multidimensional mately US$1 billion from federal geological terranes that record more data sets. USGS scientists use 3-D/4-D appropriations. The bureau also than 2 billion years of geological his- technology for 3-D surface (i.e., 2.5-D) receives about US$500 million from tory (Figure 13-1). The complexity of visualization as well as for 3-D volu- outside entities such as other federal U.S. geology ranges from horizontal metric analyses. Examples of geological agencies, foreign governments, inter- stacking of sediments in the Great mapping in 3-D include characteriza- national agencies, U.S. states, and local Plains, Colorado Plateau, and Coastal tion of the subsurface for resource government sources. More than half of Plain Physiographic Provinces to over- assessments, such as aquifer character- the outside funding supports collab- printing of compressional, extensional, ization in the central United States, and orative work in water resources across and transform tectonics of the Pacific for input into process models, such as the country, and the balance of the Border Province of the western United seismic hazards in the western United funding supports work in the geologi- States (Figure 13-1). These varied geo- States. cal, biological, and geographic sciences and information delivery. logical terranes present a challenge to

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 69 nesota. These rocks contain complex fracture systems that can be modeled for water and mineral resources, but also have metamorphic fabrics inher- ent from high heat and pressures that occurred over many millions of years. The United States contains fold and thrust belts that record several continental plate collisions. Examples of these are the Valley and Ridge, Blue Ridge, and Piedmont Provinces in the eastern United States where rocks were folded and faulted during four plate collision events between 1 billion years ago and 300 million years ago. The Rocky Mountains Province in the western United States records a collision event from about 40 million years ago. Along with overprinting of several tectonic events, these terranes include complex fold relationships and zones of intense faulting that must be taken into account in models. Linear trends of folds and faults are characteristics of these provinces. Strike-slip fault systems, such as the San Andreas fault system of the Pacific Border Province in California, are regions of particularly complicated geology. As continental plates or structural blocks move past one another in a horizontal direction, complex compression and extensional structures occur. In this setting, rocks are translated great distances horizon- tally. These offsets are superimposed on a Mesozoic to Paleogene history 1. Superior Upland 10. Adirondack 19. Northern Rocky Mtns 2. Continental Shelf 11. Interior Low Plateaus 20. Columbia Plateau of subduction, accretion, batholith 3. Coastal Plain 12. Central Lowland 21. Colorado Plateau formation, and extensive extensional 4. Piedmont 13. Great Plains 22. Basin And Range attenuation. Understanding structural 5. Blue Ridge 14. Ozark Plateaus 23. Cascade – Sierra Mtns 6. Valley and Ridge 15. Ouachita 24. Pacific Border control and associated seismic hazards 7. St. Lawrence Valley 16. Southern Rocky Mtns 25. Lower California along strike-slip fault zones such as the 8. Appalachian Plateau 17. Wyoming Basin San Andreas fault system requires the 9. New England 18. Middle Rocky Mtns fusion of traditional geological mapping, geophysical measurements, seis- Figure 13-1 Simplified version of the King and Beikman (1974) geologic map of mology, structural geology, and state- the conterminous United States. Colors indicate age of rock formations. Detailed of-the-art visualization and modeling explanation and digital versions are available at http://tapestry.usgs.gov and http:// techniques to produce detailed 3-D mrdata.usgs.gov/geology/kb.html. and 4-D geologic maps. Extensional tectonic events are 3-D modeling of divergent and con- rials in New England and the northern recorded in Triassic and Jurassic basin vergent plate boundaries, strike-slip conterminous United States. sediments within the Piedmont Prov- fault zones, and the stable craton. Also, ince of the eastern United States and surficial geological processes of the last The oldest rocks of the United States the Basin and Range Province of the several million years have left variable are igneous and metamorphic rocks western United States. In both regions, unconsolidated deposits, including the that occur in the Adirondacks of New compressional tectonics resulted in voluminous deposition of glacial mate- York and the Superior Uplands of Min- folded and faulted rocks that were later

70 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey torn apart and that developed basins ernments, multinational agencies (e.g., any given property (e.g., porosity, that were filled with sediments shed International Atomic Energy Agency, permeability, or any physiochemical off highlands. In the Piedmont of the World Meteorological Organization, property) in a 3-D/4-D visual envi- eastern United States, this extension Food and Agriculture Organization), ronment that can display not only was associated with the opening of and national and international non- the information but also the associ- the Atlantic Ocean. For the Basin and governmental organizations. ated uncertainties; Range Province, extension is related to Because of its long-term monitoring • inverse, statistical, geostatistical, back-arc spreading behind the Coast stochastic, or other types of model- Range and Cascades Provinces. data and resource assessments and the national and international scope ing to create 3-D/4-D realizations of Volcanic terranes occur in the western of its science, resource and land man- natural phenomena; U.S. Cascades and Sierra Nevada Prov- agement agencies use USGS science • interpolating and extrapolating spa- inces. Large masses of intrusive igne- in developing policies that help them tial and temporal values from data ous rock represent the deeply eroded meet their stewardship responsibili- using a variety of methods and using roots of a Mesozoic volcanic arc and ties. For example, agencies in the U.S. interpreted and modeled informa- its Mesozoic and Paleozoic country Department of the Interior and the tion to build 3-D/4-D information rock in the Sierra Nevada and an active U.S. Department of Agriculture rely on frameworks, such as geological volcanic arc in the Cascades where the USGS science to manage federal lands mapping frameworks, that maxi- Juan de Fuca plate in the Pacific Ocean and resources. Other agencies, such mize the use of the knowledge avail- is being subducted beneath North as the U.S. Environmental Protection able for a given issue or given spatial America. Agency, rely on USGS assessments of system; anthropogenic contaminants across The sedimentary rocks of the Interior • maximizing our ability to use the the landscape to develop and enforce information for given interpretive or Plains and Atlantic and Gulf Coastal regulations. The USGS provides infor- Plains reflect numerous periods of predictive studies, simulations, and mation that helps other agencies assessments; and transgressing and regressing seas. develop policy and provide warnings These provinces are generally flat lying or mitigation strategies relating to haz- • using animations, fly-throughs, to gently dipping marine sediments ards such as volcanoes, fire, floods, and and data-discovery tools that help that show complex facies changes over earthquakes. The USGS is developing researchers individually or collab- time. The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal an ecosystem and global change (cli- oratively conduct science and com- Plain contains marine and terrestrial mate variability and land-use change) municate results and their implica- sediments that span more than 100 framework that will provide a context tions to each other, decision makers, million years. In some areas, terrestrial for its science and for its clients, such and the public. river systems have also deposited sedi- as regulatory and resource manage- • providing example models. ments within these provinces, such ment agencies and public safety agen- Currently, the USGS employs a myriad as the Mississippi River in the Gulf cies. Coastal Plain. of 3-D modeling and visualization pro- Within the USGS, the greatest needs grams (Table 13-1). Several major glacial advances covered and applications of 3-D modeling and New England and the northern United visualization have been emerging in 3-D/4-D Visualization States from 2.6 million years ago to geological, hydrogeologic, and biologic about 11,000 years ago. The deposits modeling and visualization. Specific for Geological that the melting glaciers left behind needs include are quite variable and include silt, clay, Assessments sand, and till. These sediments have • displaying, checking raw scientific The USGS 3-D geological mapping complex intertonguing relations that data collected in multi-dimensional efforts occur on a project-by-project make 3-D modeling a challenge. frameworks, and performing math- basis. In addition to geological knowl- ematical and statistical operation on edge, at least one member of the staff the data, often all in real time; has expertise in GIS and 3-D software. Major Clients and Others may have expertise in software • displaying temporal changes in specific to their discipline. The primary the Need for Models primary scientific information in software packages used for, or in sup- an “animated” 4-D framework (e.g., Based on the needs of its clients and port of, 3-D geological mapping in the energy or material fluxes, disrup- of the U.S. public, the USGS has iden- USGS are EarthVision, 3-D GeoMod- tions in 3-D structures or boundar- tified seven major science strategy eller, Move, RockWorks, ArcMap, Oasis ies, or changes in the intensities directions: ecosystems, wildlife and montaj, SGeMS, Encom PA, and in- of given distributed characteristic human health, climate change, energy house software for geophysical model- properties); and minerals, natural hazards, water ing. Recently published 3-D geologic availability, and data integration (U.S. • integrating diverse types (e.g., point, maps (Faith et al. 2010, Pantea et al. Geological Survey 2007). Major users line, areal, volumetric) of primary 2008, Phelps et al. 2008) at the USGS of USGS data and information include spatial-temporal information for incorporate new methods and proper- federal and state agencies, foreign gov-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 71 Table 13-1 The 3-D modeling and visualization software programs used by the USGS.1 Software Developer URL 3D GeoModeller Intrepid-BRGM http://www.geomodeller.com/geo/index.php 3DMove TM Midland Valley http://www.mve.com/Move/advanced-structural-modelling-software- move.html ArcGIS© ESRI http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/index.html ArcHydro© AquaVeo TM http://www.aquaveo.com/archydro-groundwater ArcView, ArcMap Rockware http://www.rockware.com/product/overviewSection. php?id=189§ion=54 Argus ONE Argus Holdings, Ltd. http://www.argusint.com/ COMSOL TM COMSOL http://www.comsol.com/ EarthVision® Dynamic Graphics, http://www.dgi.com/earthvision/evmain.html Inc. Encom PA Encom http://www.encom.com.au/template2.asp?pageid=16 Erdas Imagine Erdas http://www.erdas.com/

Fledermaus IVS 3D http://www.ivs3d.com/products/fledermaus/ IDL/ENVI ITT Visual http://www.ittvis.com/ Information Solutions LiDAR Viewer University of http://www.keckcaves.org/software/lidar/index.html California Davis Model Viewer USGS http://water.usgs.gov/nrp/gwsoftware/modelviewer/ModelViewer.html MODFLOW, GWT, USGS http://water.usgs.gov/software/lists/groundwater/ SUTRA, PHAST, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MODFLOW MODELMUSE,USGS groundwater codes and visual interfaces Oasis montaj GeoSoft http://www.geosoft.com/pinfo/oasismontaj/keyfeatures.asp PolyWorks® InnovMetric http://www.innovmetric.com/ Software, Inc Quick Terrain Applied Imagery http://www.appliedimagery.com/ Modeler Rockworks TM RockWare http://www.rockware.com/product/overview.php?id=165 SGeMS Stanford University http://sgems.sourceforge.net/?q=node/20 Voxler®, Surfer® Golden Software http://www.goldensoftware.com/products/products.shtml

1Use of trade names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. ties that go beyond the traditional 2-D mapping methods, whereas 2-D • publishing the 3-D map in an open geologic map: geological mapping uses a standard source format in addition to an set of mapping techniques defined encrypted proprietary format; and • completing descriptions of charac- from more than a century of prior • publishing geological features teristics of all significant geological work.); features in a map (e.g., units, faults such that they can be individually unconformities, structures, physi- • defining some map features solely extracted from the map for general cal, and chemical properties), and on the basis of geophysical expres- use as stand-alone features. the methods and techniques used to sion; 3-D geological framework applications map them (Descriptions are neces- • including a discussion of the data in the USGS include these examples: sary because 3-D geological map- model used to construct the map; ping relies on a variety of unique • geological models for earthquake assessments and assessments of

72 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey past tectonic displacements and more, mathematical surface models Case Study: The predictive modeling of the potential of a bridge crossing the San Andreas impacts of given fault-slip scenarios; fault near the epicenter showed over 7 Hayward Fault—An • geological modeling for resource cm of post-seismic slip in the 10 weeks Example of a 3-D assessments (oil and gas, minerals, after the main shock and bending of Geological Information geological sequestration of carbon); the steel support beams holding up the deck of the bridge. Framework • inverse modeling of anomalous geo- The 3-D geologic map of the Hayward physical properties; Airborne and ground-based LiDAR fault in California was constructed to have also contributed significantly to • visualization of magmatically driven support modeling of earthquake haz- 3-D (and sometimes 4-D) geological bulging in volcanic areas and pre- ards. Models that attempted to predict mapping, particularly of potentially dictive modeling of eruption types potential damage from various earth- hazardous faults. Airborne LiDAR bare- and timing; and quake scenarios have until recently earth models are especially helpful in treated faults as vertical planes in semi- • visualization and detection of heavily vegetated areas with little bed- infinite half-spaces, primarily because surface structures and landscape rock exposure. For example, large-scale of technological limitations. The 3-D changes, such as faults, landslides LiDAR imaging and vegetation removal geologic map of the Hayward fault was and debris flows, paleofloods, gla- in the Puget Sound region of Washing- one of the first attempts to move away ciers, and impact craters. ton state illuminated previously hidden from simplified models and toward faults and geomorphic expressions incorporating geology into the hazard 3-D/4-D Analyses and of past glacial epochs (Haugerud et scenarios. This change allows research- al. 2003, Haugerud 2008). Similarly, a Use of LiDAR Imagery ers to study the effect of fault curvature 37-km-long active fault was identified and rheology on fault movement and in Geological Modeling north of Lake Tahoe (California) within the resulting energy waves that travel Geomorphic and surface structure 500 m of a reservoir dam. The 4-D across the landscape. Current research, analyses are commonly conducted analysis of high-resolution T-LiDAR based on this mapping effort, indicates during mapping and modeling exer- imagery determined that the fault was that both fault curvature and changes cises. Indeed, 3-D/4-D analyses of active and slipping at a rate of 0.5 mm/ in rheology across the fault can signifi- earthquakes can provide valuable yr, which necessitated a reevaluation cantly affect its behavior (Barall et al. insights into the types of events that and reengineering of the reservoir con- 2008). occurred, their impacts in modifying struction (Hunter et al. 2010, Howle et the land surface, and the likely stabil- al. 2009). Similarly, the 3-D/4-D fusion The Hayward fault is considered to be ity or potential for post-event slip in of ground-based and airborne LiDAR the most dangerous fault in the San the near future. For example, 3-D/4-D was used to measure offset in faulted Francisco Bay region, located in central imagery analysis of precisely relocated glacier moraines in the eastern Sierra California (Figure 13-2). There is a 27% earthquakes following the San Simeon Nevada. Immersive virtual reality tools chance of a magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake in central California helped were then used to assess the quality earthquake on this fault over the next characterize the post-seismic slip and of the merged products of the two dif- 30 years (Working Group on California fault kinematics of the complex double ferent data types, allowing for detailed Earthquake Probabilities 2003). The blind thrust fault system (McLaren et analysis and understanding of the Hayward fault cuts through several al. 2008). Through 3-D surface con- seismic hazards of the newly identified cities that form a densely populated touring of time-varied earthquakes, fault system. 3-D/4-D hazard response urban area, making it even more dan- common earthquake features were analysis has also been used to assess gerous than the nearby, better known identified, mapped, and visualized, structure and surface stability after San Andreas fault. Earthquakes gener- revealing the migration and rotation of landslides (e.g., the 2005 Laguna Beach ated along the fault threaten structures the transient post-seismic strain migra- landslide in southern California), rock and critical lifelines that include con- tion as a function of time and depth. In slides, and debris flows (e.g., following duits for transportation, power, and another example, repeat ultra-high res- major fires in steep terrain). Detailed water. olution (sub-centimeter) 3-D ground- 3-D/4-D analyses are used to charac- based LiDAR imagery was collected terize these events, understand their A team of geologists and geophysicists in the days and months following the driving mechanisms, and provide rapid explored various approaches of com- magnitude 6.0 Parkfield earthquake in situation awareness to local authorities bining geologic map data with subsur- central California. Immersive virtual regarding the post-event stability of face data to develop a 3-D earthquake reality 4-D analysis (Kreylos et al. 2006, the land surface. Immersive 3-D/4-D hazard model of the Hayward fault. The Kellogg et al. 2008) of the land surface virtual reality analyses often allow sci- team addressed geological questions and engineered structural features entists to evaluate hazards in areas that regarding tectonics, structure, stratig- illuminated small active tectonic geo- are inaccessible because of ongoing raphy, and history of the region. The morphic features that would have been safety concerns. team also addressed broader issues overlooked in 2-D analysis. Further- related to mapping in 3-D in general,

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 73 a b

Figure 13-3 (a) Three-dimensional geologic map of the Hayward fault zone and (b) the Hayward fault surface extracted from the map, shown with accompanying earthquake hypocenters. Figure 13-2 Map showing the location of the San Francisco Bay region (inset). The red line demarcates the surface sional unroofing and faulted and trans- constrained at depth by faults, their trace of the Hayward fault, and the blue lated during strike-slip faulting. magnetic signature, and other modeled geological features. rectangle shows the planimetric bound- The structural style imposed by the ary of the 3-D map of the Hayward fault complex tectonics of the San Fran- These individually modeled features zone. cisco Bay region disallows the regular were combined into a unified 3-D geo- use of standard geological mapping logic map in the proprietary software such as new mapping methods, reso- tools, such as stratigraphic position EarthVision. In the EarthVision data lution, uncertainty, database design, and down-dip projection. In order to model, faults are surfaces that have and publication options. The resulting map geological units in 3-D, research- precedence over (truncate) all other 3-D map can be downloaded at http:// ers had to define simplified mappable surfaces. Faults are specified in a hier- pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3045. Correlations units, for the most part corresponding archy to determine which faults cut with fault behavior are discussed by to entire terranes. The region lacked which other surfaces. Unconformities Graymer et al. (2005). relevant well data, so ample use was are surfaces that truncate other non- made of geophysical data to define the fault surfaces, and depositional sur- The 3-D geologic map of the Hayward subsurface shape of the critical geo- faces onlap onto other surfaces. Mod- fault includes a volume of 100 × 20 × logical features. eled geological features were defined in 3 14 km , with the fault approximately EarthVision by their bounding surfaces bisecting the long dimension (Figure according to the data model. Property 13-3). The Hayward fault is an oblique Model Construction information for geological unit vol- right-lateral strike-slip fault with a Methodology umes, such as formation name, are compressive component of about 10%. Several somewhat independent model- stored internally but can be queried The mapped volume is geologically ing efforts mapped individual geologi- interactively by modifying the unit complex, formed of two contrasting cal features. The Hayward fault itself volume color based on a property or amalgamated suites of Mesozoic ter- was mapped as a single surface using a by interactively clicking on a volume to ranes and overlying Cenozoic strata combination of seismic data and cross retrieve the properties. that have been juxtaposed by late sections. Several of the other faults in Once the model was constructed, it Miocene and younger right-lateral the model were mapped at the surface was evaluated by project members offset of as much as 175 km. Consistent and projected downward based on the and received two scientific reviews stratigraphy can usually be determined grain of local and regional geology. Two external to the project. The reviewers within the fault-bounded blocks but basins within the model were defined interactively explored the map itself cannot be traced between them. The on the basis of their gravitational sig- and examined the accompanying terranes themselves are fault-bounded nature. A subsurface unit, thought to map pamphlet to look for geological packages of rocks emplaced, folded, be volcanic, was defined on the basis of inconsistencies in a manner similar to faulted, and partially exhumed during its magnetic signature. Geological ter- the review process for printed USGS subduction and subsequent exten- ranes were mapped at the surface and geologic maps. Review comments were

74 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey resolved through further collaborative tion of the geophysical characteris- Case Study: Santa Fe, New modeling and mapping. tics and geological and geophysical Mexico, 3-D Modeling as a context is provided. Data Integrator Output • Features in the geological map are often themselves the result of an Many geological mapping projects at The final publication contains a digital individual modeling effort; the 3-D the USGS involve the development 3-D geologic map, an accompanying geological map is an amalgamation of regional geological frameworks to informational pamphlet, and a map of models brought together to form serve as the basis for understanding plate that displays various views of a coherent geological map. groundwater, geological hazards, and the 3-D map. The map is published in natural resources. Project goals focus two formats. The first is available in • When constructing the map, critical on extrapolating geological mapping a free version of the 3-D viewer from features (faults and unconformities) from the surface to depths greater than the proprietary software EarthVision. that will form the framework of the 1 km over large areas where little bore- The map can be viewed in a variety map need to be identified and built hole information exists. To extrapolate of ways but cannot be modified. The in first to allow the structural and below ground, we acquire airborne second format makes the fault surfaces topological relationships to be more geophysics, fill in existing gravity cov- and boundaries of the geological units easily seen, corrected, and verified erage, and collect ground-based geo- available as a series of files stored in early in the mapping process. physics in critical areas. Each of these the open-source t-surf format. A user • The map should maintain both geophysical data sets provides infor- can reconstruct part or all of the fea- geological and database integrity; mation on diverse aspects of different tures in the Hayward map from the that is, geological rules should not physical properties of the Earth, which surfaces, and this format has a lifespan be violated, topological rules should then must be interpreted in the context longer than the free 3-D EarthVision not be violated, and any associated of the geology of the area. viewer, which will become increas- tables should maintain database ingly out of sync with newer operating integrity. In a study near Santa Fe, New Mexico, systems. It is also expected that these USA, Grauch et al. (2009) found that 3D • Putting the “best available data” into geological features will be integrated GeoModeller was well suited to inte- a 3-D map is not always practical. with other data sets including lifeline grating such diverse types of input in a Although in theory digital geologic and infrastructure data. 3-D world (Figure 13-4). An important maps can accommodate scales from objective of the study was to model The pamphlet includes a discussion the microscopic to continental, in the position of the surface represent- of the geological setting and history, practice current software limitations ing the bottom of the sedimentary a description of map features, includ- prevent a wide range of resolutions section. This surface was needed to ing map units, map structures, and within a map. For example, LiDAR assess the aquifer and for groundwater the data and modeling methods used could not have been used as the modeling. Using a mixed data-driven to generate each feature in the model model of the Earth’s surface in the and expert-controlled 3-D modeling (feature-level metadata). 3-D geologic map of the Hayward approach, 3D GeoModeller allowed fault zone because the data volume simultaneous data integration, syn- could not be supported. Observations, Suggestions, thesis, and geological interpretation • The 3-D map can exist in its entirety of geophysical data in conjunction and Best Practices only on a computer; as such, a 3-D with 3-D geological mapping. Advan- viewing tool that can spin, slice, take tages to 3D GeoModeller are that it (1) The diminishing amount of data with apart, and query features in the map directly incorporates geological field depth has several implications: is a necessity. and borehole data, such as mapped • Resolution decreases dramatically Several steps can be taken to alleviate contacts, borehole lithologic contacts, with depth, geological units in 3-D dependence on a particular software and strike and dip measurements, (2) may be simplified compared with package: ensures that the model follows known units mapped at the Earth’s surface, geological relationships in the area in geophysics is important for model- • Describe the data model in the text. 3-D, (3) allows indirect input of deriva- ing and constraining geology at • Publish an open-source version of tive geophysical products and geologi- depth, and a range of expertise is the 3-D map. cal concepts as guides to the geological needed to process and model vari- modeling, (4) provides geophysical ous data types. • Ensure that eatures within the map forward and inverse modeling to check can be extracted so that they can be for geophysical validity, and (5) allows • Geological mapping can be studied independent of the map. an individual to work in either a 2-D expanded to include mapping based (cross section) or 3-D (points-in-space) on geophysical models of geological • Ensure that the software can accom- environment. features in the subsurface. Rather modate complex structures that than a description of the rock’s have multiple z-values, including appearance in outcrop, a descrip- oblique-slip faults, overturned folds, and diapirs.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 75 do not measure up to the complexity Aeromagnetic of the interdisciplinary analyses and Seismic-Re ection Gravity Data Drillhole Data Data and MT Data interpretations that are required. Col- Deep well Shallow well laboration among scientists, who often do not have the same scientific disciplinary backgrounds and therefore lack N a common scientific language, can be made significantly easier through the Santa Fe Santa Fe use of advanced 4-D immersive visualization systems. These systems utilize Santa Fe Santa Fe the spatial-temporal skills innately developed in people as they interact with their environment and help sci- Interpreted faults 2D magnetic models Resistivity models Depth 0 10 entists communicate with each other. km This section provides a “walkthrough”

estimates of example applications of 3-D/4-D Minimum thickness of aquifer Stratigraphic contacts at depth inversion technology in the hydrologic and bio- & contacts logic sciences, from the atmosphere to Seismic interpretation 3D basin 2D gravity models & contacts the subsurface. Interpreted faults Expert-Controlled Create Geologic Modelling Visualizing and representing atmo- Rules Input Used as Guides to Extrapolate Geology spheric hydrologic processes are essential to the USGS mission. The Data-Driven Feedback Loop Modelling Visualize Geology; USGS must be able to understand Stratigraphy & Compare Computed Fault Framework Input is Interpolated how orographic processes can affect Following Geologic Rules Geophysical Fields precipitation, specifically types of pre- 3D MODELLING Strike/dip & SYNTHESIS cipitation (rain, hail, snow) as well as Mapped faults duration and intensity, over a spectrum Mapped contacts of spatial and temporal scales. Visual- Geologic conceptualization EXPORT SURFACES izing, understanding, and predicting the focusing of precipitation and Santa Fe Digital Elevation consequent impacts can help mitigate Model (Raised) the damages caused by flooding, Santa Fe landslides, or debris flows. Visualiza- tion tools, coupled with “before and Santa Fe Base of Aquifers after” landscape surveys (e.g., through N (without faults) remote sensing or LiDAR), are being 2 used to benchmark current landscape

Geologic Mapping KM 0 N Vertical conditions and to help characterize

ELEVATION, Exaggeration=4x 0 20 40 60 and model the magnitude and extent DISTANCE, KM of atmospheric events in terms of natural hazards, water availability, ecosys- Figure 13-4 Work flow that uses 3-D modeling to integrate and synthesize diverse tem response, and long-term climatic types of geological and geophysical information for a basin study near Santa Fe, variability. New Mexico, USA (Grauch et al. 2009). Although 3D GeoModeller (BRGM-Intrepid The interrelationship of temperature Geophysics) was used for the synthesis (yellow workflow steps), a variety of other and topography affects our landscapes, software packages were used to analyze geophysical data beforehand, including their associated ecosystems, and their Oasis montaj and GM-SYS (Geosoft), Geotools MT (AOA Geophysics, Inc.), and evolution in time. For example, visual- methods and software developed by the USGS (Jachens and Moring 1990, Phillips izing and predicting temperature dis- 1997). 3-D visualization is from Oasis montaj. tributions across a mountainous landscape or watershed helps understand- 3-D/4-D Visualization and a wide variety of multidisciplinary ing of biologic habitats and how they may change. Understanding and visu- Geological Modeling for information necessitates using the most advanced visualization tools alizing topographic and climatic driv- Hydrologic and Biologic available, such as 4-D immersive vir- ers can help predict the movement and Assessments tual reality systems. Traditional 2-D intensity of fires, the spread of pests or The need to display and integrate analyses and rudimentary 3-D analyses invasive species, and/or the migration increasingly large data sets and the (e.g., stereoimages on ordinary 2-D or extinction of species. USGS scien- need to analyze, often collaboratively, computer screens) are inefficient and tists also routinely collect high-resolu-

76 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey tion 4-D snow depth change data and combine the data with climate models to estimate daily snow melt runoff as a function of solar radiation and incident angle at various elevations. Climate forecast models using 4-D climate data and different global warming scenarios help us understand how ecosystems and water availability might change in the future. Visualization in 4-D is needed to plan and manage water resources, their availability, and their quality and to plan the investments needed for their sustainable and balanced use and protection. Visualization is needed to understand the effects of (1) climate change on the storage and release of water at higher elevations, (2) land- use change on groundwater recharge, Figure 13-5 Perspective view of the greater Los Angeles region with InSAR imag- particularly at lower elevations, and (3) ery showing greater than 6 cm of groundwater pumping-induced subsidence over climate, land-use, and anthropogenic a region 40 km x 20 km in extent (Bawden et al. 2001). changes and natural system dynam- ics on the timing and intensity of the water cycle and its spatial distribution. Groundwater withdrawals not only often displayed using advanced visu- • using predictive or “forward” impact water sustainability in arid or alization systems to enhance dynamic modeling to numerically simulate semi-arid environments but can also patterns that would not otherwise be the potential movement of water, produce substantial land subsidence, apparent. solutes, contaminants, colloids, viruses, or bacteria in the subsurface damage infrastructure, and irreversibly The USGS extensively uses 3-D/4-D decrease an aquifer’s ability to store and the coupled evolution of the visualization tools (non-stereo) in the hydrogeological environment. water (Figure 13-5). Repeat satellite representation and modeling of sub- InSAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar Inter- surface flow and contaminant trans- Hydrogeological studies have focused ferometery) imagery of active hydro- port. In these studies, 3-D/4-D visual- primarily on the shallow subsurface, carbon fields can show how the land ization is essential in which is usually the primary pro- surface responds over time to hydro- vider of groundwater resources for • representing and checking the avail- irrigation or drinking water. Most carbon pumping and CO2 and water injection. The 3-D/4-D visualization able data and information in a geo- groundwater contamination stud- can help show what areas are at the logical context; ies have also focused on the shallow greatest risk and can be used in opti- • assessing relevant geological struc- subsurface because of the importance mization modeling to more efficiently tures, as well as the spatial distribu- of its human use and because of its manage and distribute pumping and tion and temporal evolution of the high vulnerability to contamination. recharge in a given area. hydrogeological (Figure 13-6) and Hydrogeological studies and visualization of deeper environments have The USGS also conducts work visual- chemical properties of those structures, i.e., the porosity, permeability, until recently been mainly confined izing and predicting the impacts of to studies of sites that might be suit- sea level rise and salinity intrusion on mineralogy, and chemistry associated with various geological units, able for the disposal of nuclear wastes coastal habitats (human and natural). (Figure 13-7) or the injection of other Although fixed-level 3-D flooding maps their matrix, and structural features (open, closed, or partially filled), industrial wastes. The potential for are useful as a first cut interpreta- using geological formations, specifi- tion of the consequences of floods or such as active faults, fractures, joints, channels, and macropores; cally former oil and gas reservoirs, coal sea level rise, the USGS also uses 4-D seams, and saline aquifers for the geodynamic visualization of flood waves, • using integrative hydrologic, chemi- logical sequestration of supercritical storm surges, tsunamis, tidal surges, cal, or geophysical response infor- CO2, will likely result in a much greater and outflows. Deterministic, predic- mation to help determine, through number of hydrogeological studies tive models, based on mathematical “inverse modeling” numerical simu- investigating the deeper regions of the descriptions of both the operative lations, the spatial distribution of subsurface. If geological sequestration physical processes and mass and hydrogeological or geological prop- of CO2 becomes widely implemented, energy conservation relations, are erties in various subsurface zones; we expect an exponential increase in and

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 77 studies and geological and hydrologic information obtained for subsurface environments. Once again, having ready access to 3-D/4-D visualization and information frameworks and interpretive tools will be key in making well- informed assessments and decisions based on clearly represented, understood, and quality-controlled data and information.

Lessons Learned In 2010, a small group of USGS managers and scientists recognized that individual researchers and teams were acquiring 3-D technologies across the USGS with little to no knowledge of other similar efforts. The group also observed that thousands of dollars were being spent on individual licenses across the bureau with no coordination, and, although many scientists were adding 3-D applications as analysis tools, there were few forums for Figure 13-6 Three-dimensional images from seismic surveys of the speed of sharing ideas and knowledge of emerg- shock waves through sediment (Hyndman et al. 2000). The speed of waves is con- ing technologies. These findings led to trolled partly by the compressibility of the sediment, which is related to the hydrau- efforts to endeavor to increase commu- lic conductivity. Therefore, it may be possible to use seismic images to better map nication and coordination across the heterogeneity in unconsolidated aquifers (from Sanford et al. 2006). bureau via workshops; a user-survey; development of a database of 3-D systems, requirements, and users; and use of community-of-practice tools, such as a wiki.

Workshops A workshop called “3D Visualizations of Geological and Hydrogeological Systems,” held during an annual USGS Modeling Conference, drew almost 50 participants primarily from federal agencies and academia. The purpose of the workshop was to preview state-of- the-art 3-D characterization software and hardware to expand the reach of geological and hydrogeological assessments. Vendors were invited to demon- strate 3-D visualization products, and participants contributed their requirements and knowledge of 3-D visualization tools. Also, a diverse cross section of USGS researchers who are experienced users of 3-D systems was con- vened to discuss USGS requirements and share knowledge. The result of the meeting was an action plan to better coordinate future purchases, stay in Figure 13-7 Fracture model of the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (SKI SITE-94 step with technological advances, 1997, Glynn and Voss 1999).

78 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey define and increase opportunities for ness of a new community designed to tems, software packages, costs, avail- data integration, and champion com- broaden the availability of 3-D/4-D able licenses and/or available hard- munities of practice. technology and the knowledge sur- ware, and requirements for use. Points rounding it. The survey results will also of contact are provided along with be used to construct the 3-D systems any relevant videos that help convey User Survey database. the types of applications that have The USGS will conduct a Web-based been developed using 3-D technology. survey of staff identified as using or Additional information is provided having an interest in using 3-D appli- 3-D Systems Database in the form of documents, Web sites, cations. The goal of the survey is (1) The USGS is developing a Web-based and slide presentations. Users will be to identify the areas of scientific study database to serve as a shared resource encouraged to add comments, opin- that employ 3-D/4-D technologies, for exploring the various 3-D visual- ions, and observations to help make how the technologies are applied in ization systems used throughout the the 3-D resources useful to both new research, what barriers might exist pre- bureau. This storehouse will contain and experienced users to enhance their venting scientists from applying these detailed information regarding hard- knowledge and help them research technologies, and (2) to raise aware- ware configurations, visualization sys- new software and hardware platforms.

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 79

PART 3 INFORMATION DELIVERY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter 14: Methods of Delivery and Outputs Stephen J. Mathers1, Holger Kessler1, Donald A. Keefer2, Don Cherry3, Bruce Gill3, Tony Pack4, and Tim Rawling5 1British Geological Survey, 2Illinois State Geological Survey, 3Department of Primary Industries, 4Geoscience Australia, 5Geoscience Victoria

After 3-D models are complete, the PDF can be downloaded from the BGS http://www.dinoloket.nl/nl/down information they contain must be Web site (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/). load/sobisch.html). The functional- made available to various user com- ity of the Subsurface Viewer includes munities (e.g., planners, regulators, Several examples of outputs and meth- maps of the buried geology, synthetic and consultants). Analytical tools ods of delivery of geological informa- boreholes and slices, synthetic sec- (including those for data management) tion are provided in the following tions, views of single geological objects and delivery mechanisms, if designed examples from GSOs. and block models, exploded views, and correctly, can assist both map produc- the ability to switch between different ers and users deal with scale issues INSIGHT GmbH properties of geological models (Figure and updating of 3-D models. So far Subsurface Viewer 14-2). A small demonstration model most of these user groups still prefer accompanied by a user manual is 3-D model outputs to be presented in To deliver the full richness of geological served at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/down- traditional 2-D forms such as paper models (Figure 14-1) and provide users loads/start.cfm?id=536. maps and reports and digitally as with fully interactive models, it is nec- shapefiles for integration in their GIS essary to develop entirely new software All modeling projects are usually systems. It is important to recognize systems. The BGS Subsurface Viewer is accompanied by a text report that that for the foreseeable future, specific a stand-alone product for the delivery gives details about the geological land-use decisions based on geologi- and analysis of geoscience models, background, data, and software used cal data, particularly those by planners partly fulfilling this requirement. It is and a summary of the results. It is and regulators, will need to be made being developed by INSIGHT GmbH, envisaged that in the future these using 2-D map products. However, Cologne, Germany and is used by reports will be delivered online as although these products allow users BGS and at TNO for this purpose (see PDFs. Three-dimensional geological to specifically evaluate the predicted geological succession at any place on the landscape, complex successions of geological deposits are not easily understood using the 2-D map products. Three-dimensional geological block models and various views of a 3-D geological model drawn in 3-D space are extremely effective in communicating how the geological deposits are distributed and can be powerful aids to explain the distribution of lines on any resultant 2-D geologic map. Due to the relatively immature nature of 3-D geological mapping, software for effectively communicating 3-D geology in 3-D space is still evolving. To overcome the difficulties of communicating 3-D geological map interpretations, model producers such as GSOs have to be innovative and make use of existing technologies such as Google Earth and 3-D PDF. The advantage of these technologies is that they are available globally at no cost to the end user and are relatively simple and Figure 14-1 Options for delivery of British Geological Survey models. intuitive to use. An example of a 3-D

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 83 outputs. Stakeholders are also encouraged to utilize the open source and free ParaviewGeo software package, which allows visualization and analysis of Gocad data sets with many common mining data types supported as well. GeoScience Victoria’s long-term vision is to develop a statewide 3-D “living” earth resource model by 2016 (at 1:250,000 scale by 2011). For more information, go to www.3dvictoria.dpi. vic.gov.au/.

Web Delivery at Geoscience Australia Initially, 3-D geology projects were created using VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language), an open source standard for 3-D graphics on the Web, developed by the Web3D Consortium (http://www.web3D.org). Geological models were created using VRML to allow interaction with the 3-D data using a Web browser plug-in; hence, the term “3-D Web mapping.” From Figure 14-2 The Subsurface Viewer Interface showing the Southern East Anglia 2000 to 2005, Geoscience Australia Model in the Subsurface Viewer with stratigraphic (top) and permeability attribution (GA) produced nearly 40 unique 3-D (bottom). VRML models, some of which are available for online viewing from the GA Web site (http://www.ga.gov.au/map/ models can also be exported to 3-D ery mechanism by which exploration web3D/) PDFs, and development of embed- geologists can visit GSV’s office, upload ded 3-D animations is being planned their own 3-D data into a secure and In 2006, GA switched from VRML to to better illustrate a report for a given confidential part of the database, and X3D (Extensible 3D), the XML succes- area (Figure 14-2). In addition, a con- then visualize (in stereo in GSV’s 3-D sor to VRML, for creating 3-D models sideration when making 3-D maps or visualization room) the data with the for the Web. X3D is the new open stan- models is creating and using geological GSV model objects they choose. dard for 3-D Web content and is sup- databases that are constantly being ported by the Web3D Consortium, the The format of company data (e.g., updated, which provides the means same group that supports VRML. to update accompanying 3-D maps Vulcan, Surpac, Minesight), the map and models, thereby creating “living or model projection, and coordinate X3D has a number of advantages: models.” system are inconsequential (AMG, MGA, local), as all of these conver- • Its XML format (extensible markup sions are handled ex tempore by the language) allows easier interaction GeoScience Victoria Storage 3-DMMS. Users are able to look at any with other XML formats. and Delivery of Information of the stored (open file) data, select • It is a free ISO standard for 3-D on useful objects, and then download Model outputs are stored in GSV’s 3-D the Web. them in whatever format and projec- Model Management System (3DMMS), • It supports a large range of 3-D tion they choose. which is a geospatially aware database geometries. developed for the GSV by Runge Ltd. A Web interface is available for deliv- • It can represent objects in true 3-D (see Chapter 5). This system allows ery of 3-D models directly from the space including subsurface, surface, models to be stored with associated 3-DMMS, but at present, models are and above-ground features. metadata and searched or queried also provided in 3-D PDF, DXF, and Geoscience Australias 3-D Web map- accordingly. Importantly, the 3-DMMS Gocad format to allow non-specialists ping development is unique and has also provides a visualization and deliv- to utilize and better understand model

84 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey oped using NASA’s World Wind Java (http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/) to display Australia’s continental data sets. The viewer allows for comparisons between layers such as radio-elements, gravity and magnetic anomalies, and other mapping layers and allows the data to be draped over the Australian terrain in three dimensions. The viewer currently displays the radiometric map, gravity anomaly map, and the magnetic anomaly maps of Australia. Subsurface data, such as earthquakes at depth, have also been incorporated into the viewer and will be available online in future releases. In the past year, a National Priority to improve water resource management has highlighted the need to develop data management and mapping systems at the continental scale. The Bureau of Meteorology is currently investing in the development of a national water information system, of which groundwater will be a part. To this end, the development of a national scale “geofabric” upon which hydrology and hydrogeology can be incorporated, is being investigated. The groundwater component will undoubt- edly utilize 3-D geological data as the framework for this development.

ISGS 3-D Geologic Map Products The ISGS currently produces three different types of products from 3-D geological mapping efforts. Traditional 2-D map sheets are still the most common product produced. These sheets Figure 14-3 Villa Grove 7.5-minute Quadrangle map sheet (Abert 1999). include the full range of map types, from surficial materials maps, to structure and isopach contour maps, to a proved to be a very effective method speed has increased dramatically, and range of interpretive maps (i.e., poten- for communicating large amounts of with the availability of online viewers tial for aquifer contamination). In addi- complex 3-D geoscientific and geospa- for specialized geological modeling tion to standard 2-D map sheets, the tial information to a wide audience. applications, GA has been reviewing ISGS produces map sheets that provide Originally, a significant driver for 3-D how it publishes 3-D geological models exploded views of the 3-D map, high- Web mapping was to help communi- and is looking at other technologies lighting the distribution of the succes- cate the geological and geophysical such as 3-D PDF and open source vir- sion of mapped units (Lasemi and Berg data held in specialist applications tual worlds, in addition to X3D. 2001, Abert et al. 2007). Additionally, such as Gocad. It did so by converting GIS-compatible shapefiles of published the 3-D models to a file size and format As an example, GA’s 3-D Data Viewer geologic map layers are distributed free that were more widely viewable over (http://www.ga.gov.au/map/web3d/ of charge. the Internet. More recently, as Internet world-wind/) is an application devel-

Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 85 Chapter 15: Conclusions and Recommendations Richard C. Berg1, Stephen J. Mathers2, Holger Kessler2, and Donald A. Keefer1 1Illinois State Geological Survey and 2British Geological Survey

Three-dimensional geological map- age a standard piece of software, as this does not stop at political boundaries ping and modeling is becoming an will intrude into individual organiza- and many of the emerging resource established technique for portraying tional policies and culture, as well as (water and mineral), environmental, geological information. The organi- the possible capabilities of clients. and energy issues require global solu- zations that have begun using this tions. The authors are aware that this is technique find that it transforms their There is a benefit for individual GSOs an ambitious aim given the disparities approach to geology and to a wider to document various aspects of 3-D between the financial resources and understanding of often complex geo- geological mapping projects, including priorities for the various GSOs world- logical settings. choices of stratigraphic and rock clas- wide, and yet, significant advances sification schemes, scales and resolu- towards collective seamless 3-D Three-dimensional geological models tions of models, and projections. The models are being made at a national and maps at regional scales provide the GSOs also should be encouraged to level in several countries, even though framework for more detailed investi- publish their workflows and method- international cross-boundary model- gations by industry and local govern- ologies for 3-D geological mapping and ing efforts are rare. ments. Robust data management tools modeling. are essential when transitioning from We think that it would be worthwhile regional to more site-specific investiga- The GSOs should be encouraged to to initiate an international dialogue on tions. publish geological models on the Web, the value of standards for 3-D geologi- and make them as interactive as pos- cal mapping and modeling. There is The 3-D geological mapping commu- sible, so that differences and common- a need to (1) evaluate the perceived nity is actively exploring a wide range alities between geological products benefits of various standards, (2) pri- of tools and techniques specifically from various organizations can be oritize the standards seen as necessary, designed to meet their mapping and evaluated. and (3) engage 3-D geological mapping information dissemination needs, and Communications among the 3-D map- and modeling software vendors in this needs of their user community. The dialogue. Over time, common data mappers are willing to share expertise ping and modeling community must be maintained and formalized through formats and relevant standards should and insights to individuals and orga- emerge, leading to increased interoper- nizations and are helping to address the use of mailing lists, Web technology, and via various national and inter- ability and exchange, perhaps follow- societal issues related to environmen- ing the lead from OneGeology. tal protection, public health, water national workshops, symposia, and and mineral resources, and economic other meetings. See, for example, the The GSOs should consider participa- development. ISGS-hosted Web site with expanded tion in initiatives such as GeoSciML abstracts and many Power Point and in organizations such as the Open The software and hardware that sup- presentations from six international Geospatial Consortium (OGC) and the ports geological mapping have been in workshops conducted since 2001 titled International Organization for Stan- a state of continual evolution, which Three-dimensional Geological Map- dardization (ISO). This participation has required that the workflows and ping for Groundwater Applications will help involve the 3-D geological strategies governing 3-D mapping at Workshops (http://www.isgs.illinois. mapping community in standards GSOs periodically evolve as well. edu/research/3DWorkshop/). See being developed for the larger geosci- also the extended abstracts from the ence community. Approaches to geological modeling 2009 First Australian 3D Hydrogeol- are different to suit the needs of indi- ogy Workshop (http://www.ga.gov.au/ In Europe, legal frameworks such as vidual GSOs (partly as a reflection of image_cache/GA15507.pdf). the INSPIRE directive (http://inspire. their customer base), which will likely jrc.ec.europa.eu/) are beginning to set remain the case in the foreseeable An ultimate long-term aim of some spatial standards. Wider participation future. Convergence or streamlining GSOs is to provide a collective joined from the geoscience community would of software use might occur over time, up model of the Earth system. Geology help lead to more robust standards. but it is impossible at present to envis-

86 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey References

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Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 87 groundwater-resource-salinity- a regional aquitard, Oak Ridges Arbuckle-Simpson aquifer, south- assessment Moraine area, Ontario, Canada: central Oklahoma: Reston, Virginia, Hydrogeology Journal, v. 9, p. 79–96. U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Cherry, J.A., 1996, Politics and econom- Report 2010-1123, Version 1.0, data ics: geological research bridging the Desbarats, A.J., C.E. Logan, M.J. storage CD. gulf—The near-term future–Part 2; Hinton, and D.R. Sharpe, 2002, On Perspective 5: From site investiga- the kriging of water table elevations Fernandes, R., V. Korolevych, and S. tions to site remediation: Implica- using collateral information from a Wang, 2007, Trends in land evapo- tions for hydrogeology: GSA Today, v. digital elevation model: Journal of transpiration over Canada for the 6, no. 4, p. 13–15. Hydrology, v 255, no. 1–4, p. 25–38. period 1960–2000 based on in situ climate observations and a land sur- Cloutier, V., R. 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Illinois State Geological Survey Circular 578 89 LeGrand, H.E., and L. Rosen, 1998, McKay, E.D., R.C. Berg, A.K. Hansel, model of complex fault structures in Putting hydrogeological site stud- T.J. Kemmis, and A.J. Stumpf, 2008, the Upper Seco Creek area, Medina ies on track: Ground Water, v. 36, p. Quaternary deposits and history of and Uvalde Counties, south-central 193–194. the ancient Mississippi River valley, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey, Sci- north-central Illinois: Illinois State entific Investigations Report 2008- LeGrand, H.E., and L. Rosen, 2000, Geological Survey, Guidebook 35, 5131, Version 1.0. DVD. Systematic makings of early stage 98 p. hydrogeological conceptual models: Paradis, S.J., 2009, Surficial geology, Ground Water, v. 38, p. 887–893. McLaren, M.K., J.L. Hardebeck, N. van Kelowna, British Columbia: Geo- der Elst, J.R. Unruh, G.W. Bawden, logical Survey of Canada, Open File Lelliott, M. R., M.R. Cave, and G.P. and J. Luke Blair, 2008, Complex 6146, 1:50,000. Wealthall, 2009, A structured faulting associated with the 22 approach to the measurement of December 2003 Mw 6.5 San Simeon, Paradis, S.J., E. Boisvert, A. Smirnoff, uncertainty in 3D geological models: California, earthquake, aftershocks, C. Deblonde, S. Grasby, A. Telka, A. Quarterly Journal of Engineering and post seismic surface deforma- Pugin, S. Pullan, and S. Thomson, Geology and Hydrogeology, v. 42, p. tion: Bulletin of the Seismological 2010, Surficial geology, geochemistry 95–106. Society of America, v. 98, p.1659– and 3D modeling of the Kelowna- 1680. Westbank-Mission Creek area: Geo- Lineback, J.A., 1979, Quaternary depos- logical Survey of Canada, Open File its of Illinois. Illinois State Geologi- Miall, A.D., 2000, Principles of sedi- 6507, CD-ROM. cal Survey, statewide map, 1:500,000. mentary basin analysis: New York, Springer-Verlag, 616 p. Parent, M., Y. Michaud, and E. Boisvert, LGRB [RP Freiburg, Landesamt für 1998, Cartographie hydrogeologique Geologie, Rohstoffe und Bergbau], Mintern, C., 2004, Water resource regionale du pi_mont laurentien ed., 2008, Das Geologische Landes- management using 3D catch- dans la MRC de Portneuf: Geolo- modell von Baden-Württemberg: ment geology visual models, in 9th gie et stratigraphie des formations Datengrundlagen, technische Murray Darling Basin Groundwater superficielles. (Regional hydrogeo- Umsetzung und erste geologische Workshop—‘Balancing the Basin’, logic mapping of the Laurentian Ergebnisse; bearbeitet von Isabel Latrobe University, Bendigo, 4 p. Piedmont in the Portneuf County Rupf & Edgar Nitsch, LGRB-Infor- http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/ municipality: Geology and stratig- mationen 21, Freiburg, 82 p. vrosite.nsf/pages/water_hydrogeol- raphy of the surficial formations): LGRB [RP Freiburg, Landesamt für ogy_using3d-catchment-geology- Geological Survey of Canada, Open Geologie, Rohstoffe und Bergbau], visual-models File 3664-a, 1 sheet. (In French.) 2009. http://www1.lgrb.uni-freiburg. Mossop, G.D., and I. Shetsen (compil- Pester, S., T. Agemar, J.-A. Alten, J. de/isong/application/index. ers), 1994, Geological atlas of the Kuder, K. Kühne, A.-A. Maul, and R. php?action=GoToStartMap Western Canada Sedimentary Basin: Schulz, 2010, GeotIS—The Geother- Logan, C., D.I. Cummings, S. Pullan, Canadian Society of Petroleum mal Information System for Ger- A. Pugin, H.A.J. Russell, and D.R. Geologists and Alberta Research many: Bali, Indonesia, Proceedings Sharpe, 2009, Hydrostratigraphic Council, Calgary, 509 p. World Geothermal Congress 2010, 6 p. model of the South Nation water- Oldenborger, A.J.-M. Pugin, M.J. shed region, south-eastern Ontario: Hinton, S.E. Pullan, H.A.J. Russell, Phelps, G.A., R.W. Graymer, R.C. Geological Survey of Canada, Open and D.R. Sharpe, 2011, Airborne Jachens, D.A. Ponce, R.W. Simpson, File 6206, 17 p. DVD. time-domain electromagnetic data and C.M. Wentworth, C.M., 2008, Logan, C., H.A.J. Russell, D.R. Sharpe, for mapping and characterization of Three-dimensional geologic map of and F. Kenny, 2006, The Role of GIS the Spiritwood Valley aquifer, Mani- the Hayward fault zone, San Fran- and expert knowledge in 3-D model- toba, Canada: Geological Survey cisco Bay region, California: U.S. ling, Oak Ridges Moraine, southern of Canada, Current Research, no. Geological Survey, Scientific Investi- Ontario, in J. Harris, ed., GIS for the 2010–11, 16 p. gations Map 3045, 31 p. Earth Sciences, Chapter 23: Geologi- Pamer, R., and G.W. Diepolder, Phillips, J.D., 1997, Potential-field geo- cal Association of Canada, Special 2010, 3D geological modelling in physical software for the PC, version Publication 44, p. 519–542. Bavaria—Objectives and setting of 2.2: U.S. Geological Survey, Open- Logan, C., D.R. Sharpe, and H.A.J. Rus- a state geological survey: Zeitschrift File Report 97–725. http://pubs. sell, 2002, Regional 3D structural der Deutschen Gesellschaft für usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-0725/. model of the Oak Ridges Moraine Geowissenschaften, v. 161, no. 2, p. 189–203. Pugin, A.J.M., S.E. Pullan, and J.A. and Greater Toronto area, southern Hunter, 2009, Multicomponent Ontario: version 1.0: Geological Pantea, M.P., J.C. Cole, B.D. Smith, J.R. high-resolution seismic reflection Survey of Canada, Open File 4329, Faith, C.D. Blome, and D.D. Smith, profiling: The Leading Edge, v. 28, CD-ROM. 2008, Three-dimensional geologic no. 10, p. 1248–1261.

90 Circular 578 Illinois State Geological Survey Pugin, A., S.E. Pullan, and D.R. Sharpe, a Quaternary basin of southwestern v. 123, no. 2, p. 76–81. http://www. 1999, Seismic facies and regional Quebec, Canada: Hydrogeology geotis.de/homepage/Ergebnisse/ architecture of the Oak Ridges Journal, v. 13, p. 690–707. EEK2_123.pdf Moraine area, southern Ontario: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Russell, H.A.J., D.R. Sharpe, C. Logan, Sharpe, D.R., P.J. Barnett, T.A. Bren- v. 36, p. 409–432. and T.A. Brennand, 2001, Not nand, D. Finley, G. Gorrell, H.A.J. without sedimentology: Guiding Russell, and P. Stacey, 1997, Surficial Pullan, S.E., J.A. Hunter, and R.L. Good, groundwater studies in the Oak geology of the Greater Toronto and 2002, Using downhole geophysical Ridges Moraine, southern Ontario, Oak Ridges Moraine area, south- logs to provide detailed lithology in R.C. Berg and L.H. Thorleifson, ern Ontario: Geological Survey of and stratigraphic assignment, Oak conveners, Geological Groundwater Canada, Open File 3062, 1: 200,000. Ridges Moraine, southern Ontario: Flow Modeling Workshop extended Current Research 2202-E8: Geologi- abstracts: Illinois State Geological Sharpe, D.R., B. Brodaric, E. Boisvert cal Survey of Canada, p. 1–12. Survey, Open File Series 2001-1, C. Logan, and H.A.J. Russell, 2009, 62 p. Online access, visualization, and Ricketts B. D., ed., 2000, Mapping, geo- analysis of Canadian groundwater physics, and groundwater modelling Russell, H.A.J., R.W.C. Arnott, and D.R. data, in R.C. Berg, L.H. Thorlei- in aquifer delineation, Fraser Low- Sharpe, 2003, Evidence for rapid fson, H.A.J. Russell, eds., Three- land and Delta, British Columbia: sedimentation in a tunnel chan- dimensional geological mapping for Geological Survey of Canada, Bul- nel, Oak Ridges Moraine, southern groundwater applications: Work- letin 552, 131 p. 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Wozniak, 2008, basement: Munich, 6th European Hydrogeological regions of Canada: Ross, M., R. Martel, G. Parent, and A. Congress on Regional Geoscien- Data release: Geological Survey of Smirnoff, 2007, Geomodels as a tific Cartography and Information Canada, Open File 5893, 20 p. key component of environmental Systems (EUREGEO), Proceedings impact assessments of military I, München (Landesamt für Ver- Sharpe, D.R., H.A.J. Russell, and C. training ranges in Canada, in L.H. messung und Geoinformation), p. Logan, 2007, A 3-dimensional geo- Thorleifson, R.C. Berg, and H.A.J. 202–203. logical model of the Oak Ridges Russell, eds.,Three-dimensional Moraine area, Ontario, Canada: geological mapping for groundwater Schulz, R., 2009, Aufbau eines geother- Journal of Maps, v. 2007, p. 239–253. applications, Workshop Extended mischen Informationssystems für abstracts: Minnesota Geological Deutschland— Endbericht. LIAG- Shrake, D.L., E.R. Venteris, G.E. Larsen, Survey, Open-File Report 07-4, p. 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