APPENDIX I
Methods used in studying modern pyroclastic deposits
1.1 Physical analysis The methods used to measure these, and the major uses of these measurements are set out below. Geologists who work solely on ancient volcanic rocks often have only a limited conception of the techniques 1.1.1 THICKNESS employed to study Recent unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits, and so may not fully understand how the data Maximum thickness of a pyroclastic fall deposit is are obtained or expressed. Many of the problems measured in centimetres or metres, and the measurements encountered in the study of modern pyroclastic deposits are used to construct an isopach map. In the figures are similar to those found in sedimentary rocks, where accompanying Chapter 6 there are a number of examples grainsize, grain shape, geometry of the deposit and of such maps, which in many cases, are a meaningful internal fabric must be the tools used to determine the indication of: physical processes controlling their formation and de• (a) the vent position, position. The pioneers in this type of approach were (b) the dispersal, which can be related to the type of undoubtedly Japanese volcanologists (e.g. Kuno 1941, eruption, and Aramaki 1956, Katsui 1959, Murai 1961, Kuno et al. (c) the volume of the deposit. 1964), whereas G. P. L. Walker (e.g. 1971, 1973b) can be credited with extending and developing the approach. The following are properties that are now routinely Construction of an isopach map entails mapping out measured in the physical analysis of modern pyroclastic the deposit, sometimes over large areas. However, by deposits: mapping we do not mean tracing lithological boundaries between deposits, as these are usually so complex that no thickness attempt is made to draw them. Thus, a map of a Recent maximum grain size pyroclastic fall deposit generally shows its inferred grainsize distribution original distribution, and not its present outcrop pattern, proportions of components as between datum points the deposit could be partially or crystal content of pumice clasts completely eroded. Indeed, non-welded pyroclastic density and porosity deposits may be ephemeral (Ch. 10). In addition, outcrops may be so rapidly overgrown and badly
469 470 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
weathered that they cannot be used. For example, new 1.l.2 MAXIMUMGRAINSIZE roadcuts in the tropical Caribbean are sometimes completely overgrown within four or five years. Because Measuring the average maximum juvenile and lithic clast pyroclastic fall deposits can change markedly laterally, it size is an important field technique, which involves is preferable to use reasonably closely spaced datum measuring, at numerous localities, the long axis of several points. Although spacing ultimately depends on the type of the largest clasts in a deposit. In some detailed sections of eruption, for the large plinian fall deposits localities the variation in grainsize between different layers of one within 1 km of each other are favoured. Within these deposit is measured. Usually the sizes of the three or five distances correlation is more certain, and internal largest clasts are then averaged, and this would closely changes can be carefully documented. This is very approximate the coarsest one-percentile often quoted by important in correlating deposits between localities and sedimentologists. Average maximum pumice (or scoria) in understanding the eruption and its stratigraphy. and lithic sizes can be plotted up as isopleth maps (Chs The volumes of air-fall deposits have been calculated 6-8). As with isopach maps, maximum-size isopleth from isopach maps in various ways. A common method maps are important in locating the vent from which involves measuring the area enclosed by each isopach and pyroclastic fall deposits were erupted, and for comparing then to plot area against thickness on a log-log 'area plot' their dispersal in order to characterise the type of (Fig. 6.18). A curve, or two straight lines (Rose et al. eruption. However, for pyroclastic fall deposits, such 1973), are fitted to the data, and integration of this curve isopleth maps have certain advantages over an isopach gives the volume. Other methods include plots of volume map, because at some localities it may not be the original against thickness and plots based on theoretical isopach depositional thickness that is being measured. The top of shape (Froggatt 1982). All of these methods involve a deposit may have been eroded by either a later surge or extrapolation of isopachs to the low-thickness distal limits flow, which is sometimes common with near-vent plinian of the deposit where outcrop may be poorly eroded. This deposits, or by later local erosion or soil-forming introduces major uncertainty for larger, more widely processes. It may also have been overthickened by dispersed types of deposits, especially where secondary secondary slumping, especially if the fall was deposited thickening might have been important (Ch. 6). To try to on a steep slope. Also, some extremely widely dispersed resolve this, G. P. L. Walker (1980, 1981b, c) developed (ultraplinian) deposits may be thickest just down-wind of an independent method for estimating the total volume of the vent (Chs 6 & 8), and secondary thickening of distal plinian deposits, based on crystal concentration studies ash may occur (Ch. 6). (see below) of the Taupo ultraplinian, and Waimihia and Measurements of maximum clast size are also used to Hatepe plinian deposits. Once the total volume erupted analyse the energetics of pyroclastic fall eruptions. This is had been estimated from the proportion of free crystals especially so for large ballistic clasts; that is, those clasts relative to the magmatic ratio as represented in pumice which are so heavy that they follow ballistic trajectories clasts, a straight-line extrapolation could be made at the and are unaffected by wind drift. The distance at which low thickness end on an area plot to a selected limiting ballistics fall from the vent (that is, their range) can be thickness value, so giving the same volume as would be used to estimate initial gas thrust velocities from the vent, calculated by integration of the area curve. It was found or the muzzle velocities of the ballistics from the vent that for all three deposits extrapolations to the same lower (Ch. 6). L. Wilson (1972) presented tables of calculated limiting thickness of 1 Ilm had nearly identical slopes. ranges for particles of varying radii and density, launched Total erupted volumes of other plinian deposits can be at speeds between 10 and 1000 m S-l and various conveniently estimated on an area plot by extrapolation angular elevations. These are reproduced in Table 1.1, parallel to this slope, using the same limiting thickness of and cover most ballistic clast sizes (Ch. 6). 1 Ilm (G. P. L. Walker 1981b; Table 6.2). For plinian deposits the muzzle velocity can be Measurements of the variation in the thickness of conveniently calculated from measurements of maximum pyroclastic flow and surge deposits are less meaningful in clast size using the equation of L. Wilson (1976, 1978): terms of an indicator of vent location. This is because (8grooo) both are gravity-controlled mass flows, which therefore uij= (Ll) tend to pond in depressions. However, thickness is 3CQo important in calculation of the volumes of such deposits. where Uo is the velocity of the gas (or muzzle velocity), C is the drag coefficient (-1 for plinian velocities), Qo is the PHYSICAL ANALYSIS 471
Table 1.1 Logarithms (base 10) of the ranges of larger pyroclastic particles (after L. Wilson 1972).
Velocity Density Launched at 45° radius Launched at 66° radius Launched at 37° radius (m S~l) (g cm-3) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0
3.5 2.9556 3.0032 30075 2.8261 2.8736 2.8786 1.9790 20211 2.0268 2.5 2.9369 3.0017 3.0070 2.8073 2.8719 2.8785 1.9614 2.0207 2.0267 10 1.0 2.8559 2.9914 30060 2.7242 2.8601 2.8770 1.8830 2.0099 2.0254 0.5 2.7579 2.9760 30043 2.6222 2.8427 2.8753 1.7846 1.9937 2.0236
3.5 3.6440 3.9315 3.9583 3.4896 3.8010 3.8290 2.6641 2.9505 2.9775 2.5 3.5719 3.9208 3.9571 3.4235 3.7897 3.8276 2.5897 2.9395 2.9762 30 1.0 3.3383 3.8680 3.9483 3.1834 3.7329 3.8180 2.3497 2.8843 2.9673 0.5 3.1364 3.7965 3.9356 2.9752 3.6544 3.8036 2.1373 2.8070 2.9540
3.5 4.0418 4.6867 4.9660 3.8644 4.5529 4.8358 3.0228 3.7156 3.9873 2.5 3.7372 4.6173 4.9514 3.7468 4.4821 4.8195 2.9034 3.6437 3.9721 100 1.0 3.6042 4.3999 4.8817 3.4194 4.2548 4.7461 2.5717 3.4116 3.9026 0.5 3.3549 4.2139 4.7912 3.1673 4.0556 4.6504 2.4068 3.2078 3.8097
3.5 4.23894.7075 5.0257 5.3861 5.6581 4.04104.5111 4.86735.23575.5274 3.1877 3.6669 4.0293 4.3988 4.6906 2.5 4.11104.58494.9177 5.2957 5.5914 3.91114.38524.75735.13685.4571 3.05683.53943.91574.30004.6212 300 1.0 3.7592 4.2319 4.6183 5.0127 5.3732 3.5575 4.0304 4.4499 4.8381 5.2261 2.69973.17703.59934.00064.3900 0.5 3.4931 3.9647 4.3891 4.7744 5.1779 3.29063.75904.21034.59205.0199 2.43022.90153.35493.75214.1815
3.5 4.29594.77445.13235.54045.9162 4.0926 4.5719 4.9631 5.3820 5.7887 3.2356 3.7238 4.1204 4.5432 4.9575 2.5 4.1652 4.6458 5.0139 5.4302 5.8157 3.9602 4.4406 4.8427 5.2624 5.6795 3.10243.59123.99644.42274.8464 600 1.0 3.8073 4.2817 4.6933 5.1087 5.5245 3.60134.07584.51554.92565.3690 2.74043.2191 3.66074.08364.5308 0.5 3.5373 4.0098 4.4526 4.8524 5.2928 3.3309 3.8005 4.2660 4.6621 5.1253 2.4679 2.9400 3.4069 3.8174 4.2831
3.5 4.34264.82755.21125.65106.1029 4.1354 4.6207 5.0348 5.4885 5.9963 3.27553.76934.18814.64825.1767 2.5 4.21004.6948 5.0861 5.5273 5.9760 4.0014 4.4857 4.9075 5.3542 5.8474 3.1407 3.6332 4.0573 4.5119 5.0191 1000 1.0 3.8477 4.32314.75175.18105.6329 3.63844.11394.56704.9921 5.4732 2.7752 3.2547 3.7089 4.1463 4.6333 0.5 3.5749 4.0479 4.5032 4.9130 5.3772 3.36543.83584.31084.71735.2033 2.5003 2.9732 3.4489 3.8687 4.3578
effective density of the volcanic gas in the vent I.1.3 GRAINSIZE DISTRIBUTION (0.25 kg m-3 for dusty gas), g is the acceleration due to gravity, ro is the radius of the average maximum clast at Mechanical or granulometric analyses are used as the vent and 00 is its density (generally taken as 2.5 g cm-3 main source of data when examining the grainsize for lithics). Because of inaccessibility, it is usually variations in non-welded and unconsolidated pyroclastic impossible to measure ro, but it can be estimated by deposits. Generally, the methods described by G. P. L. plotting a graph of the product rooo of the largest clasts Walker (1971) are followed. Analyses are made with a set against distance from the vent, and extrapolation to the of sieves with mesh sizes spaced at one-phi (
Table 1.2 Details of sieve analyses of a sample of a pyroclastic fall. surge and flow deposit. The samples are all from the Upper Bandelier Tuff collected from the locality shown in Plate 8. These data are used as a basis for the graphical analysis of the size distributions shown in Figure 1.1.
Grainsize Fall Surge Flow
Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative (mm) (<1» wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
>16 >-4 2.49 2.49 7.96 7.96 >8 >-3 7.01 9.50 2.88 10.84 >4 >-2 11.27 20.77 5.69 16.53 >2 >-1 12.25 33.02 2.48 2.48 5.87 22.40 >1 >0 28.17 61.19 6.10 8.58 13.57 35.97 >0.5 >1 23.61 84.80 11.30 19.88 17.56 53.53 >0.25 >2 9.10 93.90 15.23 35.11 10.80 64.33 >0.125 >3 2.92 96.82 19.34 54.45 10.58 74.91 >0.0625 >4 1.38 98.20 23.50 77.95 13.97 88.88 <0.0625 <4 1.80 100.00 22.05 100.00 11.13 100.01
techniques are used: field sieves can be used if available, gramSlZe distribution on arithmetic probability paper linear point traverses can be made in the field, or (Fig. 1.1), and to determine the Inman (1952) parameters photographs of the deposit can be taken and used to of median diameter (Md
(0) (b) Foil Flow
30 30
II> ~ 20 20 N 'iii ~ c= 84 10 o .s: -l• - 4 -2 0 2 40 - 4 -2 0 2 40 II> 16 4 I 1/4 1/16 mm 16 4 I 114 1116 mm ~ 50 1--+---+---14 o Groin diameter Gro in diameter o (.) ~ Surge i 16 f--t--n "-- -hf--1
II> > o pumice crYllols :;o o E IiIhics ::J U - 4 -2 o 4 J5 16 4 1/4 I/l6mm - 2 0 2 4J5 Groin diameter 4 I 1/4 1116 mm Groin diameter Figure 1.1 Graphical representation of the three grainsize analyses from samples of the Upper Bandelier Tuff in Table 1.2. (a) Cumulative plot on probability ordinate. The 16th, 50th and 84th percentiles are drawn, and their intersection with the grainsize distribution curves gives the grain diameters used to derive the Inman parameters in Table 1.3. (b) Histograms for components separated by methods described in the text. The components have their own grainsize distributions, while each deposit has an overall distribution which is the combined distributions of the three components. The fall deposit is well sorted for a pyroclastic deposit. and is distinctively unimodal, having a high proportion of crystals within a limited size range in the 0.5 and 1 mm size classes. The flow deposit is poorly sorted and polymodal. The sub-populations reflect more than one transport process affecting the various grainsizes and components differently in the moving pyroclastic flow (Ch. 7); note that ngain there is a peak in the proportion of crystals in the 0.5 and 1 mm size classes. The surge deposit is unimodal, but the distribution has an extended coarse tail, or is negatively skewed. It is quite well sorted, but not as good as the fall deposit. This sample is also a core sample through several laminae which make up this depositional unit mately log normal. In many analyses, the central 68% of Walker (1971), which showed that better sorted pyro• the distribution approximates a straight line, and it is clastic fall deposits generally had values of Gq, < 2.0, argued that the statistics are useful for comparison while less well sorted pyroclastic flow deposits had values between different samples. If used with care, such greater than 2.0 (Fig. 5.3). Table 1.4 shows the essential statistical information can also be used to aid genetic interpretation of pyroclastic deposits (Sparks 1976, Bond Table 1.4 Differences in descriptive summaries of sorting & Sparks 1976). used by sedimentologists and volcanologists. Most pyroclastic deposits, when compared with normal sedimentary grain aggregates, are poorly sorted (Ch. I). Sorting Sedimentary Pyroclastic This has led to unfortunate differences in the descriptive (0<1» deposits deposits assessment of sorting given by sedimentologists and 0- 1 very well sorted to very well sorted volcanologists to sedimentary and pyroclastic deposits, moderately sorted respectively. To most sedimentologists, any deposit with 1- 2 poorly sorted well sorted a value of Gq, > 1.0 would be described as poorly sorted. To a volcanologist, the division between good and poor 2-4 very poorly sorted poorly sorted sorting in pyroclastic deposits is Gq, = 2.0, and this value > 4 extremely poorly sorted very poorly sorted partly stems from the original Mdq/ocp plot of G. P. L. 474 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
differences in descriptive summaries of sorting between volcanologists and sedimentologists. Also, see Chapter I 1.1.4 PROPORTIONS OF COMPONENTS for a discussion on the differences between size sorting The relative proportions of the different components in a and hydraulic particle sorting. pyroclastic deposit reflect its mode of formation, and Fluidisation experiments on ignimbrite materials have details of the transport process. Different techniques are recently suggested that the most useful statistical used to separate pumice, crystals and lithics in the parameters to be used on ignimbrites are those of Folk different size classes (Fig. Lib). The larger size classes and Ward (1957), where: (>4 mm) are hand picked, but forceps are used for the fine end of this size range. Quite often with the> 16 mm <1>16 + <1>50 + <1>84 • (1.5) Mz = = graphic mean size classes this is done in the field, if field sieving and 3 weighing can be carried out. For the size classes 2 mm to .hI <1>84 - <1>16 <1>95 - <1>5 • I· h· (I 6) 't' = + = mc USlve grap IC • 0.5 mm, hand picking is carried out under a binocular microscope using fine forceps or a camel-hair brush. The 4 6.6 stan d ar d d eVlaUon.. main prublem is to separate out as much material as is (a measure of sorting) needed to produce a satisfactory result, while keeping to a During experiments, C. J. N. Wilson (1981, Ch. 7) minimum the time involved, so as to be able to treat a found that the addition of fines to a coarse sample could large enough number of samples. This usually involves have changed its fluidisation behaviour. Although the making tests to determine the minimum weight of split dynamic behaviour of the sample had changed, as had its sample that will give consistent results, or the minimum grainsize make-up, these grain size changes were not weight for routine analysis (for the 2 mm class this is detected in the Inman parameters, making their use in between 5 and 10 g). Weighings are usually carried out interpreting depositional processes and conditions doubt• accurately on an analytical balance. In the finest size ful. At the other extreme, more accurate sedimentological classes, grains are usually counted either under a parameters, such as the method of moments, proved binocular microscope (0.25 and 0.125 mm) or under a oversensitive. Adding a small amount of fines to a coarse petrological microscope (0.063 and <0.063 mm). This sample may make no appreciable change to its fluidisation entails, first determining the minimum number of counts behaviour, yet have an inordinate effect on method of needed for routine analysis (for the 0.25 mm size class moments grainsize parameters. C. J. N. Wilson (1981) this is usually up to about 500 grains) and, secondly, concluded that the Folk and Ward parameters were the determining a conversion factor for pumice to convert the best compromise, and the use of these are a necessary counted percentage of pumice grains present into equiv• step in studies attempting to understand the dynamics of alent weight percentages. This is usually arrived at by ignimbrites. comparing the weights of equal numbers of pumice and For samples containing a large amount of fine ash (e.g. lithic fragments counted from the 2 mm size class. >50% finer than fs mm, which is, conventionally, the Conversion factors are usually between about 0.5 and finest grainsize sieved) analyses can be completed by 0.75. However, there are no standard techniques used in pipetting or with a Coulter counter. For samples with component analysis, and workers often substitute their lesser amounts of ash the distribution curve is usually own variations depending on the needs of the study (for simply extrapolated to <1>84 as a straight line. However, for instance, water panning to separate pumice from crystals the more-refined studies that are now being carried out and lithics first). on pyroclastic deposits, and with the increased availability Measurement of the proportions of components in an of Coulter counters, accurate analysis of the fine end of air-fall deposit enables particles to be grouped according the grainsize distribution is desirable and easier than it to their terminal fall velocities (Ch. 6). Terminal fall used to be. With more-detailed grain size studies it will be velocities have been determined experimentally for more appropriate to sieve at half-phi mesh intervals, and various sizes of pumice, lithic clasts and crystals, and perhaps, in some cases, even quarter-phi intervals. theoretically computed for a range of sizes and densities For further information and discussion of the size by G. P. L. Walker et al. (1971). Theoretical curves for properties of grain aggregates in general, the reader is cylindrical particles, which were found to approximate referred to the relevant parts in standard sedimentology most closely the behaviour of pyroclastic particles, are textbooks. Particularly useful is the unique manual of shown in Figure 1.2. L. Wilson (1972) also computed the Folk (1980), and also Pettijohn et al. (1972) and Leeder fall times of particles of various sizes and density (1982), and the references therein. corresponding to five release heights (Fig. 1.3). PHYSICAL ANALYSIS 475
1.1 .5 CRYSTAL CONTENT OF PUMICE The weight percentage of crystals separated from artific• ially crushed large pumice clasts is assumed to represent , the original magmatic crystal content (G. P. L. Walker III E 1972). Together with component analysis, these data are - 1 0 ~----+-----~~~~~~~----~-- important in determining the amount of crystal enrich• ment or depletion, or glass (vitric) enrichment or depletion in particular types of porphyritic pumice deposit. Enrichment or depletion in either of these o components is controlled by, and therefore can be used to c assess , aeolian fractionation processes in falls, and 'E ().II:--N'++------+-----!----t---~- ... transport processes in flows and surges. Also, from these ~ data, total erupted volumes can be better calculated. Most pumice deposits (falls, flows and surges) have lost some 0.01/---+----+----!----t vitric component, usually transported far beyond where the thickness of the deposit can be measured or isopachs drawn, and therefore the amount of crystal enrichment is 001 0·1 1 10 100 a means of estimating this loss. Diameter (em) Usually, large weighed pumice clasts are crushed to Figure 1.2 Computed terminal fall velocities for cylindrical free all the crystals. Tests can be made to determine the particles, which show good agreement with the behaviour of minimum clast size that gives the true magmatic pyroclastic particles. The curves are for grains ranging in crystal: glass ratio. Ratios may be inconsistent in small density from 0.313 to 5 g cm-3 (After G. P. L. Walker et ai. clasts. For most routine studies, a number of clasts from 1971.) the> 16 mm size classes are suitable; with very coarsely (a) O·5gcm- 3 (b) I·Ogem-3 porphyritic pumices larger clasts may be needed. Crystals 3 4-:::::--1---+---+ i=:---I---+------t can then be separated from the vitric fraction by panning under water, or if the vitric fragments prove too dense to be hydraulically separated this can be supplemented by 2 hand picking or counting with a binocular microscope. The weight of the loose crystals can then be expressed as
~ III 1 a percentage weight of the original clasts or, together with III :; results from component analysis, used to define the c enrichment of crystals in a deposit, expressed as an 'E 0 +-----1r----+---i- -I-----;----t---+ enrichment factor, EF (G. P. L. Walker 1972), given by - 2 -I 0 I -2 -I o III ~ (c) 2·5 g em -3 (d) 3·5 g em- 3 C2 PI EF= - x• (I. 7) P2 C1 =o where C/PI is the weight ratio of free crystals to glass in -o - 2 artificially crushed pumice and CiP2 is the same ratio in 01 o the deposit. For pyroclastic deposits that are depleted in ..J crystals relative to the magmatic proportion, it is more appropriate to define a depletion factor, DF, which is the reciprocal of EF, and quantifies the enrichment in the glass component. -I o 1 -2 -I o The weight percentage of vitric material lost (VL) L0910 particle radius (em) during the eruption and emplacement of an ignimbrite is Figure 1.3 Computed fall times of particles ranging in given by density from 0.5 to 3.5 g cm-3 . The curves (from bottom to top) are for particles released from heights of 5, 10, 20, 30 (1.8) and 50 km. (After L. Wilson 1972.) 476 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
where K is the weight percentage of grainsizes in the map yields the total mass of free crystals (C') in the ignimbrite finer than 2 mm (crystal concentration data accessible parts of the deposit. A fourth map is construc• only applying to the matrix). This material is lost into a ted from the lithic content of sieved samples, and the total co-ignimbrite ash-fall (Chs 6 & 8), the volume of which mass of <2 mm lithics (L'<.2) is derived. The method needs to be added to that of the ignimbrite to estimate the used to calculate total erupted mass and volume is total volume erupted during the ignimbrite-forming summarised in Table 1.5 using the Hatepe pumice as our event. example (Fig. 104; G. P. L. Walker 1981c). The method For widely dispersed pumice fall deposits, crystal depends on the fact that liberated crystals fall closer to concentration studies can be used to estimate the total source than similar sized pumice or glass shards (Fig. mass and volume erupted, without the need for extra• 1.3), and because of their rather restricted size range polation of isopachs at the distal limits (as discussed crystals are not a large component in the most widely earlier). In practice, using the isopach map of the deposit dispersed size classes. Assuming that C' is equal to the and measured bulk densities of samples of the deposit total quantity of crystals liberated (C), the total erupted (see below), an isopleth map is constructed to show the quantity of vitric particles in the <2 mm size classes mass of deposit per square centimetre (Fig. 1.4a). From (P <2) can be determined. A second calculation assumes sieve analyses a second map can be derived showing the 20% of the crystals erupted fell outside the mapped area. mass per unit area of pumice that is <2 mm in size (Fig. lAb). Integration of this map, by estimating the value at I.l.6 DENSITY AND POROSITY the intersection points of grid lines, yields the total mass of <2 mm pumice. From the crystal content of sieved The standard procedure for determining the density and samples, another map showing the mass per unit area of porosity of a welded tuff (or lava) sample is, first, to oven• free crystals is derived (Fig. lAc), and integration of this dry the sample at about 100°C for 24 h and then to allow it to cool in a desiccator, after which it is weighed to (a) Moss of deposit (b) Moss of sub- determine the dry weight in air (M I)' The sample is then 2mm pumice placed in a container from which the air is evacuated, to extract air from the pore spaces. This container is flooded with deaerated water and the sample is left immersed under pressure for two days to allow water to be absorbed. The sample is removed from the water and quickly weighed in air, after removing the excess water from the surface, to give the wet weight in air (M1) . The sample is then weighed while immersed in water to obtain the wet weight in water (M3)' Then:
(c) Moss of free (d) Mass of sub- density = M/(Ml - M 3) (1.9) crystals 2mm IIthics Ml -MI porosity --''----'-- x 100% (1.10) Ml - M3
However, the porosity measured by this method only measures open, connected pore space, and unconnected vesicles formed before or after emplacement are not included. To determine the bulk density of an unconsolidated Figure 1.4 Maps showing the basic data for the determina• pyroclastic deposit, a dried sample is placed in a suitably• tion of the total mass and volume of the Hatepe plinian sized beaker with a graduated volumetric scale. The deposit erupted from Lake Taupo. New Zealand (Chs 6 & 8). beaker is tapped gently to ensure that all the void space is Map (a) is derived from isopachs of the deposit (Fig. 8.51 a) and bulk density data. The other maps give isopleths filled, and when no further compaction occurs the (g cm -2) for the different components in the fractions of the volume is measured. For coarse plinian deposits a deposit finer than 2 mm. The figures in the bottom right• void age correction will be required. The sample is hand corner of each map give the total mass for the on-land weighed, and the weight divided by the volume gives the part of the deposit (After G. P. L. Walker 1981 c.) density. A useful technique actually to collect samples of STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS 477
Table 1.5 Mass and volume calculations for the Hatepe and lavas above or, if the apparatus is not available, by plinian deposit based on crystal concentration studies (after simple displacement in water. Each clast from a sample is G. P. L. Walker 1981 c). weighed individually (oven-dry), and then soaked in water for at least half an hour to ensure that all connected 3 V' volume within mapped area* (km ) 2.33 vesicle space has been flooded, otherwise intake during M' mass within mapped area* 1.13 measurement would increase the apparent volume of the P'.c2<2 mm pumice*t 0044 C' free crystals 0.09 clast. The clast is then immersed in a container or L'.c2 <2 mm lithics* 0.11 measuring cylinder and the volume of water displaced equals the volume of the clast. Other methods used Calculation assuming C' = C involve coating the clasts in waterglass, or cutting cubes P<2 total <2 mm pumiceH 2.64 out of the clasts (but both of these methods destroy the mass outside mapped area pumices for further use), or approximating their volumes P' pumice, all <2 mmt§ 2.20 to that of equivalent ellipsoids. L" lithics, all <2 mm~ 0.37 Sometimes it is necessary to know the bulk density of M" total outside mapped area 2.57 the matrix «2 mm) of samples of pyroclastic flow V' volume outside mapped area[[ (km 3 ) 3.67 deposits. This can again be determined using a measuring Mtotal mass of deposit (=M' + M") 3.70 cylinder; no voidage correction is necessary. V total volume (= V' + V') (km 3 ) 6.00 DRE volume (assuming Q = 2.5 g cm-3) (km 3 ) 1.48
Calculation assuming C' = 80% of C P<2 total <2 mm pumicet:(: 3.22 1.2 Stratigraphic analysis mass outside mapped area P' pumice, all <2 mmt§ 2.78 This type of analysis comes under the broad heading of C' free crystals 0.02 tephrochronology. However, tephrochronology has a L" lithics, all <2 mm~ 0.47 M" total outside mapped area 3.27 wide variety of applications, and is an important tool in a V' volume outside mapped area[[ (km 3 ) 4.67 number of disciplines. For example, ash layers have been M total mass of deposit (= M' + M") 4040 used in dating archaeological sites, measuring rates of Vtotal volume (= V' + V') (km 3) 7.00 sedimentation in oceanic and other sedimentary basins, DRE volume (assuming Q = 2.5 g cm-3 ) (km 3) 1.76 and in palaeoecological studies. The pioneer in this field was Sigvaldur Thorarinsson, who introduced the term Values of mass are all in units of 1015 g. *By integration of the appropriate map (Figs 8.51a & 104). tlncluding glass 'tephra' and the study of tephrochronology in 1944 in his shards. tEquals C' x magmatic glass: crystal ratio (96.7/3.3). doctoral thesis. He promoted the use of tephra as an §By difference, equals P<2 - P~2. important tool in volcanological, pollen-analytical, glaci• ~Some 8% lithics have also been assumed lost outside the ological, geomorphological and archaeological research. mapped area. [[Assuming the same bulk density (0.7 g cm-3 ) as in the eastern part of the mapped area. For a historical perspective, the reader is referred to Thorarinsson (1981). . The aim of stratigraphic analysis of modern pyroclastic known volume in the field is by forcing a tub of known successions is to divide them into eruptive units and to volume into the outcrop. facilitate their correlation. This can involve much more In certain studies, knowledge of the density of pumice than just determining the 'ash stratigraphy', because the clasts is required, sometimes in the different size classes. measurements of thickness, grain size and constitution of In the 16 mm to O.S mm classes, bulk pumice density is a deposit, which are necessary for correlation, are of great determined by placing samples of picked pumice from volcanological value in assessing the style and scale of one size class into a small graduated beaker or measuring explosive volcanic activity, and in understanding pro• cylinder and gently tapping until no further compaction cesses (Section 1.1). Two papers which set out this occurs. The sample weight is then divided by volume. approach are G. P. L. Walker and Croasdale (1971) and Usually some tests are made initially to determine a Booth et ai. (1978). However, we should acknowledge void age correction for individual size classes, this correct• some of the pioneering Japanese work in this field, for ion obviously increasing with increasing grainsize. example, Nakamura (1962) and Aramaki (1963). For the >32 mm size classes pumice clast density can The deposits of different eruptions can be separated be measured by the method described for welded tuffs from one another by recognition of intervening: 478 APPENDIX I: STUDYING MODERN DEPOSITS
(a) soils, outcrop or contact maps drawn of individual pyroclastic (b) erosion surfaces, deposits. Most maps group together large parts of the (c) (epiclastic) sediments and stratigraphy. For example, the terms 'newer' or 'older (d) lavas. pyroclastics' may be used to subdivide the stratigraphy, but each probably represents the deposits of many Different deposits can be identified from one another eruptions, and their epiclastic derivatives. by differences in: Where possible, stratigraphic sections should be dated. This can be most important for correlation, and for such (a) composition and mineralogy, things as volcanic hazard assessment and determination (b) grain size , of magma production rates. The three most important (c) thickness, dating methods used are 14C dating, which has been most (d) colour, important for young deposits «50 000 years BP); and (e) degree and style of welding and fission-track and K-Ar dating, which have been used for (f) relative stratigraphic position. Quaternary pyroclastic deposits. The fission-track method can routinely date glass shards and zircon older than It is often found that no single characteristic is indicative 100000 years. The usefulness of K-Ar dating depends of a particular fall, flow or surge deposit, and some are so on the material to be dated. Sanidine can be routinely similar that they can only be distinguished once their dated where ages are older than 70 000 years; the relative stratigraphic position to a distinctive or key practical younger limit of plagioclase is 200 000 years; in deposit have been determined. rare cases some minerals with high potassium contents Stratigraphic relations can be very complex (Chs 1, l3 can be reliably dated if they are as young as 30000 years. & 14). The usual technique is to construct logged sections For a full discussion of these dating techniques applied to of all available outcrops (including digging pits, Plate 5) Quaternary tephra, and their limitations, see the and piece together the pyroclastic stratigraphy from a excellent review by Naeser et al. (1981). number of key locations (e.g. Figs 8.7 & l3.40). In this In some studies of pyroclastic deposits geochemical way studies can be made on the whole succession, or just fingerprinting can be essential for correlation and tephro• on the separate layers accumulated during different chronology, and has been very successively used, for phases of the same eruption. The deposits of different example, in correlation of deep-sea ash layers (Ch. 9). eruptions are often dispersed differently around a volcano, Rapid and routine electron microprobe analysis of in• and transport and depositional mechanisms (fall, flow or dividual glass shards now provides a particularly surge) will also control distribution. The deposits ac• powerful correlative tool. Again, as with dating, a cumulated during the same eruption can show just as discussion of these methods is beyond the scope of this many spatial complexities in their distribution. It is book. For the reader interested in geochemical correlation therefore very unlikely that anyone section will show the there is an excellent review by Westgate and Gorton whole stratigraphy of a volcano, or even a large part of it. (1981). Naeser et al. (1981), Westgate and Gorton (1981) Where volcanoes are in close proximity, deposits erupted and Thorarinsson (1981) all feature in Self and Sparks from different centres will also overlap and interfinger. (1981), to which we refer the reader for a number of other The whole stratigraphy is further complicated by epi• papers detailing methods that can be used in correlation, clastic processes of reworking and mass-wastage. and for an up-to-date picture of the applications of tephra It is therefore no surprise that there are very few studies and tephrochronology. APPENDIX II
Grainsize textural classes of volcaniclastic rocks) some possible origins) and suggested diagnostic characteristics
Grainsize-textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
A Conglomerate - Epiclastic reworking heterogeneous clast composition; very good very good closed framework (fluvial, shoreline) tractional structures; (rounded clasts (Ch.10) well-rounded clasts; essential) context with and within sedimentary succession
2 Epiclastic mass-flow heterogeneous clast composition; very good very good redeposition disorganised to graded- (subaqueous) stratified facies (Ch. 10); (Ch.10) association with other mass-flow facies 3 Pumice and scoria homogeneous composition; good in welded moderate concentration zones in clast support of pumice or scoria; ignimbrites ignimbrites (upper part sheet to lensoidal geometry; of layer 2b) and scoria- fines depleted; crystal-enriched flow deposits ICh. 7) if magma porphyritic; intercalated with other recognisable ignimbrite facies; usually at tops of flow units; thickness <2 m 4 Fines-depleted homogeneous composition; low poor ignimbrite (Ch. 7) crystal-rich matrix if magma porphyritic; massive - occasional bedding; thickness - several to >10 m; succeeded by volcanic breccia (lithic-rich ground layer of ignimbrite) 479 480 APPENDIX II: GRAINSIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES
Grainsize textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
B Conglomerate• 5 Epiciastic reworking similar to 1 and 2 very good very good open framework and mass-flow redeposition (rounded clasts (deposits with granular essential) matrix) (Ch. 7)
6 Cohesive pebbly mud pebbly mudstones texturally; good if formed poor flows and lahars composition of clasts (Ch.7) heterogeneous to homogeneous; intemally massive; up to a few tens of metres thick; lack evidence of hot state emplacement (hot blocks, thermal colour alteration thermal remanent magnetisation); no gas segregation structures 7 Non-welded (uncollapsed compositionally homogeneous often very poor poor pumice) ignimbrite and (subject to variation in content scoria-flow deposits and composition of lithics (Ch. 5) (Fig. 5.24a) which may form breccia horizons); intemally massive (with exception of ignimbrite veneer deposits in violent ignimbrites (Ch. 7) which may be crudely layered); up to a few tens of metres thick; may contain gas segregation pipes & pods with clast-supported fabric; accretionary lapilli may be present; gradational downwards into 4 or 17
C Breccia• 8 Epiciastic redeposition compositionally homogeneous to moderate moderate closed framework and mass-wastage heterogeneous; disorganised to (angular clasts) (includes gravitational graded-stratified facies for collapse, including redeposited units; massive to caldera margin collapse diffusely layered for mass-wastage breccias (Chs 8 & 13) (e.g. scree slopes, avalanches, (Ch. 10) (Fig. 10.10) surface mounds on debris flows); local lobate geometry to more extensive for redeposited facies and where large-scale sector collapse has occurred; thickness up to hundreds of metres; associated epiclastic facies may contain tractional structures
9 Aa lavas (Ch. 4) compositionally homogeneous poor for moderate (Fig. 4.6) (basaltic); very irregular spinose spinose top clast morphology; variation in surface vesicularity; accidental ciasts incorporated from substrate; margins brecciated and interior massive; usually less than 10m thick APPENDIX II: GRAIN SIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES 481
Grainsize textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
10 Block lavas and as for 9 except that clasts are good good autobrecciated lavas angular blocks; intermediate or (Ch. 4) (Figs 3.26, silicic composition; thickness up to 4.18a & b) 100 m or more
11 Lava dome/flow-front as for 10; diffuse layering in scree good good talus deposits (Chs 4 & slope talus deposits; association 10) (Fig. 10.12) with dome lava
12 Agglutinates homogeneous composition moderate very good (Chs 3 & 5) (basaltic, rarely peralkaline); (Figs 3.13 & 6.8) moulded fluidal clast shapes and accommodation (Chs 3 & 5); sector to annular geometry around vent; variable thickness up to tens of metres; interbedded massive lavas (clastogenic lavas, Ch. 4)
13 Agglomerates only diagnostic criterion is shaped poor very difficult (Chs 5 & 12) bombs or 'hot' breadcrusted or (Fig. 6.6) jointed blocks that have not been redeposited
14 Quench-fragmented compositionally homogeneous; good very good lavas, cryptodomes, very angular to splintery clasts; shallow intrusives coarse blocks to finely granulated (hyaloclastites) (Chs 3 & 4) glassy aggregates; may be (Figs 3.12 & 25) crystal-rich if porphyritic
'jigsaw puzzle' fit of clasts where good very good there has been no redistribution from site of fragmentation by turbulent mixing; gradational to intercalated with unfragmented lava (massive, pillowed, jointed); may be pervasively altered in ancient rocks
15 Hydrothermal explosion diverse clast types and poor poor breccias (Chs 3 & 13) morphology; clasts variably altered; matrix of hydrothermally altered clays; may be associated with surge deposits; accretionary lapilli may occur
16 Hydraulic fracture compositionally homogeneous to very good very good breccias (Ch. 14) partially heterogeneous; clasts (Fig. 14.5) variably altered; angular to splintery clasts; 'jigsaw puzzle' fit of clasts where little transport of clasts has occurred; confined to cross-cutting zones centimetres to metres wide 482 APPENDIX II: GRAINSIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES
Grainsize textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
17 Pumice-fall deposits homogeneous clast composition poor except poor, (subplinian, plinian, (but variable accessory lithics); where covered recognised by ultraplinian) (Chs 5 & 6) identical crystal types in both by co-eruptive context; good (Figs 6.14, 41c & 8.49, pumice clasts and matrix; massive welded for welded Plate 8) to diffusely layered; no cross- ignimbrites; deposits stratification; thickness up to 25 m, excellent but usually< <10 m; susceptible to where welded weathering and alteration with breakdown of glass to clays, etc.; susceptible to tectonic deformation and layer shortening; where welded, eutaxitic texture also present, and local distribution around the vent
18 Scoria-fall deposits as for 16, but even more very poor very poor (hawaiian, strombolian) susceptible to weathering and (Chs 5 & 6) (Figs 3.16, alteration 5.4, 6.6 & 6.10, Plate 5)
19 Lithic concentration homogeneous to heterogeneous good for good if zones (base of layer 2b) lithic clast composition; lithic preserved and ground layers of gradational upwards into matrix- concentration violent ignimbrites supported and lithic-poor breccia zones in welded (Chs 7 & 8) (upper part of layer 2b); ignimbrites; (Figs 7.10 & 26) interbedded with other ignimbrite otherwise poor facies - underlain by basal layer (sand to microbreccia grainsize); thickness generally <1 m; ground layer of violent ignimbrites may overlie 4 or 21, and is sharply overlain by layer 2b ignimbrite facies
20 Co-ignimbrite breccias as for 19, but deposits thicker and good if good if (lag breccias and ground clasts coarser; thickness up to capped by preserved breccias) (Ch. 8) 20+ m(?); upper contact sharp to welded (Fig. 820) gradational into open framework ignimbrite co-ignimbrite breccias and other ignimbrite facies
21 Fines-depleted as for 4, but pumice clasts poor poor ignimbrite angular (Chs 7 & 8) (Figs 7.28 & 30b) APPENDIX II: GRAINSIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES 483
Grainsize textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
0 Breccia - 22 Glacial till and heterogeneous clast composition; moderate moderate open framework moraines (diamictites) clast shape variable from angular to good (angular clasts (Ch.10) to rounded; matrix includes large essential) (Figs 10.2, 13 & 15) proportion of fine rock powder; unlikely to contain significant pumice or shards; massive to crudely bedded; associated striated pavements, pebbles and fluvioglacial facies; variable thickness
23 Glacial dropstone as for 22, but thinner and matrix good very good deposits (Ch. 10) may be coarser, and contained (structure (Figs 10.2 & 13) within lacustrine and marine facies; distinguished dropstones may show impact sags; from pyroclastic may be reworked bomb sags by context)
24 Epiclastic reworking as for 5 (also see 1). but clasts very good moderate and/or mass-flow angular to sub-rounded redeposition with granular matrix (Ch. 10) (Figs 10.28a & 31 b)
25 Cohesive debris flows as for 6, but clasts angular to very good moderate and lahars (Ch. 10) sub-rounded (Figs 2.13, 10.30 & 31)
26 Ignimbrite (layer 2b). homogeneous clast composition excellent for excellent for and other (denser clast) (but variable accessory and welded welded pyroclastic flow deposits accidental lithics); crystal types ignimbrites, ignimbrites, (block and ash flows, same in pumice clasts and matrix; otherwise poor otherwise poor scoria flows) (Chs 5, massive depositional units (with 7 & 8) (Figs 5.14,15, exception of veneer deposits in 16, 7.31, 8.38 & 10.32, violent ignimbrites which show Plate 8) crude stratification); thickness variable - ignimbrites <5 m to hundreds of metres; denser clast flow deposits up to several tens of metres; evidence of hot state emplacement (see 6). and in the case of welded ignimbrites, development of eutaxitic texture and columnar jointing; gas segregation pipes and pods (with clast support); association with other ignimbrite facies (layer 2a) and co-eruptive fall and surge deposits
27 Co-ignimbrite breccias as for 18 and 20 but matrix- good if capped good if and proximal ignimbrites supported; presence of large by welded preserved (Ch. 8) (Fig. 8.20) segregation pipes and pods ignimbrite (metre-sized) 484 APPENDIX II: TEXTURAL CLASSES
Grainsize textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
28 Near-vent base surge compositionally homogeneous to poor good if deposits (Chs 5 & 7) heterogeneous; variable preserved (Figs 5.21, 22, 7.40, 43) vesicularity of juvenile clasts (Ch. 3); presence of ballistics and impact sags; cored lapilli; massive, bedded and cross-bedded intemal structures; thickness of multiple base-surge piles (tuff rings) up to tens of metres
29 Ground or ash-cloud compositionally homogeneous to good when good, but not in surge deposits heterogeneous microbreccias capped by or tectonically (Chs 5 & 7) (dependent on composition of within welded deformed units (Fig. 5.23, Plate 8) parent pyroclastic flows and lithic ignimbrite content); stratified and cross- succession stratified; position below and above, respectively, pyroclastic flow facies; thickness generally <2 m
30 Giant pumice beds uniform composition of pumice moderate very good in (Ch. 13) (Fig. 13.46) clasts; enclosing matrix sediments within thick undeformed are stratified; lacustrine (or marine) caldera lake terrains setting; radial jointing in some successions individual clasts; chilled glassy sheath on margins of some clasts; clasts up to several metres
E Sandstones 31 Epiclastic reworking abundant tractional structures; very good very good (sand-sized framework (Ch. 10) (Figs 10.19 & 24) cross-stratification is either high grains predominant) angle of repose or hummocky cross-stratification (cf. surge cross-stratification); body and trace fossils
32 Epiclastic mass-flow mass-flow facies characteristics; very good very good redeposition (Ch. 10) body and trace fossils (Fig. 10.28, Plate 11)
33 Weathered and/or generally granular texture; even very good recognition as devitrified lava/dykes distribution of phenocrysts if lavas difficult (Ch. 14) (Fig. 2.10) crystallised; thick massive character; in instances (?)relic flow banding; lithophysae, spherulites (Chs 4 & 14); radiate fibrous to granophyric ground mass of quartz and feldspar
34 Fine-grained ignimbrite gross granular texture; thick poor unless recognition of (Chs 5 & 8) (Fig. 5.16c) massive character; rare shard welded origin may be textures in thin section and may difficult be eutaxitic shard texture if originally welded; gradational into other ignimbrite facies (lithic concentration zones, gas segregation structures) APPENDIX II: GRAINSIZE TEXTURAL CLASSES 485
Grainsize textural Origin Essential characteristics Preservation Recognition class potential potential
35 Air-fall ashes and tuffs homogeneous composition; rare good if in moderate; (Chs 5 & 6) shards preserved; possible welded difficulty in (Figs 6.32 & 35) intemal diffuse lamination; ignimbrite distinguishing thickness generally <1 m; successions from re- accretionary lapilli (co-ignimbrite deposited origin ashes) and in for subaqueous lacustrine and ashes deep marine successions
36 Base-surge deposits as for 28, but finer-grained; poor good if (Chs 5 & 7) (Figs 7.40, 43) presence of cogenetic air-fall ash preserved layers with accretionary lapilli
37 Ground and ash-cloud as for 29 but finer see 29 see 29 surge deposits (Chs 5 & 7) (Plate 8)
F Mudstones 38 Epiclastic as for 31 and 32 very good very good (mud-sized grade (Ch. 10) (Fig. 1020) predominant
39 Fine-grained ignimbrite as for 34 poor unless recognition may (Chs 5 & 8) (Fig. 5.16c) welded be difficult
40 Air-fall ashes and tuffs as for 35 see 35 see 35 (Chs 5 & 6) (Figs 6.35 & 8.52)
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Many authors, organisations and publishers have Earth Mineral Sci. (Penn. Sf. Univ.) 41, 69-70 by generously consented to the use of their work. It is permission of the author and the Editor; Figure 3.4 with great pleasure and gratitude that we acknow• reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks,J. Volcanol. Geotherm. ledge the following copyright holders: Res. 3, 1-37 by permission of the author and Elsevier Science Publishers; Figures 3.5 and 6.12 reproduced from L. Wilson,]. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 8, 297-313 Plate 2 reproduced from Volcanism of the Eastern Snake by permission of the author and Elsevier Science River Plain, Idaho: a comparative planetary geology Publishers; Figure 3.6 reproduced from B. P. Kokelaar, guidebook CR. Greeley) by permission of the author and ]. Geol. Soc., Lond. 139, 21-33 by permission of NASA; Figure 2.1 reproduced from A. Streckeisen, Blackwell Scientific Publications; Figure 3.7 reproduced Geology 7, 331-5 by permission of the author and the from A. R. McBirney, Bull. Volcanol. 26, 455-69 by Geological Society of America; Figures 2.2 and 2.6 permission of the author and the publisher; Figure 3.8 reproduced from T. Murase and A. R. McBirney, Geol. reproduced from S. Sourirajan and G. C. Kennedy, Am. Soc. Am. Bull. 84, 3563-92 by permission of A. R. J. Sci. 260, 115-41 by permission of S. Sourirajan and McBirney and the Geological Society of America; Figures the publisher; Figures 3.9 and 7.39 reproduced from 2.3 and 6.46b reproduced from J. A. Wolff and K. H. Wohletz,J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 17,31-63 by J. V. Wright, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 10, 13-34 permission of the author and Elsevier Science Publishers; by permission of J. V. Wright and Elsevier Science Figures 3.20, 5.1, 6.2a and 6.25 reproduced from J. V. Publishers; Figure 2.4 reproduced from Physical processes Wright et al., J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 8, 315-36 by of sedimentation - an introduction (J. R. L. Allen) by permission of J. V. Wright and Elsevier Science Pub• permission of the author and Allen & Unwin; Figure 2.7 lishers; Figures 3.21 and 6.37 reproduced from R. S. J. reproduced from 1. Kushiro et al., J. Geophys. Res. 81, Sparks et al., Phil Trans R. Soc. A299, 241-73 by 6351-6 by permission of 1. Kushiro and the publisher, permission of R. S. J. Sparks and the Royal Society. © 1976 by the American Geophysical Union; Figure 2.8 Figure 4.1a reproduced from S. Thorarinsson, Bull. reproduced from T. Murase, Hokkaido Univ. Fac. Sci. Volcanol. 33, 910-27 by permission of the publisher; ]., Ser. 7, 1 487-584 by permission of the author; Figures 4.1b and 13.7 reproduced from D. A. Swanson Figures 2.12a and c reproduced from Physical processes et al., Am.]. Sci. 275, 877-905 by permission of D. A. in geology CA. R. Johnson) by permission of the author Swanson and the publisher; Figure 4.2 reproduced from and Freeman, Cooper and Company; Plate 3 reproduced G. P. L. Walker, Phil Trans R. Soc. A274, 107-18 by from Volcano: ordeal by fire in Iceland's Westmann Islands permission of the author and the Royal Society; Figures CA. Gunnarsson) by permission of S. J6nasson and the 4.3b and c reproduced from G. P. L. Walker, Bull. publisher. Volcanol. 35, 579-90 by permission of the author and the Figures 3.1 and 3.2 reproduced from C. W. Burnham, publisher; Figure 4.4 reproduced from J. P. Lockwood
513 514 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and P. W. Lipman, Bull. Volcanol. 43, 609-15 by duced from Pictorial history of the Lassen volcano (B. F. permission of P. W. Lipman and the publisher; Figure Loomis) by permission of the Loomis Museum Associa• 4.9 reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks et al., Geology 4, tion; Figure 5.7b reproduced from R. L. Christiansen 269-71 by permission of R. S. J. Sparks and the Geo• and D. W. Peterson, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. logical Society of America; Figures 4.l1 and 4.13 1250, 17-30 by permission of J. W. Vallance and the reproduced from R. Hargreaves and L. D. Ayres, Can. U.S. Geological Survey; Figure 5.8 reproduced from J. Earth Sci. 16, 1452-66 by permission of L. D. Ayres; A. M. Sarna-Wojcicki et al., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Figure 4.15 reproduced from P. Lonsdale and R. Batiza, Paper No. 1250, 577-600 by permission of A. M. Sarna• Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 91, 545-54 by permission of P. Wojcicki and the U.S. Geological Survey; Figure 5.9 Lonsdale and the Geological Society of America; Figures reproduced from L. Wilson et al.,]. Geophys. Res. 83, 4.16and4.17reproducedfromJ. G.JonesandP. H. H. 1829-36 by permission of L. Wilson and the publisher, Nelson, Geol. Mag. 107, 13-2l by permission of J. G. © 1978 by the American Geophysical Union; Figure Jones and Cambridge University Press; Figures 4.18c, 5.lOb reproduced from R. L. Christiansen and D. W. 5.7b and 5 . lOb reproduced from R. L. Christiansen and Peterson, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 1250, D. W. Peterson, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1250, 17-30 by permission of P. W. Lipman and the U.S. 17-30 by permission of M. Kraft, K. Kraft and the U.S. Geological Survey; Figure 5.l5b reproduced from P. W. Geological Survey; Academie des Sciences d'Outre-Mer, Francis et al., Geol. Rundschau 63,357-88 by permission Paris (4.18d, 5.lOa); Figure 4.l9 reproduced from H. of P. W. Francis and the publisher; Figures 5.15c and Sigurdsson, Univ. West Indies Seismic Res. Spec. Publ. 5.20 reproduced from R. V. Fisher and G. Heiken, J. No. 198111 by permission of the author and the publisher; Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 13, 339-71 by permission of Figure 4.20 reproduced from T. Minakami et al., Bull. R. V. Fisher and Elsevier Science Publishers, Figure Volcanol. 11,45-160 by permission ofT. Minakami and 5.20 also from R. V. Fisher et al., Geology 8, 472-6 by the publisher; Figures 4.2la, 4.22c and e reproduced by permission of R. V. Fisher and the Geological Society of permission of B. Clough; Figure 4.29 reproduced from America; Figure 5.l7, 5.l8a, 5.19a, band d reproduced H. Pichler, Bull. Volcanol. 28,293-310 by permission of from J. G. Moore, Bull. Volcanol. 30,337-63 by permis• the author and the publisher; Figure 4.30 reproduced sion of the author and the publisher; Figure 5.18b from R. Cas, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 89, 1708-14 by reproduced from A. C. Waters and R. V. Fisher, ]. permission of the author and the Geological Society of Geophys. Res. 76, 5596-614 by permission of R. V. America; Figure 4.31 reproduced from C. H. Donaldson, Fisher and the publisher, © 1971 by the American in Komatiites (N. T. Arndt and E. G. Nisbet, eds) by Geophysical Union; Figure 5.18c reproduced from J. permission of the author; Figure 4.32 reproduced from Kienle et al., J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 7, 11-37 by N. T. Arndt et al., J. Petrol. 18, 319-69 (1977) by permission of J. D. Faro and Elsevier Science Publishers. permission ofN. T. Arndt and Oxford University Press; Figure 6.4 reproduced from S. Self et al., Geol. Mag. Table 4.2 reproduced from C. G. Newhall and W. G. 111, 539-48 by permission of S. Self and Cambridge Melson,]. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 17, 111-31 by University Press; Figure 6.5 reproduced from B. F. permission of C. G. Melson and Elsevier Science Houghton and W. R. Hackett,]. Volcanol. Geotherm. Publishers. Res. 21, 207-31 by permission of B. F. Houghton and Figures 5.3a and 7.13 reproduced from G. P. L. Elsevier Science Publishers; Figures 6.7 and 6.31 re• Walker,]. Geol. 79,696-714 by permission of the author produced from G. P. L. Walker and R. Croasdale, Bull. and the Editors, © 1971 by the University of Chicago, Volcanol. 35, 303-17 by permission of G. P. L. Walker Figure 5.3a also from G. P. L. Walker et al., Geology 8, and the publisher; Figures 6.9a, b, 6.l1, 6.2l and 6.29 245-9 by permission of G. P. L. Walker and the Geo• reproduced from S. Self, ]. Geol. Soc., Land. 132, logical Society of America; Figures 5.3b and 5.14 645-68 by permission of the author and Blackwell reproduced from J. V. Wright, Bull. Volcanol. 44, Scientific Publications, Figure 6.11 also from B. Booth et 189-2l2 by permission of the author and the publisher; al., Phil Trans R. Soc. A288, 271-319 by permission of Figure 5.5 reproduced from D. K. Davies et al., Geol. G. P. L. Walker and the Royal Society, and G. P. L. Soc. Am. Bull. 89,369-84 by permission ofthe Geological Walker, Geol. Rundschau 62, 431-46 by permission ofthe Society of America; Figures 5.6a and 13.32 reproduced author and the publisher; Figure 6.9c--e reproduced from from R. K. Vessell and D. K. Davies, SEPM Spec. B. Booth et al., Phil Trans R. Soc. A288, 271-319 by P1.!bl.~ 1, 31-45 by permission ofthe Society of Economic permission of G. P. L. Walker and the Royal Society; Paleontologists and Mineralogists; Figure 5. 7a repro- Figures 6.13a and 6.15 reproduced from G. P. L. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 515
Walker and R. Croasdale, ]. Geol. Soc., Lond. 127, author and Elsevier Science Publishers; Figure 7.7 by 17-55 by permission of G. P. L. Walker and Blackwell C. J. N. Wilson; Figures 7.17, 7.18b and 8.7a-c repro• Scientific Publications; Figure 6.13d reproduced from K. duced from R. S. J. Sparks, Geol. Rundschau 64,497-523 Bloomfield et al., Geol. Rundschau 66, 120-46 by by permission of the author and the publisher; Figures permission of K. Bloomfield and the publisher; Figures 7.18a and 8.3 reproduced from S. Yokoy'ama, Tokyo 6.16a-d and 13.37-40 reproduced from G. P. L. Walker Kyoiku Sci. Rep., Sect. C 12, 17--62 by permission of the et al., Geol. Rundschau 70, 1100-18 by permission of author; Figure 7.19 reproduced from J. V. Wright and G. P. L. Walker and the publisher; Figures 6.17-19 G. P. L. Walker,]. Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 9, 111-31 reproduced from G. P. L. Walker,]. Volcanol. Geothenn. by permission of J. V. Wright and Elsevier Science Res. 8, 69-94 by permission of the author and Elsevier Publishers; Figures 7.21-23 and 8.9 reproduced from Science Publishers, Figures 6.18 and 6.19 also from R. S. J. Sparks et al., J. Geophys. Res. 83, 1727-39 by G. P. L. Walker, Bull. Volcanol. 44,223-40 by permission permission of R. S. J. Sparks; Figures 7.25 and 7.29 of the author and the publisher; Figure 6.20 reproduced reproduced from C. J. N. Wilson and G. P. L. Walker, from L. Wilson, Geophys.]. R. Astr. Soc. 45, 543-56 by ]. Geol. Soc., Lond. 139, 581-92 by permission of permission of the author and Blackwell Scientific Pub• Blackwell Scientific Publications; Figures 7.26a and lications; Figure 6.22 reproduced from S. Self, N.z. ]. 8.32a reproduced from G. P. L. Walker et al., J. Geol. Geophys. 18, 189-95 by permission of the author Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 9 , 409-21 by permission of and the publisher; Figure 6.23 reproduced from K. J. G. P. L. Walker and the publisher, © 1978 by the Murata et al., Bull. Volcanol. 29,765-96 by permission of American Geophysical Union; Figures 7.36 and 7.48 the publisher; Figures 6.26 and 6.28 by S. Self et al., reproduced from G. P. L. Walker and L. A. McBroome, reprinted from Nature Vol. 277, pp. 440-3 by permission Geology 1, 571-4 by permission of G. P. L. Walker and of S. Self and the publisher, copyright © 1979 Macmillan the Geological Society of America; Figures 7.38 and 7.43 Journals Limited; Figure 6.27 reproduced from I. A. reproduced from K. H. Wohletz and M. F. Sheridan, Nairn and S. Self,]. Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 3, 39--60 Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper No. 180, 177-94 by by permission of S. Self and Elsevier Science Publishers; permission of M. F. Sheridan and the Geological Society Figures 6.30a-c reproduced from H. Sigurdsson, Science of America; Figure 7.44 reproduced from J. R. L. Allen, 216 (4 June 1982), 1106--8 by permission of the author Developments in sedimentology - 30 B. Sedimentary structures and the publisher, © 1982 by the AAAS; Figures by permission of the author and Elsevier Science 6.33-36 reproduced from S. Self and R. S. J. Sparks, Publishers. Bull. Volcanol. 41, 196--212 by permission of S. Self and Figure 8.1 reproduced from T. A. Steven and P. W. the publisher; Figures 6.38 and 7.27 reproduced from Lipman, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 958, 1-35 G. P. L. Walker, in Tephra studies (S. Self and R. S. J. by permission of P. W. Lipman and the U.S. Geological Sparks, eds), 317-30 by permission of the author and D. Survey; Figure 8.2 by P. W. Francis et al., reprinted Reidel Publishing Company, Figure 6.38 also from S. N. from Nature Vol. 301, 51-3 by permission of the author Carey and H. Sigurdsson, J. Geophys. Res. 87, 7061-72 and the publisher, copyright © 1983 Macmillan Journals by permission of the author and the publisher, © 1982 Limited; Figure 8.5 reproduced from C. N. Fenner, J. by the American Geophysical Union; Figures 6.40 and Geol. 28, 569--606 by permission of the Editors, © 1920 6.42-45 reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks and J. V. by the University of Chicago, also from G. H. Curtis, Wright, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper No. 180, 155--66 by Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. No. 116, 153-210 by permission permission of R. S. J. Sparks and the Geological Society of the author and the Geological Society of America; of America; Figure 6.46a reproduced from J. V. Wright, Figures 8.6 and 8.35 reproduced from P. D. Rowleyet Geol. Rundschau 69, 263-91 by permission of the author al., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 1250,489-512 by and the publisher. permission ofP. D. Rowley and the Geological Society of / Figure 7.1 b reproduced from L. Wilson and J. W. America; Figures 8.10 and 8.11a reproduced from L. Head, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 1250, 513-24 by Wilson et al., Geophys. J. R. Astr. Soc. 63, 117-48 by permission ofL. Wilson and the U.S. Geological Survey; permission of L. Wilson and Blackwell Scientific Pub• Figures 7.2 and 7.3 reproduced from R. S. J. Sparks, lications; Figure 8.11b reproduced from S. N. Williams Sedimentology 23, 147-88 by permission of the author, and S. Self,]. Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 16, 33-56 by the Editor and Blackwell Scientific Publications; Figures permission of S. Self and Elsevier Science Publishers; 7.4,7.5, 7.6b and 7.8 reproduced from J. N. Wilson,]. Figure 8.11c reproduced from L. Wilson, in Thera and Volcanol. Geothenn. Res. 8, 231-49 by permission of the the Aegean World, 31-5 by permission of the author and 516 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the publisher; Figures 8.12, 8.31, 8.33 and 8.47a the Geological Society of America; Figures 9.1 band c reproduced from J. V. Wright, Bull. Volcanol. 44, reproduced from E. Yamada, Journal of the Geological 189-212 by permission of the author and the publisher; Society ofJapan 79, 585-97 by permission of the author Figure 8.16 reproduced from C. H. Bacon, J. Volcanol. and the publisher; Figures 9.1d and 9.2 reproduced from Geothenn. Res. 18, 57-115 by permission of the author J. V. Wright and E. Mutti, Bull. Volcanol. 44,153--67 by and Elsevier Science Publishers; Figure 8.17 reproduced permission of J. V. Wright and the publisher; Figures from S. Self and J. V. Wright, Geology 11, 443--6 by 9.1e, 9.5 and 9.12 reproduced from R. S. Fiske and T. permission of J. V. Wright and the Geological Society of Matsuda, Am. J. Sci. 262,76--106 by permission of R. S. America; Figure 8.19 reproduced from J. V. Wright and Fiske and the publisher; Figure 9.3 reproduced from G. P. L. Walker, Geology 5, 729-32 by permission of S. N. Carey and H. Sigurdsson, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. J. V. 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Eaton, reproduced G. P. L. Walker and Blackwell Scientific Publications; from the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Figure 1.3 reproduced from L. Wilson, Geophys. J. R. Volume 10,409-40 by permission of the author and the Astr. Soc. 30, 381-92 by permission of the author and publisher, © 1982 by Annual Reviews Inc.; Figure Blackwell Scientific Publications. Fig. 1.4 reproduced 15.5b reproduced from G. P. Eaton, Tectonophysics 102, from G. P. L. Walker, N.z.;. GEOL. Geophys. 24, 275-95 by permission of the author and Elsevier Science 305-24, by permission of the author and publisher. Publishers; Figure 15.6 reproduced from W. R. INDEX
Numbers in italic type refer to text figures, and numbers in bold type refer to text sections. aa lavas 4.S.1, 481, 4.5 lithic 334 basaltic lavas Acatlan ignimbrite 194,237-8,5.16, loss from eruption columns 242 eruption of 4.4 7.19,7.20,8.19 phreatomagmatic 3.18, 3.25 features of subaerial lavas 4.S accessory lithics 54 turbidites 9.2.2, 287-9 fire fountains 64 accidentallithics 54 vitric 335 massive 73 accretionary lapilli S.S, 356 ash cloud surge S.6.2, 7.7.3 passage into water 4.7 accretionary prisms, forearc settings deposits S.7.3, 7.10, 484, 485, 5.20, pillow 73 IS.I, IS.7-9, 15.2, 15.9 5.23 sheet 73 achneliths 49, 134,3.17 ash fall deposits submarine 4.6 acidic rocks distal silicic 6.9 basaltic pyroclasts 48-9 definition 17 ash flow tuff (see also ignimbrite) 225 basaltic shield volcanoes 13.2, 13.1-5 mineralogy 17 Askja 65,116,143,159,166,168,3.21, Galapagos type 13.2.2 agglomerate 356, 12.5, 481 6.17,6.33,6.37,6.44 Hawaiian type 13.2.1 agglutinated lavas (see also clastogenic Aso caldera 103, 395 Icelandic type 13.3.3 lavas) 64 aspect ratio 62, 64, 71, 89 basaltic successions facies models agglutinates 48,134,481,6.8,13.24 Ata caldera 395 continental 14.S.1, 14.7 Agua de Pau 384, 6.15, 13.29 Augustine volcano 154 description 427 Aira caldera 233,395,8.3,8.20 autobreccia 3.7, 481, 3.27 economic significance 427 alkali basalt 17 nomenclature 12.7 facies model 14. 7 andesitic lavas 4.S, 4.18 auto brecciation 3.7 basanite 17 Angahook Basalt member 3.11 autoclastic base surge 114--15, 7.7.1,5.18,5.19 Angra ignimbrite 342 processes 34 depositional processes 7.9 arc volcanism - tectonic setting rocks 4 deposits S.7.1, 7.10, 484, 485, 5.19, continental margin 446, IS.9, 15.9, avalanches 300-3, 330, 10.3, 10.4, 5.21,5.22,6.10,7.35,7.37-44, 15.10 10.8-10 13.23 island arc 446, IS.7, 15.2, 15.7, 15.8, dry 115,206 15.12 ballistic fragments (see also bombs) 133, subaqueous 9.7 microcontinental446, IS.S, 15.8, 15.9 6.24,13.20 transport mechanics 7.S area plots 146,470, 6.1S, 6.19 clast trajectory - velocity calculations wet 115,206 armoured lapilli 126 470 basement 455,458 ash 47, 485 ranges Table I.l igneous rock types as indicators IS.10 classification 11.1 Bandai-san 351 basic rocks crysta1335 Bandelier tuffs 232, S.7.1, 256-8, definition 16 deep-sea layers 9.6 Plate 13,400,3.24,6.14,6.17, Basin and Range Province 446, IS.6, duration of large magnitude explosive 6.19, Plate 8, 8.20, 8.26-30, 8.36, 15.5,15.6 eruptions from deep-sea ash layers 8.42,8.44,8.46, /.1, Table 1.2 bentonite 244 288 ash cloud surges 120, 341-2,5.23, Bezymianny 107 elutriation from pyroclastic flows 103, 8.28 Big Glass Mountain 180,242 Barcena volcano 296 obsidian flow complex Plate 2, 86
519 520 INDEX bimodal volcanism 455 genetic 12.2.1, Tables 12.1-5 airfall 341 Bingham substances 21, 22, 2.3, 2.12 grainsize 353, 358 ignimbrite 342 Bishop Tuff 6.14,8.40,8.41,8.45 hyaloclastites 12.7 pyroclastic flow deposits 342-3 block and ash flows 107 lithological 12.2.2 pyroclastic origin 11.5.1 deposits 5.5.2, 483, 5.14, 5.15 modern pyroclastic deposits 12.2 surge deposits 341-2 block lavas 65, 76 non-genetic Table 12.7 crystal concentration blocks 47 peperite 361 determinations 475-6 Blow Hole Latite3.11 pyroclastic fall deposits 350 epiclastic processes 11.4.3 boccas 64 pyroclastic flow deposits 351-3 eruption-related processes 11.5.2 Bombo Latite 2.11,3.12 pyroclastic surge deposits 353 factors affecting 11.4, 11.6 bombs 47,134,3.14,6.10,13.20 sorting 358 ignimbrites 242 sag structures 13 .20 'tuff, use of 12.5 in magmas 11.4.1, 11.3 boninites 457 'vulcanian breccia', use of 12.5 pyroclastic flows 103, 11.4, 11.5 Boyd Volcanic Complex 85, 3.10, 3.26, welding 355,358 crystal content of magma, 11.3 14.4 clastogenic lavas 65, 134,373,13.24 effects on viscosity 2.5.5 breadcrust texture 3.15,6.24,10.31 climatic effects crystal-rich volcaniclastics Ch. 11, Bridgewater volcano 3.18, 5.24 volcanic eruptions 103 Plate 11, 11.2 cognate lithics 54 airfall deposits 341 Cader Rhwydog Tuff 280,281 co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits 103, 8.6 deposits 11.5 caldera collapse 233, 234, 398 co-ignimbrite breccias 8.5, 483, 484, epiclastic origins 345 breccias 242,398,481 8.20,8.21 fragmentation modes 11.3 calderas 79, 8.1, 8.2, 13.3, 13.26, 13.27, co-ignimbrite lag-fall deposit 237, 483 ignimbrite 342 13.31,13.37,13.38,13.41,13.42 colonnade 71, 4.10 mixed pyroclastic and epiciastic origin size 8.13 Columbia River plateau Plate 4, 369, 11.5.2 Campanian ash 243, 8.25 4.19,4.10,13.7 pyroclastic origin 11.5.1 Campanian ignimbrite 395, 7.13, 8.25 column collapse 5.4.2, 150,8.3 surge deposits 341-2 Capel Curig Volcanic Formation 276, columnar jointing 71, 4.10 terminology 344 283,9.6,9.7 ignimbrite 252, 8.39 crystallisation Capelhinos 45, 115, 5.18 comendite 17 effects on exsolution 35 carbon dioxide component proportion analysis in second boiling 35 exsolution of 34 modern pyroclastic deposits App. Cyprus type massive sulphide deposits Carpenter Ridge ignimbrite 342 1.1.4 405 Ceboruco volcano 13.27 composite volcanoes see stratovolcanoes Cerro Galan 232,234,395,8.2 composition 9 Cerro Negro 384, 6.25 of volcaniclastic 12.4.2 dacitic lavas 4.8, 4.18, 4.19 Chao dacite flow 62, 76 compound lavas 63 Dali Ash 271-5, 280, 323, 344,3.23, Circle Creek Rhyolite 81 confining pressure 9.1,9.2 classification definition 34, 35 Deborah Volcanics 2.13, 3.11 components in pyroclastic deposits effects on exsolutionlvesiculation 34, debris flows 29,323-5,2.13,10.30 Table 12.6 35,36 cohesive 29, 323 grain size classes, non-genetic continental margin arc volcanism 446, dead zones 29 Tables 12.7, 12.8, App. II 15.9,15.9,15.10 deposits 323-5, 480, 483,10.31 pyroclastic falls and their deposits, continental rift volcanism - tectonic flow state 29 genetic Table 12.1 setting grain dominant 325 pyroclastic flows and their deposits, broad zones 446,15.6,15.5,15.6 interior channels 29 genetic Tables 7.1,12.2,12.3 narrow linear zones 446,15.5,15.3, laminar flow 29 pyroclastic surges and their deposits, 15.4 levees 29, 325 genetic Table 12.4 cooling units 255 mobility 7.2 pyroclasts Table 12.5 cored lapilli 126 plug flow zones 29, 325, 2.13 sediment transport processes Cotopaxi 108, 110 turbulent flow 29 Table 10.1 coulees 81, 87,4.22,4.27,4.28 yield strength 29, 325 classification of magmas, igneous rocks Crater Elegante 13.14 Deccan Traps 61, 369 chemical 2.1.1, Table 2.1 Crater Lake 233,235,251,386,13.25, decompression of magma 36, 40 mineralogical 2.1.1, 2.1 13.26 decompressional vesiculation 35, 36 classification of volcaniclastic deposits critical point deep-sea ash layers 9.6 Ch.12 pure water 38, 3.6 bioturbation of 288 'agglomerate' , use of 12.5 salt water 38, 40, 3.8 estimating duration of large ancient volcaniclastic rocks 12.3 cross stratification 309 magnitude explosive eruptions 289, auto breccias 12.7 low angle 98,213, 311 9.16-18 composition 12.4.2 surge deposits 98,212,311 Deep-Sea Drilling Project 447 constituent fragments 355 cryptodome 78, 4.20 deformation of volcanic successions descriptive lithological aspects, rhyolitic 82 415-16.,14.3.7,14.6 ancient volcaniclastic rocks 12.4 crystal ash/tuff 334, 335, 11.5, 11.1, 11.2 degassing of magma 60 INDEX 521 density upper convection plume 98 marine stratovolcanoes 14.8.6, 14.10 determinations for modern pyroclastic eruption rate 38, 289 mid-oceanic ridge volcanism 14.8.4, deposits App. 1.1.6 andesitic lava Table 4.2 13.49,15.1 juvenile fragments 3.20 basic lava Table 4.1 intra-subglacial volcanism 14.8.9, magmas 2.3 dacite lava Table 4.2 13.51 pumice 3.21, Table 7.2 explosive eruption columns 100-2 Precambrian volcanism 14.8.10, devitrification 8.10.3, 415, 416, 14.3.2, flood basalt 63 14.13,14.11 14.4 ignimbrite 63 submarine felsic volcanic centres associated vapour phase crystallisation silicic lavas 63, Table 4.2 14.8.7,14.11 419 eruption velocities 38 uses 14.7 chemical effects 419 Ethiopian flood basalt province 369, volcanic centres/successions Ch. 14, in ignimbrites 419, 8.37, 8.45 13.6 14.8 spherulites 419,14.4 Ethiopian Rift Valley 15.3 felsic 17 stages 418 eutaxitic texture 166,8.38 felsic volcanoes-continental see rhyolite diagenesis of volcanic successions 415, pseudo- 270, 417 volcanoes 14.3.5 explosive fragmentation of magma 3.2 associated deep marine facies 14.8.8 diamictite 307, 483 open vent 3.2.2 . felsic volcanoes-submarine-facies models diatremes 377 role of magma mixing 3.3 description 435-6 diffusion coefficient 36 sealed magma chamber 3.2.1 economic significance 436 diffusion of volatiles 36 subaerial vents 36-8 facies model 14.11 basalts 36 subaqueous vents 38-41 fiamme 166,251,255,8.38,8.43 effect of viscosity 36 vesicle growth 3.3, 3.4 fines depletion processes in pyroclastic rhyolites 36 exsolution of volatiles 3.1,3.2 deposits 7.46 domes 81, 4.18, 4.21-4, 4.29 carbon dioxide 34 fire fountains 64 caldera 13.9.4 crystallisation induced 35 first boiling 35 collapse 5.4.1 decompressional 35, 40 Fish Canyon Tuff 232,342,8.17,8.18 cratered 81 factors controlling 34, 35 vent system 8.4.3 marginal talus deposits 481 first boiling 35 Fishguard Volcanic Group 280 resurgent 400 water 34 fissure vents 64 rhyolitic 83, 87 flood basalt Plate 4, 60,4.5.2 subaqueous silicic 88 fabric 10 aspect ratio 71 Donzurobo Formation 281 facies eruption of 64 double grading 275 analysis 4-12 paleoflow indicators 73 Dyffryn Mymbyr Tuff 9.7 associations of 6, 11, 424 vents 64,13.3,13.7, Table 13.1 concept 1.2 flood lavas Plate 4 East Africa Rift Plate 15,453,15.3,15.4 definition 5 area 60,369 EI Chichon 223 description of 1.3, 14.6 basalts 4.5.2 ensialic marginal basin 451,460 descriptive lithological aspects 12.4 Columbia River Plateau 61,369,4.10 entablure 71, 4.10 fossils in 1.3.5 Deccan Traps 61, 369 epiclastic geometry of 1.3.1, 14.2 discharge rate 63 definition 4, 8, 34, 56, 294, 360 interactive stratigraphic/facies eastern Iceland 61 deposits Ch. 10, App. II. diagrams 415 effusion rate 63 fragmentation 34, 3.8 interpretation 14.6 eruption duration 61, 63, 369 epiclastic processes Ch. 10 lithology of 1.3.2, 12.2.2, 12.4, 14.3 Ethiopian flood basalt province 369, response to volcanic events 295 palaeocurrents of 1.3.4. 13.6 rhyolitic volcanoes 401 palaeoenvironmental indicators 14.5 flow distances 61 sediment transport 10.3 post -depositional modification 14.3 length 60 stratovolcanoes 13.7.4 sedimentary structures of 1.3.3 thickness 61 epithermal mineralisation 416 stratigraphic relationships 4, 14.2, vents 60,64,370,13.7, Table 13.1 erosion 1.1,1.2 volume 63, 369 in volcanic terrains 10.2 trends 425 flow banding 28, 78, 84, 87,2.10,2.11, rates 295 facies models 4.23 eruption column 5.2.1, 5.7, 5.8, 8.8, basaltic seamounts 14.8.5, 13.50 flow-foot breccias 75, 4.16, 4.17 8.9,8.11, Table 5.2 continental basaltic volcanic flow fragmentation 34 ash loss 242 successions 14.8.1, 14.7 flow regime 310 collapse 5.4.2, 150,8.3 continental silicic volcanoes 14.8.3, fluid flow states 15,2.7 duration Table 5.2 14.9 fluidisation effect of wind 102, 13.28 continental stratovolcanoes 14.8.2, ash elutriation 180 gas thrust zone 98 13.32,14.8 curves 7.3,7.5,7.6 height 38, 42, 98-103, 5.9, 6.20, deep marine distal volcanics 14.8.8, experimental rig 7.4 Table 5.2 14.12 in pyroclastic flows 7.2 phreatomagmatic 103 functions 425 minimum fluidisation velocity 180, umbrella region 99 ignimbrite 8.7 7.3 522 INDEX
of sediments 43 Halemaumau crater 365 compound 8.33 fluidised sediment flows 320 Hanauma Bay crater complex 5.21 cooling units 255 Fogo plinian deposit 150, 341, 6.15, Harman Valley lava flow 4.5 crystal concentration 242, 342 6.17,13.29 Hatepe ash 158-61,261,8.49,8.52, definition 110, 224 Fogo volcano 143 8.53 density 8.40, Table 7.2 Fort Rock tuffring 13.14 Hatepe plinian pumice deposit 260, 470, deposits 5.5.3, 7.3 fragmentation 1.4, Table 1.5 devitrification 8.10.3 of magmas Ch. 3 Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain 452 distances travelled Table 8.2 Froude Number 310 Hawaiian fall deposits 131,6.3.1 eruption rate 63, 8.7.3, 8.34 Fuego volcano 108, 153,295,384,392, classification 6.3.3 eruption sequence Plate 8,8.18 5.6,6.25,13.32 Hawaiian shield volcanoes 13.2.1 facies model 8.7, 7.27,8.30 fuel-coolant interaction 43, 45 growth stages 366 fiamme 251, 255 Fuji 383 summit calderas 365 fines depleted 199, 248, 480, 483, fumarolic pipes 258, 8.45-7 superimposed volcanoes 365 7.28 Furnas 384 volume 365 fumarolic pipes 258 Hawaiian style eruptions 129,6.2 gas segregation pipes 7.3.4,7.7, Galapagos rift 74 mechanisms and dynamics 6.3.2 7.14-16 Galapagos shield volcanoes 13.2.3 head deposits grade 255 Galiarte cone 6.9, 6.11 pyroclastic flows 197, 202 grain size characteristics 7.9, 7.11, Garth Tuff 276, 9.7, 9.8 Heimay Plate 3, 137-40,364,6.11 7.13,7.18,7.36,7.45, Table 1.2 gas bubbles Hekla volcano Plate 6, 143, 144 ground breccia, layer 119, 198,202, effects on viscosity 2.5.6 Helgafell Plate 3 241,483, 7.26,8.20 gas segregation pipes 96, 181, 7.3.4, Hibok-Hibok 107 head deposits 198, 202 7.7, 7.14-16 hornitos 69 intracaldera 227, 235 geochemical fingerprinting of modern hyaloclastite 45,54,75-6,88,360-1, intraplinian ignimbrite 232 pyroclastic deposits 478 409,481,3.10,3.12,3.26,13.52 lag breccias 238, 483, 8.19, 8.20, 8.22 geothermal systems 401 hydraulic fracturing 415, 14.3.4 landsat image 8.2 Gerringong Volcanics 3.11, 3.12, 10.13, breccias 482,14.5 lateral grading 7.3.5 10.19 hydraulic sorting 294 lithic concentration zones 188,482, glacial sediment transport 305-8, 10.14, hydrostatic pressure 7.10 10.15 effect on explosive fragmentation 36, maps 8.1,8.3-6,8.32 deposits 305-8, 483, 10.13, 10.14 40 occurrence 8.2 diamictite 307, 483 pressure gradient 38 outflow sheets 227, 8.17 till, tillite 307, 483, 10 .15 hydrothermal alteration 415,14.3.1 palaeocurrent indicators 8.8 grading associated mineralisation 416 pumice concentration zones 188,480 gravity-density 190 effects on deformation 14.3.8 rheomorphism 255 lateral in pyroclastic flow deposits minerals 415 rootless explosion craters 251 7.3.5 textural effects 417, 14.2, 14.3 sillar 258 reverse 188, 189,304,323 hydrothermal explosions 3.4.5 simple 8.33 shear induced 190, 305 craters 404 size 224, 8.13 vertical in pyroclastic flow deposits deposits 3.4.5, 482 source vents 8.4 7.3.3 vents 405 stratigraphy 8.7, 8.17 grain flow 303-4,310,320,10.11 hydrovolcanic activity 42,3.4,55, 157 thickness 7.3.1,7.9,8.4,8.31 grainsize 9, 358 eruption mechanisms 6.8.3 valley pond 200, 247, 7.31,8.32 classification, non-genetic Tables vapour phase crystallisation 8.10.2, 12.7, 12.8, App. II Ice Harbour flows 370 8.42,8.45,8.46 classification of pyroclasts Table 12.6 Icelandic shield volcanoes 367, 13.2.2 veneer deposit 200, 247,7.30,7.31, determination App. 1.1.3 ignimbrite Ch. 8, App. 11,5.14,5.16, 8.32 distribution App. 1.1.3 7.1 vents 8.4, 8.14, 8.16 Folk and Ward statistical parameters aspect ratio 8.34 vertical grading 7.3.3 474 associated secondary deposits 8.9 vitrophyre 252 graphical standard deviation 472 basal layers 7.3.2, 7.9 volume Table 8.1 Inman statistical parameters 472 bedforms 200 welding 8.10.1, ,8.37-44 maximum App. 1.1.2 chemical analyses 8.11 ignimbrite forming eruptions Ch. 8 median diameter 472 co-ignimbrite breccias 8.5, 247,483, Inman grainsize statistical parameters pyroclastic fragments 353 484,8.20-22 472 sieving methods 471 co-ignimbrite lag breccia 238, 483 graphical standard deviation 472 sorting statistic 472 co-ignimbrite lag-fall deposit 237, 483 median diameter 472 Green Tuff, Pantelleria 168, 6.46, 6.47 columnar jointing 252 sorting 472 ground layer 119, 198,202,482 compaction 8.36, 8.40, 8.41 interactive stratigraphic diagrams 13 .30, ground surge 5.6.2, 7.7.2 composition 224 13.39,14.1 deposits 5.7.2, 7.10, 484, 485 compositional zoning 7.3.6, 7.19, intermediate rocks 7.20 definition 16 INDEX 523
mineralogy 16 lava flows Ch. 4 magma intermediate-silicic multivent centres aa lavas 4.5.1, 4.6 density of 2.3,2.2 13.8 andesitic 4.8 mixing 15,3.3 intraglacial volcanism see subglacial basalts 60--2 network modifying elements 26 intra-plate volcanism - tectonic setting Bingham substance 64 network structural units 26 continental 446, 15.5 block lavas 65 polymerisation in 26 oceanic 446, 15.4 caves 67,4.7 properties of Ch. 2 inverse volcanoes 395 compound 63, 4.3 rheology of 15 Irazu volcano 153,6.23,6.25 dacitic 4.8 solubility of water 24, 3.1 island arc volcanism 446,15.7,15.2, dead zones 64 temperature of2.2, Tables 2.2, 2.3, 15.7,15.8,15.12 degassing of 65 2.4 isopach maps 469,6.15,6.21,6.22, dimensions 4.2 viscosity of2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 6.29,6.34,6.44,6.45,8.4,8.31, effect of slope 64 Table 2.4 8.32,8.51,8.54 effusion rate 4.3.1, Tables 4.1, 4.2 yield strength 2.4, Table 2.4 isopleth maps 470, 6.15, 8.31,8.32, eruptive conditions 59 magmastatic pressure 36 8.53,8.54 fire fountains 64 magmatic associations 2.1.2 Ito pyroclastic flow 7.18, 8.3, 8.20 flood lavas 63 magmatic explosions 3.2, 34 flow distance 62 mantle bedding (air-fall deposits) 96 Jeffreys equation 22 lengths 60--1 marginal basin volcanism 446, 15.3, jokulhlaups 317, 409, 10.24 levees 64,70--1,4.9 15.2,15.7 juvenile fragments 3.5.1 massive 73 Marianas Island Arc 15.7 pahoehoe lavas 4.5.1, 4.5 mass flow/movement 297, 298, 304, Kaingaroa ignimbrite 3.23 palaeoflow indicators 67, 73, 87 307-8,316--29,330, App. 11,10.29 Karoo basalts 369 phonolites 62 Mauna Iki 4.5, 4.7 Katla volcano Plate 6 physical properties 4.3.2 Mauna Kea 364, 366, 13.4 Kauai 299 pillow lava 73 Mauna Loa 62,365,4.6 Kawera geothermal field 404 pressure ridges 69, 4.8 Mauna Vlu 67,69,73,76,365,369,4.5 keratophyre 19 rheology of 65 Mayon volcano 108 Kilauea 45, 140,364-5,369,4.5,6.11, rhyolite 62, 4.9 Mayor Island 173 13.2,13.3 sheet 73 Megalo Vourno 6.6 Koko crater 5.24 simple 62, 4.3 Merapi 107 Komagatake 110 size and form 4.2 Merrions Tuff 88, 273, 281, 282, 323, komatiite lavas 30, 60, 4.12, 4.31,4.32 submarine basaltic 4.6 Plate 11,343-4,4.30,10.27,14.4 eruption temperatures 90 thickness 64 mesa lavas 81 Reynolds Numbers 90 trachytes 62 metamorphism of volcanic successions rheology 90 tumulus 69, 4.8 415, 14.3.6 thickness 90 viscosity 60 microcontinental arc volcanism 446, viscosities 90 volume 60--1 15.8,15.8,15.9 komatiitic basalts 89 width 64 microlites 8 Kos 345, 402, 13.44 lava fountains 64, 134-7 mid-oceanic ridge, 13.48, 13.49 Kowmung Volcaniclastics 344, Plate 14 lava lakes 65,71 central volcanoes 405 Krakatau 110, 151,223,281-2,386, lava tubes 67-9, 4.7 hawaiian type shield volcanoes 406 391,9.10 levees 29, 70 hydrothermal vents 405 Kuroko ores 40,395,401 Lipari, Aeolian Islands 80,4.21,4.22, lavas 75 Kyushu caldera 395 4.23,4.26 median rift valley 405--6 liquefied sediment flows 320 mineralisation 406 La Garita caldera 233, 8.17 lithic ash/tuff 334 tectonic setting 446, 15.2 La Primavera volcano 79,85,88,375, lithology 1.3.2, 12.2.2 vents 74, 13.48 397-400,13.9.4,4.21-3,6.17, lithophysae 84, 4.25 volcanic activity 75, 446, 15.2 6.19,8.12,8.31,13.37,13.39, lithostatic load volcanoes 13.10.1, 13.48, 13.49 13.45-7 role in vesiculation 34, 36 mid-oceanic ridge rift volcanism-facies Laacher See littoral cones 76, 13.6,13.24 models Tephra 244 loess 10.32 description 432 volcano 244 Long Valley calderas 79,81 economic significance 432 Laguna de Bay 394,13.36 Los Chocoyos ash 289 facies model 13.50, 15.1 lahars 323-7, 480, 483 milling 47 Lake Atitlan 289, 7.13 maars 13.5, 13.14-17, 13.21,13.22, Mineral King Roof Pendant 282 Lake Toba 243, 397,8.24 Table 13.2 mineralisation Laki basalt flow 61,63,4.1 deposits 378, 7.37, 7.40, 7.41, continental basaltic volcanic laminar flow 15,2.7 13.20-22 successions 427-8 landslides 299-300, 10.5-7 dimensions 377, 13.18 continental silicic volcanoes 430--2 lapilli 47 eruptive activity 379 continental stratovolcanoes 428 lava deltas 75 mafic 17 deep marine distal felsic volcanics 436 524 INDEX
hydraulic fracture breccias 420 nomenclature of pyroclastic and magma rising into a hydrothermal intra-subglacial basaltic and rhyolitic epiclastic volcaniclastic deposits see system 3.4.5 volcanism 437 classification pyroclastic flows moving into water or marine stratovolcanoes 434 Novarupta 233 over water-saturated sediments mid-oceanic ridge rift volcanism 432 nuees ardentes 107, 225, 351-3 3.4.4 oceanic basaltic seamounts 432 surges 5.6.1 Precambrian volcanism 441 obsidian 83-5, 2.10, 4.23, 4.25 water: magma mass ratio 42,45,3.9 submarine felsic volcanic centres 436 definition 18 phreatoplinian fall deposits 131, 6.8.2, Minoan deep-sea ash layer 9.14 flow, Big Glass Mountain Plate 2 261,6.33-5 Minoan eruption 232, 237 oceanic crust 404 coarse-tail grading 158 Minoan ignimbrite 242, Plate 9, 7.9-12, geochemistry 449 D-F plots 6.36 7.15,8.4,11.4 seismic stratigraphy 447,15.1 grainsize characteristics 6.3 7 mixed pumice 41, 170,3.22 stratigraphy 447-9,15.1 phreatoplinian style eruptions 6.8.2 moberg 409 ogives Plate 2, 85 mechanisms 6.8.3 Mono Craters 79-81,85 Ohakune craters 6.5, 6.8 physical constituents 8 Monte Somma 384 Ohanapecosh Formation 284-5,9.1 Picture Gorge Basalt 4.10 Mt Eccles 379, 4.5,13.13,13.22 Okataina volcanic centre 143, 234, 397, pillow lava 73, 4.11-14 Mt Egmont Plate 10,6.25,10.31,13.25 Plate 1,2.10,4.23,6.14,8.14 intrusive 3.11 Mt Elephant 3.14,13.9,13.13 Older Volcanics 374 plains basalt 4.5.3 Mt Etna 62-3, 71, 383,4.9 Olekele avalanche 299 rift zones 371 Mt Hamilton 4.5 Onikobe caldera 9.1 vents 13.3 Mt Lamington 107, 108, 118 ophiolite 404, 447-50 plate margins and volcanism Mt Leura 380, 3.14a, 6.6, 6.8, 6.10, stratigraphy 447, 15.1 stress field conditions 15.11 7.44,13.13,13.22,13.23 Oruanui Formation 158-9,6.33,6.35 plate tectonics Mt Mazama 235 Oruanui ignimbrite 5.2, 5.14, 5.24 setting for volcanism 15.1 Mt Misery 387, 5.15,6.32,13.28 Plateau Ignimbrite 283, 402, 13.44 Mt Napier 3.13 pahoehoe lava 4.5.1, 4.5 Platoro caldera complex 342, 8.38 Mt Pelee 107, 110, 118, 119, 130,202, channels 67 pipe vesicles 73 218,225,351,386,3.20,3.24, lava caves 67 pitchstone 18 5.10,5.15,5.20 lava tubes 67 Pitts Head Tuff279, 9.9 Mt Rainier 301-2, 307, 325, 10.10, palaeoflow indicators 67 plinian fall deposits Plate 6,131,229, 10.14 ropy 67 482,6.13-15,8.12 Mt Ruapehu see Ruapehu shelly 67 area plots 6.18, 6.19 Mt St Helens 45 transition to aa lava 70 basaltic 140 ash cloud surges 120 palaeocurrents 1.3.4 compositional zoning 145 ash fall deposits 165,243,5.8 in ignimbrites 8.8 grain size characteristics 6.16, 6.17, avalanche 300-2 palagonite 382 6.37,6.38 blast deposit 118, 218-19,7.45 palagonitisation 415, 14.3.3 internal and lateral changes 6.4.2 debris flow deposits 191, 325, 351 chemical effects 420 internal stratification 144, 150 dome collapse 107 Pantelleria 166, 168, 173, 6.46, 6.47 intaplinian ignimbrite 232 glaciers 307 pantellerite 17 reverse grading 144 ignimbrites 1l0, 179,202,223, 7.1, Panum Craters 80 volume estimates Table 6.2 8.6,8.35 Paricutin volcano 140, 364, 374, 6.11 zoned deposits 6.14 lahars 325 particle free fall 10.2 plinian style eruptions 129,6.4,239 landslide 299, 386, 10.6 particulate sediment transport 297-8, column collapse 150-1,8.3,8.8-11 phreatic explosion craters 46, 251, 305-7,308-15,329-30 duration Table 6.4 280,8.35 Pele's hair, tears 134 eruption rates Table 6.3 plinian fall deposits 144 pelean style eruptions 129 general features 6.4.1 pyroclastic flows 5.10, 5.12,7.1 peperites 43, 46, 55, 361 mechanisms and dynamics 6.4.3 Mt Shasta 13.25 perlite 83-5 muzzle velocities Table 6.3 mudflow 323-5, App. II phenocrysts 8 polymerisation in magmas 24, 26 muzzle velocity 6.2,470,6.20 Phlegrean volcanic field 394 polyphase alteration see hydrothermal Mweelrea Group 280 phonolite 17 alteration phreatic explosions 34, 3.4, 42 porosity determination App. 1.1.6 nephelinite 17 craters 8.35 Precambrian volcanism-facies models Newberry Crater 4.23 phreatomagmatic deposits 6.29-32 description 440-1 Newer Volcanics volcanic province 374, phreatomagmatic explosions 34, 40, 42, economic significance 441 379,13.13,13.15,13.16,13.22 157 facies model 14.11, 14.13 Newtonian substances 21, 22, 2.3 eruption column height 103 pressure turbulence criterion (Reynolds interaction with groundwater 3.4.1 effects on viscosity 2.5.1 Number) 27, 28, 2.9 interaction with surface water 3.4.2 pressure ridges 69, 4.8 Ngauruhoe 108, 154, 190,386,6.25, lava flowing into water or over water- pseudocraters 76, 13.6 6.27,6.28, 7.1, 13.43 saturated sediments 3.4.3 pseudoplastic substances 22, 2.3 INDEX 525
Pukeonake scoria cone 5.24,10.12 pyroclastic fall deposits 5.1.1, 5.3, thickness 7.3.1 pumice 36, 49, 3.19 Ch. 6,5.1,5.2,5.4 valley pond ignimbrite 200 concentration zones in ignimbrites area plots 146,470,6.18,6.19 yield strength 183 188,480 ash cloud deposits 5.2.2 pyroclastic flow forming eruptions 5.4 crystal content App. 1.1.5 ash-fall deposits 104 column collapse 5.4.2, 150,8.3,8.8, diapirs 86 associated surges 120 8.9,8.10,8.11 density 3.21, Table 7.2 ballistic fragments 133 lava dome collapse 5.4.1 fall deposit (see also plinian fall classification of 130, 351, 6.2, subaqueous 9.4 deposits) 5.4 Table 12.1 pyroclastic flows 7.8 flotation 315, 10.21 D-F plots, 6.1, 6.2, 6.11, 6.25, 6.36 ash elutriation 103, 180 flow deposits (see also ignimbrites) grain size characteristics 5.3, 6.3, 6.7, block and ash flows 107 5.5.3 6.9,6.11,6.13,6.15,6.16,6.21, classification of types Table 7.1, flow transport mechanics 7.4, 8.23 6.25,6.31,6.35,6.37,6.38,6.43, Tables 12.2, 12.3 giant pumice beds 403,484,13.45, Table I.2, Table I.3 crystal concentration 103 13.46 mantle bedding 96, 5.1,5.2 definition 181 mixed 41,170,3.22 methods of study for modern deposits distances travelled Table 8.2 recognition in the rock record 14.4 App. I entry into water 9.11,9.13 terminal fall velocity 7.23 pumice fall deposits 104 fluidisation 7.2 vesicle nucleation size 36 scoria fall deposits 104 form 7.5,7.24 • pumice cones 13.4, 374 thermal facies model Table 6.6 mobility 7.2 Purrumbete, Lake 380, 5.21,7.37, pyroclastic fall forming eruptions 5.2 nuees ardentes 107,225,351-3 13.13,13.15,13.22 explosive eruption columns 5.2.1 passage from air into water 9.5 Puu Hou 382 hawaiian 104 relationship to surges 7.12 Puu Ki littoral cones 13.24 phreatoplinian 104 subaerial Ch. 7 Puu Waawaa pumice cone 366, 374 plinian 104 subaqueous Ch. 9 pyroclastic strombolian 104 submarine eruption 9.4 definition 4, 8, 350 sub-plinian 104 temperature Table 5.1 nomenclature/classification of deposits surtseyan 104 transport and deposition Ch. 7 12.2,360 terminal fall velocity 94 transport mechanics 7.4,7.25,7.29, pyroclastic deposits - modern ultraplinian 104 7.32,8.23 area plots 470 vulcanian 104 violent flows 96, 179 ballistic clast trajectory-velocity pyroclastic flow deposits (see also viscosity 193 studies 470 ignimbrite) 5.1.2, 5.5, 7.3, Ch. 8, yield strength 183 classification Tables 7.1,12.1-5 5.5,5.6,5.12-16 pyroclastic surge 98, 5.6, 7.6-12 component proportion analysis App. basal layers 7.3.2, 197 ash cloud surge 5.6.2, 7.7.3 1.1.4 bedforms base surge 5.6.1,7.7.1 components Table 12.6 block and ash flow deposits 5.5.1 classification Table 12.4 dating 478 classification 351, Tables 7.1,12.2, depositional processes 7.9 density App. 1.1.6 12.3 energy chain 7.33 fines depletion processes 7.46 coarse-tail grading 96 ground surge 5.6.2,7.7.2,7.34 geochemical fingerprinting 478 compositional zoning 7.3.6 initiation 7.7 grain size characteristics (see also crystal-rich 342 transport mechanics 205 pyroclastic fall, flow, and surge fines depleted ignimbrite 199 pyroclastic surge deposits 5.1.3, 5.7, deposits) 5.3, 1.1, App. 1.1.3, fossil fumarole pipes 96 7.10 Table I.2 gas segregation pipes 96, 181,7.3.4 ash cloud surge 5.7.3 grainsize determination App. 1.1.3 grading 186, 7.3.3 base surge 5.7.1,7.35,7.40,7.43, isopach maps 469 grainsize characteristics 5.3,7.13, 7.44 isopleth maps 470 7.17,7.18,7.36,7.45,8.22, Table bomb sags 217 mass calculations 1.4, Table 1.5 I.2, Table I.3 chute and pool structures 98 maximum grain size studies App. 1.1.2 ground layer 198, 202 classification 353, Table 12.4 methods of study App. 1 head deposits 198, 202 comparison with turbidity current muzzle velocity 470 ignimbrite 5.5.3, Ch. 8 7.11 physical analysis App. I.1 ignimbrite veneer deposit 200 depositional structures 7.10.6 porosity App. 1.1.6 lateral grading 7.3.5 dune-form structures 98,210,213, relationship to topography 5.1 lithic concentration zones 188 214 sieving 471 methods of study for modern deposits geometry 7.10.1 sorting classes 472-3, Table 1.4 App.1 grain size characteristics 7.10.2, 7.39, stratigraphic analysis App. 1.2 pumice concentration zones 188 7.41, Tables I.2, I.3 tephrochronology 477 pumice flow deposits 5.5.3 ground surge 5.7.2 terminal fall velocity 475 scoria and ash flow deposits 5.5.2 low angle cross stratification 98, 213 thickness A pp. 1.1.1 reverse grading 188 methods of study for modern deposits volume calculations 470, 1.4, thermal oxidation 96 App. I Table I.5 thermal remanent magnetisation 98 relationship with pyroclastic flows 7.12 526 INDEX
sorting 7.10.3 domes 13.9.4 eruption duration 372 pyroclasts 3.5 epiclastic processes 401 vents 371 bombs 47,134,3.14 eruption styles 13.9.3 scoria flow deposits 5.5.3, 480, 483, classification of grainsize and evolutionary cycles 400 5.14,5.15,7.1 nomenclature Table 12.5 facies models 13.37, 14.9, 14.11 scoria concentration zones 480 crystals 3.5.2 geothermal systems 401 seamounts 13.10.2,4.15,13.50 juvenile fragments 3.5.1, 3.20 giant pumice beds 403 caldera collapse 407 lithic fragments 3.5.3 hydrothermal explosion craters 404 dimensions 407 phreatomagmatic 3.18, 3.25 life expectancy 13.9.2 eruption and growth 408 maps 13.37, 13.38, 13.42 seamounts basaltic-facies models quartz keratophyre 19 morphometry 13.9.1 description 432 Queen Mary's Peak 384 output rates 13.9.2 economic significance 433 quench fragmentation 34, 40, 42, 43-5 repose periods 13.9.2 facies model 13.50 products 54--6 resurgent domes 400 second boiling 35 Quill, St Eustatius 116,5.22,6.31 rhyolitic tuff rings 404 sector collapse 107 Quizapu volcano 143, 164 ring fractures 398 sedimentary processes in volcanic shadow zones 401 terrains Ch. 10 Rabaul ignimbrite 198,201 stratigraphy 13.39, 13.40 sediment transport processes in volcanic Racks Tuff 276,9.7 submarine calderas 401, 13.44 terrains 10.3, Table 10.1 ramp structures ring plains 383 air as an essential interstitial medium in rhyolite lavas 86--7 Rio Caliente ignimbrite 232, 237, 244, 10.3.4,10.32 Ramsey Island volcanic succession 276, 8.7.2,258,402,5.3,5.16,8.12, avalanches 300-3, 330, 10.3, 10.4, 280 8.20,8.31 10.8,10.9,10.10 Red Rock Volcanic Complex 6.8 Rocche Rosse coulee, Lipari 87 bedload 309 resurgent domes 400-1 Roches lava, Montserrat 78 debris flow 323-7,10.29-31 reverse grading 304,323,10.12 rock fall 298-9, 10.3, 10.4 flotation 311-14, 10.21 basal layers of pyroclastic flows 188, rootless vents 46,279,382,9.9 fluidised flows 320 189 Roseau ash 9.4 glacial transport 305-8, 10.13-15 Reynolds Number 15, 28 Roseau subaqueous pyroclastic deposits grain flow 303-5, 310, 320-1, 10.11 rheology 9.3,9.4 ice rafting 305, 10.13 definition 16 Roseau Tuff 226, 271, 283, 9.3 involving ice as an essential interstitial of fluidised pyroclastic flows 183 Rotoehu ash 46, 339, 341, 11.5 medium 10.3.2 oflavas 65 Rotoiti Breccia 339, 11.5 lahar 323-7 of magmas 15, 16,21 Rotongaio ash 158,260,8.49,8.52,8.53 landslides 299-301, 10.5, 10.6 rheomorphism 168, 173,255,8.43 rounding 10, 359 liquefied flows 320 rhyolite lavas 4.21~ Roza Member, Columbia River Plateau mass movement 297,298-305,307-8, basic inclusions 85 61,63,369,4.1,13.7, Table 13.1 316--29,330 cryptodomes 82 Ruapehu 45,116,173, Plate 12,383, mud flow 323-7 domes 81 3.27,6.39,10.31,13.25,13.43 not dependent on an interstitial eruption of 4.9 medium 10.3.1 features of 4.10 Saidmarreh landslide 179 particle creep 298 flow directions 87 salic 17 particle free fall 298, 10.2 flow fronts 87 San Francisco volcanic field 373, 6.8, particulate 297-8,305-7,308-15, growth 4.10.4 13.8,13.12 329-30 internal structure 4.10.4 San Juan volcanic field 397, 8.1 permafrost creep 308 lithology 4.10.2 San Pedro volcano 5.15 rockfall 298-9, 10.3, 10.4 ramp structures 85-7, 4.27 sandurs 317, 409 saltation 309 ring fractures 398 Santa Maria volcano 63, 143,229,295, sheetflood 316--17 stony 83-4, 4.23 392,10.1 slides 299-301,10.5-7 subaerial4.9 Santaguito dacite dome 63, 199 slumps 328 subglacial 88 Santorini 116, 143, 158, 166,223,233, slurry flows 320 surface features 4.10.3 237,241, Plate 9, 343-4,5.4,6.3, soil creep 328 talus aprons 87 6.8,6.40-42,7.9,7.10,7.12,7.15, solution 316,10.22 thickness 81 8.2,8.3,8.4,11.4,13.30,13.31 subaqueous granular mass flow vents of 4.9 scoria 36, 48,3.16 317-23 rhyolitic volcanoes/centres 13.9, concentration zones 480 suspension 311,329-30,10.20 13.37-43,14.9 fall deposits see strombolian fall torrent flow 316--18,10.23 associated craters 13.9.5 deposits traction 308-14, 329-30, 10.16-19 bimodal associations 401 vesicle nucleation size 36 turbidity currents 318-20, 10.20, caldera collapse 398 scoria cones 13.4, 13.4, 13.8, 13.9, 10.25-9 caldera collapse breccias 398 13.13,13.26 water as an essential interstitial caldera sediments 13.9.4 dimensions 372, 13.10, 13.12 medium 10.3.3 deposits 13.9.3 erosion 372, 13.11 sediment movement patterns 1.3.4 INDEX 527
sedimentary structures 1.3.3 deposits 13.7.3 sub-intraglacial basaltic and rhyolitic tractional 309-14 dimensions Table 13.3 volcanism-facies models sedimentary-volcanic cycles 10.2, epiclastic processes 13.7.4 description 437, 13.11 13.7.4, Table 13.5 eruption styles 13.7.3 facies models 13 .51, 13.52 Serra Gorda 6.9,6.11 facies model 13.32, 14.8, 14.10 sub-plinian fall deposits 131,6.5,6.21 Sete Cidades 384 life expectancy 13.7.2 basaltic lSI shape 10, 358 marine 391, 14.10 sub-plinian style eruptions 6.5 shard 51-2, 3.23-5 mass wastage 13.7.4 Summerfield Formation 345 sheet flood, flow 316-17 mineralisation 391 Sunset Crater 6.11 shield volcanoes 13.2, 13.1-5 morphometry 13.7.1 surges see pyroclastic surge Shuveluch 108 output rates 13.7.2, Table 13.4 Surtsey 45,364,367,407,420 sideromelane 382, 420 parasitic centres 386 surtseyan fall deposits 131,6.8.1,6.29, silicic ash fall deposits 6.9 repose periods 13.7.2 6.31 silicic-intermediate volcanic centres (see ring plains 383 surtseyan style eruptions 6.5.1 also rhyolite volcanoes) 13.8 summit caldera 13.26, 13.27, 13.31 mechanisms 6.8.3 silicic lavas stratovolcanoes-continental-facies models suspended sediment transport 311-14, eruption rate 63 description 436 329-30,10.20 subaqueous 4.11 economic significance 429 silicic magmas facies model 14.8 Taa145, 115,394,5.19,13.36 temperatures 20 stratovolcanoes-marine-facies models tachylite 420 silicic rocks description 433-4 Tambora 110,223 definition 16, 17 economic significance 434 Tarawera 3.15, 5.15, 6.14, 10.12 mineralogy 17 facies model 14 .10 Tarumai 143 silicic volcanoes-continental-facies strength of magmas 2.6 Taupo AD 186 eruption 158,223,237, models see rhyolite volcanoes stress field 8.12 associated deep marine facies 14.8.8, conditions for volcanism 15.1, 15.11 early airfall phases 8.12.1, 8.51 14.12 igneous rocks as indicators 15.12 eruption sequence 8.49, 8.50 description 436-40 Stromboli 137,386,10.5 giant pumice bed 403 economic significance 430--2 strombolian fall deposits 131,482,5.4, stratigraphy 8.48,8.49 facies model 14 . 9 6.5-11,13.23 ultraplinian fall deposit 8.12.2, 8.49, silicic volcanoes-submarine-facies classification 6.3.3 8.54 models see felsic volcanoes volume estimates Table 6.1 Taupo ignimbrite Plate 7,181,198, sillar 258, 8.7,8.47 strombolian style eruptions 129 199-200,244,8.7.2,251,261, sinter 10.22,13.47 gas velocities 137 8.12.3,5.16, 7.25--J, 7.30, 7.31, Skjaldbreidur shield volcano 13.5 mechanisms and dynamics 6.3.2,6.12 8.20,8.49,8.50 slides 299-301,10.5-7 subaerial vents Taupo (ultraplinian) pumice 153,261, slumps 328 explosive fragmentation of magma 8.12.2,3.19,6.17,6.18,7.26,8.49, slurry flows 320 36-8 8.50 Snake River Plain 73,371 subaqueous granular mass flow 317-23 Taupo volcanic centre 394, 397, 13.38, Snowy River Volcanics 3.27, 5.24,7.35, subaqueous ignimbrites 9.3 13.41,13.43 10.19,14.1 subaqueous lavas Taupo Volcanic Zone 79,397,15.8 somma 384 basaltic 4.6 tectonic setting and volcanism Ch. 15 sorting 10, 294, 358 silicic 4.11 evaluation for ancient volcanic differences between epiclastic and subaqueous pyroclastic flows Ch. 9 successions 15.13 pyroclastic deposits 473, Table 1.4 deposits 9.2.1 temperature Folk and Ward statistical parameter passage from air into water 9.5,9.11, effects on viscosity 2.5.2 474 9.13 of magmas 2.2, Tables 2.2-4 Inman statistical parameter 472 submarine eruption of9.4, 9.12 pyroclastic flows Table 5.1 Soufriere 78, 103, 116, 157, 276, 386, subaqueous surges 9.7 tensile strength of country rock 4.19,6.30 subaqueous vents effect on explosive fragmentation 35 spatter 48, 3.13 explosive fragmentation of magma tephra 47 cones 64, 134 38-40,3.7 tephrochronology 477 ramparts 64, 134 subaqueous welding 9.3 terminal fall velocity 94, 6.2, 475, 6.4, spherulites 83-4, 419, 4.25 subduction 7.23,1.2, I.3 spilite 18 Andean type 464-5 texture 9 spinifex texture·90, 4.31 Marianas type 464-5 definition 9 spiracles 73 sub-intraglacial basaltic and rhyolitic fabric 10 spreading ridges, mid-oceanic see mid- volcanism 13.11, 13.51,13.52 grainsize 9 oceanic ridges basaltic 408 rounding 10 steam explosions 3.4 moberg 409 shape 10 stony rhyolite 83-4 rhyolitic 88, 409 sorting 10 stratovolcanoes 13.7, 13.25 tindas 408 Thera welded tuff 166,168,6.3, composition 382 tuyas 408, 13.51 6.40-43,13.31 528 INDEX
thermal oxidisation 96 ignimbrite sources 8.4, 8.14, 8.16 tectonic setting Ch. 15 thermal remanent magnetisation 98, 281 plains basalt provinces 13.3 volcanoes Ch. 13 tholeiite 17 ring fissure 8.4.2 basaltic shield 13.2, 13.1-5 temperature of magmas 19, 20 subaerial explosive activity 36-8 facies models Ch. 14 till, tillite 307, 494 subaqueous explosive activity 38-40 . intermediate-silicic multivent centres tindas 408 vesicles 13.8 Toba deep-sea ash layer 289, 8.24 factors affecting growth 37 intraglacial/subglacial13.11, 13.51, Toba Tuff 243 growth 36, 3.3, 3.4 13.52 Tongariro 6.39, 13.43 nucleation size 36 littoral cones 13.6, 13.24 Tokiwa Formation 271,284--5,9.1 pipe 73 maars 13.5, 13.14-22 Toledo caldera 244,398,13.42 vesiculated tuffs 124 monogenetic 364 Tonga-Kermadec arc 15.12 vesiculation 35, 36 polygenetic 364 tonsteins 244 first boiling 35, 40 pseudocraters 13.6 torrent flow 316-18, 10.23 growth of vesicles 36 pumice cones 13.4 Tower Hill Volcanic Centre 380-2, nucleation size 36 rhyolitic volcanoes/centres 13.9, 5.21,6.10,7.40,7.41,13.15, of magma subaqueously 38-40 13.37-42 13.20,13.22,13.23 second boiling 35, 40 scoria cones 13.4, 13.4, 13 .8-13 tractional sediment transport 308-16, vesuvian style eruptions 129 seamounts 13.10.2, 13.50 329-30,10.16 Vesuvius 116, 129, 143, 158,223,384, shield 13.2, 13.1-5 tractional sedimentary structures 7.13 spreading ridge 13.10.1, 13.48, 13.49 309-14, 10.17-19 viscosity 15,2.4,2.3,2.5--8 stratovolcanoes 13.7, 13.25-7,13.30-2 Treasure Mountain Tuff 342,8.38 Bingham 21, 2.3, Table 2.4 tuff cones 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21 tuff cones 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21, calculated 21 tuff rings 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.21, Table 13.2 effects on lavas 21 13.23 deposits 378 experimentally determined 21 volcano-tectonic depressions 394, 13.36 eruptive activity 379 factors controlling 2.5 vulcanian fall deposits 131,6.7,6.22-4 tuffrings 13.5, 13.14, 13.17, 13.22, measured Table 2.4 D-F plots 6.25 13.23, Table 13.2 of tholeiite 21, Table 2.4 nomenclature 12.5 deposits 378, 13 .23 plastic 21 vulcanian style eruptions 6.7, 6.26--8 eruptive activity 379 pyroclastic flows 193 Vulcano volcano 154, 6.24 rhyolitic 404 vitric ash/tuff 335 Vulsini8.7 'tuff, use of 12.5 vitrophyre 252 Tuluman Islands 79, 88, 403 volatile content Waiareka Volcanics 2.13, 3.11,7.43, tumuli 69, 4.8 effect on viscosity 2.5.3 10.19, 10.31 turbidite 318-20, 10.26-9 gas pressure 3.5 Waidara Tuff 284,9.1,9.5 ash 9.2.2, 286-7 volcanic centres Ch. 13 Waimihia plinian deposit 470, 3.22,6.19 turbidity currents 318-20, 10.25, 10.26, facies models Ch. 14 Wairakei Formation 158 10.29 volcanic eruptions water turbulent flow 15,2.7 climatic effects 103 effect on magma viscosity 23, 24 tuyas 408,13.51 effects on sedimentary processes 10.2, exsolution of 34, 35 13.7.4, Table 13.5 solubility in magmas 23,25,3.1 Ukinrek maars 115, 382, 13.14, 13.19 volcanic rocks water: magma mass ratio 42, 45, 3.9 ultrabasic chemical classification 2.1.1, Table 2.1 weathering 294 definition 16 crystal contents 11.3 welded air-fall tuffs 6.10, 6.39-47, komatiites 4.12 mineralogical classification 2.1.1, 2.1 Table 6.5 lavas 89 volcanic - sedimentary cycles 10.2, characteristics and examples 6.10.1 ultramafic 17, 90 13.7.4, Table 13.5 conditions of formation 6.10.2 ultraplinian eruptions 6.6 volcanic successions thermal facies model 6.10.3, ultraplinian fall deposits 131, 6.6 facies models Ch. 14 Table 6.6 Taupo pumice 153,8.12.2 rock types in 4 welding 165, 8.10.1, 270, 355, 358, Usu volcano 78, 4.20 stratigraphic relationships 4, 14.2, 8.37-44 1.1,1.2 subaqueous 9.3 Valles caldera 244, Plate 13,398-400, volcaniclastic Worzel 8.20,13.42 crystal-rich deposits Ch. 11, Plate 11, D ash layer 289,9.18 Valley ofTen Thousand Smokes 11.2 L ash layer 288,9.15 ignimbrite 233, 8.5 definition 8 vapour phase crystallisation 8.10.2,419, deposits Ch. 3 xenocryst 8, 54 8.42,8.45,8.46,8.47 modes of fragmentation Ch. 3 xenolith 8, 54 variolites 420 nomenclature/classification of deposits vents Ch.12 Yali 402,13.44 central 8.4.4 volcanism Yellowstone volcanic centre 397 flood basalt provinces 13.3, 13.7 plate tectonics 15.1 yield strength 2.4, 64 ignimbrite fissure vents 8.4.1, 8.14 stress field conditions 15.11, 15.11 of fluidised pyroclastic flows 183