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Source to surface model of monogenetic volcanism: a critical review

I. E. M. SMITH1 &K.NE´ METH2* 1School of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand 2Volcanic Risk Solutions, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand *Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Small-scale volcanic systems are the most widespread type of volcanism on Earth and occur in all of the main tectonic settings. Most commonly, these systems erupt basaltic magmas within a wide compositional range from strongly silica undersaturated to saturated and oversatu- rated; less commonly, the spectrum includes more siliceous compositions. Small-scale volcanic systems are commonly monogenetic in the sense that they are represented at the Earth’s surface by fields of small volcanoes, each the product of a temporally restricted eruption of a composition- ally distinct batch of magma, and this is in contrast to polygenetic systems characterized by rela- tively large edifices built by multiple eruptions over longer periods of time involving magmas with diverse origins. Eruption styles of small-scale volcanoes range from pyroclastic to effusive, and are strongly controlled by the relative influence of the characteristics of the magmatic system and the surface environment.

Gold Open Access: This article is published under the terms of the CC-BY 3.0 license.

Small-scale basaltic magmatic systems characteris- hazards associated with eruptions, and this is tically occur at the Earth’s surface as fields of small particularly true where volcanic fields are in close monogenetic volcanoes. These volcanoes are the proximity to population centres. An example is the landforms produced by explosive and effusive erup- Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, containing the Chi- tions triggered by the rise of small batches of chinautzen and Michoaca´n-Guanajuato volcanic magma. Their typical occurrence as volcanic fields fields (Hasenaka & Carmichael 1987; Siebe et al. is the surface expression of a magmatic plumbing 2004; Johnson et al. 2008; Erlund et al. 2010; Cebria´ system that is spatially dispersed and episodic. et al. 2011), and including the historically active Small-scale basaltic volcanic systems are the most volcanoes Parı´cutin (1943–52) and Jorullo (1759– widespread form of magmatism on planet Earth 74). The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt has seen (Can˜o´n-Tapia & Walker 2004) (Fig. 1), although much research, in part due to the opportunity they are also the smallest in terms of erupted afforded by these historical eruptions, but also magma volume. They are often overlooked in the because it is an extensive field which poses risks large-scale purview of plate tectonics, although to large population centres including Mexico City they occur in all of the major tectonic environ- (Siebe & Macias 2006). Another area of extensive ments, intraplate, extensional and subduction- study is the western USA, where research has been related (Can˜o´n-Tapia 2016), providing continuous undertaken in the Cima Volcanic Field of California expression of the interaction between the physi- (Dohrenwend et al. 1986; Wilshire et al. 1991; Far- cal–chemical parameters of the rising magma and mer et al. 1995; Kereszturi & Ne´meth 2016), several the external environmental conditions that influence small scoria cones and fields in Nevada (Ho 1991; their eruption styles. The temporal record of mono- Bradshaw et al. 1993; Bradshaw & Smith 1994; genetic volcano fields is skewed towards younger Valentine & Keating 2007; Valentine & Perry epochs because their relatively small volumes ren- 2007; Valentine & Hirano 2010), and the Springer- der them prone to removal from the terrestrial ville (Condit et al. 1989; Condit & Connor 1996), geological record. Further, they are mostly known San Francisco (Tanaka et al. 1986), Zuni-Bandera from the subaerial record because of the relative (Menzies et al. 1991; Peters et al. 2008) and Geron- inaccessibility of small volcano fields in ocean-floor imo (Menzies et al. 1985) fields of Arizona. Fields environments. in NE China have been the subject of several papers The last decade has seen a renewed interest in the (Hsu & Chen 1998; Zou et al. 2003; McGee et al. volcanology, geochemistry, structural and tectonic 2015), and recently there have been a number of controls, as well as volcanic hazard and risk studies geochemically based studies into the longer-lived of small-volume basaltic volcanism. Many studies Newer Volcanic Province in southern Australia have been motivated by a need to understand the (Jordan et al. 2013, 2015; Boyce et al. 2014, 2015;

From:Ne´meth, K., Carrasco-Nu´n˜ez, G., Aranda-Go´mez,J.J.&Smith, I. E. M. (eds) Monogenetic Volcanism. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 446, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP446.14 # 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH

Fig. 1. Map of younger than Pliocene monogenetic volcanic fields and other important volcanoes extensively studied in recent years or mentioned in this paper. Please note that this collection is not complete. There are numerous less known monogenetic volcanic fields mostly in Central Asia, along the East African rift systems, Ethiopia, along the Andes (mostly in Chile, Colombia and Argentina) and some in the SW USA not listed in this collection due to incomplete information. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1. (Continued) Please note that this map also does not show volcanic fields associated with large island volcanoes of the Azores, Iceland or Hawaii. Yellow stars refer to volcanic fields (VF); red stars show important polygenetic volcanoes associated with numerous small-volume satelite vents commonly cited in monogenetic volcanism literature (mostly from their morphological aspects); and green stars represent iconic monogenetic volcanoes. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH

Van Otterloo et al. 2014; Blaikie et al. 2015; van volcanoes are relatively more Si-rich and are less Otterloo & Cas 2016). alkaline (McGee et al. 2015). This compositional Studies of small-volume basaltic systems have pattern is readily explained in terms of the ambi- ranged from covering single centres such as Udo ent parameters within the magma source region, volcano, Jeju Island, Korea (Brenna et al. 2010), with the nephelinite–tholeiite range representing Chagwido, Jeju Island, Korea (Brenna et al. 2015), increasing proportions of partial melting (Fig. 2). Mt Gambier, Australia (Van Otterloo et al. 2014), Primary magma produced in equilibrium with and Parı´cutin, Mexico (Erlund et al. 2010; Cebria´ residual mantle lithologies is identifiable by virtue et al. 2011), or several centres in one field such as of its Mg/Fe ratio (usually expressed as the Mg the two most recent eruptions at the Wudalianchi number ((100 × mol MgO)/(mol MgO + mol field in NE China (Zou et al. 2003; Xiao & Wang FeO)) based on the partitioning of Roeder & Emslie 2009; Gao et al. 2013; Zhao et al. 2014), and two 1970). However, truly primary magmas are only centres from the Newer Volcanic Province of Aus- rarely erupted at the Earth’s surface. Overwhelm- tralia (Demidjuk et al. 2007), to the scale of a ingly, the chemical composition of basaltic magma whole field such as, for instance, the west Anatolian reveals that they have experienced some degree of Volcanic Field of Turkey (Ersoy et al. 2010, 2012a, fractionation, mixing and, in some cases, contami- b; Ersoy & Palmer 2013), various volcanic fields in nation by cognate or exotic (crustal) material. Germany (Haase et al. 2004), Hungary (Harangi The compositions of the magmas that leave the et al. 2015) and the Czech Republic (Cajz et al. melt production zone in the deeper levels of a sys- 2009), part of the Central European Volcanic Prov- tem are not easily determined due to the effects of ince (CEVP), and the South Auckland Volcanic multiple shallow-level processes. This is because Field of New Zealand (Cook et al. 2005), or a most volcanic systems are long-lived zones where whole country or region such as the whole of South rising magmas stall, evolve and interact with pre- Korea (Choi et al. 2006), the whole of New Zealand ceding batches of magma and their solidified or par- (Timm et al. 2010) and the whole of NE China tially solidified equivalents. Relatively primitive (Zhang et al. 1995). Although there are some pub- magma compositions are more likely to occur in lished theoretical (Takada 1994) and/or experimen- the small-scale basaltic fields of continental envi- tal studies of monogenetic volcanism (Reiners & ronments, which are characterized by sparse infre- Nelson 1998; Hirschmann et al. 2003), they are quent eruptions, rather than in the persistent highly relatively sparse. productive systems established at plate margin and In this paper we review the current state of intraplate hotspot centres. knowledge of small-scale volcanism from their Small-scale magmatic systems often erupt basal- source in the upper mantle to the eruption character- tic magmas that contain xenoliths of spinel- and istics of their surface environment. garnet-bearing lherzolite which have equilibrated at pressures and temperatures that lie on the local geotherm (O’Reilly & Griffin 1985; Sutherland The basalt spectrum et al. 1994). Because the xenoliths are significantly denser that their host magmas, ascent must have Basalts are fundamentally the product of partial been rapid (.1022 –10m s21) (Spera 1984; Szabo´ melting processes within the Earth, and their com- & Bodnar 1996) and continuous from the depth of positions are an expression of the temperature and xenolith entrapment (Lensky et al. 2006). In these pressure regimes that exist in the outer ,150 km cases, the host magmas have Mg numbers lower of the Earth. Basalt magmas occur in response to a than that of primary mantle-derived liquids (Irving range of environments within this P–T envelope. & Price 1981; Reay et al. 1991; Camp & Roobol Chemical compositions displayed by the basalt 1992) and so must have undergone some fraction- spectrum range from strongly Si-undersaturated ation before entraining their xenoliths. This is con- nephelinite (and even more extreme carbonitites) sistent with geochemical evidence for magma through alkali basalt to silica-saturated tholeiite. evolution at high pressures (Smith et al. 2008) and The determining parameters of this compositional the duplication of evolved magma compositions in range are essentially pressure (depth) and tempera- crystallization experiments carried out at high pres- ture (Putirka 2005; Herzberg et al. 2007; Putirka sures (Irving & Green 2008). On the other hand, the et al. 2007), which in turn constrain the mantle petrology and geochemistry of basalts from highly dynamics responsible for melting. productive systems such as Hawaii, Reunion and There is a significant positive correlation Iceland are dominated by the effects of low-pressure between the volume of individual magma batches fractional crystallization, magma mixing and crystal and their position within the basaltic compositional mush entrainment (Wright 1973; Albarede et al. spectrum. Small-volume volcanoes are more alka- 1997), together with some deeper crystallization line and more Si undersaturated, and larger volume (Putirka et al. 1996; Putirka 1997; Maclennan Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION

Fig. 2. Examples of compositional variation in monogenetic systems from intraplate (diamond symbol), extensional (square symbol) and subduction-related (triangular symbol) environments, illustrating the compositional range of primitive magmas (Mg# .65: solid symbols) and the trajectories of evolved (open symbols) compositions.

2008). At the less productive oceanic hotspots of (1987) and Clague & Dixon (2000) have shown the Azores (Gente et al. 2003) and Canary Islands how this spectrum is expressed by the correlated (Fullea et al. 2015), clinopyroxene–melt barometry petrogenesis, petrology and volcanic output rates and petrographical observations show that magma of Hawaiian lavas as the hot centre of the Hawaiian batches partially crystallize and mix with pre- hotspot is approached, over-ridden and then aban- existing magma batches in a zone of temporary doned by the drifting Pacific lithosphere. In sum- magma storage at near and sub-Moho depths of mary, the characteristic feature of small-scale 15–40 km (Hansteen et al. 1998; Schwarz et al. basaltic volcanic systems is the relatively simple 2004; Klugel et al. 2005; Galipp et al. 2006; Long- and dispersed nature of their plumbing systems. pre´ et al. 2009; Stroncik et al. 2009). Mid-ocean The size, depth and longevity of transport, together ridges are dominated by fractional crystallization with the existence of storage areas beneath a vol- and mixing within shallow (,7 km) magma cham- cano, influence the eruptive patterns and the geo- bers or sills (Pan & Batiza 2003), with slower physical and geochemical signals associated with spreading centres fed by dispersed polybaric magma volcanic unrest, as well as the complexity of the pet- batches that crystallize and evolve at depths of up to rogenetic history that must be revealed in order to 30 km (Herzberg & O’Hara 1998; Herzberg 2004). constrain the conditions of melt generation that ulti- These examples serve to illustrate a fundamental mately drive the volcanic system. aspect of the spectrum of basaltic magmatic sys- tems: that those with relatively high magma produc- tion rates evolve by crystallization and mixing at Compositional variations within shallow depths, whereas, in less productive systems, small-scale volcanoes magma stalls within a deeper zone of less permanent storage bodies unless ascent rates are sufficient to A notable feature of many small-scale volcanic overcome the gravitational constraints. Clague cones is the systematic change in the chemical Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH compositions of erupting magma during the course examples are the scoria cone and associated lava of an eruption (Ne´meth et al. 2003; Smith et al. fields of Parı´cutin (active 1943–52) (Luhr & Simkin 2008; Brenna et al. 2010, 2011, 2012a; McGee 1993; Erlund et al. 2010) or Jorullo (active 1759–74) et al. 2012). Rarely, there are examples of volcanic (Guilbaud et al. 2011) in the central Mexican Volca- cones that show no compositional variation. Com- nic Belt and Mirador, southern Chile (April–May positional variation has been observed even in 1979) (Lopez-Escobar & Moreno 1981). very-small-volume cones and in these the system- A problem arises because the eruptions of most atic variations are often very clearly correlated so-called monogenetic volcanoes were not wit- with stratigraphy. The general pattern is for material nessed, although continuous deposit sequences and erupted early in a sequence to be relatively evolved the relatively small volumes typical of monogenetic and for compositions to become progressively more cones strongly support short timescales (Ne´meth primitive as an eruption progresses. These patterns 2010; Ne´meth & Kereszturi 2015). In contrast, a have been interpreted as due to fractionation of mag- polygenetic volcano is one that erupts many times, mas at high pressures close to their source (Smith is fed through an established conduit system that et al. 2008). In larger volume cones more compli- has a relatively long lifespan and delivers discrete cated compositional patterns have been observed eruptive phases separated by clear temporal breaks (e.g. Brenna et al. 2010) and interpreted as the result traceable in the erupted sequence (Manville et al. of mixing and mingling of discrete melts in the 2009). In concept, the difference between monoge- deeper parts of their system. Compositional discon- netic and polygenetic volcanoes is one of plumbing tinuities occurring during the course of a monoge- (Fig. 3). In monogenetic systems, batches of magma netic eruption sequence have also been observed rise quickly to the surface through simple conduit (McGee et al. 2012, 2013) and interpreted as succes- systems with little interaction with the crustal sive partial melting of distinct, but contiguous, rocks that they encounter on their way. Polygenetic source components with differing melting charac- volcanoes result from plumbing systems that teristics in a heterogeneous source. involve the development of magma chambers which These marked compositional variations dis- show complex interactions with surrounding crustal played within small-volume magma batches are an rocks and extensive evolution through crystal frac- important feature of small-scale basaltic volcanoes, tionation, magma mixing and magma mingling and are an indication of their close connection with (Fig. 2). One effect of this contrast in plumbing the high-pressure regions of their respective source styles is that the magmas of monogenetic systems regions and the rapidity with which magmas rise are relatively primitive (McGee & Smith 2016), from these depths. reflecting their compositional connection with their mantle sources, whereas magma of polygenetic volcanoes are more commonly chemically evolved The monogenetic concept through the operation of assimilation and fractional crystallization in crustal reservoirs. Small-volume volcanic cones are usefully termed A further concept which is fundamental to monogenetic and they characteristically occur in monogenetic volcanoes is that of a batch of magma volcanic fields. The terms monogenetic and volcano generated in a discrete melting event and with a field are to a degree controversial because their defined chemical composition (Fig. 3). Typically, defining parameters are imprecise and depend on monogenetic eruptive sequences show consistent the perspective of individual researchers. Both evolutionary development of geochemical trends terms have been recently reappraised (Ne´meth & which can be interpreted as the evolution of a single Kereszturi 2015; Can˜o´n-Tapia 2016). Here, we dis- batch of magma. Less commonly, a magma batch cuss the phenomenon of small-scale volcanism in can show little compositional variation. Some erup- terms of the linked concepts of monogenetic volca- tive sequences that are clearly monogenetic in noes, magma batches and volcano fields (Fig. 3). terms of their eruptive behaviour can be shown to An established terminology categorizes volcanic represent mixing of magmas of consanguineous, systems as monogenetic or polygenetic (Walker but diverse, origin such as documented from Udo 2000). These are useful concepts but suffer from Island, South Korea (Brenna et al. 2010). There are the question of where boundaries that are different also examples of single volcanic structures that have in differing areas of investigation may be drawn. clearly separated eruptive episodes which produced In volcanological terms, a monogenetic volcano is compositionally discrete batches of magma, as one which erupts only once within a defined time revealed from Rangitoto in the Auckland Volcanic period that is recognized as being one in which Field (Needham et al. 2011). These cases where there is no clear evidence of a temporal break in a more complex plumbing system can be demon- eruptive activity; the defined time period may be strated mark the transition between geochemi- weeks, months, years or, rarely, decades. Observed cally monogenetic volcanoes and geochemically Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION

Fig. 3. Small-volume volcanoes can be classified as monogenetic or polygenetic using two main criteria: (1) petrogenetic features or (2) volcanic architecture. Individually, small volcanoes that are spaced from each other by longer distances than their edifice ‘footprint’ can be recognized easily as small and simple volcanoes that are commonly fed from deep magma sources (a). Such volcanoes over time can form groups, cluster alignments (b) and, if lithospheric conditions permit, some shallower-sourced magmas can also be involved (c). Over time, such dispersed systems can form focused vent clusters (d) and even larger volume longer-lived edifices with multiple vents fed from shallow and deep sources (e). (a)–(e) can be looked at as a spectrum of evolution from a simple monogenetic volcanic field to a more mature field. Individual deep-sourced melts can reach the surface in locations where a complex polygenetic volcano occurs without too much interaction between their magmatic plumbing systems (f). Long-lived stratovolcanoes with multiple shallow magma-feeding systems can provide small-volume eruptions that are clearly shallow sourced but still form simple volcanic edifices which volcanologically would be considered as a monogenetic volcano (g). Long-lived shallow magma-fed systems such as major silicic calderas are commonly associated with a laterally extensive, but internally complicated, network of melt stored at shallow depths (coloured rectangles) similar to proposed models such as those associated with the Okataina Volcanic Complex at the Taupo Volcanic Zone (Smith et al. 2005, 2010; Shane 2015). Such systems can be pierced by deep-sourced melts that then erupt as small monogenetic volcanoes or can trigger silicic melts to erupt and form silicic tuff rings and lava domes (h). In long-lived and large systems, amalgamated compound small-volume silicic volcanic compounds can form with a complex petrogenetic history (i). If lithospheric conditions are favourable, such systems can evolve to more complex and large-volume edifices, losing their dispersed nature both petrogenetically and volcanologically (j). polygenetic volcanoes, although, from a volcano- Further, while individual volcanoes in volcano logical perspective, both may be treated as mono- fields can be described as monogenetic in the sense genetic (Fig. 3). This is one of the difficulties of representing a temporally restricted period of encountered in applying the term monogenetic. eruptive activity, the systems of which they are a The distinction between monogenetic and poly- part may have been active for periods as long as genetic is essentially a variable within the spectrum those that develop polygenetic volcanoes (Condit of magmatic systems and one that will have a differ- et al. 1989; Connor & Conway 2000; Ne´meth ent definition according to the investigative method. 2010). As an example, the polygenetic volcano Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH

Ruapehu in New Zealand evolved to its present state volcanic field (a ‘mature’ field) can, over time, pro- over 300 kyr (Gamble et al. 2003), which is equiv- duce more abundant larger volume, geochemically alent to the total time span of evolution of the Auck- more evolved compositions and architecturally land Volcanic Field (Lindsay et al. 2011) that more complex volcanoes. This has been demon- produced in the same time period at least 53 discrete strated in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt volcanoes (Kereszturi et al. 2013). Monogenetic (Aguirre-Diaz et al. 2006; Arce et al. 2013), in the volcanic fields in some cases can be long lived western Arabian Cenozoic Volcanic Province and overarch entire geological epochs such as (Camp & Roobol 1989; Camp et al. 1991), in sev- those of the Central European Cenozoic Magmatic eral locations in eastern Africa (Franz et al. 1997, System (Ulrych et al. 2011) or the Western Arabian 1999) and in the Chaine des Puys in France (Nowell Cenozoic Volcanic Province (Moufti et al. 2012). 2008; van Wyk de Vries et al. 2014). An important aspect of the debate is the rate of The edifice-building pyroclastic succession of magma supply, which can also be thought of in a single monogenetic volcano reflects the changes terms of the connection between source and surface of eruptive style during the course of an eruption. (Fig. 3). The volumes of individual magma batches Such successions are a key to establishing the timing that produce monogenetic volcanic cones are char- of eruptive events associated with the edifice (Fig. acteristically small (typically ,1km3, commonly 3). Especially in larger volume volcanoes, these ,0.1 km3). The compositional features exhibited pyroclastic successions are the subject of debates by monogenetic magma batches commonly show about the monogenetic v. polygenetic origin of the features that relate to source or near-source pro- edifice (McKnight & Williams 1997; Sheth 2014). cesses and these indicate rapid rise rates from source Normally, in a sensu stricto monogenetic volcano, to surface. Because of their small volumes, monoge- its pyroclastic succession shows a continuous netic magma batches do not retain a connection to sequence of tephra layers with no evidence to sup- their source and essentially represent ‘bubbles’ of port significant breaks between pyroclastic beds rising magma. If they stall in the crust they become other than normal changes in pyroclastic density un-eruptible with cooling and crystallization. current movement, wind-drifted tephra accumula- Recent studies have also indicated that the role of tion or erosional surfaces associated with syndeposi- magmas that do not reach the surface and represent tional remobilization of pyroclasts due to some ‘failed eruptions’ might be important, even in the other non-volcanic sedimentary processes (e.g. sud- case of small-volume magmatism (Gudmundsson den mass movement on the wet flank of a growing 2003; Ne´meth & Martin 2007; Taisne et al. 2011; tephra ring causing syn-eruptive lahar formation) Geshi et al. 2012; Kiyosugi et al. 2012; Friese (White 1991; Manville et al. 2009). In either way, et al. 2013; Le Corvec et al. 2013a, b; Can˜o´n-Tapia such pyroclastic successions show a consistent 2014; Re et al. 2015). Growing evidence has also sequence of pyroclastic beds associated purely shown that the shallow plumbing system of small- with the fluctuation of the relative role of the inter- volume volcanoes commonly defined as monoge- nal v. external parameters (Fig. 4). In this context, netic is complex, and magmas exit through an internal parameters are those that are directly asso- upper conduit linked to various and geometrically ciated with the physicochemical nature (e.g. compo- complicated networks of pathways (Valentine & sition, volatile content, its rise speed and rate, and Krogh 2006; Valentine et al. 2007, 2011; Geshi its changes or variations) of the rising magma, et al. 2011; Hintz & Valentine 2012). Such complex while external parameters are those that can affect plumbing scenarios add complexity to the chemical the magma fragmentation and, hence, the eruption and architectural evolution of the volcano, even if style and the resulting pyroclastic eruptive products they are small in volume (Geshi 2000, 2001). Stud- (most commonly associated with the availability ies of magma-flow movement within the growing of external water of any type and its ability to be small-volume edifice suggest that magma can available in various timescales). Commonly, there behave unexpectedly prior to exiting through a vent, is a trend from a typical phreatomagmatic-frag- leading to the development of complex conduit– mentation-dominated eruption style towards more crater networks (Petronis et al. 2013; Delcamp magmatic-fragmentation-dominated successions in et al. 2014). the course of the eruption of small-volume volca- Over time, a volcanic system that is typically noes (Lorenz 1987; White 1991), providing late- composed of volcanoes that fulfill the monogenetic stage ‘magmatic cap’ (Fig. 5a), intra-crater scoria plumbing criteria and which shows a high magma cone growth in the initial maar/tuff ring crater production rate can gradually produce composition- (Fig. 5b) or gradually filling the maar/tuff ring cra- ally more evolved magmas that feed and build ters by lava flows (Fig. 5c). The interplay between architecturally more complex volcanoes that share the internal and external forces acting upon the similarities to polygenetic volcanoes (Fig. 3). eruption style of the growing small-volume vol- There are numerous examples where a long-lived cano commonly form eruptive sequences showing Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION

Fig. 4. External v. internal controlling parameters act as ‘competing’ forces to influence magma fragmentation and, hence, the overall architecture of the growing small-volume volcano. On the x-axis of this conceptual diagram, increasing magma volume is shown from right to left and is the fundamental internal force driving volcanic eruptions. On the y-axis, the external forces that influence the magma fragmentation and, hence, the eruption style are marked as the increasing availability (volume) of water to the magmatic system. The external forces can be expressed as a function of external water available, the storage capacity of the aquifers, the hydraulic conductivity, permeability and the surface water availability (a function of climatic conditions). The external forces are heavily dependent on the elevation of the landscape that the magma encounters as higher ground normally has deeper aquifers and/or less potential to capture surface runoff water. In the diagram, two lines separate magmatic-dominated volcanoes (M), mixed-type volcanoes (MIX) and phreatomagmatic-dominated volcanoes (PH). Common types of volcanoes can be distinguished such as: (1) scoria and spatter cones of any size; (2) scoria cones with a thin initial phreatomagmatic base; (3) phreatomagmatic volcanic landform with a thin magmatic cap/infill; (4) well-developed phreatomagmatic landform with a magmatic infill; (5) well-developed phreatomagmatic landform overgrown by a magmatic landform; (6) large well-developed phreatomagmatic landform with a magmatic intra-crater cone; and (7) various sizes of phreatomagmatic landforms. Note that the red arrows represent a shift of the separating lines of volcano types in the case of high magma flux (mfhigh); and orange arrows show the shift of the separating lines of volcano types in the case of low magma flux (mflow).

systematic and/or random variations of tephra units Most commonly in a small-volume volcanic edi- associated with the more dominant magma frag- fice, the pyroclastic succession shows few distinct mentation styles (Fig. 6). If the eruption takes horizons commonly marked by ballistic bomb and place as a result of a single eruption of a single block layers. These layers can be traced over large magma batch, the pyroclastic successions will areas, and seem to be associated with a volcanic show chemical variation patterns associated with explosive event that was dispersed equally in either fractionation processes in the tapping magma every direction within a very narrow time period column en route to the surface or they will show rel- and represent materials that are derived from con- ative compositional homogeneity: such a simple duit walls and/or from a degassed magma stalled monogenetic volcanic sequence is probably the in the upper conduit or crater. These coarse-grained less common scenario (McGee & Smith 2016). horizons are typically associated with random Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

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Fig. 5. A typical eruption sequence of a small-volume basaltic volcano (Motukorea/Browns Island, Auckland Volcanic Field) (a) that shows some variation of magma rise (juvenile pyroclast volume changes) and the effect of the external water that influences the eruption style (accidental lithic contents). The section is dominated by an initial phreatomagmatic sequence (ph) interbedded with a magmatic-fragmentation-dominated unit (m). In the section, ballistic bombs of accidental lithic fragments caused impact sags (arrows). The entire section is capped by a magmatic capping unit dominated by scoriaceous successions (mc). In addition, random or systematic changes in the upper conduit can trigger vent-clearing events that are commonly associated with some chemical changes as a reflection of the arrival of a new melt batch below (a). A common trend in a small-volume volcanic eruption that finishes with the development of an intra-crater scoria cone (b), such as in Meke Go¨lu¨ (Meke Lake) in Anatolia’s Karapinar Volcanic Field, or lava spatter cone growth with intra-crater lava infill, such as La Bren˜a maar in the Durango Volcanic Field in Mexico (c). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION

Fig. 6. Small-volume cones can be heavily influenced by phreatomagmatism such as the Ohakune cone complex near Ruapehu New Zealand. Lighter coloured beds have a strong phreatomagmatic influence, while darker beds are dominated by lava spatters; many clasts have chilled rims, indicating that lava fountaining took place through a wet environment. Numbers represents individual units identified by Ko´sik et al. (2016). conduit collapse events but they also can be associ- relative influence of external parameters on the ated with a systematic movement of the explosion resulting volcanic edifice structure and their pyro- locus along a fissure (Sohn & Chough 1989; clastic succession can be characteristic (Fig. 7). White & Ross 2011; Graettinger et al. 2015). In For larger magma volumes, the effect can be diffi- either way, the presence of such horizons can reflect cult to identify as later eruptive products may conduit dynamic processes along and across the completely cover any sign of earlier events (Fig. 7). feeding dyke involved in the eruption (Ross & White 2006; Barnett et al. 2011; Geshi & Oikawa 2014). Commonly, such horizons can also be associ- Volcano fields ated with a slight change in the chemical com- positions of the juvenile pyroclasts above such a The low rates of magma production that lead to horizon, reflecting the arrival of a new magma the development of volcano fields rather than single batch that triggered the excavation (Brenna et al. large cones may be due to tectonic setting (Hase- 2011, 2015). In such cases, the initial explosion naka & Carmichael 1985; Takada 1994), but this breccia horizons can contain evidence of syn- is a complex question. Some volcano fields are eruptive erosion, mud draping or clast rearrange- found in purely subduction-related, extensional or ment on the millimetre–decimetre scale, or even intraplate settings worldwide (Connor & Conway erosion events, as in falls of condensed water onto 2000; Petrone et al. 2003), while others are found the growing edifice flanks. in extensional settings near to active arcs, such as Because feeding dykes are commonly blade-like in the Cascades of the western USA (Leeman & in form and follow fissures (as demonstrated by the Bonnichsen 2005; Leeman et al. 2005; Muffler presence of a row of craters in many settings), the et al. 2011), or in intraplate settings that are gently lithological and, hence, the hydrogeological varia- rifting due to the occurrence of plume-like upwell- tions along a fissure (over length scales of hundreds ing, such as in the Central European Volcanic Prov- of metres) can cause significant lateral variations of ince (Haase & Renno 2008). Volcanic fields can also eruption style and strikingly different eruptive prod- be found in association with large stratovolcanoes, ucts along the fissure, which provides an ‘impres- as in southern Chile (Lopez-Escobar et al. 1995; sion’ that the growing volcanic edifice is complex Cembrano & Lara 2009), across Indonesia (Carn and has departed from a sensu stricto ‘monogenetic’ 2000), Changbaishan in NE China (Liu et al. 2009) nature (Fig. 6). In small magmatic volumes, the andMexico(Siebeet al. 2004; Schaaf et al. 2005; Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH

Fig. 7. Initial phreatomagmatic layers in a very-small-volume scoria cone in the AD 641 Al Madinah eruption in Saudi Arabia as a sign of initial favourable conditions of external water to influence the intruding magma tip during the onset of the eruption.

Sieron et al. 2014), suggesting complex underlying 2004; Conrad et al. 2011; Kereszturi & Ne´meth plumbing systems. Large volcanic islands such as 2012a; Can˜o´n-Tapia 2016). As volcanic fields are Hawaii (Wood 1980), Samoa (Savaii and Upolu) always evolving and their location follows geotec- (Ne´meth & Cronin 2009b), Miyakejima (Japan), tonic changes (Conrad et al. 2011), probably the Ambae (Vanuatu) (Ne´meth & Cronin 2009a), best way to show their geographical location is to Ambrym (Vanuatu) (Ne´meth & Cronin 2011) or select time slices, such as the younger than Pliocene Tenerife (Kereszturi et al. 2012) are commonly ages shown on the set of figures in Figure 1. associated with rift-aligned zones of small-volume In other more complex systems, the presence of a volcanoes grown over the basal lava shields. There range of basaltic compositions and of intermediate are large variations in fundamental parameters and felsic compositions (e.g. benmoreite, trachyte, such as the size of the area covered by the field, phonolite) is evidence of compositional modifica- the number of individual volcanoes, and their size tion during transit to the surface. and chemical composition. Delineating a volcanic The tectonic setting, as well as the local or field can be an easy task using statistical methods regional stress field, appear to be important factors to define the time and spatial distribution of vents in the genesis and form of some volcanic fields within a field; however, overlapping, amalgamated (Le Corvec et al. 2013a), and in fact may govern or long-lived volcanic fields can cause difficulties whether polygenetic or monogenetic structures are when describing their areal distribution (Condit formed (Takada 1994; Bucchi et al. 2015). The posi- et al. 1989; Connor 1990; Bishop 2007; von Veh tion of the volcanic arc in Mexico is thought to &Ne´meth 2009; Bohnenstiehl et al. 2012; Howell cause the shift from polygenetic to monogenetic et al. 2012; Di Traglia et al. 2014; Runge et al. volcanism from north to south (Connor 1987). The 2015). Many fields have unique characteristics, evolution of some volcanic fields has been linked such as the existence of polygenetic centres preced- to tectonic plate movement, such as in the San Fran- ing the formation of a dispersed network of mono- cisco Volcanic Field (Arizona) where volcanism is genetic centres, for instance those at Higashi-Izu thought to migrate with the westwards movement in Japan (Hasebe et al. 2001), or the presence of the North American Plate (Tanaka et al. 1986). of flood basalt eruptions preceding the formation In other cases, small-volume dispersed volcanism of the monogenetic centres in Yemen (Baker et al. shows random distribution with no obvious trend 1997). There are some attempts to visualize the spa- associated with inferred plate motions. However, tial distribution of volcanic fields: however, such their occurrence is more likely to be associated attempts always run into difficulty when choos- with sudden changes in the ‘topography’ of the lith- ing the right selection criteria and the right scale osphere asthenosphere boundary, as has been dem- to show volcanic fields (Can˜o´n-Tapia & Walker onstrated from the Pannonian Basin in central Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION

Europe (Harangi et al. 2015). Tectonic setting and craters) on widely varying spatial and temporal structure has also been implicated as the cause of scales. The range of chemical compositions repre- small-volume magmatism in some volcanic fields, sented in these fields is most commonly in the basal- such as the edge-driven convection model of Demi- tic spectrum – nephelinite–basanite–alkali basalt– djuk et al. (2007) for the Newer Volcanic Province tholeiite (e.g. the Eifel volcanic fields) (Duda & (SE Australia) where a lithospheric step is thought Schmincke 1978; Schmincke et al. 1983; Ali et al. to cause the upwelling required to stimulate melting. 2013; McGee & Smith 2016), rarely highly alkaline A similar idea to this is invoked for the Zuni- (e.g. along East Africa: the Meidob Hills and the Bandera Volcanic Field of New Mexico, where Bayda Volcanic Field) (Rosenthal et al. 2009) and changes in lithospheric thickness beneath the field carbonatitic compositions (e.g. the Calatrava Volca- are linked to changes in the melting processes nic Field) (Kurszlaukis & Lorenz 1997; Bailey et al. (Peters et al. 2008). On a local scale, the distribution 2005; Stoppa & Schiazza 2013; Campeny et al. of volcanic cones within a field can reflect the orien- 2014), and, in subduction-related fields, basaltic tation of faults (Muffler et al. 2011). andesite (Maro & Caffe 2016a; Rasoazanamparany The geochemical character of monogenetic et al. 2016). Less commonly evolved compositions volcano fields is in part related to their specific tec- in the phonolite–trachyte–rhyolite compositional tonic setting, and includes intraplate (e.g. eastern range occur, usually within spatially limited parts Australia, western North America and northern of volcano fields, at later stages in their evolution New Zealand), extension (e.g. central Europe and and where thicker crust is present, such as those Arabia) and subduction-associated (e.g. Mexico, fields in the Arabian Peninsula (Fig. 8a) (Camp & USA, Argentina) settings. Important underlying fac- Roobol 1989; Camp et al. 1991). Evolved silicic tors for the development of monogenetic volcanic compositions are also found independently of systems are small magma volumes, episodic erup- basaltic volcano fields in some continental settings. tion of discrete magma batches and a crustal envi- Typically evolved silicic compositions occur as ronment that allows the passage and escape of dome complexes or pyroclastic cones, such as those small magma volumes through the crust. across Mexico or central Anatolia (Fig. 8b, c) (Riggs Volcanic fields can form in a range of surface & Carrasco-Nu´n˜ez 2004; Zimmer et al. 2010; areas from few tens of square kilometres to over Carrasco-Nu´n˜ez et al. 2012; Aydin et al. 2014). 1000 km2 area, within which there may be a few There are very few systematic studies which to more than a hundred volcanoes (Connor & Con- connect the magmatic plumbing system of silicic way 2000). The vent distribution in a dispersed vol- magmas and their volcanic architecture in a mono- canic field has been a common subject of studies genetic context (Brenna et al. 2012b; Ridolfi et al. intended to establish a temporal–spatial vent evolu- 2016). This is partially because small and short- tion concept within a single volcanic field (Le Cor- lived silicic volcanoes are commonly associated vec et al. 2013b). There are volcanic fields in which with large and long-lived volcanic systems, and vents show a marked alignment normally associated commonly represent a less important fraction of with faults such as the Chaine des Puys in France the total system. This concept, however, needs (Boivin & Thouret 2014; Lutz 2014). The vent some revision as small monogenetic silicic volca- alignments can, hence, reflect older underlying noes are more common and their eruption occur- structural elements that might have been rejuve- rence more frequent than is generally appreciated, nated in the course of the volcanism, as argued for and they can play an important role in the overall many cases in vent distributions over old continental volcanic hazard scape in large and complex volcanic lithospheric regions (Mazzarini & D’Orazio 2003). systems. Small silicic volcanoes that form lava There are volcanic fields where vents instead form domes and/or small explosion craters (maars or clusters, and it has been suggested that they repre- just small silicic edifices) are common features in sent the surface expressions of narrow ‘mantle fin- association with large caldera networks, such as gers’ (Tamura et al. 2009), and there are volcanic those of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand fields where vents show random distribution and (Houghton et al. 1991; Cole et al. 2010, 2014). where any link to structural elements is difficult to Among these small volcanoes, some are very establish (Condit et al. 1989). young ones and show clear evidence of short erup- tion durations and are well below the 1 km3 eruptive volume (such as the 14 kyr-old Puketerata tuff ring Monogenetic volcanism in non-basaltic and dome near Taupo in New Zealand: Fig. 8d) settings commonly used as a proxy to argue for their mono- genetic nature (Brooker et al. 1993; Stevenson The typical expression of monogenetic magmatism et al. 1994; Druitt et al. 1995; Kazanci et al. 1995; is the development of fields of small volcanoes Bursik et al. 2014; Dennen et al. 2014; Moufti & (pyroclastic cones, maars, lava domes or explosion Ne´meth 2014). 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I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH

Fig. 8. Non-basaltic monogenetic volcanoes: (a) trachytic lava dome (Dabaal Al Shamali) next to a small explosion crater surrounded by a thin tephra ring (Gura 1) from the Harrat Rahat in Saudi Arabia; (b) rhyolitic/rhyodacitic lava dome field near the Erciyes volcano; (c) rhyolitic/rhyodacitic lava dome in a maar/tuff ring of Acigo¨lin Cappadocia, Turkey; and (d) the 14 kyr-old Puketerata rhyodacitic tuff ring and lava dome.

There are at least two major groups of non- to be fed from the same major magmatic sources basaltic volcanoes that can be viewed as monoge- associated with the main complex and polygenetic netic: (1) volcanoes that erupt in continental settings volcanic network. Those volcanoes that clearly through thick continental crust, such as those in show an individual feeding network that taps the western Arabia (Camp et al. 1991); and (2) volca- deeper zones of a magmatic system seem to be asso- noes that, in some degree, show an association ciated with volcanic fields that were active over a with a shallow magma source feeding large-volume, long time, allowing the capture of magma in the commonly caldera volcanism, such as the Long thick crust and its evolution to more silicic compo- Valley Caldera (Hildreth 2004) (Fig. 6). A typical sitions. Here, we suggest that in spite of the different scenario for this later group of small volcanoes are magmatic plumbing system associated with these those that are fed by a small-volume melts released volcanoes, the result on the surface can be very sim- between major caldera-forming events and inferred ilar in terms of their volcanic architecture. The Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION separation of these volcanoes from other volcanoes were produced in an environment where a mini- with long-lived and stabile feeding systems is mal amount of external water (surface or fracture important not only from a volcanic hazard perspec- stored) was available, a thin (metre scale as a tive in young volcanic regions, but also from min- maximum) phreatomagmatic pyroclastic deposit eral exploration aspects in older settings where the always appeared (Murcia et al. 2015) (Fig. 7). Sim- edifices might be largely removed due to erosion ilarly, if the magma supply rate drops, a short-lived and there is access to their upper conduit zones com- phreatomagmatic blast can produce a thin pyro- monly associated with mineralization. The facies clastic deposit indicating that the eruption style architecture of such exposed plumbing systems of has changed due to changes in the magma rise non-basaltic monogenetic volcanism is the key to rate and the access of external water to the rising understanding the overall magma-release processes magma. These processes can leave a dominant tex- through individual magma-feeding networks that tural feature in the pyroclastic succession that may operate under small supply volume conditions. This give an impression of major changes in the erup- situation is clearly different from those systems that tion; however, these changes were caused only by have a driving mechanism associated with a larger the subtle interaction between the external and inter- volume magma supply, and a broader and more nal controlling parameters of the eruption. interconnected plumbing network that can retain Changes in the magma rise rate, magma volume heat long enough to generate heat to drive a geother- and environmental conditions causes changes in mal mineralization system. eruption style, leading to cyclical activity patterns. Such trends have recently been documented in a number of volcanic fields (Martin & Ne´meth Eruption style variation: the ‘competition’ 2005; van Otterloo et al. 2013; Agustin-Flores between the magmatic system and the et al. 2014, 2015). For example, in the Auckland environment Volcanic Field in New Zealand, magma volumes vary by orders of magnitude (0.01–1 km2) and The style of volcanic eruptions in small-volume there are widely variable conditions of water avail- monogenetic volcanic fields is strongly dependent ability, and as a result there is a wide range of erup- on the relative influence of internal magmatic (e.g. tion styles in contrast to volcano fields which occur magmatic volatiles, chemical composition and vis- in relatively dry conditions or where magma vol- cosity) and environmental factors (e.g. the presence umes are larger (Kereszturi et al. 2014). Low of external water, host sediment physical con- magma volumes and the availability of near-surface ditions and fractures) (Ne´meth 2010; Ne´meth & water in the Auckland Volcanic Field have played Kereszturi 2015). Essentially, this can be expressed a major part in determining eruption styles, and as as a ‘competition’ between the magmatic system a consequence about 75% of the volcanic cones and the near-surface environment encountered by were initiated by a significant explosive phreato- the rising magma (Fig. 4). In most cases, the vol- magmatic eruptive phase (Kereszturi et al. 2014). umes of magma batches that feed monogenetic vol- Recent studies imply that the relative influence of canoes are well below 1 km3 (closer to 0.01 km3), the magma system and environmental factors can and the balance between magmatic and environ- be calculated and integrated into a relatively simple mental factors can be very sensitive (Kereszturi numerical model that can be viewed as the eruption et al. 2013, 2014). style formula of this specific field (Kereszturi In a very simplified model, if magmatic et al. 2017); similar expressions can be derived for volumes are larger (i.e. increasing heat and potential other monogenetic magmatic systems. energy ‘stored’ in the rising magma), the system The environmental influence on a monogenetic can overwhelm the external environment to produce volcanic eruption can fundamentally change the a dominantly magmatic eruption, and typically potential volcanic hazard from a relatively moderate Hawaiian–Strombolian eruption styles constructing explosive eruption style that can require a particu- spatter and scoria cones (Kereszturi & Ne´meth lar type of response to a more violent, phreatomag- 2012a; Kereszturi et al. 2014). For smaller magma matic style that requires a quite different response volumes, and potentially lower magmatic flux and (Lorenz 2007; Ne´meth et al. 2012). therefore eruption rates, external environmental fac- The interplay between the internal v. external tors will dominate the course of the volcanic erup- parameters that influence the eruption style of small- tions to produce phreatomagmatic eruption styles volume volcanoes can also vary over longer time and associated pyroclastic deposits (Kereszturi periods. Typical volcanic fields with more than a et al. 2014). The systematic nature of these pro- dozen volcanic edifices commonly formed over cesses is commonly observed in the basal pyro- tens of thousands to millions of years, such as the clastic succession of monogenetic cones (Fig. 5a). Wudalianchi in NE China which has 14 volcanoes In the initial pyroclastic succession of cones that in the past 2.1 myr (Gao et al. 2013). However, Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH there are also volcanic fields that formed over tens of the style of volcanism: however, so far, systematic millions of years but in these there are generally studies have not been performed in this regard. clearly defined periods of eruptive activity: for example, many of the mature volcanic fields in the Arabian Peninsula (Camp & Roobol 1992; Moufti Volcanosedimentary response and et al. 2012) or in Australia (Boyce 2013). preservation potential The consequences of a long lifespan of a monogenetic volcanic field is that the eruption styles Monogenetic volcanic fields are composed of indi- preserved in the geological record can carry impor- vidual small-volume volcanic edifices, each with a tant information on the environmental conditions relatively simple upper conduit–crater–vent sys- that prevailed during the time frame of the field. Cli- tem, that are normally spaced from each other at dis- mate changes can provoke changes in the surface tances longer than their edifice base diameter. The and subsurface hydrogeology of a region, and this small volume of magma involved and the variable is one of the single most important external factors external conditions influence the style of eruption that can influence the eruptions style. For example, and determine the variety of associated eruptive this has been demonstrated in the Bakony–Balaton deposits. Where magma volumes are low and envi- Highland Volcanic Field in Hungary, a basaltic ronmental conditions wet, phreatomagmatic erup- intraplate field that produced at least 35 volcanic tion styles may prevail over the entire duration of edifices over a nearly 6 myr time period between the growth of a single volcano. Such explosive erup- 8 and 2.3 Ma (Wijbrans et al. 2007); volcanoes tions are expected to produce tephra deposits dominated by phreatomagmatism are clearly more extending over several tens of kilometres from abundant at a time when palaeoclimatic data indi- their source. In spite of the low magma volume, cate more humid and wet periods (Kereszturi et al. such volcanoes can produce reasonable-sized volca- 2011). Similar trends have also been suggested noes because of the relatively large volume of coun- from the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Siebe try rock that is ‘recycled’ as non-volcanic pyroclasts 1986) and from the Arabian Peninsula (Moufti (Ne´meth et al. 2012). In such environmentally con- et al. 2015). While these ideas are logical, so far trolled eruptions, the ‘footprint’ of each cone is rel- no systematic studies have been carried out in atively large and tephra deposits relatively extensive other fields with longer time spans. (Ne´meth et al. 2012). While these tephra blankets Similarly several studies have demonstrated a are normally thin and their preservation potential potential link between wet periods characterized by low, the volcanic field will be dominated by large saturated subsurface aquifer conditions and more numbers of depressions (craters) that then can act environmentally dominated eruption styles (Siebe & as small sedimentary basins to ‘harvest’ ash from Salinas 2014; Kshirsagar et al. 2015, 2016). Some other sources (White 1991). Such volcanic fields workers have suggested the influence of large plu- can quickly lose their volcanic appearance due to vial or inland lakes where basaltic magma rise is vegetation cover and extensive erosion of the rela- ongoing over millions of years. Such a situation tively small volcanic edifices. If a volcanic field is has been demonstrated along the western Snake active over a long time and the magma production River, where shallow subaqueous volcanoes formed rate large, the sedimentary contribution to the terres- along the margins of a large inland lake (Godchaux trial record can be significant and may be preserved & Bonnichsen 2002). With a reduction in the over a longer time as part of the continental sedi- surface area of the lake, the younger Surtseyan mentary successions (Manville et al. 2009; Martin- volcanoes tend to be confined more towards the Serrano et al. 2009). present-day axis of the modern western Snake The preservation potential of the volcanic erup- River (Godchaux et al. 1992; Brand & White tive products of phreatomagmatic-dominated volca- 2007). Palaeolake-level changes and their influence nic fields is unknown in the long term. While craters on the eruption styles of rising magma has also be are excellent sites to host tephra records, commonly recorded along Lake Kivu, where the location of the only record of the existence of such volcanic Surtseyan and phreatomagmatic volcanoes seems fields in the geological past is the exposed diatreme to correlate well with the changing location of associated with maar volcanoes. The information the palaeoshoreline of the lake (Capaccioni et al. that can be gained from diatremes is, however, 2003; Ross et al. 2014, 2015). Similar examples restricted to the understanding of the individual vol- have been reported from Anatolia (Keller 1975) cano and cannot be used for correlative purposes to and in several intra-mountain basins in the Basin refine the eruption history of the volcanic field as a and Range region of the western USA (White 1990, whole (White & Ross 2011). In addition, because 1996). It is very likely that the influence of large diatremes are pyroclast-accumulation zones where lacustrine basin evolutions in Central Asia, North individual explosive events excavated and recycled Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula influenced pyroclasts, it is a significant challenge to establish Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

MONOGENETIC VOLCANISM: INTRODUCTION the original eruptive volume of the volcano and, Conclusion hence, establish its fundamentally monogenetic origin (White & Ross 2011). This problem has The concept of monogenetic and polygenetic volca- recently been demonstrated through careful exami- noes is usefully applied to the spectrum of volcanic nation of some kimberlite-bearing diatremes and systems from small to large. Monogenetic volca- other mafic diatremes (Kurszlaukis & Fulop 2013; noes are defined by small magma volumes, short Fulop & Kurszlaukis 2014). In eastern Germany, eruptive periods and dispersed plumbing, although some diatremes recorded eruptive products found the magmatic systems to which they belong may to be millions of years apart, apparently hosted in be long lived. The characteristic expression of the same narrow and well-defined pipe-like fea- monogenetic volcanic systems is as fields of small tures normally interpreted to be the result of a single volcanic cones. monogenetic volcanic eruption under wet – envi- An important feature of basaltic monogenetic ronmentally controlled – conditions (Suhr & Goth volcanic systems is that observed patterns of com- 2009; Buechner et al. 2015). A similar scenario positional variation are commonly linked to differ- has also been recorded in several kimberlite pipes, entiation processes that have occurred at high where clear geochemical, age and textural evidence pressures close to their sources or to differential par- showed that a single pipe can host multiple ‘zones’ tial melting in their mantle sources. This illustrates formed in separate events in a kind of a compound the close link between magma sources and the erup- monogenetic scenario (Kurszlaukis & Barnett tion of magma at the Earth’s surface, which points to 2003; Barnett 2008). It seems that, for some reason, rapid rise rates and little interaction with the rocks these pipes functioned as volcanic conduits for suc- through which the magma rises – an important dis- cessive monogenetic eruptive events separated by tinction from polygenetic systems. long time periods, commonly reaching the range There is a clear separation of monogenetic sys- of the total lifespan of the entire volcanic field tems from the basalt-dominated volcano fields they belong to. which are linked to deep hot mantle sources and It appears that there are a large number of fields where there are significant amounts of phreatomagmatic-dominant monogenetic volcanic evolved compositions that are related to processes fields, especially in coastal areas, large intra- operating at crustal depths. Small-volume volcanoes continental lacustrine basins or just in well-drained with a significant proportion of evolved composi- areas with a good groundwater network. Although tions are related to systems which have a high such conditions favour phreatomagmatism in the magma supply rate where magmas have stalled evolution of the volcanic field, it is rare that there within the crust and fractionation processes have is no variation in the eruption style from volcano led to the evolved compositions. These volcanoes to volcano across the field. If the volcanic field represent a transition towards the complex edifices operates with elevated magma output rates and that characterize polygenetic volcanic systems. potentially higher magma flux rates, most of the vol- An important concept that links the nature of the canoes of the field, even if they have dominantly magmatic system to the environment in which mag- phreatomagmatic early phases, reach purely mag- mas erupt at the Earth’s surface is one of a compe- matic explosive and/or effusive conditions in their tition between the rising magma and the nature of later stages. such as has been demonstrated from the eruptive environment. Where the system domi- the Auckland Volcanic Field in New Zealand (Ker- nates, magmatic eruption styles (Hawaiian, Strom- eszturi et al. 2014). bolian, effusive) create scoria cones and lava flows Volcanic fields where the eruptions are domi- in what can be termed ‘dry’ conditions. In contrast, nated by magmatic (dry) conditions are composed where the environment dominates and the availabil- of numerous scoria and spatter cones, and lava ity of water profoundly influences the behaviour flows and fields. The pyroclast-preservation poten- of erupting magma, eruption styles are dominated tial of such fields can be long in arid conditions; by phreatomagmatism, and the production of tuff however, in humid climates, such cones can vanish cones, tuff rings and maars. over tens of thousands of years. It is inferred that Small-scale magmatic systems, commonly ex- degradation of scoria cones follows a regular pat- pressed at the surface of the Earth, represent the tern: hence, such cones can be used for relative rise of small-volume batches of magma into spa- age dating (Wood 1980; Fornaciai et al. 2012). tially restricted domains. Although individual However, recent studies demonstrated that such magma batches are small, this is the most wide- methods need to be treated carefully as the syn- spread form of volcanism on Earth. The mono- eruptive processes might have a larger impact on genetic volcanoes which are a feature of such the cone architecture and their degradation than it systems provide a unique window into processes is commonly thought (Kereszturi et al. 2012; Ker- in the upper mantle that give rise to magmas. Further eszturi & Ne´meth 2012b). understanding their behaviour underpins hazard Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 28, 2021

I. E. M. SMITH & K. NE´ METH scenarios where human activities impinge on their An important aspect of the study of monogenetic existence. volcanic systems has been the way that an under- standing of their behaviour has been built on detailed studies of systems in widely dispersed A snapshot of current advances in research localities and in a wide variety of geological and on monogenetic volcanism tectonic environments. Much of this volume has been devoted to presenting the current perspective Small-scale volcanic systems expressed at the of volcanism in different parts of the world. Cas Earth’s surface as fields of small volcanoes are et al. (2016) and Murcia et al. (2016) describe the most widespread form of volcanic activity on regional-scale studies of the western Victorian the planet. Because individual volcanoes in these (Australia) province and the northern part of Harrat fields are typically formed during a temporally Rahat in Saudi Arabia. Fulop & Kurszlaukis restricted period of time, the term monogenetic (2016) present the results of a study of a kimberlite has become a useful descriptor for this type of vol- pipe in Ontario, highlighting the complexity of a canism, although it is not one that is universally kimberlite pipe reflecting the potential rejuvena- accepted. Monogenetic volcanism has received a tion of volcanism in the exact same location and lot of attention in recent years, partly because the producing texturally and chemically complex diat- small scale of their associated magmatic systems remes. There follows chapters on several small- enables the preservation of unique petrological fea- scale monogenetic fields in Mexico (Alvarez et al. tures and provides a ‘window’ into the processes 2017a, b; Aranda-Go´mez et al. 2016; Saucedo that produce their magmas, because the details of et al. 2017), Argentina (Ba´ez et al. 2016; Maro & their volcanic processes are readily interpreted and Caffe 2016b) and Colombia (Borrero et al. 2016). also because, despite their small scale, there is a These serve as an illustration of the importance of realization that many communities worldwide are individual studies in different settings from around vulnerable to the effects of future volcanic activity. the world. This Special Publication has arisen from the activities and discussions at workshops and confer- This paper is result of discussions with many colleagues ences during recent years, including the Interna- across the globe. Discussion sessions during the past and tional Maar Conferences, the commemorative recent International Maar conferences were particularly 250 year anniversary on the Jorullo scoria cone stimulating. Many aspects of the researches resulted in eruption, various thematic sessions on monogenetic this review were funded by various agencies such as the volcanism offered in major volcanological con- Massey University Research Funds (2016), and New Zealand National Hazard Platform Project. Reviewers’ gresses such as the International Association of comments by Xavier Bolos and Philip T. Leat were greatly Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior appreciated. Scientific Assembly, the General Assemblies of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, the Geomorphological World Congresses, the References American Geophysical Union meetings, and several regional workshops. This volume is not intended as Aguirre-Diaz, G.J., Jaimes-Viera, M.D.C. & a comprehensive volume on the nature of monoge- Nieto-Obregon, J. 2006. The Valle de Bravo volcanic netic volcanism but, rather, is a snapshot of the cur- field: geology and geomorphometric parameters of rent state of research into this important type of a quaternary monogenetic field at the front of the volcanic activity. The diverse nature of research Mexican volcanic belt. In: Siebe, C., Macias, J.L. & Aguirre-Diaz into monogenetic volcanism during the past decade, , G.J. (eds) Neogene–Quarternary Continental Margin Volcanism: A Perspective from together with the far-reaching outcomes that have Me´xico. Geological Society of America, Special resulted, demonstrates that a unified definition and Papers, 402, 139–154. understanding of the processes that drive monoge- Agustin-Flores, J., Ne´meth, K., Cronin, S.J., Lind- netic volcanism is not yet available. say, J.M., Kereszturi, G., Brand, B.D. & Smith, In this introductory chapter we have reviewed I.E.M. 2014. Phreatomagmatic eruptions through the current state of understanding of the chemistry unconsolidated coastal plain sequences, Maungatake- and volcanology of monogenetic volcanic fields. take, Auckland Volcanic Field (New Zealand). Jour- The following chapters deal mainly with the volca- nal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 276, nological aspects of monogenetic volcanism, the 46–63. Agustin-Flores, J., Ne´meth, K., Cronin, S.J., Lindsay, way that volcanic cones grow through various erup- J.M. & Kereszturi, G. 2015. 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