Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins

Home , Aquitaine Basin, Aulacostephanus, Balatonites, Brown Jurassic, Creniceras, Geology of France

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PREFACE

Concepts of seismic and sequence stratigraphy as outlined in To further stress the importance of well-calibrated chronos- publications since 1977 made a substantial impact on sedimen- tratigraphic frameworks for the stratigraphic positioning of geo- tary geology. The notion that changes in relative sea level shape logic events such as depositional sequence boundaries in a va- sediment in predictable packages across the planet was intui- riety of depositional settings in a large number of basins, the tively attractive to many sedimentologists and stratigraphers. project sponsored a biostratigraphic calibration effort directed The initial stratigraphic record of Mesozoic and Cenozoic dep- at all biostratigraphic disciplines willing to participate. The re- ositional sequences, laid down in response to changes in relative sults of this biostratigraphic calibration effort are summarized sea level, published in Science in 1987 was greeted with great, on eight charts included in this volume. albeit mixed, interest. The concept of sequence stratigraphy re- This volume also addresses the question of cyclicity as a ceived much acclaim whereas the chronostratigraphic record of function of the interaction between tectonics, eustasy, sediment Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequences suffered from a perceived supply and depositional setting. An attempt was made to estab- absence of biostratigraphic and outcrop documentation. The lish a hierarchy of higher order eustatic cycles superimposed Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European on lower-order tectono-eustatic cycles. Crustal events on a Basins project, which began officially with an international plate-tectonic scale are key factors for controlling timing and meeting in Dijon France in 1992, was designed to address the architecture of Major Transgressive-Regressive Cycles which lack of documentation by inviting sedimentologists and stratig- are surprisingly synchronous across European basins. This syn- raphers to collectively build a documented chronostratigraphic chroneity suggests these Major Transgressive-Regressive Cy- and outcrop record of depositional sequences calibrated across cles are caused by tectonic processes that effect the whole of a large number of basins in a geographically restricted area. the European craton and most probably affect the volume of The choice of Europe as a backdrop to this calibration and oceanic basins as well. Transgressive-Regressive Facies Cycles documentation effort is rooted in the philosophy that the cu- are primarily caused by basin forming events and changes in mulative stratigraphic data base for European Basins, which sediment supply. The relative synchroneity of these cycles have been studied for over hundred years and are home to most across Europe, although differences occur in some basins, sug- Mesozoic and Cenozoic stage stratotypes, is uniquely suited for gests that regional tectonic development may have also have a such a calibration project. European basins offer a variety of eustatic component. climatic provinces and their depositional systems range from The composite stratigraphic record of higher order eustatic siliciclastic systems in the northern part of the study area to sequences shows a significant increase in the number of se- carbonate dominated systems in the tethyan area. Sequence in- quences identified in the various European basins. Entries on terpretations for a large number of European basins were pre- the new charts include a composite stratigraphic record of 221 sented at poster sessions in Dijon. Papers in this volume, many sequence boundaries in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic compared of them based on the Dijon posters, form an integral part of the to 119 sequences for the same interval identified by Haq et al. sequence documentation presented here. (1987, 1988). This increase reflects the number of investigators Sequence stratigraphy applies the inherent premise that eus- as well as the number of basins studied, especially in the Tri- tasy represents a global signal among the variables that play a assic and the Jurassic where the number of sequences identified role in shaping depositional sequences. This global signal plays more than doubled. The number of sequences in the Cretaceous an essential role in shaping depositional sequences laid down nearly doubled, even though few studies addressed the lower in response to changes in relative sea level. Because of this Cretaceous interval. Increase in the number of sequences in the global signal, bounding surfaces of depositional sequences (se- Cenozoic was smaller because parts of the Cenozoic were not quence boundaries at their correlative conformity) can be ex- restudied as part of this project. The stratigraphic position of pected to be synchronous between basins. To demonstrate such sequence boundaries is in general greatly improved relative to synchroneity requires a very high stratigraphic resolution and the Haq et al., (1987, 1988) record because of the effort placed a calibration of all stratigraphic disciplines. Therefore it was on biostratigraphic calibration as part of this project. The strati- deemed essential to express the chronostratigraphic record of graphic position of sequences in outcrop sections in the Me- depositional sequences relative to standard, up to date, geo- sozoic can often be determined to a specific ammonite zone. In chronologic scales. The Mesozoic chronostratigraphic frame- subsurface sections stratigraphic positioning of sequence work of Gradstein et al. (1994, 1995) was sponsored by the boundaries is much less constrained because of calibration un- project and for the Cenozoic the recent framework of Berggren certainties between different stratigraphic disciplines. Greatest et al. (1995) was selected for this project. These chronostrati- difficulties in stratigraphic calibration were encountered in the graphic frameworks integrate state of the art data on standard upper Cretaceous Coniacian through lower Maastrichtian inter- stages, magnetostratigraphy and geochronology with high res- val where sequence boundaries from North America are in- olution biostratigraphy and are essential to calibrate the strati- cluded on the Cretaceous chart because these could be cali- graphic position of depositional sequence boundaries in the ba- brated to the North American ammonite zones included by sins studied as part of this project. Gradstein et al. (1994) in their Mesozoic time scale while none

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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of the available stratigraphic disciplines in Europe could be focusing on other geographical regions is undoubtedly required satisfactorily calibrated to that timescale. to further demonstrate the global nature of these depositional Since, no effort was devoted to quantification of falls and sequences. rises in relative sea level, no attempt was made to revise the Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, Paris, France coastal onlap curve and the derived eustatic curves of Haq et Jan Hardenbol, Houston, Texas al. (1987, 1988). Most of the new Mesozoic-Cenozoic strati- Thierry Jacquin, Paris, France graphic record of sequences is placed in the long term eustatic Peter R. Vail, Houston, Texas envelope of Haq et al. (1987, 1988). The middle Eocene to recent sequence record is placed in a short term oxygen isotope record of Abreu et al., (this volume). Below the middle Eocene REFERENCES short term eustasy is not indicated since no new quantitative GRADSTEIN, F. M., AGTERBERG, F. P., OGG, J. G., HARDENBOL, J., VAN VEEN, information is available. Qualitative indications of magnitude P., THIERRY, J., AND HUANG, Z., 1994, A Mesozoic time scale: Journal of (minor, medium and major) of sea level falls and rises are used Geophysical Research, v. 99, p. 24051–24074. instead. For comparison with the long term Mesozoic-Cenozoic GRADSTEIN, F. M., AGTERBERG, F. P., OGG, J. G., HARDENBOL, J., VAN VEEN, P., THIERRY, J., AND HUANG, Z., 1995, A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous eustatic envelope of Haq et al. (1987, 1988) a curve of inun- time scale in Berggren, W. A., Kent, D. V., Aubry, M.-P., and Hardenbol, J., dated continental area (Ronov, 1994) and a long term eustatic eds., Geochronology, Time scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation: curve based on oxygen isotopes for the Albian to recent interval Tulsa, SEPM Special Publication 54, p. 95–126. (Abreu et al., this volume), are included. HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J., AND VAIL, P. R., 1987, Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic: Science, v. 235, p. 1156–1167. We trust this volume will contribute to a further discussion HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J., AND VAIL, P. R., 1988, Mesozoic and Cenozoic of sequence stratigraphy and lead to a better understanding of Chronostratigraphy and Eustatic cycles in Wilgus, C. K., Posamentier, H., this new paradigm. We feel the Sequence Stratigraphy of Eu- Ross, C. K., and Kendall, C. G. St. C., eds., Sea-level Changes: An integrated ropean Basins Project has been successful in its attempt to de- approach: Tulsa, SEPM Special Publication 42, p. 71–108. RONOV, A. B., 1994, Phanerozoic transgressions and regressions on the con- scribe a good portion of the European Mesozoic and Cenozoic tinents: A quantitative approach based on areas flooded by the sea and areas succession in a sequence stratigraphic context and improve the of marine and continental deposition: American Journal of Science, v. 294, stratigraphic record of its bounding surfaces. Additional efforts p. 777–801.

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MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF EUROPEAN BASINS: PREFACE ...... Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, Jan Hardenbol, Thierry Jacquin, and Peter R. Vail iii

I. INTRODUCTION

MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC SEQUENCE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK OF EUROPEAN BASINS ...... Jan Hardenbol, Jacques Thierry, Martin B. Farley, Thierry Jacquin, Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, and Peter R. Vail 3 MAJOR TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE CYCLES:THE STRATIGRAPHIC SIGNATURE OF EUROPEAN BASIN DEVELOPMENT ...... Thierry Jacquin, and Pierre-Charles de Graciansky 15 TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE (SECOND ORDER)FACIES CYCLES:THE EFFECTS OF TECTONO-EUSTASY ...... Thierry Jacquin, and Pierre-Charles de Graciansky 31 STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES AND MAJOR MARINE SOURCE ROCKS ...Bernard C. Duval, Carlos Cramez, and Peter R. Vail 43 CRETACEOUS TO MIOCENE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF THE MAIELLA CARBONATE PLATFORM MARGIN,ITALY ...... Adam Vecsei, Diethard G. K. Sanders, Daniel Bernoulli, Gregor P. Eberli, and Johannes S. Pignatti 53 OXYGEN ISOTOPE SYNTHESIS:ACRETACEOUS ICE-HOUSE?...... Vitor S. Abreu, Jan Hardenbol, Geoffrey A. Haddad, Gerald R. Baum, Andre W. Droxler, and Peter R. Vail 75

II. CENOZOIC ERA

INTRODUCTION TO THE NEOGENE...... Noe¨l Vandenberghe and Jan Hardenbol 83 INTRODUCTION TO THE PALEOGENE...... Jack E. Neal and Jan Hardenbol 87 CENOZOIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE EASTERN NORTH SEA...... Olaf Michelsen, Erik Thomsen, Mette Danielsen, Claus Heilmann-Clausen, Henrik Jordt, and Gitte V. Laursen 91 TERTIARY SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AT THE SOUTHERN BORDER OF THE NORTH SEA BASIN IN BELGIUM...... Noe¨l Vandenberghe, Pieter Laga, Etienne Steurbaut, Jan Hardenbol, and Peter R. Vail 119 SEQUENCES AND SYSTEMS TRACTS CALIBRATED BY HIGH RESOLUTION BIO-CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY:THE CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN PLIO-PLEISTOCENE RECORD ...... Raimondo Catalano, Enrico Di Stefano, Atillio Sulli, Francesco P. Vitale, Salvina Infuso, and Peter R. Vail 155 STACKING PATTERNS AND TECTONICS:FIELD EVIDENCE FROM PLIOCENE GROWTH FOLDS OF SICILY (CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN)...... Francesco P. Vitale 179 PLIO-PLEISTOCENE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND TECTONICS OF THE GIBRALTAR ARC...... Joan F. Flinch and Peter R. Vail 199 OLIGOCENE-MIDDLE MIOCENE DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES OF THE CENTRAL PARATETHYS AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH REGIONAL STAGES ...... Ga´bor Vakarcs, Jan Hardenbol, Vitor S. Abreu, Peter R. Vail, Pe´ter Va´rnai, and Ga´bor Tari 209 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE “LANGHE”OLIGO-MIOCENE SUCCESSION,TERTIARY PIEDMONT BASIN,NORTHERN ITALY ...... Mario Gnaccolini, Romano Gelati, Paolo Falletti, and Donata Catrullo 233 GLACIOEUSTATIC FLUCTUATIONS:THE MECHANISM LINKING STABLE ISOTOPE EVENTS AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY FROM THE EARLY OLIGOCENE TO MIDDLE MIOCENE ...... Vitor S. Abreu and Geoffrey A. Haddad 245 NESTED STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES AND DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE PALEOGENE CENTRAL NORTH SEA ...... Jack E. Neal, Jeff A. Stein and Jim H. Gamber 261 EOCENE TECTONO-SEDIMENTARY PATTERNS IN THE ALICANTE REGION (SOUTHEASTERN SPAIN) ...... Tiny Geel, Thomas B. Roep, Jan E. van Hinte, and Peter R. Vail 289 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND THE LIMITATIONS OF BIOSTRATIGRAPHY IN THE MARINE PALEOGENE STRATA OF THE TREMP BASIN (CENTRAL PART OF THE SOUTHERN PYRENEAN FORELAND BASINS,SPAIN)..... Hanspeter Luterbacher 303 PALEOCENE STRATA OF THE BASQUE COUNTRY,WESTERN PYRENEES,NORTHERN SPAIN:FACIES AND SEQUENCE DEVELOPMENT IN A DEEP-WATER STARVED BASIN ...... Victoriano Pujalte, Juan I. Baceta, Xabier Orue-Etxebarria, and Aitor Payros 311

III. MESOZOIC ERA-CRETACEOUS PERIOD

INTRODUCTION TO THE UPPER CRETACEOUS ...... Jan Hardenbol and Francis Robaszynski 329 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY ON A CARBONATE RAMP:THE LATE CRETACEOUS BASCO-CANTABRIAN BASIN (NORTHERN SPAIN) ...... Kai-Uwe Gra¨fe and Jost Wiedmann 333

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/chapter-pdf/3789969/9781565760936_frontmatter.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 OUTCROP CYCLE STRATIGRAPHY OF SHALLOW RAMP DEPOSITS:THE LATE CRETACEOUS SERIES ON THE CASTILIAN RAMP (NORTHERN SPAIN) ...... Marc Floquet 343 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE UPPER CRETACEOUS SERIES OF THE ANGLO-PARIS BASIN:EXEMPLIFIED BY THE CENOMANIAN STAGE...... Francis Robaszynski, Andy Gale, Pierre Juignet, Francis Ame´dro, and Jan Hardenbol 363 SEQUENCES AND SYSTEMS TRACTS OF MIXED CARBONATE-SILICICLASTIC PLATFORM-BASIN SETTING:THE CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN STAGES OF PROVINCE (SOUTHEASTERN FRANCE)...... Jean Philip 387 THE NORTH ATLANTIC CYCLE:AN OVERVIEW OF 2nd ORDER TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE FACIES CYCLES IN THE LOWER CRETACEOUS OF WESTERN EUROPE ...... Thierry Jacquin, Giovanni Rusciadelli, Francis Ame´dro, Pierre-Charles de Graciansky and Franc¸oise Magniez-Jannin 397 ESTUARINE/OFFSHORE DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES OF THE CRETACEOUS APTIAN-ALBIAN BOUNDARY, ENGLAND ...... Alastair Ruffell and Grant Wach 411 BERRIASIAN-BARREMIAN SEQUENCES IN THE RIO ARGOS SUCCESSION NEAR CARAVACA (SOUTHEAST SPAIN) AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH SOME SECTIONS IN SOUTHEAST FRANCE ...... Philip J. Hoedemaeker 423

IV. MESOZOIC ERA-JURASSIC PERIOD

THE NORTH SEA CYCLE:AN OVERVIEW OF 2nd ORDER TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE FACIES CYCLES IN WESTERN EUROPE ...... Thierry Jacquin, Ge´rard Dardeau, Christophe Durlet, Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, and Pierre Hantzpergue 445 THE LIGURIAN CYCLE:AN OVERVIEW OF LOWER JURASSIC 2nd ORDER TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE FACIES CYCLES IN WESTERN EUROPE...... Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, Thierry Jacquin, and Stephen P. Hesselbo 467 DOCUMENTATION OF JURASSIC SEDIMENTARY CYCLES FROM THE MORAY FIRTH BASIN,UNITED KINGDOM NORTH SEA ...... Kevin J. Stephen and Richard J. Davies 481 THIRD-ORDER SEQUENCES IN AN UPPER JURASSIC RIFT-RELATED SECOND ORDER SEQUENCE,CENTRAL LUSITANIAN BASIN,PORTUGAL...... Reinhold R. Leinfelder and R. Chris L. Wilson 507 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE OXFORDIAN AND KIMMERIDGIAN STAGES (LATE JURASSIC) IN NORTHERN SWITZERLAND ...... Reinhart A. Gygi, Angela L. Coe, and Peter R. Vail 527 LOWER AND MIDDLE LIASSIC DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES OF YORKSHIRE (UK) ...... Frans S. P. van Buchem and Robert W. O’B. Knox 545 BRITISH LOWER JURASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY...... Stephen P. Hesselbo and Hugh C. Jenkyns 561 AMMONITE BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION AND EARLY JURASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN FRANCE: COMPARISONS WITH SOME U.K. SECTIONS ... Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, Ge´rard Dardeau, Jean L. Dommergues, Christophe Durlet, Didier Marchand, Thierry Dumont, Stephen P. Hesselbo, Thierry Jacquin, Valerie Goggin, Christian Meister, Rene´Mouterde, Jacques Rey, and Peter R. Vail 583 SEA-LEVEL CHANGES AND EARLY RIFTING OF A EUROPEAN TETHYAN MARGIN IN THE WESTERN ALPS AND SOUTHEASTERN FRANCE ...... Thierry Dumont 623

V. MESOZOIC ERA-TRIASSIC PERIOD

TRIASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK OF WESTERN EUROPEAN BASINS...... Piero Gianolla and Thierry Jacquin 643 TRIASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE SOUTHWESTERN BARENTS SEA...... Lars J. Skjold, Paul van Veen, Stein-Erik Kristensen, and Arne R. Rasmussen 651 ASEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK OF THE MARINE AND CONTINENTAL TRIASSIC SERIES IN THE PARIS BASIN,FRANCE ...... Valerie Goggin and Thierry Jacquin 667 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY ALONG A TRIASSIC TRANSECT ON THE WESTERN PERITETHYAN MARGIN IN ARDECHE (SE FRANCE BASIN): CORRELATIONS WITH SUBALPINE AND GERMANIC REALMS ...... Louis Courel, Emmanuelle Poli, Franc¸oise Vannier, Paul Le Strat, Aymon Baud, and Thierry Jacquin 691 MULTIORDER SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE TRIASSIC SYSTEM OF THE WESTERN SOUTHERN ALPS ...... Maurizio Gaetani, Mario Gnaccolini, Flavio Jadoul and Eduardo Garzanti 701 TRIASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE SOUTHERN ALPS (NORTHERN ITALY): DEFINITION OF SEQUENCES AND BASIN EVOLUTION ...... Piero Gianolla, Vittorio de Zanche, and Paolo Mietto 719 TRIASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE INTRA-CRATONIC GERMAN BASIN (SUMMARY OF PUBLISHED PAPER)...... Thomas Aigner and Gerhard H. Bachman 749 TRIASSIC SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE WESTERN PART OF THE NORTHERN CALCAREOUS ALPS (AUSTRIA) ...... Thomas Ru¨ffer and Thilo Bechsta¨dt 752 APPENDIX TO:MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC SEQUENCE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK OF EUROPEAN BASINS ...... Jan Hardenbol, Jacques Thierry, Martin B. Farley, Thierry Jacquin, Pierre-Charles de Graciansky, and Peter R. Vail 763 INDEX ...... 783

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JAN HARDENBOL Exxon Production Research, Houston, Texas, USA. Currently: GSC, Inc., 826 Plainwood Drive, Houston, Texas 77079, USA. JACQUES THIERRY Centre des Sciences de la Terre, UMR CNRS 5561, Universite´de Bourgogne, 6 Boulevard Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France. MARTIN B. FARLEY Exxon Exploration Company, P.O. Box 4778, Houston, Texas 77210, USA. THIERRY JACQUIN URA CNRS 723, Universite´Paris-Sud, Laboratoire de Ge´ochimie Se´dimentaire, Baˆtiment 504, 91405-Orsay Cedex, France. PIERRE-CHARLES DE GRACIANSKY E´ cole Nationale Supe´rieure des Mines de Paris, 60 Boulevard Saint Michel, 75272-Paris Cedex 06, France. AND PETER R. VAIL Department of Geology and Geophysics, Rice University, P.O. Box 1892, Houston, Texas 77251, USA.

ABSTRACT: Under the auspices of the “Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins” project (MCSSEB) an attempt was made to construct a state-of-the-art biochronostratigraphic record of depositional sequences in European basins for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. A well- calibrated regional biochronostratigraphic framework is seen as an essential step towards an eventual demonstration of synchroneity of sequences in basins with different tectonic histories. The Mesozoic sequence stratigraphic and biostratigraphic records for the project (MCSSEB) are calibrated to the Gradstein et al. (1994) temporal scale. The Cenozoic record is calibrated to the Berggren et al. (1995) scale. The primary calibration in the Mesozoic between temporal and standard stratigraphy is based on ammonite biostratigraphy. This calibration was facilitated by the integration of the composite ammonite zonation of the “Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins” project with the standard stratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and radiometric data for the Triassic through lower Cretaceous intervals in the Gradstein et al. (1994) time scales. The Triassic through lower Cretaceous composite ammonite zonation in Gradstein et al. (1994) includes the highest resolution, zonal or subzonal, ammonite subdivisions available from tethyan as well as boreal areas in Europe. For the upper Cretaceous, Gradstein et al. (1994) calibrated their temporal scale with the Cobban et al. (1994) ammonite record from the Western Interior Basin in the United States, which is well correlated with 40Ar/39Ar dates from bentonites incorporated in the Obradovich (1993) and Gradstein et al. (1994) time scales. Calibration of the upper Cretaceous Western Interior Basin ammonite record with the European succession is relatively well understood for the Cenomanian through Santonian Stages but largely unresolved for the Campanian and Maastrichtian Stages. An incomplete ammonite record in the type areas in Europe and the lack of calibration between zonations of “cosmopolitan” fossil groups such as planktonic foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils and endemic ammonites in North America as well as Europe prevent adequate correlation. Calibration in the Cenozoic between temporal and standard stratigraphy is based on an integrated framework of magnetostratigraphy, planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils and selected radiometric ages. Subsequent calibration of sequences, strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr), oxygen isotope events, and additional fossil groups from oceanic, near shore and non-marine environments, was carried out by a large number of coordinators and contributors.

INTRODUCTION was reviewed at workshops in Paris in May and December 1991 The chronostratigraphic charts presented in this paper are the and a preliminary biochronostratigraphic framework calibrated result of an initiative by Peter Vail and Thierry Jacquin in 1990 to the Haq et al. (1987) time scale was presented at the Dijon to analyze and document depositional sequences in European Conference in 1992. After completion of the Gradstein et al. basins and to record their stratigraphic position relative to a (1994) Mesozoic time scale and the Berggren et al. (1995) Ce- state-of-the-art temporal framework accurately calibrated to a nozoic time scale, all biostratigraphic, isotope stratigraphic and biostratigraphic framework. The “Mesozoic-Cenozoic Se- sequence stratigraphic entries were recalibrated to the new time quence Stratigraphy of European Basins” project started offi- scales. cially with a meeting in Dijon France organized by Jacquin, de Graciansky, and Vail, in May 1992. Sequence interpretations SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY/SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY for a large number of European basins were presented at poster Mitchum et al. (1977) described the depositional sequence sessions in Dijon. Papers in this volume, many of them based as a basic unit for stratigraphic analysis with chronostrati- on the Dijon posters, form an integral part of the sequence docu- graphic significance. They defined the depositional sequence as mentation for the chronostratigraphic charts. follows: “A depositional sequence is a stratigraphic unit com- Work on the detailed chronostratigraphic charts for the Me- posed of a relatively conformable succession of genetically re- sozoic and Cenozoic began eighteen months before the Dijon lated strata and bounded at its top and base by unconformities Meeting, in December 1990 in Paris with a planning meeting or their correlative conformities.” This definition adds the con- attended by a large number of specialists in a wide range of cept of the “correlative conformity” to the unconformity- biostratigraphic disciplines from several European countries. At bounded sequence in the sense of Sloss (1963). Adding the the Paris meeting, all specialists present were invited to par- “correlative conformity” to the sequence definition is essential ticipate in the calibration of fossil groups representing non-ma- to allow application of sequence stratigraphy in areas of con- rine, shallow- and deep-water depositional environments to a tinuous deposition. Even though Mitchum et al. (1977) dis- revised temporal framework. Invitations were extended to spe- cussed the chronostratigraphic significance of their sequence, cialists not present at the Paris meeting to complement the ex- they defined the sequence as a lithologic unit (“A depositional pertise in fossil groups essential to the construction of a strati- sequence is determined by a single objective criterion, the graphic framework and to the calibration of sequences. Progress physical relations of the strata themselves).” They stopped,

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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however, short of defining a sequence chronostratigraphic unit sequences identified on seismic sections and dated with avail- even though they defined a geochronologic unit sechron as: “the able well control. maximum interval of geologic time occupied by a given depo- Sedimentologists focussed on modelling sediment response sitional sequence, defined at the points where the boundaries to changes in relative sea level (Jervey, 1988; Posamentier et of the sequence change laterally from unconformities to con- al., 1988, Posamentier and Vail, 1988). Sarg (1988) and Van formities along which there is no significant hiatus.” Wagoner et al. (1990) describe facies evolution in a sequence Here we simplify the lithologic definition of the sequence by stratigraphic context for carbonate and siliciclastic depositional Mitchum et al. (1977) as follows: A depositional sequence is a environments respectively. Mitchum (1977) and Van Wagoner lithologic unit composed of a relatively conformable succession et al. (1988) summarized definitions and terminology related to of genetically related strata and bounded at its top and base by sequence stratigraphy. unconformities and their correlative conformities. The principal focus of this paper is to revisit the stratigraphic We also define the chronostratigraphic unit or sequence aspects of sequence stratigraphy and provide a chronostrati- chronozone as follows: A sequence chronozone comprises all graphic record of sequence boundaries to complement the Haq strata deposited globally during the timespan of a sequence et al. (1987) sequence record with new data provided by the measured at the correlative conformity where the bounding un- contributors to the “Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy conformities become conformable. A sequence chronozone can of European Basins” project. thus be viewed as a chronostratigraphic unit which includes all rocks deposited globally during the elapsed time between suc- Sequence Boundaries and Correlative Conformities cessive falls in relative sea level. The geochronologic unit sechron defined by Mitchum et al. Terrigenous sediments transported offshore accumulate rela- (1977) could be simplified as: A sechron spans the total interval tively close to the basin margin and are shaped in packages of geologic time during which a sequence is deposited. (sequences or systems tracts) bounded by surfaces (sequence Sequences and subsequences of Sloss (1963), equivalent to boundaries) as a response to the principal variables of sediment megasequences and supersequence sets of Haq et al. (1987, supply, subsidence and eustasy. Farther offshore the influence 1988) are major tectono-eustatic units shaped by plate tectonic of terrigenous sedimentation decreases and a more pelagic, but events that affect longer term eustatic sea level. Even superse- not necessarily continuous, sedimentation dominates in which quence boundaries of Haq et al. (1987, 1988), correlate well the sequence and systems tract packages and their bounding with times of major changes in plate spreading rate and direc- surfaces are often not well expressed and sequence boundaries tion (Ross, 1995). Higher frequency (3rd-order) sequences of become correlative conformities. In any given section a se- Mitchum and Vail (1977), Haq et al. (1987, 1988) are shaped quence boundary may be deduced from changes in lithofacies primarily by the interaction of sea-level changes with sediment across physical surfaces (subaerial-erosional truncation sur- supply, against the backdrop of basin subsidence. Subsidence/ faces and flooding or transgressive surfaces of onlap) and from uplift is controlled by complex local and regional tectonic fac- vertical facies relationships (downward shift) Van Wagoner et tors and is expected to differ from place to place; eustasy, how- al. (1990). In basinal settings, where changes in lithofacies are ever, represents a global signal. The higher frequency of a subtle, sequence boundaries or their correlative conformities glacio-eustatic signal holds promise for high-resolution global may be identified from biotic analysis, well logs and/or geo- stratigraphic correlation, provided it’s signal can be reliably de- chemical analyses. In theory, the chronostratigraphic position duced from the sediment record. The likely mechanism behind of a sequence boundary is determined at the point where the these higher frequency sea-level changes is, in the Eocene to bounding unconformity becomes conformable. The chronostra- recent interval, almost certainly glacio-eustasy (Miller et al., tigraphic position can only be determined by comparing its 1987, 1991a), Abreu et al. (this volume), Abreu and Haddad stratigraphic position with other well-calibrated stratigraphic (this volume), Abreu and Anderson (in press). For higher fre- disciplines either biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, che- quency sea level changes prior to the Eocene, Abreu et al. (this mostratography or preferably, a combination of those disci- volume) postulate the possibility of glacial episodes during the plines. In practice, the correlative conformity may not be rec- Aptian and Maastrichtian although the Cretaceous and Paleo- ognizable in outcrop and the stratigraphic position of a cene glacial history remains largely unknown. sequence boundary is determined by choosing a section where Sequence stratigraphy evolved from seismic stratigraphy lowstand deposits are developed, and the sequence boundary is (Vail et al., 1977), when the realization was made that packages identified within a biostratigraphic zone of a fossil group with of sediments observed on reflection seismic data could also be high-stratigraphic resolution. Comparing the stratigraphic po- identified in wells and outcrop sections. Stratigraphers and sed- sition of a sequence boundary in different settings in different imentologists seized on this opportunity that opened new di- basins will eventually reveal the stratigraphic position of the mensions to their respective disciplines. Stratigraphers sensed correlative conformity. the enormous potential of a high frequency eustatic signal for In outcrops along slowly subsiding margins with moderate global stratigraphic correlation and focussed on the chronostra- sedimentation rates, prevalent in many basins of western Eu- tigraphic position of the bounding surfaces. Haq et al. (1987) rope, the most often recognized surface is the combined se- proposed a chronostratigraphic record of Mesozoic and Ceno- quence boundary and subsequent flooding (transgressive) sur- zoic sequences, mostly based on the temporally well-con- face. Most standard stage type sections located in strained classic stage type and reference sections in Europe. passive-margin settings, have a transgressive surface as their This record expanded on the Vail et al. (1977), uppermost Tri- lower boundary. However, the lowstand portion of the sequence assic to Pleistocene, chronostratigraphic record of depositional and unknown portions of the previous highstand and transgres-

sive deposits are missing in that position, but should be present Most sequences in the Mesozoic record of Haq et al. (1987) farther down-dip in the basin. In the North Sea Basin for ex- were calibrated to the temporal scale through first-order cali- ample, transgressive deposits and highstand deposits are found brations to ammonite biostratigraphy. The limited number of along the basin margins and lowstand deposits are concentrated radiometric dates in the Mesozoic, prior to the upper Creta- in the deeper parts of the basin. When ocean drilling established ceous, are often not precisely calibrated to ammonite zones but a composite stratigraphic record for the Cretaceous and Ceno- to sub-stages. To subdivide stages, ammonite zones within a zoic, hiatuses in the onshore standard record were the source stage were allotted equal duration. Few of the other fossil of considerable debate on the placement of stage boundaries. groups on the Mesozoic portion of the Haq et al. (1987) record Currently, the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point represent first-order correlation with ammonite zones. Se- (GSSP) effort by the Commission on Stratigraphy is underway quences in the Cenozoic portion of Haq et al. (1987) were cal- to define stage boundaries in settings where sedimentation is ibrated to the temporal scale through first- and second-order continuous across stage boundaries. calibrations with an integrated framework of planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils. To facilitate the calibration of sequences to the temporal 1987 CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE RECORD framework, Haq et al. (1987) focused on extensively studied and biostratigraphically documented stage type and reference The stratigraphic record of Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposi- sections in Europe. Many type sections are selected in deposits tional sequences, calibrated to a temporal framework presented laid down in shallow-marine environments and facies changes by Haq et al. (1987), is based on the sequence stratigraphic across sequence boundaries are rather well expressed, although premise that deposition is controlled by the principal variables lowstand deposits are often absent. of subsidence/uplift of the basin floor, sediment supply and eustasy (Hardenbol et al., 1981; Jervey, 1988). Subsidence/uplift, MESOZOIC-CENOZOIC CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC CHARTS controlled by tectonics on a plate tectonic to basinal scale, and Temporal Framework sediment supply, controlled by tectonics and climate, is ex- Developments in geochronology since the publication of the pected to differ between basins or even parts of the same basin. Haq et al. (1987) Mesozoic-Cenozoic time scale, such as new Eustasy, on the other hand, whether caused by volume changes 40Ar/39Ar dates for the upper Cretaceous of the North American of oceanic basins or by sequestering of water in the form of Western Interior Seaway (Obradovich 1993) and the selection continental ice and in inland seas and lakes, is controlled by and dating of a boundary stratotype (GSSP) for the Eocene- tectonics and climate as well, but its effects are global. This Oligocene boundary, rendered all published time scales out of global effect, recognizable in the rock record, represents a syn- date, at least to some extent. For the Cenozoic, a new integrated chronous stratigraphic signal. Haq et al. (1987) presented a time scale (Berggren et al., 1995) was made available for the stratigraphic record of hundred nineteen Mesozoic and Ceno- calibration of the Cenozoic bio- and sequencechronostrati- zoic sequences and their relative onlap calibrated to a temporal graphic record. In order to incorporate new 40Ar/39Ar dates (Ob- scale which expanded on the Vail et al. (1977), uppermost Tri- radovich 1993) for the upper Cretaceous and integrate new assic to Pleistocene, chronostratigraphic record of depositional magnetostratigraphic and bio-stratigraphic calibrations, a sepa- sequences. Haq et al. (1987) identified considerable more se- rate time scale effort was initiated which resulted in an im- quences in outcrop than were identified by Vail et al. (1977) proved Mesozoic time scale (Gradstein et al., 1994). from seismic records. Sequence resolution is a function of local Cenozoic Time Scale sedimentation rates but is often lower on seismic records than The Cenozoic time scale (Berggren et al., 1995) integrates in outcrop sections deposited at similar rates. In general, se- an extensive DSDP/ODP record on magnetostratigraphy, plank- quence resolution increases in the direction of depocenters. Es- tonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy tablishing the temporal position of sequence boundaries iden- and standard stratigraphy with selected radiometric dates to pro- tified from seismic records requires well control in sediments duce a well-calibrated temporal framework (see appendix). Se- conducive to reliable chronostratigraphic analysis. quences are positioned relative to the Berggren et al. (1995) Haq et al. (1987) placed shifts in coastal onlap and changes temporal framework primarily with calcareous nannofossils and in sea level in three categories of relative magnitude: major, planktonic foraminifera (Chart 2). The calibration of fossil medium and minor (determined from seismic and outcrop re- groups to this integrated framework (Chart 3) is not docu- cords). Short-term sea-level changes derived from relative on- mented in this volume and is the responsibility of the coordi- lap and magnitude were expressed within an envelope of long- nator(s) for that particular fossil group. Manuscripts with bio- term sea-level change. The long-term sea-level envelope was stratigraphic documentation submitted by coordinators are or then calibrated to its highest position of about 260 m in the will be published in the Bulletin de la Socie´te´Geólogique de early Turonian (Kominz, 1984; Pitman, 1978) and modern sea France: Larger Foraminifera (Cahuzac and Poignant, 1997; level at 60 m (which assumes no icecaps). In addition, se- Serra-Kiel et al., 1988 in press). Brief summaries submitted by quences were tentatively ordered in a hierarchical system of 1st- several coordinators are, because of space constraints, included order megasequences nearly identical to the sequences pro- in an appendix. posed for the North American craton by Sloss (1963, 1988), Mesozoic Time Scale and 2nd-order supersequences which are subsequences of Sloss The Mesozoic time scale (Gradstein et al., 1994) integrates (1963, 1988). Second-order supersequences sets and 3rd-order standard stratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and ammonite bio- sequences do not have Sloss (1963, 1988) equivalents. Se- stratigraphy with high-temperature radiometric dates to produce quences with lowstand submarine fans were indicated as type an updated temporal framework (see appendix). The composite 1 and all others as type 2 sequences. ammonite zonation of Gradstein et al. (1994) is, except for the

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upper Cretaceous, based on highest resolution zonal or subzonal reflect the response of the western portion of the Eurasian plate subdivisions from tethyan and boreal areas provided by coor- to major plate tectonic phases in the opening of the Atlantic dinators for ammonite biostratigraphy of the Sequence Stratig- Ocean (Ziegler, 1990). These major tectonic phases affect the raphy of European Basins Project. For the upper Cretaceous, volume of ocean basins and hence global sea level and thus Gradstein et al. (1994) used the high-resolution ammonite zo- produce synchronous tectono-eustatic MTR cycles which are nation of the Western Interior Seaway Basins in North America essentially identical for tethyan and boreal basins. Differences (Cobban et al., 1994; Obradovich, 1993) because the 40Ar/39Ar in sediment supply or correlation problems between tethyan and radiometric dates of Obradovich (1993) were directly calibrated boreal ammonite zonations could explain the offset of the start to the North American ammonite record. Calibration of the of the regressive phase, as is the case in the middle Triassic, North American ammonite record to the standard stages and the lower and upper Jurassic. European ammonite record remains tentative. Sequences are Jacquin and de Graciansky (this volume) also introduce the calibrated to the Gradstein et al. (1994) temporal framework concept of “Transgressive-Regressive Facies Cycles” (TRF cy- primarily with ammonites (Charts 4, 6, 8). cles), which describe sediment response to basin forming events Calibration of fossil groups, provided by coordinators, to the resulting from regional and more local tectonic activity. The temporal framework of Gradstein et al. (1994) is not docu- resulting tectono-eustatic effects are still producing a number mented in this paper. The provided information is plotted on of synchronous TRF cycles across Europe, but exceptions (Charts 5, 7, 8). Some coordinators submitted manuscripts with caused by local tectonics are rather ubiquitous as suggested by biostratigraphic documentation; these will be, or are already the numerous differences between boreal and tethyan basins on published in the Bulletin de la Socie´te´Geólogique de France: the sequence chronostratigraphic charts. Gianolla and Jacquin Jurassic calcareous nannofossils (De Kaenel et al., 1996), Cre- (this volume) describe the evolution of the principal TRF cycles taceous benthic foraminifera (Magniez-Jannin, 1995), Jurassic (1 to 4) in Triassic basins from the Alps to the Barentz Sea. dinoflagellates (Riding and Ioannides, 1996), Mesozoic-Ceno- Jurassic TRF cycles (4 to 6) are documented by de Graciansky zoic charophytes (Riveline et al., 1996), Cretaceous planktonic et al. a, b (this volume), TRF cycles (7 to 10) by Jacquin et al. foraminifera (Robaszynski and Caron, 1995) and Triassic am- (this volume). Lower Cretaceous TRF cycles (11 to 15) are monoids (Mietto and Manfrin, 1995). Jurassic Brachiopods (Al- summarized from European basins by Jacquin et al. (this vol- meras et al., 1994) appeared in Geobios. Cariou and Hantz- ume). Triassic (Chart 8), Jurassic (Chart 6) and Cretaceous pergue (1997) coordinated an effort of the “Groupe Français ´ (Chart 4) sequence chronostratigraphic charts carry the Major d’Etude du Jurassique” to improve stratigraphic calibration of Transgressive-Regressive Cycles proposed by Jacquin and de many of the same fossil groups addressed in this study. Sum- Graciansky (this volume) although their numbering system is maries submitted by several coordinators are included in an not used on the charts. Their Transgressive-Regressive Facies appendix. Cycles are included on the Triassic, Jurassic and lower Creta- ceous charts as well. TRF cycles in the Cenomanian, Turonian Sequence Record and Maastrichtian are based on outcrop records in northwestern The primary objective of this volume is to provide a state- Europe and the tethyan area, whereas Coniacian through Cam- of-the-art stratigraphic record of sequences identified as part of panian TRF cycles are based on the Gulf Coast outcrop record the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Ba- (modified from Young, 1986). TRF cycles on the Cenozoic se- sins project. Independent records of sequences in tethyan and quence chronostratigraphic chart are based on outcrop records boreal basins calibrated to their respective ammonite zonations of stage type areas in Europe. are summarized on the Mesozoic sequence chronostratigraphic As in Haq et al. (1987), sequences and subsequent flooding charts from the base of the Triassic through the Turonian events are placed in three categories of relative magnitude: ma- (Charts 4, 6, 8). Even though a comparable number of se- jor, medium and minor. No attempt was made to organize sequences were identified in the tethyan and boreal basins, syn- quences in a hierarchy of different orders of cyclicity even chroneity can only be demonstrated with the help of indepen- though some of the authors in this volume mentioned a hier- dent stratigraphic tools. In the Jurassic, ammonite records archy in their individual papers. A better understanding of the between boreal and tethyan basins considered for this project underlying mechanism and an independent measure of magni- are much better calibrated than in the Triassic or lower Creta- tudes are required before any hierarchical classification is jus- ceous. As a result, sequence records for boreal basins resemble tified. No distinction is made between Type 1 and Type 2 se- those for tethyan basins closely in most of the Jurassic but the quences, because local subsidence cannot be easily agreement is not as close in the Triassic. The lower Cretaceous distinguished from the eustatic signal. Submarine fans are iden- interval shows major gaps in the sequence record because fewer tified for essentially all sequences in the Paleocene and lower papers were submitted while the calibration between boreal and Eocene of the central North Sea Basin (Neal et al., this volume). tethyan ammonite zonations is much more tentative. Since no effort was devoted to quantification of falls and rises Jacquin and de Graciansky (this volume) identify four “Ma- in relative sea level, no attempt was made to revise the coastal jor Transgressive-Regressive Cycles” (MTR cycles) in the Me- onlap curve and the derived eustatic curves of Haq et al. (1987, sozoic e.g., Eastern Tethys Cycle (Triassic), Ligurian and North 1988). The new Mesozoic-Cenozoic stratigraphic record (ex- Sea Cycles (Jurassic) and North Atlantic/Biscay Cycle (Creta- cept middle Eocene to recent) of sequences (Chart 1) is placed ceous). Boundaries between MTR cycles do not coincide with in the long term eustatic envelope of Haq et al. (1987). The system or series boundaries. In the Cenozoic, two additional middle Eocene to recent sequence record is placed in a short unnamed MTR cycles are identified but not named. MTR cycles term oxygen isotope record of Abreu et al. (this volume). Below

the middle Eocene short term eustasy is not indicated since no in their definition. Therefore, sequence boundaries on the Me- new quantitative information is available. Qualitative indica- sozoic charts are calibrated to ammonite zones or subzones and tions of magnitude (minor, medium and major) of sea level falls can be calibrated from basin to basin as long as the same am- and rises are used instead. For comparison with the long term monites are present. Unfortunately, ammonite assemblages dif- Mesozoic-Cenozoic eustatic envelope of Haq et al. (1987) a fer from basin to basin as a function of the biogeographic prov- curve of inundated continental area (Ronov 1994) is shown on inces in which the basins are located. Calibration of ammonite Chart 1. In addition, a long term eustatic curve based on oxygen zonations for different biogeographic provinces is a cooperative isotopes for the Albian to recent interval (Abreu et al. this vol- process and is still in progress. To preserve apparent differences ume), is added in Chart 1. in stratigraphic position of sequence boundaries between boreal The sequence stratigraphic entries on the new charts include and tethyan basins, all sequence boundaries, from the base of a composite stratigraphic record of 221 sequence boundaries in the Triassic to the top of the Turonian, are calibrated separately the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Haq et al. (1987) listed 119 se- to ammonite records for boreal and tethyan provinces. In inter- quences for the same interval. The increase in the number of vals with good agreement in ammonite calibration between bo- sequences reflects the increase in the number of investigators real and tethyan provinces (Sinemurian through middle Oxfor- as well as the number of basins studied, especially in the Tri- dian and Cenomanian through Turonian), sequence boundaries assic and the Jurassic where the number of sequences identified agree better than in intervals where differences in ammonite more than doubled. The number of sequences in the Cretaceous calibration are more pronounced (Triassic, upper Oxfordian nearly doubled, even though few studies addressed the lower through Tithonian and much of the Cretaceous). Other factors Cretaceous interval. In the upper Cretaceous (Coniacian affecting agreement in sequence calibration are geographic dis- through Campanian) sequence boundaries identified in boreal tance between basins, the number of available studies (lower and tethyan basins could not be calibrated reliably to the tem- Cretaceous), the way ammonite zones are defined, hiatuses in poral framework. Instead, for the Coniacian through lower shallow-water sections and the decision whether an ammonite Maastrichtian interval, a record of sequence boundaries from appearance or disappearance is biozonal or chronozonal. North America is included on the chart which could be cali- Synchroneity of sequence boundaries can only be demon- brated to the North American ammonite zones included by strated in the presence of high-resolution stratigraphic methods. Gradstein et al. (1994) in their Mesozoic time scale. Sequences In field observations, sequence boundaries can be positioned of Haq et al. (1987) in the Coniacian through lower Maastrich- either within or at the boundary between ammonite zones. tian interval were also based on the North American record and Those positioned at zonal boundaries are especially subject to were tentatively calibrated to the standard stages. The increase further scrutiny of the completeness of the stratigraphic record in the number of sequences in the Cenozoic was smaller be- at that location. Cenomanian sequence boundary Ce3 appears cause parts of the Cenozoic were not re-studied as part of this to fall between the Mantelliceras dixoni and Acanthoceras rho- project, and the Cenozoic was already studied in more detail tomagense ammonite zones on the platform in the type area of by Haq et al. (1987). For comparison, sequences of Haq et al. the Cenomanian in France. The sequence boundary coincides, (1987) are included on the charts calibrated to the new chron- however, with the transgressive surface, and the lowstand de- ostratigraphic record. posits are not present on the platform. In basins where a low- Individual sequence boundaries are identified on the new stand is developed the sequence boundary occurs in the upper- charts by the first two to four letters of the name of the stage most dixoni ammonite zone in the boreal realm (Robaszynski in which the sequence boundary is identified and numbered et al., this volume). However, in a tethyan realm (Robaszynski from old to young. For example, Ce1 represents the first se- et al., 1993), the genus Mantelliceras persists to the sequence quence boundary in the lower Cenomanian and is situated boundary but the first representatives of the genus Acanthoceras within the mantelli ammonite zone. The next sequence bound- appear later in the lowstand deposits. The interval without Man- ary is Ce2 in the uppermost dixoni ammonite zone. The Cen- telliceras nor Acanthoceras was placed in a new Cunnington- omanian deposits below Ce1 are in sequence Al11 which has iceras inerme zone and sequence boundary Ce3 was placed at its lower bounding sequence boundary in the uppermost dispar the base of that zone. The evolutionary appearance of the plank- ammonite zone in the Albian. If additional sequence boundaries tonic foraminifer Rotalipora reicheli just below or just above were to be identified later between sequence boundaries Ce1 the Ce3 sequence boundary and its disappearance close to the and Ce2 those could be identified as Ce1.1, Ce1.2, an additional subsequent maximum flooding surface in sections in Tunisia, sequence boundary below Ce1 could be identified as Ce0, etc. northwestern and southeastern France provides additional biostratigraphic evidence that sequence boundaries in this example Calibration of Sequence Boundaries, Bio-zonations and are synchronous. Isotope Data Calibration of the upper Cretaceous sequence boundaries identified in European basins to the temporal framework and to Calibration of sequence boundaries to a temporal framework the North American ammonite record is relatively well under- requires a stratigraphic discipline with a high resolution. Am- stood for the Cenomanian and Turonian Stages but proved to monite biostratigraphy represents the best calibrated, highest be a challenge for the Coniacian through lower Maastrichtian resolution stratigraphic discipline in the Mesozoic interval of interval. Western Interior seaway ammonite assemblages are the European basins studied. Ammonites are ubiquitous in the mostly endemic and have very few counterparts among the Eu- sedimentary record of many European basins and are exten- ropean upper Cretaceous ammonites. The incomplete ammonite sively studied. Ammonite subdivisions are also well calibrated record in the type areas and the lack of calibration between the to the standard stages because they were traditionally included North American ammonite record and “cosmopolitan” fossil

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groups such as planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nanno- Mead and Hodell (1995) and Farrell et al. (1995). These data fossils, precludes the calibration of sequence boundaries iden- are derived from ODP sites and the original calibration to cal- tified in European basins in the Coniacian through Campanian careous nannofossil biostratigraphy, oxygen isotope stratigra- interval. A record of North American sequence boundaries phy or magnetostratigraphy was recalibrated to the temporal identified in the Gulf Coast area and calibrated to Western In- framework on the Cenozoic Sequence Chronostratigraphic terior seaway ammonite zones is included instead. chart (Chart 2) as appropriate. Stratigraphic calibration of sequence boundaries in the Ce- Strontium ratios on all three charts are adjusted to a single nozoic presents a very different challenge. Planktonic forami- standard where NIST-987 is 0.710250. nifera and calcareous nannofossils are the fossil groups best The Cenozoic Sequence Chronostratigraphic chart (Chart 2), suited for long-distance calibration. Both groups prefer low lat- includes a composite smoothed oxygen isotope curve for the itude and relatively deep water paleoenvironmental settings. entire Cenozoic compiled from Abreu and Haddad (this vol- Many of the basins studied for the MCSSEB project represent ume) and Abreu and Anderson (in press). The composite rather shallow, middle latitude basins (North Sea Basin, Pan- smoothed isotope curves of Abreu and Haddad (this volume) nonian Basin) in which the record of planktonic foraminifera and Abreu and Anderson (in press), simulate a sea-level curve and calcareous nannofossils is incomplete. Tethyan basins such from the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary to the recent. as the Piedmont Basin in northern Italy and the western Pyre- The Cretaceous Sequence Chronostratigraphic chart (Chart neen and Tremp basins in northern Spain provided a more com- 4) includes a smoothed (7 points least square method) isotope plete record. record based on bulk rock samples from Cenomanian through lower Campanian outcrops in England (English Chalk) and It- Oxygen and Strontium Isotopes aly (Gubbio) (Jenkins et al., 1994) and an upper Campanian to Maastrichtian record from central Tunisia (Abreu et al., this Chemostratigraphy is evolving rapidly into an independent volume). The Cretaceous chart also includes an Aptian through discipline in stratigraphy. Strontium isotope data from pub- Maastrichtian isotope record of deep water benthic foraminifera lished sources are included on the Cenozoic, Cretaceous and compiled from published data (Abreu et al., this volume). Jurassic Sequence Chronostratigraphic charts (Charts 2, 4, 6) Composite oxygen isotope curves from the Aptian to the to provide an additional discipline for stratigraphic calibration. present (Abreu et al., this volume) show the lightest values in Oxygen isotope data are included on the Cenozoic and Creta- the lowermost Turonian and a gradual change towards the ceous charts (Abreu et al., this volume) and represent an ad- heavier values of the Quaternary. The long-term trend in the ditional approach to determine the stratigraphic position and upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic oxygen isotope record towards magnitude of sea-level changes, especially if the case can be more positive values is explained by progressive cooling and made that the observed fluctuations in the Paleogene and Cre- glaciation at the poles (Savin et al., 1975). Rather than a con- taceous isotope records reflect changes in ice volume (Abreu et tinuous process, the long-term cooling seems to be made up of al., this volume). several shorter-term steps in the isotope values that can be re- Strontium isotope values calibrated to other chronostrati- lated to changes, either in ice volume or in bottom water tem- graphic records are available from the literature for the Jurassic peratures (Abreu et al., this volume; Abreu and Anderson in through Cenozoic interval. Unfortunately, there are too few press). The long-term evolution in the oxygen isotope values stratigraphically well-constrained strontium isotope data for the mimics the change in long term sea level proposed by Haq et Triassic to justify including them on the Triassic chart (Chart al. (1987). Higher frequency shifts in the oxygen isotope record 8). Strontium isotope ratios on the Jurassic chart (Chart 6) are are proposed as proxy indicators for glaciation and sea-level derived from Jones et al. (1994a, b). These data are precisely fluctuations. Abreu and Haddad (this volume) demonstrate a located in standard ammonite zones in measured sections in strong stratigraphic relationship between higher frequency Great Britain, so that they could be readily calibrated to the shifts in the oxygen isotope record and sequences proposed chronostratigraphic framework on the chart. Data for the lower from the rock record. Oxygen isotope curves may well provide Cretaceous interval, derived from Jones et al. (1994b) and cal- an independent method for stratigraphic calibration of major ibrated to boreal ammonite zones in Great Britain, cannot be eustatic changes (Miller et al., 1987) and demonstrate synchro- calibrated as precisely owing to the tentative nature of the cor- neity of depositional sequences on different continents. relation between boreal ammonite zones and tethyan standard

zones on the chart. Strontium isotope data in the upper Creta- CENOZOIC SEQUENCE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC RECORD ceous are primarily from the work of McArthur et al. (1994) in the Western Interior of North America. These data are cali- The Cenozoic in Europe consists of two “Major Transgres- brated to Western Interior ammonite zones which are included sive-Regressive Cycles” (Chart 2) controlled by steps in the on the chart. Precise positions within zones are not available opening of the Atlantic Ocean (Ziegler, 1990). The opening of and data are averaged by ammonite zone and plotted at the the Atlantic (Reykjanus) and the failed rifting of the North Sea midpoint of the zone. These upper Cretaceous data are supple- resulted in a major transgressive phase in the upper Paleocene mented in the upper Campanian and Maastrichtian with data and lower Eocene. The middle Eocene through lower Oligocene derived from magnetostratigraphically-constrained ODP sites represents an overall regressive phase. A second transgressive from the work of Barrera (1994), Barrera et al. (in press) and episode from the upper Oligocene to the middle Miocene is Sugarman et al. (1995). Cenozoic data for the Paleocene and related to the opening of the North Atlantic. The Neogene from lower Eocene are from Hess et al. (1986). Data for the Lutetian the middle Miocene to the present is mainly regressive. Basin- to the present are from Miller et al. (1988), Oslick et al. (1994), forming events in the Cenozoic of Europe are controlled by

episodes in the opening of the Atlantic Ocean and the resulting information contained in five papers submitted for this part of compression between Europe and Africa. Eight “Transgressive- the volume. The chronostratigraphic record of sequence bound- Regressive Facies Cycles” are identified from outcrop records aries in the upper Cretaceous is well calibrated in the Ceno- of stage type areas in Europe (the regressive early Paleocene is manian and Turonian. Cosmopolitan ammonite assemblages in still part of the late Cretaceous “Major Regressive Cycle” and the Cenomanian and Turonian facilitate calibration between ba- the late Maastrichtian “Regressive Facies Cycle”). sins in different paleogeographic settings. As a result the record Eleven papers on the Cenozoic sequence stratigraphic record of sequence boundaries is better calibrated in the Cenomanian submitted for publication in this volume permit a substantial and Turonian than in any other Cretaceous interval. Cenoman- revision of the Haq et al. (1987) record in the Paleocene through ian and Turonian deposits in western Europe suggest two Trans- lower Eocene, the Oligocene through middle Miocene and the gressive-Regressive Facies Cycles. The first TRF cycle begins Plio-Pleistocene intervals. The middle through upper Eocene at the Albian/Cenomanian boundary and includes the early and the upper Miocene are unchanged from Haq et al. (1987). Cenomanian. The second TRF cycle starts close to the base of The Paleocene to lower Eocene stratigraphic record of se- the middle Cenomanian and includes the remainder of the Cen- quences is as the Haq et al. (1987) record based on the southern omanian and the entire Turonian. Cenomanian and Turonian onshore North Sea Basin sections in southern England and Bel- sequences and TRF cycles on the Cretaceous chart (Chart 4) gium (Neal et al., this volume; Vandenberghe et al., this vol- are based on records for tethyan and boreal areas described in ume) with seismic stratigraphic support from the offshore cen- Robaszynski et al. (this volume), Robaszynski et al., 1990, tral North Sea basin. The Oligocene through lower Miocene 1993. sequence record is now calibrated to the Pannonian and Pied- The chronostratigraphic record of sequence boundaries in the mont Basins (Vakarcs et al., this volume Gnaccolini et al., this Coniacian through Maastrichtian interval of European sections volume) whereas Haq et al. (1987) based their record for this is poorly established. In contrast to the Cenomanian and Tu- interval primarily on the southern North Sea Basin (Belgium) ronian the stratigraphic record of sequence boundaries for the and the Aquitaine Basin (France). The middle Miocene record Coniacian through Maastrichtian interval is the least calibrated is also calibrated to the Piedmont and Pannonian Basins (Vak- of the entire Mesozoic-Cenozoic chronostratigraphic frame- arcs et al., this volume; Gnaccolini et al., this volume) whereas work. Reliable first-order calibration between Campanian and Haq et al. (1987) is primarily based on the Piedmont Basin Maastrichtian standard stages and biostratigraphic zonations, record. The Plio-Pleistocene record is as Haq et al. (1987), cal- based on more cosmopolitan groups such as ammonites, plank- ibrated to the Calabrian and Sicilian deposits in Italy supple- tonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils, are essentially mented with offshore Gulf of Mexico data. Sequences at or near non-existent. Even second- and third-order calibrations are stage boundaries are identified with both stage prefixes to allow scarce. Campanian/Maastrichtian strata in the boreal type areas for future changes in the definition of stage boundaries as a of western Europe are mostly shallow-water deposits and do result of the ongoing Global Boundary Stratotype and Point not contain diagnostic planktonic foraminifera and calcareous (GSSP) effort of the International Commission on Stratigraphy nannofossils. Outcrops are scattered over wide areas and assem- (ICS). Introductions to the Neogene (Vandenberghe and Har- bling a composite section is problematic. Ammonites are scarce denbol, this volume) and Paleogene (Neal and Hardenbol, this in outcrop and most of our current understanding is from a volume) summarize the papers submitted for the Cenozoic chapter of this volume and represent the principal documenta- compilation of historical ammonite information from museum tion for the Cenozoic sequence chronostratigraphic record. collections (Kennedy 1986). Ammonites suggest the lower and lower upper and perhaps the uppermost Campanian to be pres- CRETACEOUS SEQUENCE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC RECORD ent. However, there seems to be no record for deposits between The Cretaceous in western Europe is characterized by one Bostrychoceras polyplocum and Nostoceras hyatti which in Major Transgressive-Regressive Cycle named the North Atlan- North America spans a period of 6–7 my. tic/Biscaye Cycle, (Jacquin and de Graciansky, this volume). The Coniacian through Maastrichtian record of sequence The earliest Cretaceous (Berriasian) represents the continuation boundaries and TRF cycles on Chart 4 are, because of these of the regression that started near the Kimmeridgian/Tithonian unresolved uncertainties in the calibration of European bio- boundary. The onset of the opening of the North Atlantic (Zieg- stratigraphic zonations with the Gradstein et al. (1994, 1995) ler, 1990) marks the beginning of an overall transgressive phase temporal scale, based on a North American record. North that continues until the early Turonian and is followed by an American sequences identified along the Gulf Coast in Texas overall regression that lasted into the early Cenozoic. Trans- and Arkansas are calibrated to the North American ammonite gressive-Regressive Facies Cycles (TRF cycles) which describe zones of Cobban et al. (1994). Sequences in the Coniacian sediment response to basin-forming events of a more local sig- through lowermost Maastrichtian interval are based on a ten- nificance punctuate these Major Transgressive-Regressive Cy- tative sequence-stratigraphic interpretation of outcrop sections cles (MTR cycles). Jacquin et al., (this volume) describes five described in published records from the Gulf Coast areas in TRF cycles (11 to 15) in the lower Cretaceous portion of the Texas and Arkansas (Young, 1986; Kennedy and Cobban, (North Atlantic/Biscaye, MTR cycle, (Jacquin and de Gracian- 1993a, b, c; Cobban and Kennedy 1992a, b, 1993, 1994). Most sky, this volume). TRF cycles in the upper Cretaceous are dis- Maastrichtian sequences (Ma2 to Ma5) are interpreted from cussed below. outcrops in the area of the Maastrichtian stratotype. Coniacian through lower Campanian sequences are identified Upper Cretaceous Sequences in the Austin area of central Texas. Young (1986) describes The upper Cretaceous introduced by Hardenbol and Roba- three significant transgressions onto the San Marcos platform szynski (this volume) summarizes the sequence stratigraphic in central Texas e.g., near the Santonian/Campanian boundary,

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upper Dessau Formation; middle Campanian, Pecan Gap For- fell and Wach identify several sequences in the Albo-Aptian of mation, and lower upper Maastrichtian, upper Corsicana For- southern and eastern England. mation. These transgressions and two additional transgressions, one in the early Coniacian (onlap of Austin Chalk) and one in JURASSIC SEQUENCE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC RECORD the upper Campanian (Bergstrom Formation) which yield no evidence of covering the San Marcos platform, are carried on The Jurassic in Europe is characterized by two Major Trans- the chart as Transgressive-Regressive Facies cycles. gressive-Regressive Cycles (Jacquin and de Graciansky, this The base of the Austin chalk onlaps Turonian strata, and the volume). The transgressive portion of the first cycle (Ligurian earliest Coniacian is not present in the Austin area. The trans- Cycle) begins in the uppermost Norian Stage (upper Triassic) gressive base of the Austin Chalks is the base of the Atco For- becomes regressive near the base of the middle Toarcian in the mation. The basal sequence boundary may actually be in the lower Jurassic and ends at the base of the upper Aalenian in the Tu4. Other sequences in the Austin area middle Jurassic. The transgressive portion of the second cycle ס uppermost Turonian Co1, base Jonah For- (North Sea Cycle) begins in the middle Jurassic and becomes ס are: base of the Vinson Formation -Sa2, base upper Des- regressive near the top of the Kimmeridgian in the upper Ju ס Sa1, base Dessau Formation ס mation -Cam1 and rassic and ends in the earliest Cretaceous (uppermost Berria ס Sa3, base Burditt Formation ס sau Formation .Cam2, Young (1986). The strati- sian). De Graciansky et al. a, b (this volume) and Jacquin et al ס base Sprinkle Formation graphic position of the sequences identified in the Austin area (this volume) describe Transgressive-Regressive Facies cycles remains tentative because of uncertainties in the calibration of (4 to 10) in the Jurassic. The number of TRF cycles and dif- Young’s ammonite zonation with Cobban’s Western Interior ferences in the stratigraphic position of their bounding surfaces ammonite zonation. in tethyan and boreal basins reflect differences in sediment re- Lower Campanian to lowermost Maastrichtian sequences are sponse to regional and more local tectonic activity. The record based on well dated surfaces described in a series of papers on of individual sequences in the Ligurian MTR cycle (TRF cycles ammonite-bearing deposits in north eastern Texas and Arkansas 4 to 6) is discussed in de Graciansky et al. (this volume) and by Kennedy and Cobban (1993a, b, c) and Cobban and Ken- for the North Sea MTR cycle (TRF cycles 7 to 10) boreal and nedy (1992a, b, 1993, 1994). The deposits described are obvi- tethyan basins is discussed in Jacquin et al. (this volume). Se- ous transgressive deposits associated with major flooding sur- quence stratigraphic interpretations for Jurassic Basins in Great faces from which much of the ammonite record in the Gulf Britain include Stephen and Davies (this volume) for the Moray coast area is reported. The ammonite localities are: Roxton For- Firth Basin, van Buchem and Knox (this volume) for the Cleve- -Cam2 (Cobban and Kennedy, 1992), North Sulpher land Basin in Yorkshire and Hesselbo and Jenkyns (this vol ס mation Cam3 (Cobban and Kennedy, 1992), Wolfe City Sand ume) for the Wessex, Bristol Channel, Cleveland and Hebrides ס River -Cam4 (Cobban and Kennedy, 1993a), Pecan Gap Basins. Gygi et al. (this volume) summarizes sequence strati ס Formation -Cam5 (Cobban and Kennedy, 1994), Annona graphic interpretations in the Oxfordian and lower Kimmeridg ס Formation -Cam6 (Kennedy and Cobban ian of northern Switzerland. Sequence stratigraphy of rift re ס Chalk Formation at Okay Cam7 and lated basins in tethyan settings are by Leinfelder and Wilson ס Annona Chalk Formation at Yancy 1 ,(1993 Cam8 (Kennedy and Cobban, (1993a), Saratoga (this volume) for the Lusitanian Basin in Portugal and Dumont ס Yancy 2 .Cam9 (Kennedy and Cobban, 1993) and Naca- (this volume) in the western Alps in southeastern France ס Formation .(Ma1 (Cobban and Kennedy, 1995 ס toch Formation Maastrichtian sequences Ma 2 to Ma 5, based on outcrop TRIASSIC SEQUENCE CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC RECORD data from the type area of the Maastrichtian Stage in The Neth- erlands and Belgium are calibrated to belemnite zones which Sequence stratigraphic interpretations of Triassic deposits in are also poorly calibrated to the Gradstein et al. (1994) time European basins include contributions from the Dolomites and scale. Lombardy in the Southern Alps, the Western Southern Alps, Northern Calcareous Alps, Paris Basin, SE France, Germany Lower Cretaceous Sequences and SW Barentz Sea. Sequence interpretations in the different basins are calibrated either to a boreal (coordinator Van Veen), Two papers concerning the lower Cretaceous were submitted or a tethyan ammonoid biozonation (coordinators Mietto and for publication in this volume. To complement the documen- Manfrin). Gianolla and Jacquin (this volume) summarized the tation for the sequence stratigraphic record of the lower Cre- contributions and calibrated the various sequence interpreta- taceous, Jacquin et al. (this volume) provide an overview of tions to these boreal and tethyan ammonoid biochronozones. sequences and Transgressive-Regressive Facies cycles com- Jacquin and de Graciansky (this volume) identify a Major prised in the transgressive phase of the Cretaceous Major Trans- Transgressive-Regressive Cycle starting low in the Triassic and gressive-Regressive cycle. Jacquin et al. (this volume) describe ending in the uppermost Norian (Eastern Tethys Cycle) where sequences in TRF cycles (numbered 11 to 15), from the north- a second MTR cycle (Ligurian Cycle) begins that continues to ern North Sea to southern Italy. These TRF cycles represent the upper Aalenian in the middle Jurassic. Gianolla and Jacquin sediment response to eustatic events caused by regional tectonic (this volume) identify four TRF cycles (cycles 1 to 4) and 22 events superimposed on major intra-plate reorganizations. Jac- depositional sequences in Triassic basins from the Alps to the quin et al. (this volume) summarize the lower Cretaceous se- Barentz Sea. The lowermost TRF cycle (cycle 1) of Gianolla quence record in the context of his Transgressive-Regressive and Jacquin (this volume) may still be part of the Permian MTR Facies cycles. Hoedemaeker (this volume) describes sequences cycle. Sequences carried on Chart 8 are discussed in Gianolla in the Berriasian-Barremian interval in southeastern Spain. Ruf- et al. (this volume) and Skjold et al. (this volume). Gianolla

and Jacquin (this volume) summarize and calibrate all papers JURASSIC submitted for the Triassic chapter of this volume. Ammonites J. Thierry, D. Contini, R. Mouterde, M. Rioult, S. Elmi, C. Mangold, E. Cariou, D. Marchand, R. Enay, F. Atrops, P. Hantzpergue, J. R. Geysant, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS M. Corna, J.-L. Dommergues, C. Meister, The “Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins Project” L. Rulleau Belemnites R. Combemorel was supported by: British Petroleum (UK), Centre National de Calcareous Nannofossils K. Von Salis, J. Bergen, E. De Kaenel la Recherche Scientifique (France), Chevron (UK), Conoco Dinoflagellates N. S. Ioannides, J. Riding, E. Monteil, (USA), Ecole Nationale Supe´rieure des Mines de Paris L. E. Stover (France), Elf Aquitaine Petroleum (France), Exxon Production Ostracoda J.-P. Colin, A.-M. Bodergat Larger Foraminifera B. Peybernes Research Company (USA), Institute Français du Petrole Smaller Foraminifera C. Ruget, F. Nicollin (France), Maxus (USA), Mobil North Sea (Norway), Shell Brachiopods B. Laurin, A. Bouillier, Y. Almeras (UK), NAM (the Netherlands), Saga Petroleum (Norway) and Charophytes J. Riveline, M. Shudack, C. Martin-Closas, Total (France). M. Feist Radiolarians P. de Wever We received generous assistance to cover printing charges Calpionellids J. Remane for the oversized charts from: Amoco (USA), Chevron (UK), Strontium Isotopes M. B. Farley Conoco (USA), Exxon Production Research Company (USA), Sequences Th. Jacquin, P.-C. de Graciansky, P. R. Vail Shell (UK) and NAM (the Netherlands), Saga Petroleum (Nor- TRIASSIC way), Elf Aquitaine Petroleum (France) and Total (France). Ammonoids P. Van Veen, P. Mietto, S. Manfrin Construction of this biochronostratigraphic framework, Calcareous Nannofossils K. Von Salis Dinoflagellates P. A. Hochuli, P. Van Veen, J. Riding which allows stratigraphic positioning of sequences in various Spores/Pollen P. A. Hochuli, G. Warrington, P. Van Veen, environmental settings was made possible thanks to the sizeable J. O. Vigran effort of coordinators and contributors (names in italics) for Ostracoda J.-P. Colin biostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic disciplines. Larger Foraminifera B. Peybernes Charophytes J. Riveline, W. Bilan Conodonts B. Vrielynck Radiolarians P. de Wever CENOZOIC Sequences Th. Jacquin, P. Van Veen, P. Gianolla, Planktonic Foraminifera W. A. Berggren P. R. Vail Calcareous Nannofossils M.-P. Aubry Dinoflagellates G. L. Williams, H. Brinkhuis, J. Bujak, We express our appreciation to E. Erba, S. Monecchi, J. Mut- S. Damassa, P. A. Hochuli, L. de Verteuil, D. Zevenboom terlose and I. Premoli Silva for reviewing portions of the charts Ostracoda J.-P. Colin, P. Carbonel, O. Ducasse, and suggesting valuable improvements. C. Guernet, Y. Tambareau Larger Foraminifera J. Serra-Kiel, L. Hottinger, B. Cahuzac, REFERENCES A. Poignant ABREU,V.S.AND ANDERSON J., (in press 1998), Antarctica’s control on Eus- Radiolarians J. P. Caulet, A. Sanfilippo tasy during the Cenozoic in search of the oldest Cenozoic ice cap: American Charophytes J. Riveline, J. P. Berger, M. Feist, I. Soulie´- Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v., p. Ma¨rsche ALMERAS, Y., BOULLIER, A., AND LAURIN, B., 1994, La zonation du Jurassique Mammals J. J. Hooker, F. F. Steininger Français par les Brachiopodes: limites de re´solution: Geobios, Me´moire spe´- Foraminifera North Sea F. M. Gradstein cial, 17, p. 69–77. Diatoms J. Barron BARRERA, E., 1994, Global Environmental changes preceding the Cretaceous- Oxygen Isotopes V. S. Abreu Tertiary boundary: Early-Late Maastrichtian transition: Geology, v. 22, p. Strontium Isotopes M. B. Farley (with assistance of C. Wu), 877–880. K. E. Miller BARRERA, E., SAVIN, S. M., THOMAS, E., AND JONES, C. E., 1997, Evidence Sequences J. Hardenbol, J. E. Neal, N. Vandenberghe, for thermohaline-circulation reversals controlled by sea-level change in the G. A. Vakarcs, P. R. Vail latest Cretaceous: Geology, v. 25, 8, p. 715–718. BERGGREN, W. A., KENT, D. V., SWISHER, III, C. C., AND AUBRY, M.-P., 1995, A revised Cenozoic geochronology and chronostratigraphy, in Berggren, CRETACEOUS W. A., Kent, D. V., Aubry, M.-P., and Hardenbol, J., eds., Geochronology, Ammonites J. Thierry, J. M. Hancock, Ph. Time scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation: Tulsa SEPM Special Pub- Hoedemaeker, F. Ame´dro, L. G. Bulot, lication 54, p. 129–212. W. A. Cobban CAHUZAC, B., AND POIGNANT, A., 1997, Essai de biozonation de l’Oligo-Mio- Belemnites R. Combemorel, W. K. Christensen ce`ne dans les basins europeéns a`l’aide des grands foraminife`res ne´ritiques: Planktonic Foraminifera F. Robaszynski, I. Premoli-Silva, M. Caron Bulletin de la Socie´te´geólogique de France, 168 (2), p. 155–169. Calcareous Nannofossils K. 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A., 1984, Ocean ridge volumes and sea-Level change-An error tinents: A quantitative approach based on areas flooded by the sea and areas analysis: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 36, p. of marine and continental deposition: American Journal of Science, v. 294, 109–127. p. 777–801. MAGNIEZ-JANNIN, F., 1995, Cretaceous stratigraphic scales based on benthic ROSS, M. I., 1995, Influence of plate tectonic reorganization and tectonic sub- foraminifera in West European Basins (biochronohorizons): Bulletin de la sidence on the Mesozoic stratigraphy of northwestern and southeastern Aus- Socie´te´geólogique de France, v. 166 (5), p. 565–572. tralia; Implication for sequence stratigraphic analysis: Australian Petroleum MCARTHUR, J. M., KENNEDY, W. J., CHEN, M., THIRLWALL,M.F.,AND GALE, Exploration Association Journal, v. 3, part 1, p. 253–279. A. S., 1994, Strontium isotope stratigraphy for late Cretaceous time: direct SARG, J. F., 1988, Carbonate sequence stratigraphy, in Wiigus, C. K., Posa- numerical calibration of the Sr isotope curve based on the US Western In- mentier, H. W., Ross, C. K., and Kendall, C. G. St. C., eds., Sea-level terior: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 108, p. 95– Changes: An integrated approach: Tulsa, SEPM Special Publication 42, p. 119. 155–181. MEAD,G.A.AND HODELL, D. A., 1995, Controls on the 87Sr/86Sr composition SAVIN, S. M., DOUGLAS, R. G., AND STEHLI, F. G., 1975, Tertiary marine pa- of seawater from the middle Eocene to Oligocene: Hole 689B Maud Rise, leotemperatures: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 1499– Antarctica: Paleoceanography, v. 10, p. 327–346. 1510. MILLER, K. G., FAIRBANKS, R. G., AND MOUNTAIN, G. S., 1987, Tertiary ox- SERRA-KIEL, J., HOTTINGER,L,CAUS, E., DROBNE, K., FERRA` NDEZ, C., ygen isotope synthesis, sea-level history and continental margin erosion: JAUHRI, A. K., LESS, G., PAVLOVEC, R., PIGNATTI, J., SAMSO´ , J. 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SKAYA, E., 1998, Larger Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy of the Tethyan Pa- VAN WAGONER, J. C., MITCHUM, R. M., CAMPION, K. M., AND RAHMANIAN, leocene and Eocene: Bulletin de la Socie´te´ge´ologique de France, v. 169, nЊ V. D., 1990, Siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy in well logs, cores and out- 2, p. (in press). crops: concepts for high-resolution correlation of time and facies: American SLOSS, L. L., 1963, Sequences in the cratonic interior of North America: Geo- Association of Petroleum Geologists Methods in Exploration Series, No. 7, logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 74, p. 93–114. p. 1–55. SLOSS, L. L., 1988, Tectonic evolution of the craton in Phanerozoic time, in VAN WAGONER, J. C., POSAMENTIER, H. W., MITCHUM, R. M., VAIL, P. R., Sloss, L. L., ed., Sedimentary Cover-North American Craton: U.S., Boulder SARG, J. F., LOUTIT, T. S., AND HARDENBOL, J., 1988, An overview of the Colorado, Geological Society of America, The Geology of North America, fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy and key deﬁnitions, in Wilgus, C. K., v. D-2, p. 25–51. Posamentier, H. W., Ross, C. K., and Kendall, C. G. St. C., eds., Sea-level SUGARMAN, P. J., MILLER, K. G., BUKRY, D., AND FEIGENSON, M. D., 1995, Changes: An integrated approach: Tulsa, SEPM Special Publication 42, p. Uppermost Campanian-Maastrichtian strontium isotopic, biostratigraphic, 39–45. and sequence stratigraphic framework of the New Jersey coastal plain: Bul- WORNARDT,W.W.AND VAIL, P. R., 1991, Revision of the Plio-Pleistocene letin of the Geological Society of America, v. 107, p. 19–37. cycles and their application to sequence stratigraphy and shelf and slope VAIL, P. R., MITCHUM, R. M., AND THOMPSON, S. III, 1977, Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level, Part 4: Global cycles of relative sediments in the Gulf of Mexico: Transactions Gulf Coast Association of changes of sea level, in C. E. Payton ed., Seismic stratigraphy applications Geological Societies, v. XLI, p. 719–741. to hydrocarbon exploration: American Association of Petroleum Geologists WORNARDT, W. W., ZHANG,J.Z.W.,AND VAIL, P. R., 1992, Three component Memoir 26, p. 83–97. sequence stratigraphy: Transactions Gulf Coast Association of Geological VAIL, P. R., MITCHUM, R. M., AND THOMPSON, S. III, 1977, Seismic stratig- Societies, v. XLII, p. 363–380. raphy and global changes of sea level, Part 11: Glossary of terms used in YOUNG, K., 1986, Cretaceous, Marine Inundations of the San Marcos Platform, seismic stratigraphy, in C. E. Payton ed., Seismic stratigraphy applications Texas: Cretaceous Research, v. 7, p. 117–140. to hydrocarbon exploration: American Association of Petroleum Geologists ZIEGLER, P. A., 1990, Geological Atlas of Western and Central Europe 1990: Memoir 26, p. 205–212. The Hague, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappy, p. 1–239.

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THIERRY JACQUIN URA CNRS 723, Universite´de Paris Sud XI, Bat. 504, 91405 ORSAY Cedex, France AND PIERRE-CHARLES DE GRACIANSKY Ecole des Mines de Paris, 60 Bd. St. Michel, 75272 Paris Cedex 06, France

ABSTRACT: Four Mesozoic major transgressive/regressive cycles have been recognized within Western European basins. They are named as: (1) Eastern Tethys Cycle, (2) Ligurian Cycle, (3) North Sea Cycle, and (4) North Atlantic Cycle, following the four main phases of rifting that affected the whole Western European Craton and its borders during Mesozoic times. Such cycles are bounded by major unconformities, whose names from oldest to youngest are: Hardegsen or Solling (Scythian), Early Cimmerian (Late Norian), Mid-Cimmerian (Aalenian), Late Cimmerian (Berriasian) and Laramide (Palaeocene). Major transgressive/regressive cycles record outpaces the area of every individual basin, which suggests that local tectonic features were not the principal causes.

INTRODUCTION quently linked with these major unconformities. The peak transgression is a major flooding event covering widespread The distribution of stratigraphic features, involving both car- areas. The gradual landward encroachment during the trans- bonates and siliciclastics within sedimentary basins, primarily gressive phase leads to the development of a condensed interval depends on changes in shelfal accommodation. Accommoda- in the distal part of the basin by restriction of sediments. That tion changes are caused by relative sea-level changes (the al- interval identified on seismic lines as major basin-scale down- gebraic sum of subsidence or uplift and eustatic rise or fall; Vail lap surfaces can provide good source rocks such as the Toarcian et al., 1991). Shelfal accommodation changes can operate at Paper Shales in the Paris Basin. any geological time scale and are a cyclic, aperiodic phenom- It appears that these cycles have a time duration greater than enon that can be characterized by different stratigraphic sig- 30 Ma (Table 1). The amplitude of shelfal accommodation natures of various time duration. Five types of cycles longer change is in the order of 103 m. Geohistory analysis shows that than 100,000 years in duration have been observed in the strati- these cycles are caused by 1st order relative sea-level changes graphic record of European basins (Table 1). They are: (1) con- mostly created by changes in the long term thermal subsidence tinental encroachment cycles, (2) major transgressive/regres- (Fig. 1). Apatite fission track analysis also shows a good rela- sive cycles, (3) transgressive/regressive facies cycles, (4) tionship with thermally controlled regional warping producing sequence cycles, and (5) parasequence cycles. kilometer-scale uplift and erosional processes. The wave length Continental encroachment (Pangean) cycles are described by of subsidence versus uplift anomalies linked with this type of Duval et al. (this volume) and should not be confused with our deformation could be in the order of N103 km. These cycles major transgressive/regressive facies cycles (Table 2). The ob- generally coincide with major steps in the evolution of individ- jective of this paper is to document major transgressive/regres- ual basins, but they also record at distance the complex inter- sive cycles within Western European basins. action of processes affecting other basins located far away, together with long-term eustatic changes. DEFINITION AND CAUSES Major transgressive/regressive cycles are defined on the basis of long-term displacement of the shoreline, landward and sea- TABLE 2.—COMPARISON BETWEEN PANGEAN AND MAJOR ward respectively. They are bounded by major subaerial un- TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE CYCLES CHARACTERISTICS. conformities which may extend over the entire basins. These PANGEAN CYCLES (1st order cycle) major erosional unconformities, resulting from the major down- Characteristics of boundaries: ward shift of the coastal onlap, are often associated with sig- ⅙ Maximum of progradation on continental margins nificant time gaps. Faulted, folded or uplifted strata are fre- ⅙ Maximum of landward encroachment, with a downlap surface basinward ⅙ Major source-rocks (Ordovician and Turonian) Causes and effects: ⅙ 1st order eustatic cycles created by changes in oceanic basin volume induced by, TABLE 1.—HIERARCHY AND PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ⅙ Break-up and subsequent gathering of the Proto-Pangea supercontinents STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES. BOTH 3RD AND 4TH ORDER SEQUENCE CYCLES ARE CONTROLLED BY ACCOMMODATION-SPACE CHANGES. EFFECTS OF MAJOR TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE CYCLES (1st order subcycle) SUBSIDENCE INCREASE FROM FOURTH TO FIRST ORDER. Characteristics of boundaries: ⅙ Maximum regression: major erosional enhanced unconformity and correlative basin- Duration Amplitude Wavelength scale onlap surface separating transgressive from regressive deposits. ⅙ PANGEAN Peak transgression: major downlap surface in the distal parts of the basin with (1st-Order cycle) ϶250 MA N 103 m Plate Tectonics important starvation and major flooding and correlative strata updip separating MAJOR T/R Cycles transgressive from regressive deposits. (1st-Order Sub-cycle) Ͼ30 MA n 103 mn103 Km Causes and effects: T/R FACIES Cycles ⅙ 1st order relative sea-level changes mostly created by changes in the thermal long- (2nd-Order) 3 to 30 MA n 102 mn102 Km term basin subsidence SEQUENCE Cycles ⅙ Regressive and transgressive phases are defined on the basis of long-term (3rd and 4th Order seq.) 0.5 to 3 MA n 101 m Global (?) displacements seaward and landward respectively of the shoreline

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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FIRST ORDER MAJOR TRANSGRESSIVE / REGRESSIVE CYCLES Lowermost Unconformity TRIAS LIAS DOGGER MALM LOWER CRET. UPPER CRET. 210.0 179.5 159.2 141.2 111.0 The lowermost unconformity’sdefinition is uncertain. It has (m) Depth Ca No R-HS - P T-A B-B-C O-K T B-VH-B Ap Al C T-C-S C-M been considered classically to coincide with the Permian/Tri- 230.0 180.0 130.0 80.0 -100 Eustasy assic boundary (Haq et al., 1987, 1988; Duval et al., this vol- 100 ume). But available data from various European basins, includ- Water Depth 300 ing Boreal and Arctic domains, show that the onset of the 500 Triassic long-term transgression can be dated as uppermost 700 Tectonic Scythian. In the Barents Sea, the Triassic pre-Spathian succes- 900 subsidence sion was deposited in continuity with the Late Permian layers, + Eustasy 1100 which records a phase of Late Permian extension (Skjold et al., 1300 this volume; Ziegler, 1988). The maximum of this long-term HIATUS HIATUS 1500 HIATUS progradation is reached during uppermost Smithian times, 1700 where a minimum marine influence and strong terrestrial input 1900 Total have been identified (Hammerfest basin; Skjold et al., this vol- 2100 accommodation ume). This progradation is followed by a major unconformity = 2300 Tectonic probably controlled by an Early Spathian compressional event subsidence + 2500 Loading (Van Veen et al., 1993). 1 23 subsidence + 4 Eustasy An analogous trend can be documented from “Germanic” Transgressive Regressive Triassic strata in Germany, Holland and France. In the most 1: Eastern Tethys Cycle 2: Ligure Cycle 3: North Sea Cycle 4: North Atlantic Cycle

MAIN FIG. 1.—Paris Basin geohistory analysis. Diagram illustrating major trans- TIME SCALE FIRST and SECOND ORDER Transg. / Regres. cycles TECTONIC gressive-regressive cycles and long-term evolution of the accommodation as after Gradstein et al., PHASES 1994 Laramide 65.0 reconstructed from the backstripping analysis method (Steckler et al., 1978) unconformity from the Chapton well in the central part of the Paris basin. Each point on the Ma. curve corresponds to a sequence boundary that has been identiﬁed by physical Ca. criteria and tied to the European sequence chart. Eustasy is taken as constant Closure

Sa. Inversion Inversion through time which implies the lower curve of the diagram represents the total Upper Co. Tu. Plenus NORTH ם ם accommodation (i.e. the tectonic subsidence loading subsidence eustasy). Marls The middle curve is representative of the accommodation controlled by the Ce. ATLANTIC eustasy). The curve comprises four ם external factor (i.e. tectonic subsidence Al. CYCLE concave upwards segments, the four major transgressive/regressive cycles. Drifting Each of them show a long-term increase in accommodation during the trans- Ap. gressive phase and a long term decrease during the regressive phase. The gen-

eral slope changes clearly from one segment to the following one which shows Lower Ba. Drifting that the strain development differed from one major transgressive/regressive CRETACEOUS Ha. Late rifting cycle to the other. Major transgressive/regressive cycle boundaries are marked Va. Drifting Cimmerian on the curve by uplift which induced hiatus. Be. Unconformity 144.2 Ti. Kimme -ridge Ki. Clays NORTH Malm Ox. Four major transgressive/regressive cycles have been rec- SEA BISCAYE ognized within Western European basins (Fig. 1, 2). They are Ca. CYCLE rifting Eastern Tethys Cycle, Ligurian Cycle, North Ba. named: (1) (2) (3) Ba.

Dogger Mid Cimmerian Sea Cycle and (4) North Atlantic Cycle, following the four main Aa. unconformity phases of rifting that affected the whole western European cra- To. Paper

JURASSIC Shales LIGURE

ton and its borders during Mesozoic times. Such cycles are rifting Pl. Lias

CYCLE NORTH SEA bounded by major unconformities, whose names from youngest Si. to oldest are: Hardegsen or Solling (Scythian), early Cimmerian 205.7 He. Rh. Early Cimmerian (Late Norian), mid-Cimmerian (Aalenian), late Cimmerian unconformity (Berriasian) and Laramide (Paleocene), following the classical No. Drifting Upper European terminology (Stille, 1924; Ziegler, 1978; Nederlandse Ca. EASTERN Aardolie Maatschappij, 1980). TETHYS La. Livina LIGURE -longo CYCLE Beds

Middle An. TRIASSIC EASTERN TETHYS CYCLE: MAJOR TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE CYCLE 1 Ol. Hardegsen rifting

Lo. unconformity 248.2 In. Main Characteristics Transgressive Peak transgression The lower boundary is dated as Lower Scythian (243 MA). Regressive Maximum regression The upper boundary is dated as Late Norian (211 Ma). The TETHYS peak transgression is dated as Lower Ladinian, around the Eop- roptrachyceras curionii/Nevadites sp. ammonoides zonal FIG.2.—Major transgressive/regressive cycles, source rocks and main phases of the development of European basins. The exact timing of the different boundary in the Tethyan domain (Gianolla et al., this volume) tectonic phases is simpliﬁed. It would be split into several pulses, each area and Tsvetkovites varius ammonoide Zone in the Svalbard recording the effects of other basins development. Time scale after Gradstein (Skjold et al., this volume). The duration is 32 Ma. (1994).

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subsiding parts of these basins, there are no significant breaks up to 5–7%. These layers are dated from the Tsvetkovites varius between the Permian red beds and “Buntsandstein” facies. The ammonoid Zone in Svalbard and the Nevadites sp./Eoprotra- most important unconformity in the Swabishe and Saxony Ba- chyceras curionii ammonoid Zonal boundary in the Southern sins is within the upper part of the Buntsandstein. It is called Alps (Lower Ladinian). They are characterized by a great abun- the “Hardegsen” (Trusheim, 1961) or “Solling unconformity” dance and diversity of open marine faunas. The peak trans- and occurs at the base of the transgressive Solling Folge (Ro¨hl- gression in the Germanic Muschelkalk Formation (Fig. 3) is ing, 1992), which is dated as Spathian age. In the West Neth- reached along the so-called Cycloides bank, just above the fin- erlands Basin, particularly on the Nederland Swell, the Har- ing upward Untere Nodosus Shichten and below the coarsening degsen unconformity is apparent by its considerable erosion of upward Obere Nodosus Shichten (Aigner and Bachmann, the underlying Lower Bundsandstein Formation (Nederlandse 1992). A.M.B.V., 1980). In the Paris Basin, the unconformity corresponds to the lower surface of the Conglome´rat principal that Regressive Phase rests unconformably over both Buntsandstein facies (Gre`s Vos- gien) and older rocks including basement (Goggin et al., this The regressive phase is dated as Late Triassic. It is charac- volume). terized by: In Lombardy (Northern Italy), extensive carbonate platforms were established during uppermost Scythian times following a 1. A renewal of extensional tectonic activity in relationship period of renewed tectonic activity with deep erosion close to with the westward propagation of the Tethyan rifts and the the Smithian/Spathian boundary (Gaetani et al., this volume). southward propagation of the Arctic and North Atlantic rift We think that the globally uppermost lowstand of Permian sea- systems (Ziegler, 1988). This resulted in a complex network level (Haq et al., 1987, 1988) could be extended into Scythian of horsts and grabens in which clastics and evaporites ac- time. The ambiguity probably results from the existence of a cumulated mainly during Carnian times. higher-frequency (2nd-order) transgressive/regressive cycle 2. An overall restriction of the depositional environments, with within Scythian times, which is in continuity with the long- a strong influx of clastics in the Germanic, Boreal and Arctic term Late Permian-Early Triassic regression. The huge amount domains and pervasive dolomitization on the Tethyan car- of clastics (Buntsandstein) deposited within the grabens to- bonate platforms that produced the Norian Haupt Dolomit. gether with the erosion of the last post-Hercynian highs record 3. A generally poor Norian biostratigraphic resolution from the this major regression. Arctic to the Tethyan domains, as a consequence of the restricted environmental settings. Transgressive Phase LIGURIAN CYCLE: MAJOR TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE CYCLE 2 The transgressive phase begins everywhere at the Smithian/ Spathian transition. In the Barents Sea, extremely thick Spa- Main Characteristics thian deposits accumulated, indicative of the amount of accommodation space created. Source rocks also start to develop in The lower boundary is dated as Late Norian (211 Ma). The this Arctic basinal setting. During Late Scythian times, the Te- upper boundary is dated as Late Aalenian (177 Ma; Ludwigia thys sea transgressed northward through the Polish-Dobroudja murchisonae/Graphoceras concavum ammonite zonal bound- graben into northwest European basins (Ziegler, 1988). In the ary). The peak transgression is dated as around the Lower to German Basin and its embayments towards Holland and the Middle Toarcian boundary, at the top of the Harpoceras falci- Paris Basin, the Tethys sea also transgressed during late Scyth- ferum ammonite Subzone (187 Ma). The duration is 46 Ma. ian and Anisian times, forming widespread time-transgressive evaporites and then the Muschelkalk carbonates. A first link Lower Unconformity between Arctic and Tethyan faunas was reached in the middle The lower unconformity is recognized as a major tectonically Anisian (Balatonites sp. Zone; 237 Ma). enhanced unconformity and is known as the early Cimmerian In the future Western Tethys realm of the Southern Alps, vast unconformity (Stille, 1924). It affected all European basins, aggradational carbonate platforms first onlap during Spathian- with frequent erosional hiatuses, faulted and uplifted strata Lowermost Anisian times and aggrade in Late Anisian-Early above and below. The unconformity separates the Norian re- Ladinian times with a strong differentiation between shoal-keep gressive successions (such as the Haupt Dolomit or Dolomia up carbonates and basinal condensed successions (Gianolla et Principale Formation in the Tethyan realm, the Hauptsandstein al., this volume). Formation of the German Triassic, the Hegre clastic Formation in the northern North Sea) from the Rhaetian transgressive de- Peak Transgression posits that are the precursor of the Liassic transgression. The The peak transgression is well documented and dated in the margins of the Paris and Lower Saxony Basins perfectly illus- Arctic, Germanic and Tethyan domains. In the Svalbard area trate these conditions (Fig. 4). Unfortunately, the exact timing (Bravaisberget Formation: Mork et al., 1982), the Barents Sea of the unconformity cannot be accurately documented. This is (Ziegler, 1988; Steel and Worsley, 1984), and the Western Te- due to the poor biostratigraphic resolution of the Norian terrig- thys (Southern Alps: Livinallongo layers; De Zanche, 1983; enous clastics and frequent pedogenetic dolomitization in West- Gianolla et al., this volume), carbonaceous rocks were depos- ern Europe, such problems being enhanced by overall subaerial ited as a consequence of an overall relative starvation with a depositional conditions. However, in Lombardy (Southern significant source rock potential shown by average TOC values Alps), the timing of the unconformity can be approached. It

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FIG. 3.—First order peak transgression of the Eastern Tethys cycle. Correlations are well-log data from the upper Muschelkalk carbonate sequence M2 in Alsace (eastern Paris Basin; Goggin and Jacquin, this volume) and an outcrop section in southwestern German basin (Garnberg quarry; modified from Aigner and Bachmann, 1992). The subdivision of Ceratites zones from Urlichs and Mundios (1987) is also indicated. The third order maximum flooding surface is identified as occurring in the enodis Zone by correlation and is the major drowning event of the Muschelkalk carbonate platform.

separates the regressive uppermost Dolomie Principale from monites in the so-called Planorbis beds during lowermost Het- the transgressive Riva di Solto Shales (Gaetani et al., this vol- tangian time (Mouterde et al., 1980). The area of shallow-water ume) which yield Sevatian faunas (Gaetani; pers. commun., carbonate development extended northward, towards the Lon- 1994) don-Paris Basin, as the overall transgression progressed northward during Hettangian and Early Sinemurian times. From the -Lotharingian) upwards, the long-term seaס) Transgressive Phase Late Sinemurian level rise continued since: (a) progressive overstepping of all The transgressive phase is marked in the basinal areas of the basin margins resulted in the widening of epicontinental seas, North Sea by huge terrigenous influx dated as Rhaetian through in which silts and shales are the dominant lithologies, (b) Lower Sinemurian, which sustained balance with subsidence drowning of remnant highs, (c) development of kerogenous and long-term eustatic sea-level rise. This led to the develop- rocks during transgressive phases of higher order cycles (Fleet ment of widespread alluvial plain deposits of the Statfjord For- et al., 1987; Bessereau et al., 1994; Hanzo and Espitalie´, 1994; mation and its time equivalents that blanketed the whole area Morton, 1993), (d) derestriction and flooding of the area be- between Norway, Greenland and Germany (Steel, 1993). This tween Greenland and Norway and (e) faunal exchanges be- sand-prone fluvio-deltaic series formed the reservoir for major tween Boreal and Tethyan faunas across the Paris Basin (spe- hydrocarbon accumulations in the northern North Sea and mid- cially during the Tragophylloceras ibex ammonite Zone of the Norway Basins (Ziegler, 1988). lower Pliensbachian). In more southern areas, depositional environments are less However, carbonate platforms that extended northward dur- uniform even though fluvial to shallow marine siliciclastic set- ing the early phase of the Liassic transgression (i.e. Hettangian tings still predominate during Rhaetian times. Following the and Sinemurian), shifted southward during Pliensbachian and Pteria) ap- Toarcian times. Late Liassic platforms are only present in few ס transgression, open marine pelecypods (Avicula peared during Rhaetian deposition, rapidly followed by am- places of the Northern margins along the Tethys, in Provence

W Seine valley Lorraine E 45 6 789 10 Alsace Paris Germ- 12 3 11 any 50 Gr Dt Gr Dt Gr Dt Gr R-ILD Gr Dt Basin Basin 50 Gr Dt Gr Dt Gr Dt Gr Dt DtGr DtGr 12 He1 DtGr He1 jl 0 Rh2 ko3 /Rh1 /ko2 0 K6/ko1 K6/ko1 K6 ko3? K5/km4 K5/km4 K4 ko1 K3 K4 100 100 K4

K3 Sequence boundary: Maximum flooding surface:

SE Rhenish Massif Lower Saxony basin NE Germany Paris Rhaetic He1 Basin Basin jl ko3 Rh2 200 m ko2 Rh1 ko1 K6 mm 2 km1 km4 K5 Lower Muschelkalk mu km2 1 100 m

1 Middle Muschelkalk mo1 mo2 Keuper km3 0 m km2

FIG. 4.—Organization of deposits around the early Cimmerian unconformity. Two transects across the Paris Basin (Goggin et al., this volume) and the Lower Saxony basin (adapted from Wolburg, 1969), respectively, illustrate Late Norian-Early Liassic deposits. The late Norian unconformity, also known as the early Cimmerian unconformity, coincides with the sequence boundary K6 in the Paris Basin and with the Ko1 unconformity of the lower Saxony Basin. In both cases the early Cimmerian unconformity is seen to correspond to an erosional surface which intersects the underlying depositional sequence K5 (shaded) in the Paris Basin and its equivalent in Germany. In the Paris Basin, this truncation is observed on both the eastern and western borders; in Germany, this is observed on the western margin only. mu, mm, mo1, mo2, km1, km2, km3, km4, ko1, ko2, ko3, j1 refer to the sequence numbering by Wolburg (1969); m is Muschelkalk; K is Keuper; j is Jurassic; u is lower; m is middle; o is upper. K3, K4, K5, K6, Rh1, Rh2 and He1 refer to our own sequence numbering, respectively for Keuper, Rhaetian and Hettangian. Wells are 1: Breviande 1, 2: St Germain Laxis, 3: Chaunoy 31, 4: Heurtault, 5: Janvry, 6: L’Huitre, 7: Heitz le Hutier, 8: Meligny 1, 9: Chevraumont 1, 10: Saulxerotte, 11: Forcelles 3, 12:Schweighouse 1.

for example, but they are widely developed on its southern mar- Within the Tethyan realm, there are no known aggradational gins. This evolution suggests the long-term Liassic transgres- shelfal environments that are time-equivalent to this starved sion and long-term climatic evolution had no strict causal link episode. On the margins of North Sea basins, such as on the each other. Horda Platform, Lower Toarcian shelfal environments are thin and do not extend far seaward. This suggests that the hinterland Peak Transgression never supplied a significant amount of terrigenous material to the basins at that time and that carbonate platforms were not The Toarcian peak transgression is characterized by sediment starvation, together with the development of carbonaceous able to produce significant amounts of carbonate debris as well, shales in offshore environments. It is the main kerogenous a major departure from previous more aggradational, Hettan- source rock of UK-Germany-Paris Basins (Schistes Carton in gian and Late Sinemurian, tectonically controlled peak the Paris Basin, TOC up to 8% and IH up to 700–800; Hanzo transgressions. and Espitalie´, 1994; Paper shales in UK, Jenkyns, 1988; Wig- nall, 1991; Posidonien Schiffer in Germany). It is considered as Regressive Phase a world-wide anoxic event (Jenkyns, 1980, 1985). Ferruginous oolites and/or manganiferous or phosphate crusts may develop Following the Toarcian peak transgression the overall re- on the raised edge of inherited tilted blocks (Jenkyns et al., gressive phase dated as Late Toarcian to Late Aalenian is a 1991; Mettraux et al., 1989). The most condensed sections and common characteristic of all European basins. During early the maximum extension of carbonaceous open marine shales stages of this long-term regression, shaley sediments dominated are dated from the Harpoceras falciferum ammonite Subzone over sands and carbonates in all latitudes, leading to the inflill- of the Harpoceras serpentinum Zone. In some areas, such as ing of basin margins (Drake Formation in the North Sea; Steel, the Digne sub-Alpine basin, it may reach the Hildoceras lusi- 1993; Marnes supe´rieures Formation and Marnes a` Bifrons tanicum “horizon” of the lower Hildoceras bifrons Zone (Gra- Formation in the Paris Basin; Mouterde et al., 1980; Alum ciansky et al., 1993). shales Formation in the Yorkshire Basin; Powell, 1984; lower

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inum Zone, Aalenian). Carbonate platforms on the eastern mar- SW CENTER PARIS BASIN gin of the Paris Basin prograde seaward until the lowermost Bajocian (top LST Bj1, Hyperlioceras discites Zone). C. Bajocian peak transgression (MFS Bj4) : 170. 0 My Within the Digne or Serre Ponc¸on subbasins of the External Bj4 LST French Alps (Graciansky et al., 1993) where the successions Bj3 LST are very thick (up to 1500 m) and continuous and in more northern areas, the most seaward forestepping limestone and marlstone units are dated as uppermost Aalenian age (top Lud- Drowning of the wigia murchisonae ammonite Zone). The overlying calcareous carbonate platform units are stepping landward (Graciansky et al., 1993). The effects on the long term accommodation of that uncon- Outershelf and offshore { Lowstand formity can be documented from geohistory analysis as the re- marls (TST + HST) Highstand (TST + HST) sult of a widespread uplift. This is probably in relation to the B. Top aggrading sequences North Sea thermal event (Underhill and Partington, 1993, (Bj3 Sb = Tarbert unc. of the North Sea) : 173. 2 My 1994), even though the uplift is documented hundreds of ki- Bj3 Bj3 Bj1 Bj1 lometers away from the North Sea (Fig. 2). To7 To6

Transgressive Phase Onlap of the Central High The North Sea cycle transgressive phase is marked mainly (carbonate platform) by a Bajocian to Kimmeridgian episode of encroachment of marine deposits onto basin margins and structural highs. Within Aggradational carbonate Bray platforms (TST + HST) the North Sea area, siliciclastic shelfal environments progres- Fault sively retreated landward on basins margins, leaving seaward A. Mid-Cimmerian unconformity : 180. 5 My To7 To6 shaley hemipelagic sedimentation (Heather Shales Formation). To6 To5 To5 These are successively, from the top of the Brent delta system To4 to the complete drowning at the peak transgression: the Tarbert To3 Sandstone (Late Bajocian), the Krossfjord Sandstone (Bath- Pl8 onian), the Fensfjord Sandstone (Callovian) and the Sognefjord To4 100 m Uplift and emersion of the Sandstone (Oxfordian). Central High To3 Pl8 Carbonate platforms dominate at that time in the Jura, Paris 50 m Lowstand and London Basins, contrasting with the mainly siliciclastic Muddy offshore and { Lower Toarcian 10 m shelfal sediments Highstand Peak Transgression facies of the underlying major transgressive/regressive cycle 0 (Fig. 6). These carbonates, which were temperate deposits dom- FIG. 6.—Mid-Cimmerian unconformity in the center of the Paris Basin inated by crinoidal limestones in Bajocian time, were progres- (central high, west of the Bray fault. (A) Mid-Cimmerian unconformity: emer- sively replaced by tropical deposits dominated by coral reefs sion and erosional truncation of the Upper Toarcian sediments in the area of from Bathonian through Kimmeridgian times (foramol facies the central high; widespread hiatus during most Aalenian times. (B) Wide- replaced by chlorozoan facies association; Lee and Buller, spread development of Bajocian aggradational carbonate platforms above the unconformity. (C) Progressive drowning of carbonate platforms during Late 1972). The climatic evolution could have been concomitant Bajocian times, coevally to the development of the Tarbert interval of the North with an overall sea-level rise. This had an important effect on Sea. Thick development of lowstand deposits on both sides of the central high the large-scale stratal patterns, due to the chlorozoan facies as- (sequences Bj3 and Bj4). P1: Pliensbachian; To: Toarcian; Bj: Bajocian; Unc: sociation capability to keep up and balance any increase in ac- unconformity; Sb: sequence boundary; LST: Lowstand systems tract; TST: commodation space (Fig. 7). Transgressive systems tract; HST: Highstand systems tract; MFS: Maximum ﬂooding surface The increase of faunal exchanges between Arctic, Boreal and Tethyan biostratigraphical provinces and the increase of potential kerogeneous source rocks in basin settings are the main sis zone (lower Volgian, or middle Tithonian sensu gallico or consequences of this overall marine transgression. Callovian Upper Kimmerigian, sensu anglico). Their key argument comes Tethyan ammonites may be found as far north as Greenland and from the existence of organic-rich Kimmeridge clays (Draupne Callovian Boreal ammonites may be found as south as Iberia Shales in the North Sea), ranging from Aulacostephanus eu- (Marchand, 1984; Dardeau et al., 1994). Similar remarks can doxus (Late Kimmeridgian sensu gallico) through Pectinatites be done for the Kimmeridgian ammonites during the Pictonia (Arkellites) hudlestoni (Lower Volgian) ammonite Zones (Wig- baylei through Aulacostephanus eudoxus biozones (Hantz- nall, 1991a, b; Herbin et al., 1994, 1995). When considering pergue, 1993). shelfal successions surrounding North Sea basins (Rawson and Riley, 1982; Dore´et al., 1987; Gallois, 1988) such as the Lon- Peak Transgression don-Paris Basin (Debrand-Passard et al., 1980), the Saxony Ba- The age of the peak transgression is still a matter of debate sin and also the Lusitanian basins in westernmost Europe (Lein- depending on the scale and the location in the basin or on the felder and Wilson, this volume), the maximum landward extent shelf. Evidence from the sea-level curve of Haq et al. (1987, of open and deep marine lithologies (Exogyra and ammonide 1988) suggests that the long-term sea-level rise had reached a bearing marls) are dated generally from the uppermost part the maximum in the Pectinatites (Virgatosphinctoides) wheatleyen- Aulacostephanus eudoxus Zones (Hantzpergue, 1985, 1993).

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PARIS BASIN NORTHERN NORTH SEA

TRIAS LIAS DOGGER MALM L. CRET LIAS DOGGER MALM L. CR. RNo.Ca.La.A ATo.Pl.Si.H Ba. BCOK Vol. Val. Pli.Sin. Aa.Toar. Bajo. Bat. Ca. Ox. Ki. Volgian -200 -200 230 210 190 170 150 130 190 180 170 160 150 140 0 0 200 Bat. Unc. 200 Bat. Unc. 400 Oxf. Unc. Oxf. Unc. 600 400 LIGURIAN 800 600 CYCLE NORTH SEA 1000 CYCLE NORTH SEA 800 CYCLE LIGURIAN

1200 & Tarbert Unconformity CYCLE Mid Cimmerian Unconformity

Mid Cimmerian Unconformity 1000 1400 Early Cimmerian Unconformity Late Cimmerian Unconformity TETHYAN Late Cimmerian Unconformity 1600 CYCLE 1200

1800 1400

2000

FIG. 7.—Compared backstripping results for the Mid-Cimmerian event. This event is recorded in different ways depending on the structural context. It ranges from a long term hiatus near the thermal dome of the southern North Sea, to uplift followed by thermal subsidence in the northern North Sea (Underhill and Partington, 1993), Paris Basin and Burgundy (Graciansky et al., this volume) and Brianc¸onnais (Rudkiewicz, 1988) and to a strong differential subsiding event in the Subalpine basin in the Digne area (Graciansky et al., 1983).

This major flooding is followed on all shelves by a rapid re- order) transgressive pulses. Examples are given in Yorkshire ,Lower Volgian in the North and in Boulonnais (northern France) by Herbin et al. (1994ס) gression dated as Portlandian Sea). This regression ended with complete exposure. Structural 1995) and Proust et al. (1993). highs within North Sea basins were drowned by the same Au- lacostephanus eudoxus flooding (Underhill and Partington, Regressive Phase 1993b). In addition, this major flooding yields the most diver- sified and abundant faunal associations (Partington et al., 1993). The regressive phase is marked by rapid shoaling on Euro- Even though the North Sea Kimmeridge Clay Formation pean shelves during the Lower Volgian in the UK (Cope et al., comprises typical plankton-derived organic matter, as observed 1980), the Paris Basin (Debrand-Passard, 1980), the Tethyan during every major transgression (Wignall, 1991a, b; Herbin et margins (Enay, 1984) and in Iberia (Aurell and Melende`z, 1993; al. 1994, 1995), these carbonaceous shales interfinger during Jimenez de Cisneros and Vera, 1993)). The shelves show the Volgian deposition with regressive sand-prone shelf-derived de- widespread development of: (a) Portlandian facies, mainly low posits (mass flows, turbidites, fault aprons). However, the Vol- energy calcareous mudstones (formerly nanno-oozes; Busson gian organic shales have a different geochemical and minera- et al., 1993), (b) Purbeckian facies, mainly lacustrine to evap- logical signature from true Kimmeridgian ones, showing the oritic, confined lithologies, (c) Wealden facies, mainly conti- superimposed effect of terrigenous supply and incipient regres- nental terrigenous clastics, interfingering with the upper part of sion. Such observations document the partition of the Kim- the Purbeckian (Allen and Wimbledon, 1991), (d) a hiatus with meridge Clay Formation into transgressive “hot” shales and re- karstic development, which helps defining the unconformity gressive “hot” shales (Clark et al., 1993). bounding the major North Sea transgressive/regressive cycle. The persistence of anoxia on the sea floor during the Volgian Within the basins, the regression is recorded by the stacking of regression can be related to local submarine physiographic con- thick masses of gravity flow, storm-induced deposits that were ditions, strongly enhanced by the Kimmeridgian extensional derived from the adjacent shelves. In the North Sea, gravita- faults along the basin margins, that probably reduced oceanic tional deposits interfinger with the Lower Volgian source rocks. circulation (Posamentier and James, 1993). In fact, the time They were derived from the erosion of Triassic to Jurassic sand- distribution of the organic matter within the Kimmeridge Clay stones along the adjacent emerged tilted blocks (Vollset and Formation is cyclic and corresponds to higher frequency (third- Dore´, 1984; Dalland et al., 1988). Formations such as the Mun-

nin Sandstones in the North Viking Graben, the Sgiath and the Dating such widespread unconformities is always question- Piper Sandstones in the Witch Ground Graben (UK North Sea; able. In basinal areas where the stratigraphical successions are O’Driscoll et al., 1990) and the Brae conglomeratic fans in the the most continuous and the age control can be good, the un- South Viking Graben (Chery, 1993) are examples. In basinal conformity is not expressed as an obvious break. In southeast- areas belonging to the Tethyan margin, the gravitational depos- ern France basins, it can be picked as the turning point between its form massive units interfingered with hemipelagic calcare- abundant platform derived gravity deposits and mainly shaley ous mudstones. These deposits are dated as Lower Volgian by hemipelagic layers. From this point of view, the renewed abun- calpionellids and ammonite fauna, as their North Sea equiva- dance and diversity of dinoflagellate cyst species are indicative lents (Tithonian facies, Dromart et al., 1993; Ogg et al., 1991). of the onset of the next long-term transgressive phase (Monteil, These gravitational deposits were derived from the adjacent car- 1993). The same trend is recorded by the overall kaolinite/illite bonate platforms and may result from the erosion of previous ratio decrease (Deconinck, 1993). Sedimentological, paleonto- layers down to late Oxfordian strata. The onset of the gravita- logical and mineralogical evidences indicate a Late Berriasian tional sedimentation in the Boreal and Tethyan areas is precisely age (Berriasella picteti ammonite Zone) for the unconformity. concomitant with the onset of the Portlandian facies on shelfal In the London/Paris Basin where the truncation is well ex- areas. pressed, a mid- to late Berriasian age can be assumed from paleontological evidence to the Purbeckian and Wealden equiv- NORTH ATLANTIC CYCLE: MAJOR TRANSGRESSIVE/REGRESSIVE CYCLE 4 alent below the unconformity (Fyfe et al. 1981; Strauss et al., 1993; Sigogneau-Russel and Esom, 1994). In the North Sea, Main Characteristics the youngest strata recovered below the BCU are Late Volgian, The lower boundary is dated as Late Berriasian (138 Ma) Surites (Bojarkia) stenomphalus ammonite Zone equivalent The upper boundary is dated as Paleocene (lowermost Thane- from dinoflagellate cyst associations (Casey et al., 1993; Par- tian, 60 Ma). The peak transgression is dated as Lower Turon- tington et al., 1993). In other places, the gap is generally too ian; Watinoceras coloradoense (Europe) equivalent to Vasco- long to allow more accurate dating. ceras birchbyi (USA) ammonite Zones and Witheinella Transgressive Phase archaeocretacea foraminiferal Zone (92.3 Ma). The duration is 78 Ma. The transgressive phase of cycle 4 corresponds to the worldwide Early Cretaceous sea-level rise (Hancock and Kauffman, Lowermost Unconformity 1979) which culminated in early Turonian time and was the latest phase of the Pangean encroachment half-cycle (Duval et The lowermost unconformity is referred to as the so-called al., this volume; Haq et al., 1987, 1988; Jenkyns, 1985). How- late Cimmerian unconformity (Stille, 1924; Ziegler, 1978). Ero- ever, the development of this long-term transgression was not sional truncation and subaerial exposures and karstification continuous. Prior to late Barremian times, tectonically-con- document this unconformity on all basin margins (Debrand- trolled regressive pulses (Lower Valanginian and Lower Bar- Passard, 1980; Aurell and Melende`z, 1993; Detraz and Stein- remian) interfered with clastics deposition in all basins and cre- hauser, 1988; Deville, 1990; Stromenger et al., 1991; Allen and ated widespread erosional unconformities. Winbledon, 1991). These features are linked with a long-term For instance, in the Barents Sea (Svalbard), late Barremian relative sea-level fall (Haq et al., 1987, 1988) which is associ- sands with dinosaur foot prints rest unconformably over Kim- ated with global plate rearrangement and in particular, a renewal meridge clays (Steel and Worsley, 1984). In the northern North of the intraplate tectonic activity in Europe. The reorganization Sea, the Asgard Sandstone (Mid- to Late Barremian) overlies of the main depocentres between Jurassic and Cretaceous times unconformably the Lower Cretaceous transgressive shales and records that change of the strain field. Within North Sea basins, the BCU (Skibeli et al., 1994, 1995). The Paris basin was also this discontinuity is known as the Base Cretaceous Unconfor- emergent during Barremian times. The maximum seaward mity (BCU) where it may cut down as deep as Lower Jurassic propagation of Lower Cretaceous carbonate platforms on the strata (Johnson 1975). Nevertheless, a further, Late Barremian, northern Tethyan margin was reached by Late Barremian time unconformity, is often superimposed onto the BCU and inter- (Jacquin et al., 1991). sects by places Jurassic strata. This is also known in Svalbard The Apulian platform, isolated within the Tethyan ocean, (Steel and Worsley, 1984). also underwent a succession of subaerial exposures in the mid- In the London and Paris Basins, transgressive Valanginian dle-late Barremian times (D’Argenio et al., 1987, 1991). The Wealden facies overly unconformably Purbeckian and Portlan- characteristics of the Cretaceous transgression appear from the dian strata and other Late Jurassic beds (down to the Oxfordian) Late Barremian times and onwards, with a tremendous increase at least on the structural highs and basin margins. These were in the diversity and abundance of planktonic foraminifers. This truncated by the Late Cimmerian unconformity. The truncation coincides in time with the onset of a green house period (Fi- is linked with a basin-scale subaerial exposure event, which scher, 1982), the globalization of oceanic anoxic events (Jen- lead to the development of a deep karst on the underlying Upper kyns, 1980; Robaszynski, 1989) and the widespread develop- Jurassic limestones. In the Netherlands, gas-bearing sandstones ment of smectite-rich deposits (Thiry and Jacquin, 1993). The of Valanginian age accumulated directly on a Zechstein or Tri- Cretaceous transgression also can be characterized by high-am- assic palaeorelief (Cottençon et al., 1975). In a similar manner plitude, high-frequency (2nd-order) flooding events, that pro- the peri-Tethyan carbonate platforms such as the Jura, Moesia, gressively covered increasing areas of Europe, Africa and Apulia, Yougoslavian karst were submitted to pervasive America and were probably controlled by eustasy, as suggested karstification. by their synchroneity worldwide.

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In the North Sea, the Lower to «middle» Cretaceous trans- Within North Sea basins, tremendous thicknesses of Late gression is indicated by a general, basin-scale, onlap of the Cretaceous hemipelagic sediments accumulated (Shetland inherited Rhyazanian and Late Jurassic structures. The change Group, Deegan and Scull, 1977), reaching up to several kilo- from the previous organic-rich Draupne Shale to the Lower meters in the mid-Norway basins. Facies are mainly siliciclas- Cretaceous transgressive deposits is reflected by the regional tic-dominated in mid-Norway (and more northward) and chalk- termination of kerogeneous shales, due to the reoxygenation of dominated in the southern North Sea (Isaksen and Tonstad, sea waters (Ziegler, 1988). In the Tethyan basins, including the 1989). The pattern of the successions is very uniform, domi- Central Atlantic Tethys, the change from the Volgian regression nated by continuous fine-grained sediments, as a consequence to the Lower Cretaceous transgression is marked by a progres- of slow lithospheric cooling and linked long-term subsidence sive increase of organic matter content within the deep-sea sed- (McKenzie, 1978; Sclater and Christie, 1980). There are two iments (Graciansky et al., 1984). This change was induced, by major exceptions to this continuous sedimentation: a late Tu- (1) oxygen depletion in the bottom sea waters in the context of ronian phase of progradation of shelfal environments from the sealed sub-basins and by (2) the development of an oxygen Norwegian continent and progressive infill of basins during the minimum layer at mid-depth following the relative sea-level uppermost Cretaceous-lowermost Paleocene. The late Turonian rise (Graciansky et al., 1984; Arthur et al., 1987; Schlanger et regressive pulse is associated with a major, temporary, down- al., 1987). This anoxia is also recorded in small embayments ward shift of coastal onlap. Intense tectonic activity, including in the Tethys, such as the Vocontian trough in southeastern block faulting and the local inversion of the previous structures, France, where TOC values may reach 3% and IH 300 (Breheret, also is reported at that time. The uppermost Cretaceous infilling 1994). relates to the onset of rifting in the North Atlantic region (Gage and Dore´, 1986; Ziegler, 1988) and to the major Paleocene sea- Peak Transgression level fall (Haq et al., 1988). Within the London-Paris Basin and the southern North Sea, The Lower Turonian peak transgression is the time of max- chalk was the dominant lithology. In the Alps, the consequences imum landward extent of open-marine facies towards the con- of the Late Cretaceous thrusting (Tricart, 1984) is the synoro- tinental areas for all Mesozoic and Cenozoic times (Duval and genic production of huge masses of clastics deposited at the Cramez, this volume). Turonian layers onlap onto older rocks, front of advancing thrust sheets in successive forelands. Such including Hercynian or Caledonian basements, around the Paris deformations started during Late Turonian times (Pyrenean and London Basins and the North Sea (Juignet, 1980; Neder- phase, Olivet et al., 1984) and are also recorded as a major landse A.M.B.V. and Rijks Geo. D., 1980). The peak trans- regressive pulses on surrounding peri-Tethyan shelves. gression is known as a starved interval from Svalbard to Italy Within the Tethyan realm, the peri-Adriatic carbonate plat- and to the Betics in Southern Spain (Graciansky et al., 1984) forms were progressively dislocated into relatively independent and even in the small Vocontian embayment of the Tethys in blocks. Some of the blocks of the Apulian promontory (Monte SE France (Crumie`re et al., 1990). It corresponds to a well- Gargano area, D’Argenio and Mindszenty, 1991; Graziano, known oceanic anoxic event (Jenkyns, 1980) associated with 1992) were emerged during the Late Turonian phase of com- relative starvation in the deep oceans (such as the Atlantic) and pression. Most of them were subjected to karstification, baux- well preserved and abundant organic matter, when water depth itization and/or erosion by the end of the Late Cretaceous dep- and local physiographic conditions allowed. In the northern osition (Vecsei et al., this volume; Accordi and Carbone, 1988). North Sea or in the Voring basin (Mid Norway), the peak trans- This also happened in the Dalmate zone, the High Karst and gression is a good regional through-going reflector with no spe- pre-karstic units of the ex-Yugoslavia (Aubouin et al., 1970). cial enrichment of organic matter, in probably related to the In other units, the Late Cretaceous platform carbonates grade high sedimentation rates during the Upper Cretaceous deposi- upwards into the hemipelagic Scaglia Formation (hemipelagic tion (Isaksen and Tonstad, 1989). In the chalk of the Southern calcareous mudstones) and then to detritical flysch-type depos- North Sea, the peak transgression can be a good kerogenous its. This occurred at varying ages depending on the location interval (Plenus marls; Hart & Bigg, 1981). Thin organic-mat- (Bosellini et al., 1993), a consequence of the progressive break ter-rich layers have been also described within the white chalk up of the Apulian platform recording the incipient Alpine of the onshore and offshore northern France and southern UK orogeny. provided that water depth was sufficient (Graciansky et al., The motion of Iberia relative to Europe during Late Creta- 1984). Where the carbonaceous layers are missing, the peak ceous times induced the accumulation of synorogenic deep- transgression is often recorded as a hardground incrusted with water flyschs in the rapidly narrowing Pyrenean troughs (De- authigenic minerals. broas, 1990; Boillot et al., 1984). The eastern and northeastern part of the Iberian block itself was occupied by extensive car- Regressive Phase bonate platforms of Late Cretaceous age. They have been overlain by a regressive and/or emerged series dated as Late San- The Late Cretaceous regressive phase is marked by a reor- tonian or Campanian through Paleocene age (Azema et al., ganization of the spreading system of the whole Atlantic and 1974; Garcia-Hernandez et al., 1980; Gra¨fe and Weidman, Arctic domains and coincides with the early Alpine orogenic 1993, this volume; Floquet, this volume). This evolution is cycle (Tru¨mpy, 1960, 1980). Stratigraphic features, such as the again indicative of the end of the transgressive/regressive nЊ4. level of erosion along major unconformities, the direction of progradation and/or retrogradation and the possibility to accom- Uppermost Unconformity modate huge thicknesses of sediments, were controlled by these The North Atlantic cycle ended with an overall regression, tectonic parameters. which was probably induced by regional lithospheric defor-

W Paris Basin Mesozoic first-order cycle development E 1 234 5PARIS 6789101112131415161718 19 STRASBOURG Datum: Mid-Albian drowning

T4 Lower Cretaceous 21 23 20 22 Late Cimmerian Unconformity R3 24 PRESENT DAY LEVEL OF EROSION Middle and Upper Jurassic T3 Mid-Cimmerian 25 Unconformity 26 31

27 First R2 T2 28 Order Liassic 29 30 Continental R1 Triassic T1 100 m Encroachment Early Cimmerian Unconformity 80 Km onto Basement Hardegsen Unconformity.

FIG. 8.—Mesozoic Major Cycle development in the Paris Basin. Wells are: 1: Yvetot 101; 2: Houlbec 1; 3: St Illiers 1; 4: Courgent; 5: L’Orme; 6: Les Bergers 1d; 7: Bechevret 1; 8: Vert le Grand; 9: Villoisin 1D; 10: Bois Brule´; 11: St-Germain-Laxis 1; 12: Chaunoy 1; 13: Charmotte; 14: Heurtault 1; 15: Vulaines 1; 16: Janvry 1; 17: La Folie de Paris; 18: St. Just Sauvage 1; 19: L’Huitre 1; 20: Courdemanges 1; 21: Heiltz le Hutier 1; 22: Trois Fontaines 102; 23: Montplonne; 24: Meligny; 25: Chevraumont; 26: Saulxerotte; 27: Forcelles 3; 28: Benney 1; 29: Bois le Marquis 1; 30: Embermenil 1; 31: Schweig- house 1.

mation as recorded in Arctic, North Atlantic, North Sea, central compares well with the Sloss sequences of the cratonic North and western Europe (Cloething, 1986a,b). This was linked to a America Interior. (1963) main inversion phase within grabens of the North Sea (Neal et Four principal points characterize major transgressive/real., this volume), the Celtic Sea, the Fastnet Basin, the English gressive cycles, as exemplified on the Paris Basin Mesozoic Channel and the Paris Basin. It is known as the “Laramide” section (Fig. 8): phase of inversion (Bally, 1984; Ziegler, 1989). The Irish Sea • underwent a regional uplift and subsequent erosion, accompa- Each starts with a major step within the overall Pangean con- nied by extrusion of lavas in Northern Ireland and western Scot- tinental encroachment (Duval et al., this volume) over the land. This recorded a thermal event of regional extension European Craton. The Eastern Tethyan Cycle (1) starts with (Cope, 1994). The Maastrichtian/Eocene unconformity in the the onset of the post-Hercynian transgression, following the Molasse Basin of the western and central Alps and the emplace- upper Permian-lowermost Triassic phase of rifting. The Lig- ment of early nappe systems in the inner Alps can tentatively urian Cycle (2) starts with the widespread Rhaetian-Liassic be related to the same episode (Tru¨mpy, 1980; Herb, 1965). transgression, following the Norian restriction (Fig. 2). The However, their age should be better constrained to make sure. North Sea Cycle (3) begins with the Bajocian transgression, The result was the emergence of most of Europe. following an upper Toarcian thermal event (Fig. 7). The North Atlantic Cycle (4) was initiated with Lower Cretaceous transgression and continental encroachment and lead to major CONCLUSION (Early Turonian) Pangean flooding (Duval et al., this vol- Major transgressive/regressive cycle analysis has been ap- ume). It follows the global sea-level lowstand around the Ju- plied to the Mesozoic succession of several basins from the rassic-Cretaceous boundary. Western European Craton. These cycles primarily record long- • Each ends with a major phase in disintegration of post-Her- term change in shelfal accommodation, independently of the cynian platforms and craton. These phases coincide with the nature and thickness of the sediments of the depositional en- onset of the major rifting that affected the European Craton: vironments and of structural settings. It is not the nature and/ Eastern Tethys, Western Tethys (i.e. Ligurian Tethys, Lemo- or the expression of the cycle boundary which defines the cycle, ine et al., 1986), North Sea (Ziegler, 1988), North Atlantic but its large-scale facies and stratal stacking pattern. This ap- between Newfoundland-Gibraltar and Charlie-Gibbs frac- proach differs from Embry’s (1993) transgressive/regressive ture-zones including the Bay of Biscay (Olivet et al., 1984). cycle analysis for which a hierarchical system reflects the dif- Their characteristics, regarding the timing of the major ferent nature of the boundary characteristics. Our approach boundaries and the direction of movement landward or sea-

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ward of the shoreline, are not fully dependent of the succes- BOSELLINI, A., NERI, C., AND LUCIANI, V., 1993, Platform margin collapses sion of syn-rift and post-rift (or syn-drift) phases. and sequence stratigraphic organization of carbonate slopes: Cretaceous-Eo- • cene Gargano Promontory, Southern Italy: TerraNova, v. 5, p. 282–297. Their corresponding accommodation curve, which can been BUSSON, G., NOE¨ L, D., CONTINI, D., MANGIN, A. M., CORNE´ E, A., AND drawn from the principles of backstripping analysis, shows a HANTZPERGUE, P., 1993, Omnipre´sence des coccolithes dans les calcaires concave upward pattern. This is indicative of increasing ac- lagunaires .du Jurassique moyen et supe´rieur de la France: Bulletin Centres commodation during transgressive phase and decreasing dur- Recherches Exploration Production Elf Aquitaine, v. 17, p. 291–301. BREHERET, J. G., 1994, The Mid-Cretaceous organic-rich sediments from the ing regressive phase. Such a pattern, together with its ampli- Vocontian zone of the French Southeast Basin, in Mascle J., ed., Hydrocar- tude and the wavelength (duration), documents and quantifies bon and Petroleum Geology of France: European Association. of Petroleum the process which is cyclic but aperiodic. Such characteristics Geoscientists Special Publication, 4, Springer-Verlag Publishers, p. 295–320. match well with those of the McKenzie’s stretching model CANNON, S. J. C., GILES, M. R., WHITAKER, M. F., PLEASE, P. M., AND MAR- (1978), where syn-rift crustal extension and post-rift thermal TIN, S. V., 1992, A regional reassessment of the Brent Group, UK Sector, North Sea, in Morton, A. C., Jaszeldine, R. S., Giles, M. R., and Brown, S., cooling phase, amplified by the isostatic effect of sediments, eds., Geology of the Brent Group: London Geological Society, Special Pub- give similar patterns. lication, 61, p. 15–26. • Their record concerns the whole European craton, which im- CASEY, B. J., ROMANI,R.S.,AND SCHMITT, R. N., 1993, Appraisal geology of plies that local tectonic subsidence is not the only leading the Saltire Field, Witch Ground Graben, North Sea, in Parker, J. R., ed., factor which controls the long-term fluctuations of accom- Petroleum Geology of North West Europe: Bath Proceedings of the 4th Con- ference, London Geological Society Publishing House, p. 507–518. modation space. The global nature of major transgressive/ CHERY, S. T. J., 1993, The interaction of structure and sedimentary process regressive cycle boundaries, as perceived by Stille (1924), is controlling deposition of the Upper Jurassic Brae Formation conglomerate, indicative of their eustatic origin. Observations and models Block 16–17, North Sea, in Parker, J. 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A. M., Johnsen, S. O., Moerke, A., Nysaether, E., and Songstad, P., eds., “Mid Cimmerian Unconformity”: Implication for North Sea Basin devel- Petroleum Geology of the North European Margin: Norwegian Petroleum opment and the global sea-level chart, in Weimer, P. and Posamentier, H., Society, London, Graham and Trotman publishers, p. 109–135. eds., Siliciclastic Sequence Stratigraphy: Tulsa, American Association of STILLE, H., 1924, Grundfragen der vergleichenden Tektonik: Berlin, Gebru¨der Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 58, p. 449–484. Borntra¨ger Publisher, 451 p. URLICH,M.AND MUNDIOS, R., 1987, Revision der Gattung Ceratites De Hann STRAUSS, E., ELSTNER, F., JAN DU CHEˆ NE, R., MUTTERLOSE J., REISER H., AND 1825 (Ammonoidea, Mittle Trias): Stuttgart Beitraege zur Naturkunde, serie BRANDT K. H., 1993, New micropaleontological and palynological evidence B (Geologie und Palaeontologie) 128, p. 1–36. on the stratigraphic position of the “German Wealden” in NW-Germany: VAIL, P. R., AUDEMARD, F., BOWMAN, S. A., EISNER, P. N., AND PEREZ-CRUZ, Mu¨nchen, Zitteliana 20 Hagn/Herm-Festschrift, p. 389–401. C., 1991, The stratigraphic signatures of tectonics, eustasy and sedimentol- STRECLER, M. S., WATTS, A. B., AND THORNE, J. A., 1978, Subsidence and ogy—an overview. in Einsele, G., Ricken, W. and Seilacher, A., eds, Cycles basin modelling at the US Atlantic passive margin, in Sheridan, R. E. and and Events in Stratigraphy: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 617–659. Grow, J. A., eds., The Geology of North America changes and paleocean- VAN VEEN, P. M., SKJOLD, L. J., KRISTENSEN, S. E., RASMUSSEN, A., GJEL- ography in the Cretaceous of the Atlantic ocean: Clay Minerals, v. 28, p. BERG, J., AND STØLAN, T., 1992, Triassic sequence stratigraphy in the Ba- 61–84. rents Sea, in Vorren, T. O., Bergsager, E., Dahl, S. O. A., Holter, E. Johansen, TRICART, P., 1984, From passive margin to continental collision: a tectonic B., Lie, E., and Lund, T. B. eds., Arctic Geology and Petroleum Potential, scenario for the Western Alps: American Journal of Science, v. 284, p. 97– Norwegian Petroleum Society special publication 2, New York, Elsevier pub- 120. lisher, p. 515–538. VOLLSET,J.AND DORE´ , A. G., 1984, A revised Triassic and Jurassic lithostrat- TRU¨ MPY, R., 1960, Paleotectonic evolution of the Central and Western Alps: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 71, p. 808–843. igraphic nomenclature for the Norwegian North Sea: Oslo, Norwegian Pe- troleum Directorate, nЊ 3, 53 p. TRU¨ MPY, R., 1980, Geology of Switzerland-a guide book. Part A. Outline of WIGNALL, P. B., 1991a, Model for transgressive black shales: Geology, v. 19, the geology of Switzerland: Basel/New York, Wepf and Company Publish- p. 167–170. ers, 102 p. ¨ WIGNALL, P. B., 1991b, Test of the concepts of sequence stratigraphy in the TRUSHEIM, F., 1961, Uber Diskordanzen im Mittleren Buntsandstein Nord- Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic) of England and Northern France: Marine and westdeutschlands zwischen Ems und Weser, Hamburg, Erdo¨l Erdgas Zeit- Petroleum Geology, v. 8, p. 432–441. schrift, 77: p. WOLBURG, G., 1969, Die epirogenetischen Phasen der Muschelkalk—und Keu- UNDERHILL,J.R.AND PARTINGTON, M. A., 1993, Jurassic thermal doming and per—Entwicklung Nordwest—Deutschlands, mit einen Ru¨ckblick auf den deﬂation in the North Sea: implication of the sequence stratigraphic evi- Bundsandstein: Geotekt Forschungen, v. 32, p. 1–65. dence, in Parker, J. R., ed., Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe: Bath ZIEGLER, P. A., 1978, Northwestern Europe: tectonics and basin development: Proceedings of the 4th Conference: London, Geological Society, v. 1, p. 337– Geologie ijn Mijnbouw, 57/4, p. 589–626. 346. ZIEGLER, P. A., 1988, Evolution of the Arctic-North Atlantic and the Western UNDERHILL,J.R.AND PARTINGTON, M. A., 1994, Use of genetic sequence Tethys: Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir nЊ 43/ stratigraphy in deﬁning and determining a regional tectonic control on the I, 198 p.

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THIERRY JACQUIN URA CNRS 723, Universite´de Paris Sud XI, Batiment 504, 91405 ORSAY Cedex, France AND PIERRE-CHARLES DE GRACIANSKY Ecole des Mines de Paris, 60 Bd. St. Michel, 75272 Paris Cedex 06, France

ABSTRACT: Transgressive/regressive facies cycle analysis combines the approaches of sequence stratigraphy at outcrop/core/well-log scales and seismic stratigraphy at seismic scales (large-scale stratal pattern and termination), to determine the facies stacking pattern and the partitioning of sediments following long-term changes in shelfal accommodation. Thus, it is an interdependent approach with the main purpose being to build a hierarchy of stratigraphic cycles. The building blocks of transgressive/regressive (T/R) facies cycles are 3rd-order depositional sequences. Four types of 3rd-order depositional sequences may develop within a 2nd-order transgressive/regressive facies cycle: infilling and forestepping during the regressive phase and aggrading and backstepping during the transgressive phase. These four types of sequences do not occur systematically together within a second- order cycle. Four end-members of T/R cycles can be defined depending on (1) the capability of sediment deposition to keep up with relative sea- level rises; (2) the rates at which accommodation space changes. The four end-members will include (1) T/R cycle with or without aggrading sequences and (2) T/R cycles with or without forestepping sequences. About 18 T/R cycles have been found within the Western European Mesozoic stratigraphic successions. At the craton scale, some of the characteristic surfaces and events are very synchronous. This synchroneity suggests a tectono-eustatic control. Cycles which are not synchronous within a basin usually result from variations in local sea-floor subsidence/uplift. This can be seen particularly in the syn-rift and syn-compressional successions. Both the type and occurrence of 3rd-order sequences (in respect to stratigraphy, depositional environments, reservoirs, source rocks and facies) depends of the type of 2nd-order cycle to which they belong. A full understanding of these characteristics observed in the data is essential to the analysis of the stratigraphic signature of a basin.

INTRODUCTION of the stratigraphic cycles allows proper application of the different predictive models. The depositional (3rd-order) sequence is the basic strati- The transgressive/regressive facies analysis is not indepen- graphic unit of sequence stratigraphy (Mitchum et al., 1977, dent of the sequence stratigraphic approach, until we integrate Vail et al., 1977, Vail 1987, Van Wagoner et al., 1987, 1990). the depositional (3rd-order) sequences within the context of the Third-order depositional sequence are defined on the basis of longer term (2nd-order) accommodation cycles. In that context, stratal geometry and physical relationship, using objective stra- the term transgressive defines stratal packages characterized by tal and facies criteria, whose scales are always compatible with aggradationally-stacked or retrogradationally-stacked deposi- those of outcrop and well log. According to sequence stratigraphic concepts, the distribution of these stratigraphic features tional sequences. The term regressive defines stratal packages primarily depends on shelfal accommodation changes. There- characterized by progradationally-stacked depositional se- fore, to create new space for sediment that has filled the shelf quences. The definition of second-order cycles is independent or the platform to sea level, a relative sea-level rise is necessary. of the nature, erosional or not, of their boundaries. Thus it dif- On the contrary, a relative sea-level fall is necessary to cause a fers from the definition of the 2nd-order super-sequences of the significant exposure surface. Unfortunately, the low resolution chart given by Haq et al. (1987, 1988), or the definition of of seismic data generally does not allow the complete recog- second-order transgressive/regressive cycles of Embry (1993); nition of all the constituent elements of depositional sequences, both are based on a hierarchy of cycle boundaries, ignoring the except in areas with a high rate of sediment supply and tectonic long-term evolution of accommodation space. Our second-or- subsidence. The seismic stratigraphic methodology (Vail et al., der cycles correspond best with the definition of post-rift me- 1977) contributed to the solution of such problems by using the gasequences (Steel, 1993), which consist of successively patterns of both the reflectors and their termination (i.e. onlap, stacked basinward-stepping and then of landward-stepping pro- toplap etc.). Thus, the resulting seismic stratigraphic framework gradational “tongues” but are genetically linked with a passive depends more on the nature of the major bounding surfaces, margin evolution. than on the facies and stratal stacking patterns between these Second-order transgressive/regressive cycles have a time du- surfaces. The transgressive/regressive facies cycle (2nd-order) ration ranging from 3 to 30 million years. Geohistory analysis analysis combines both approaches, by first examining the seis- shows that they are caused by 2nd-order relative sea-level mic scale (large-scale stratal pattern and termination) and sec- changes, mostly created by variations in the long-term (1st- ond by utilizing the outcrop/core and well-log scale to deter- order) subsidence evolution (Fig. 2). Detailed backstripping mine the facies stacking pattern and the partitioning of analysis for the Jurassic interval in the North Sea, for example, sediments following changes in shelfal accommodation. The shows a close relationship between the pattern of transgressive/ transgressive/regressive facies analysis is an interdependent ap- regressive cycles and changes in accommodation (Fig. 3). It is proach whose main purpose is to build the hierarchy of strati- clear that each regressive phase corresponds to a decrease in graphic cycles (Fig. 1). This is important because each type of the rate of accommodation and each transgressive phase to an ן cycle (from the higher to the lower frequency) has a different increasing rate of accommodation. Both the amplitude (n predictive facies model, therefore understanding the hierarchy 102 m) and the duration of these accommodation cycles (3 to

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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Infilling sequences TRANSGRESSIVE - REGRESSIVE FACIES CYCLES (2ND ORDER) Infilling sequences develop in the early phase of an overall facies regression, either by aggradation or by progradation onto Characteristics of boundaries : starved, generally shale-prone deposits of the previous 2nd-or- * Maximum Regression : top lowstand and correlative unconformity landward of the last forestepping sequence der peak transgression. The relatively small amount of progra- * Peak transgression : maximum flooding surface and dation related to the infilling sequence is a consequence of the correlative strata landward of the last backstepping sequence accommodation space still being created but with a decreasing Causes and effects : rate over a long time. The 3rd-order infilling sequences may * 2nd Order relative sea-level changes pinch-out by downlap towards the basin, just above the peak created by modulations within the thermal long-term basin subsidence transgression surface. induced by changes in the intraplate stress but also created by: * Long-term eustatic changes Through time, 3rd-order infilling sequences extend further * Long-term variations in the carbonate productivity into the basin by overall progradation. Commonly, the thickness and / or terrigenous flux. of shelf and basin sections are similar with neither a major EXPLORATION APPLICATION erosional surface nor any particular enhancement of highstand Major Regional Correlations from Key Logs and seismic versus lowstand systems tracts. Such geometries are not dependent on the nature of the sediment, carbonate or siliciclastics. Second order Cycles may be bounded by Lowstand turbidites, slumped beds, megabreccias and other erosionaly tectonicaly enhanced unconformities reflecting non-periodic uplift events separating subsidence epidodes. gravity deposits are seldom formed during that stage. * These events are predictable; * They are associated with major highstand reservoirs; * Forestepping sequences with large lowstand deposits Forestepping Sequences are merged towards the bounding unconformities. Forestepping sequences form large prograding intervals, merging landward into an erosional unconformity surface. Such SEQUENCE CYCLES (3rd tO 4th ORDER) a surface forms in response to major basinward shifts of the coastal onlap. Forestepping sequences typically occur during Characteristics : * Varying stratal patterns and stratal terminations depending on the later phase of overall facies regression. Landward, they the position within T-R cycles of lower frequency. pinch out by onlap, either below the storm wave-base or at the * Infilling and forestepping sequences may develop during regressive phase. fair-weather wave-base (offlap break of previous sequences), * Aggrading and backstepping sequences may develop during transgressive phase. depending on the hydrodynamic conditions and the depositional Causes and effects : * Defined on the basis of the shelfal accommodation changes SECOND ORDER TRANSGRESSIVE / REGRESSIVE FACIES CYCLES and bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities induced by relative sea-level falls TRIAS LIAS DOGGER MALM LOWER CRET. UPPER CRET. associated with 3rd to 4th order relative sea-level cycles. 210.0 179.5 159.2 141.2 111.0 Ca NoR-HS - P T-A B-B-CO-K TB-VH-B A p A l CT-C-S C-M Depth (meters)

230.0 180.0 130.0 80.0 EXPLORATION APPLICATION -100 Eustasy Field scale correlations from a systematic approach 100 on all available well logs tied to seismic analysis Water depth 300 Third-order sequences vary depending on the position 500 within T-R cycles of lower frequency. Tectonic Their strattal pattern and facies stacking pattern is predictable 700 within the second-order framework subsidence 900 + Eustasy 1100 FIG. 1.—Definition and principal characteristics of 2nd-order transgressive/ 1300 HIATUS regressive facies cycles and 3rd-order depositional sequences. 1500 HIATUS 1700 30 my) fit with the intraplate stress model proposed by S. Cloe- 1900 Total tingh et al. (1986 a, b), in which the lithospheric stress field is 2100 accommod. = correlatable with and may control the change of the sea-level. 2300 Tectonic 2500 subsidence + ORGANIZATION OF TRANSGRESSIVE-REGRESSIVE FACIES CYCLES 3 4756 89 Loading Ligurian Tethys North Sea North Atlantic subsidence + Four types of 3rd-order depositional sequences may develop Eustasy within a 2nd-order transgressive/regressive facies cycles (Jac- Transgressive Regressive quin et al., 1992). They are called (a) infilling and forestepping FIG.2.—Diagram illustrating the relationship between second-order cycles during the regressive phase and (b) aggrading and backstepping and the pattern of accommodation through time. Increasing accommodation during the transgressive phase (Fig. 4). We insist on the point during transgressive phases and conversely, decreasing accommodation during that the 3rd-order sequences are the building blocks of the 2nd- regressive phases modulate the first-order long-term evolution of the subsi- order facies cycles. So that each phase—infilling, forestepping, dence. Ca: Carnian; No: Norian; R-H: Raethian-Hettangian; S-P: Sinemurian- Pliensbachian; T-A: Toarcian-Aalenian; B-B: Bajocian-Bathonian; O-K: Ox- aggrading and backstepping—include several 3rd-order depo- fordian-Kimmeridgian; T: Tithonian; B-V: Berriasian-Valanginian; H-B: sitional sequences which characteristics is depending on their Hauterivian-Barremian; Ap: Aptian; Al: Albian; C: Cenomanian; T-C-S: Tu- position within the 2nd-order facies cycle. ronian-Coniacian-Santonian; C-M: Campanian-Maa¨strichtian.

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Subsidence rates on Tampen Spur (northern North Sea) Etive facies) is a good example of such forestepping highstand in a deltaic environment. Basin ﬂoor fans consisting of megabreccias and other types of massive gravity deposits are characteristic of this phase (Jacquin et al., 1991). Slope fans consisting of turbidites, channel overbank deposits and slumps can Forestepping (B-R-E Fm) Cook Burton Aggrading (Ness s.s. Fm) be well-developed in carbonate settings in siliciclastic settings, Amundsen Backstepping (Tarbert Fm) however, they are more common features. Lowstand prograding R4b R5 R6 T7 T7' complexes consist of thick prograding intervals, where facies change from coarse grainstones or sandstones to slope mudstones (Fig. 5). Individual sand-prone prograding or turbiditic Domerian Carixian Tarbert Unc. wedges can extend at a great distance basinwards from the basin Unc. Mid Cim. margin. In the interval representing the maximum progradation, Unc. Unc. several erosional surfaces can be amalgamated landward and also basinward on structural highs (Graciansky et al., this volume). Such merged erosional surfaces are indicative of very little accommodation space at this late stage of the regression.

Accommodation Rates cm/Ky When the amalgamated surfaces develop landward, they relate to successive downward shifts of coastal onlap, leading to subaerial erosional processes. Synchronous surfaces may also de- Accommodation rate Total subsidence rate velop on intrabasinal structural highs (such as the raised edges of tilted blocks), giving birth to submarine erosional features and associated subsequent burrowed and/or encrusted, hard tectonic subsi- ground-type surfaces. Submarine erosion results from the by ם FIG.3.—Accommodation and total subsidence (eustasy ם dence loading subsidence) through time on Tampen Spur (northern North pass of coarse sediments to more subsiding basinal locations. Sea). During Liassic times (Amundsen and Cook cycles deposition), transgressive/regressive cycles are highly asymetric with a rapid decrease of the accommodation and total subsidence during the regressive phases (R4 and R5). Maximum Regression The mid-Cimmerian unconformity is recorded as an uplift (182.7–180.0 my) This uplift caused a major facies downward shift and induced the rapid pro- The maximum regression occurs at the top lowstand of the gradation of the Brent delta (the lower part, Broom, Rannoch and Etive For- last forestepping sequence (Fig. 5). The last forestepping se- mations within R6). The onset of the Bajocian transgression (T7) is observed in the lower part of the aggradational Ness Formation, when the accommoda- quence in the shallow-marine setting illustrates the lowest ag- tion becomes positive (change at 177.3, from long-term fall with negative val- gradational potential of the regressive phase. More precisely, ues to long-term rise with positive values). Most of the aggradational alluvial this point is reached at the turning point when the ratio of pro- plain deposits (Ness Formation) are deposited during a period of increasing gradation/aggradation for each 3rd-order depositional sequence accommodation (from 177.3 to 173.9 my). The Tarbert unconformity (onset of extensional tectonic in the northern North Sea) perturbates that trend. Unc.: evolves from increasing values (forestepping phase) to decreas- unconformity; Mid Cim. Unc.: Mid Cimmerian unconformity. ing values (Fig. 7, Jacquin and Schlager, 1993). In the deep- marine settings, this point generally coincides with the last sequence of a stack of 3rd-order sequences displaying particularly profile. The unconformity surface that develops landward, cor- thick lowstand deposits (Graciansky et al., 1993, this volume). responds to a 3rd-order sequence boundary, enhanced by low rates of tectonic subsidence, uplift of the basin margin and fault- Aggrading Sequences ing or folding (Jacquin et al., 1991). The maximum progradation (i.e., the maximum regression) is younger in age than such Aggrading sequences develop in the early phase of the trans- unconformities (Steel, 1993). For example, the maximum progressive period (keep-up stage in carbonate environments). gradation within the Brent Group can be dated of the Upper They form thick, widespread, low-energy, lagoonal deposits Aalenian, whereas the onset of the thermal doming and asso- that build up during transgressive and highstand systems tracts. ciated unconformities at the origin of sediment production by They may comprise evaporites (Carnian salts in the Paris basin, erosion and overall progradation of the Brent delta is Late Toar- Goggin et al., this volume); mudstones (Late Barremian Ur- cian. (Underhill and Partington, 1993). This illustrates that sub- gonian, Arnaud and Arnaud-Vanneau., 1990, Jacquin et al., dividing the stratigraphy on the basis of the nature of the un- 1993); alluvial plain deposits, including peat and coal (Bajocian conformities or bounding surfaces only, may lead to errors. Ness Formation of the North Sea; Helland-Hansen et al., 1992); Forestepping sequences comprise thick lowstand systems and stacked braided fluviatile systems (Late Triassic Lunde For- tracts composed of basin floor fans and/or forced-regressive mation, Steel, 1993). On seismic lines, they are recorded as wedges, slope fans and thick lowstand prograding complexes widespread, generally low-amplitude reflectors (Fig. 7). (Fig. 5). Highstand shelf members are thin or absent on the The most restricted sediments can be deposited at this stage, platform, because little or no space is created on the shelf. A forming great thicknesses which indicates an increasing shelfal large prograding highstand systems tracts may develop, with accommodation and not a maximum regression, as frequently thin shelfal sections and large prograding clinoforms seaward. misinterpreted from the presence of restricted facies only. It is This can be documented in carbonate settings (Fig. 6), also during this stage that carbonate platforms are best developed, siliciclastic settings. The seaward stepping shoreface in the because of the increasing accommodation space in which car- lower part of the Brent cycle in the North Sea (Rannoch and bonates growth can keep up. This relationship prevents lateral

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BACKSTEPPING SEQUENCE AGGRADING SEQUENCE HST HST TST Thin but widespread TST highstand deposits Thick shoaling upward highstand deposits D BACKSTEPPING AGGRADING cycle T INFILLING Second-order

Third-order FORESTEPPING cycle

INFILLING SEQUENCE FORESTEPPING SEQUENCE HST HST TST TST LST Moderately progradational lowstand deposits Thick progradational lowstand deposits

FIG.4.—The four types of depositional sequences that may be recorded within a second-order cycle. Each of these stages (Inﬁlling and forestepping during the regressive phase, aggrading and backstepping during the transgressive phase) may show several 3rd-order depositional sequences. Note that tectonically enhanced unconformities (T) develop some distance below the level of maximum progradation (forestepping sequences). Backstepping sequences typically thin upward to a surface of drowning (D) where several 3rd-order depositional sequences may be merged by sediment starvation. LST: lowstand systems tract; TST: transgressive systems tract; HST: highstand systems tract.

SOUTH CROSS SECTION OF THE URGONIAN PLATFORM MARGIN NORTH

Glandage Combeau Rock Montagnette & Archiane upper cliff & Archiane lower cliff Gd. Veymont Malaval Somt. Pas de la Balme B5 B5 B4 B3 B4 F B3 B2 B1 Slope front erosion B2 B0 B1 Paris Pas de la Dijon Balme Tête de Praorzel B0 Lyon Tête Chevalière 200 km Malaval 2 Km Mt. Aiguille N Gd. Veymont Faults Zone

Chichilianne VERCORS Gresse-en-Vercors PLATEAU Rousset Pass UPPER LOWSTAND SEDIMENTS (Prograding ) Mont Aiguille Montagnette faulted zone LOWER LOWSTAND SEDIMENTS HIGHSTAND SEDIMENTS 400 m (Onlapping turbidites) Backstepping & Forestepping Glandage

FIG.5.—Cross section of the Urgonian platform margin (Lower Barremian) in the Vercors area (SE France). Lower Barremian forestepping sequences (B0 to top lowsand of B3) consist of highly prograding bioclastic rimmed-shelf deposits. The northern part of the cross section shows the development of large prograding complexes (mainly lowstand, but also highstand). On the southern part (south of the Mont Aiguille fault zone), these forestepping sequences are represented by stack, bioclastic slope fan and gravity deposits with several internal erosional surfaces indicative of slope failure. The turning point between the overall progradation and aggradation at the top lowstand of B3 is indicated by a tongue of more open-marine facies interﬁngering landward within the bioclastic shelfal deposits. B0 to B5 refer to 3rd order depositional sequences dated as Barremian.

SOUTH EASTERN SIDE OF THE VERCORS PLATEAU NORTH 80 75 30 Younger sequences :< 0 B5 B4 B3 150 90 > 50

B2 200 m 1 km

B1 Rounded bioclastic grainstones-packstone B0 and/or coated grains lmst Bioclastic packstones-wackestone PROGRADATION / AGGRADATION RATIO : and/or coated grains limestone - increases during regressive phase Skeletal, micritic limestone - decreases during transgressive phase (rudist-rich, lagoonal) Skeletal, grain-rich limestone Prog. (coral-stromatoporid-rich Aggr. or oolitic) Bioclastic, platform-derived turbidites Fossiliferous shale

FIG.6.—Facies and systems tract organization of the Lower Barremian forestepping sequences outcropping along the eastern escarpment of the southern Vercors. B0 to B3 sequences are characterized by decreasing aggradation/progradation (A/P) ratio, whereas B3 to B5 sequences have an increasing A/P ratio, which the conﬁrms the turning point between overall progradation and aggradation. B0 to B5 refer to 3rd order depositional sequences dated as Barremian.

outgrowth and promotes upbuilding and consequently rimmed such a backstepping phase and are known through out Europe shelf profiles (Jacquin and Schlager, 1993). (Marchand, 1984). These deposits yield one of the major hy- Siliciclastic settings may also show rapid and widespread drocarbon reservoirs of the Paris basin (Villeperdue field, Du- alluvial plain aggradation during this stage if the terrigenous val, 1992; Fitzeral and Mousset, 1987). sediment supply is high enough. Maximum regression, maxi- Backstepping sequences thin upward to a drowning surface mum progradation and maximum aggradation occur at different (Fig. 7, look at particularly the Kimmeridgian and Callovian times and places. The maximum regression does not coincides backstepping sequences). This sequence is not necessarily syn- always with the shallowest facies recorded. They all depend on chronous over the entire platform depending on lateral changes the balance between sediment production and shelfal accom- of sediment supply. Above the drowning surface, a condensed modation. High rates of sedimentation can fill all the space interval commonly develops where several 3rd-order deposi- created and can maintain sub-aerial exposure conditions even tional sequences may be merged by sediment starvation (Fig. during periods of long-term rise of relative sea-level, as in the 9). The timing of the drowning surface is dependent on the aggradational interval of the 2nd-order transgressive phase. balance between sediment production and shelfal accommodation. The drowning surface is not necessarily at peak trans- Backstepping Sequences gression (Fig. 8). As a consequence, backstepping sequences Backstepping sequences are characteristic of the final stage are poorly resolved on seismic profiles due to their thinness. of the transgressive phase. Here the sediments are not produced They generally coincide with a strong reflection amplitude gen- fast enough to fill in all the space being created, thus the dep- erated at the interface between overlying marine condensed sec- ositional environments backstep. When approaching the 2nd- tions and underlying layers. order peak transgression, the third-order lowstands deposits are In areas where the platform underwent an earlier drowning, generally not well developed. The most common are rather a subtidal shaley package of the aggradational lowstand systems perched lowstand systems tracts or shelf margin wedges (Vail, tract at sequence boundaries may develop between the drown- 1987; Vail et al., 1991; Van Wagoner et al., 1990). The effects ing unconformity and the peak transgression (Fig. 7, Kimmer- of downward shift at sequence boundaries may be subdued, idgian transgressive phase). Backstepping sequences thin bas- limiting subaerial erosion and bypassing conditions. inward because of the process of sediment starvation that occurs The transgressive and highstand systems tracts on the outer when depositional environments backstep. They commonly dis- parts of shelves and platforms are mainly composed of rela- play thin basin members with high TOC values within the tively thin, high-energy facies. Backstepping sandstones, lag shaley highstand condensed sections. deposits and ravinement surfaces are one of the common fea- The overall retrogradation of the depositional environments tures of that interval with rapid relative sea-level rise and as- following an aggradational phase of growth often induces a sociated wave base erosion. In the Paris Basin, the Callovian change in depositional profiles. This is particularly noticeable bioclastic sandstones, preceeding the lowermost Oxfordian in carbonate settings, due to the ability of carbonates to keep 2nd-order peak transgression (Fig. 8) were deposited during up with rapid rises of relative sea-level and to form rimmed

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Second Margerie 1 Formation GR Sonic order

name cycle First order cycles PARIS BASIN STRATIGRAPHIC Stages 0 150 40140 Type of C. Craie SIGNATURE

Gault and (NORTH SEA CYCLE) Sables verts Alb. Argiles à T15 Plicatules R14 T14 R13 T13 A. A. et Sables bariolés R12 T12

Ba. Argiles ostréennes R11c H. Calcaire à spatangues T11c

B. Wealden NORTH ATLANTIC CYCLE Purbeckian T10 R9 D EASTERN PARIS BASIN Tithon (DER AREA) Marnes à Nanogyra virgula SW NE 4 km 0.10 R12

0.20

Kimmeridgian T11C T9 0.30 C R9

0.40 R8 T9

R8 0.50 Oxfordian

Oolithe T8 0.60 Marnes à NORTH SEA CYCLE ferrugineuse R7 Creniceras T7 R6 0.70 Callov.

B T8 0.80 R7 Bathoni. Marnes à O. D -> Portlandian platform acuminata (Calcaire du Barrois Fm.) A Bajoc. T7 C -> Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian platform R6 (Calcaire de Tonnerre Fm.) B -> Bathonian platform (Calcaire de Comblanchien Fm.)

Toarcian Schistes Carton A -> Bajocian platform 50 m (Calcaire à Entroques Fm.) LIGURIAN CYCLE

FIG.7.—Well log and seismic signatures of Jurassic transgressive/regressive cycles in the Paris Basin. B.: Berriasian; H.: Hauterivian; Barremian: A.: Aptian; Alb.: Albian; C.: Cenomanian.

SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTION EASTERN PARIS BASIN S MACONNAIS COTE DE BEAUNE COTE DE NUITS N .Oxf.)= widespread marker be d: Ferruginous Oolite (U.Call.-L Peak transgression L.Oxf **************************Ca2** ************************************************** "Ladoix" L. U. Cal llovian t ilting mid-Upp. Ca "Sponge" M. Ca1 "Rhynchonelles" L. Lower "Collyrites" Marls "Digonelles" M. "Dijon-Corton" Limes. Ca0 CALLOVIAN "Eudesia" Marls Bt5 CALLOVIAN Lower Upper "COMBLANCHIEN" platform "Ph. bellona" Marls Bt4

"COMBLANCHIEN" platform Upper Upper BATHONIAN BATHON. "Ph. bellona" Marls Bt3 "Oolite Blanche" Platform below Lowstand perched Innershelf deposits Outershelf deposits Offshore marls bioclastic limestone Top lowstand Maximum Flooding approx. 20 Km Sequence boundary systems tract Surface

FIG.8.—Schematic organization of Callovian backstepping sequences in the southeastern Paris Basin (adapted from Floquet et al., 1989 and Garcia, 1993). U. Call: Upper Callovian; L. Ox: Lower Oxfordian; M: marl; L. limestone; Ph: Pholadomya. Bt3 to Bt5 and Ca0 to Ca2 refer to 3rd-order depositional sequences dated as Bathonian and Callovian, respectively.

shelves during the aggradational phase. Conversely, during the shelf and basin settings (with increasing subsidence towards the backstepping phase, the landward retreat of depositional envi- basin). In proximal locations (Fig. 11A), extremely condensed, ronments may produce various morphologies: distally steep- high-energy deposits (such as ferruginous oolites or phosphatic- ened ramps, isolated raised rims or empty lagoon (i.e., empty glauconitic sands) are amalgamated with numerous internal bucket geometry, Schlager, 1992; Jacquin and Schlager, 1993). erosional surfaces (classical backstepping sequences). The only preserved sediments correspond to successive 3rd-order maxi- Peak Transgression mum flooding surfaces. In distal locations (Fig. 11B), these condensed deposits interfinger with terrigenous silty shales. The peak transgression is placed at the maximum flooding These shales form wedge-shaped units onlaping onto the basin surface of the backstepping sequence displaying the maximum margins (the “healing phase” wedge). They may comprise or- shelfal accommodation potential. It can be traced from the ganic-rich layers especially during time equivalents of trans- deepest interval on the outershelf to the most aggradational in- gressive lags of the backstepping sequences. Their thickness terval on the platform. Second-order peak transgressions are can reach those of the preceding shoreface deposits. Suspension among the best correlatable surfaces within marine series, is the main mechanism of transport, but turbiditic and/or storm- where they are resolved as through-going high-amplitude re- derived sandstones with good reservoirs characteristics can also flectors (Fig. 7) sometimes associated with large-scale downlap be found. These healing phase wedges, that are time of the 2nd- termination. Good potential source rocks associated with sedi- order backstepping phase, including the peak transgression, ment starvation may be found at that time (Loutit et al., 1988). compare well with the parasequence scale “healing phase unit” defined by Posamentier and Allen, 1993. A Particular Case: The Healing Phase Wedge The tectonic setting, rather than the backstepping phase, is During transgressive phases, the landward migration of the probably the main factor inducing the development of the 2nd- shoreline is able to remove sediments from the substrate, re- order “healing phase”. Sediments derived from ravinement pro- sulting in successive ravinement surfaces. This allows the dep- cesses during overall transgression accumulate where the ac- osition of backstepping washover sands landward, transgressive commodation potential is the highest. Therefore, the lag deposits seaward (Swift, 1968, 1975) and, in particular con- preservation of the 2nd-order healing phase is more likely to ditions, a sigmoidal-shaped sedimentary wedge further seaward occur when the subsidence on the slope or on the basin margin that has been called the “healing phase deposit” (Posamentier is much more rapid than on the shelf itself. and Allen, 1993 a,b). This process has been described basically Both the Late-Middle Jurassic Black Shales (Terres Noires) at parasequences scale within 3rd-order transgressive systems and the Mid-Cretaceous Blue Marls (Marnes bleues) in the Sub- tract. alpine Basin (SE France) are good examples of healing phase A similar organization (Fig. 10) can be shown at the 2nd- wedges (Fig. 10). They both developed at the onset of the post- order scale when strong differential subsidence occurs between rift thermal cooling subsidence, associated with Tethyan

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breakup (Terres Noires) and North Atlantic breakup (Marnes BOUDREVILLE SECTION bleues). STARVED PEAK-TRANSGRESSION EFFECTS OF SEDIMENT PRODUCTION AND ACCOMMODATION CHANGE Four end-member types of transgressive/regressive facies cy- 2nd- 3rd- Order

Order cles can be deﬁned depending on: (1) the capability of sediment C. cordatum Ox2 deposition to keep up with relative sea-level rises, thus con- to P. plicatilis Low-Mid trolling the development of aggrading sequences and (2) the OXFORDIAN Ox1 Zones rate at which accommodation space changes, controlling the Oolite P. athleta Zone mfs Up. (H. trezeense Sz) Ca4 development of forestepping sequences and associated tecton- Ferrugineuse E. coronatum Zone mfs ically enhanced sequence boundaries during the regressive Mi. (D. grossouvrei Sz) Ca3 phase (Jacquin et al., 1993). Various 2nd-order cycles give a EXPOSURE different prediction on both the type and occurrence of 3rd- SURFACE order sequences in respect to stratigraphy, depositional environments, source rocks and facies. These four types (Fig. 12) can be shortly described as: (1) with or without an aggrading phase depending on the sedimentary supply and (2) with or without a forestepping phase depending on the tectonic regime.

Transgressive/Regressive Cycles with Aggrading Sequences Such transgressive/regressive cycles imply high rates of sediment supply in order to ﬁll all the available space being created Lower AL4 ********************************************* HST Ca2

CALLOVIAN Ap6 Ap5 mfs 5 m Ap3-4 Ap3 top Urgonian platform ***** Phosphatic hardground A. Northern Vercors Patform Section

CALCAIRES A RHYNCHONELLES CALCAIRES 1m LST AL4 (102.8)

adapted after (J. Thierry, 1988) widespread low-mid ALBIAN basin starvation OAE1 FIG.9.—Lower Oxfordian peak transgression in Burgundy (SE Paris Ba- LST sin—from Javaud, 1993). mfs: maximum ﬂooding surface; Ca3 to Ca4 and Ap6 (108.2)

Ox1 and Ox2 refer to 3rd-order depositional sequences dated as Callovian and BLACK SHALES condensed section Oxfordian, respectively.

LST

Fig. 11A Widespread

AL4 black shales UPPER APTIAN Ap5 (109.5) 0 Gargasian Clansayesian condensed section Ap3 Fig. 11B LST Top Urgonian platform Ap4 (110.5) Slump scar AL4 condensed section Synsedimentary faults and basin deepening 100m Ap3 APT low LST HEALING SEQUENCE B. Vocontian Basin Section (SE France) FIG. 10.—2nd-order peak transgression associated with “healing phase” sequences. The healing phase wedge is restricted to slopes and basin margins. It FIG. 11.—Aptian “healing phase” sequences on the southern front of the merges landward by onlap towards the peak transgression. The sediments are Vercors plateau. Ages in million years. LST: lowstand systems tract; mfs: max- mainly shaley, sometimes organic matter-rich. Slumped beds are common. Ap3 imum ﬂooding surface; Ap3, Ap4, Ap5, Ap6 and AL4 refer to 3rd-order dep- and AL4 refer to two 3rd-order depositional sequences dated as Aptian and ositional sequences dated as Aptian and Albian, respectively; OAE1: Oceanic Albian, respectively. anoxic event 1.

WITHOUT AGGRADING PHASE WITH AGGRADING PHASE

END MEMBER TYPICAL OF TEMPERATE TYPE END MEMBER TYPICAL OF SOUTHERN TETHYAN CARBONATE PLATFORMS AND SILICICLASTIC SHELVES TYPE CARBONATE PLATFORMS (MODERATE TECTONIC CONTROL) (MODERATE TECTONIC CONTROL) BACKSTEPPING Drowning Unconformity BACKSTEPPING No Drowning Unconformity

T AGGRADING T INFILLING R INFILLING R WITHOUT I A Depth I B Depth B Time Time FORESTEPPING PHASE

END MEMBER TYPICAL OF TEMPERATE TYPE END MEMBER TYPICAL OF NORTHERN TETHYAN CARBONATE PLATFORMS AND SILICICLASTIC SHELVES TYPE CARBONATE PLATFORMS (STRONG TECTONIC CONTROL) (STRONG TECTONIC CONTROL)

BACKSTEPPING Drowning unconformity BACKSTEPPING Drowning unconformity

T AGGRADING T INFILLING R WITH INFILLING R

I F FORESTEPPING Depth A

Depth I FORESTEPPING B F B Time Several tectonically enhanced unconformities Time Several tectonically enhanced unconformities FORESTEPPING PHASE

FIG. 12.—Variations of large-scale stratal pattern of second-order transgressive/regressive facies cycles with different sediment productions and tectonic controls. I: inﬁlling phase; F: forestepping phase; A: aggrading phase; B: backstepping phase.

during the transgressive phase. They are characteristic of south periods of moderate to low tectonic activity, such as the post- Tethyan-type carbonate platforms (Jacquin and Vail, 1995). rift period of passive margin’s evolution. The lack of forestep- They may show tremendously thick aggradational buildups due ping sequence is the consequence of the overall relative sea- to the high growth potential of the Tethyan carbonate factories, level rises throughout the whole second-order cycle without any as long as they remain healthy (Schlager, 1992). Cretaceous long-term fall during the regressive phase. Decreasing and in- Apulian platforms (D’Argenio et al., 1987, 1991) or Triassic creasing rates of relative sea-level rise create respectively the buildups from the Dolomites of the Southern Alps (Gianolla et regressive and transgressive phases. al., this volume; De Zanche et al., 1993) are examples. In sili- The Comblanchien carbonate platform in the Bathonian-Cal- ciclastic settings, similar conditions are reached when uplift on lovian of the Paris Basin (Rat et al., 1986; Thierry, 1980) de- basin margins and wet climatic conditions supply abundant sed- veloped during one cycle of infilling-aggrading-backstepping- iment to the shelfal areas. The Triassic succession in the North type (Fig. 8). This carbonate platform is made up of a relatively Sea is a good example (Steel, 1993). comformable succession of genetically linked depositional en- The accumulation potential of both terrestrial organic matter vironments, with a stratal pattern indicative of infilling se- (leading to coal measures) and evaporites can also be high quences (with moderate progradation) during the regressive enough to form thick aggrading sequences during 2nd-order phase and aggrading followed by backstepping sequences dur- transgressions. This can be exemplified respectively by the Car- ing the transgressive phase. During the regressive phase, facies boniferous paralic basins of western Europe (Courel, 1989) and of the infilling sequences evolve from offshore marls (Marnes the Keuper evaporitic succession of the Germanic Triassic in aÀcuminata, late Bajocian) to high-energy tidal oolitic grain- both Germany and Paris basins (Courel et al., 1994; Bourquin stones (Oolite Blanche, late Bathonian). Although these high- and Guillocheau, 1993; Courel et al., this volume; Goggin and energy grainstones extend a great distance basinward from pre- Jacquin, this volume). vious shelf edges, they do not form forestepping sequences, because they don’t merge landward towards an unconformity. Infilling-Forestepping-Aggrading-Backstepping.— However, on structural highs in neighboring areas such as the It is the most complete cycle with aggrading and backstep- Burgundy High and the Jura fold belt, mid-Bathonian oolitic ping sequences during the transgressive phase, infilling and fo- forestepping sequences develop laterally into a major uncon- restepping sequences during the regressive phase. It has already formity in response to a regional extensional tectonic episode. been reviewed in the previous section of this paper, related to The vertical change from progadational infilling to aggrada- the organization of transgressive/regressive facies cycles. tional is marked by the change from grainstones (Oolite Blanche) to mudstones with frequent subaerial exposure sur- Infilling-Aggrading-Backstepping.— faces (Comblanchien). This is followed by the Callovian back- Recognized as nearly symmetrical cycles, without forestep- stepping sequences (Fig. 8) which indicate a return to high- ping sequences and any major unconformities, they form during energy tidal environments (Javaux, 1992).

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Transgressive-Regressive Cycle without Aggrading Sequences synrift phases of basin evolution where the pattern of tectonic subsidence is decreasing nearly at an exponential rate (Figs. 2, The absence of aggrading sequences within a long-term 3). The most typical cycle of that sort in northwestern Europe transgressive episode can be related to several causes: (1) the is the NЊ4 (Lower Pliensbachian): Northern North Sea basins rate of long-term rise of relative sea-level exceeds the rate of (Amundsen cycle, Steel, 1993), Yorkshire basin (Red Scar Cy- the sediment production so that depositional environments cle, Ivimey-Cook and Donovan, 1983; Powell, 1984), Paris and move landward (or backstep) to a shallower higher position on Aquitaine basins (Calcaire a`Davoei cycle, Guillocheau, 1991; the shelf; (2) the particularly rapid rise of the relative sea-level, Graciansky et al., this volume), Subalpine basin in southeastern induced either by tectonism or by eustasy, may inhibit the sed- France (Carixian cycle, Graciansky et al., 1993). iment supply. These cycles are characteristic of North Tethyan carbonate platforms such as the Lower Jurassic units of the German and London-Paris Basin where the production potential CONCLUSIONS is much lower than in the Southern Tethyan counterparts; and The different types of 2nd-order transgressive/regressive cy- (3) when adverse conditions, such as temperature lowering or cles are defined on the basis of stratal geometries and physical the arrival of turbide waters or clastic terrigenous sediments, relationships, using objective stratal and facies criteria, inde- affect the ability of carbonate platforms to produce and export pendently of the frequency of occurrence, the nature of cycle sediments (Jacquin and Vail, 1995). boundaries and depositional processes. Such characteristics are Second-order cycles, without aggrading sequences, are the only dependent on the rate at which long-term accommodation most common in siliciclastic settings. This is due to the fact is created. The physical characteristics of the transgressive/re- that siliciclastic depositional environments lack in-situ sedi- gressive cycles, such as the duration and amplitude of accom- ment factories (as reefal carbonate platform rims) and are more modation, the wavelength of the linked deformation and the likely to move landward or seaward in response to fluctuations lateral extent of the amount of seaward and landward stepping, of relative sea-level, instead of stacking upwards. are the main features that determine the stratigraphic signature Infilling-Backstepping.— of individual basin or subbasins. In consequence, these features can be quantified using conventional backstripping analysis and This transgressive/regressive cycle is the most symmetrical measuring physical parameters such as the aggradation/progra- of the four end-members. The seaward-stepping units (infilling dation ratio. sequences) comprise prograding sequences characterized by About 18 transgressive/regressive cycles have been found progradation/aggradation ratios of less than 10, which means a within the Western European stratigraphic successions (Gian- moderate amount of progradation with respect to aggradation. olla et al., Graciansky et al. and Jacquin et al., this volume). The successive marine sandstone “tongues” derived from the They are relatively synchronous at the craton scale. This syn- nearshore prograding wedges pinch out seaward into marine chroneity suggests a tectono-eustatic control. Cycles that are shales. The landward stepping units (backstepping sequences) not synchronous, even within a single basin, result from vari- can be very thin, as a result of repetitive ravinement processes. ations in local sea-floor subsidence/uplift. This can be particu- Backstepping sequences are frequently condensed in the basin, larly seen in the synrift and syn-compressional successions. as a consequence of sediment starvation. The late Pliensbachian Long-term accommodation changes affect the pattern and fa- (Lower Liassic) succession of northwestern European basins cies of third-order depositional sequences, that are the building (cycle 5) is an example: Mid Norway basins (Tilje cycle, Dal- blocks of the transgressive/regressive facies cycles. Four types land et al., 1988), Northern North Sea Basins (Cook Cycle, of third-order depositional sequences, infilling, forestepping, Dore´ et al. 1985; Steel, 1993), Yorkshire basin (Staithes Sand- aggrading, backstepping, can be documented as a direct con- stones cycle, Ivimey-Cook et al., 1983; Powell, 1984), Paris sequence of these long-term accommodation changes. These Basin (Calcaires a`Grypheés and Gre`s me´dio liasiques cycles, four types of depositional sequences have been documented in Graciansky et al., this volume), Eastern Aquitaine (Barre a`Pec- both siliciclastic and carbonate settings and in a broad range of tens cycle, Rey and Cubaynes, 1991), Holland (Aalburg cycles, structural settings. A full understanding of these four types of Nederlandsee, A.M., 1980). sequences is essential to avoid the classical confusion between Infilling-Forestepping-Backstepping.— second-order T/R cycles and third-order depositional sequences whose limits and system tracts could have been influenced by The infilling-forestepping-backstepping-type of 2nd-order local conditions. Most of the criticism of seismic stratigraphy cycle is the most asymmetrical of the four end members. Shore- and sequence stratigraphy rightly focuses on the inadequacy of face sediments from forestepping sequences may extend tens seismic lines to resolve stratigraphic features and on the fre- of kilometers out into the basin. They merge towards major quent lack of objective unconformity-bounding depositional se- tectonically enhanced (3rd-order) sequence boundaries land- quences. The understanding of the hierarchy of second- and ward. Submarine erosional surfaces also develop at that stage third-order stratigraphic cycles solves that problem. It shows on top of the intrabasinal swells. Backstepping sequences are that seismic-scale unconformities mainly develop at a second- thin and cover extremely wide surfaces similarly to the previ- order scale and should not be confused with sequence bound- ously described type of sequences. The high degree of asym- aries. Similarly (for example) seismic scale “lowstand deposits” metry of this type of 2nd-order cycle with the enhancement of generally coincides with a set of third-order forestepping se- 3rd-order relative sea-level falls and associated progradational quences and should not be interpreted as a single lowstand. This deposits indicate a strong tectonic control on the long-term evo- has important consequences for exploration, as forestepping se- lution of accommodation. Such characteristics are found during quences and associated unconformities may yield major reser-

voirs zones. Moreover a good understanding of that hierarchy EMBRY, A. F., 1993, Transgressive/regressive (T-R) sequence analysis of the of stratigraphic cycles allows the interpreter to better integrate Jurassic succession of the Sverdrup Basin, Canadian Artic Archipelago: Ca- nadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 301–320. the available tools (seismic lines, well data, cores . . .) with the FITZERAL,M.AND MOUSSET, E., 1987, Triton France details: its successes in stratigraphic framework. the Paris Basin: Oil and Gas Journal, 23, p. 69–72. The four types of 3rd-order sequences do not occur system- FLOQUET, M., LAURIN, B., LAVILLE, P., MARCHAND, D., MENOT, J. C., PAS- atically together. Their presence or their absence has also a CAL, A., AND THIERRY, J., 1989, Les syste`mes se´dimentaires bourguignons d’aˆge Bathonien terminal-Callovien: Bulletin du Centre de Recherches predictive potential. It reflects the stratigraphic signature of the d’Exploration-Production, ELF Aquitaine, v. 13, p. 133–165. basin history, including long-term changes of the sediment sup- GARCIA, J. P., 1993, Les variations du niveau marin sur le Bassin de Paris au ply, as expressed by the presence or absence of aggrading and/ Bathonien-Callovien, Dijon, Me´moires Geólogiques de l’Universite´ de Di- or backstepping sequences and long-term changes of the tec- jon, Centre des Sciences de la Terre, 302 P. tonic subsidence, as expressed by the degree of asymmetry of GRACIANSKY,P.C.DE DARDEAU,G,DUMONT, T., JACQUIN, T., MARCHAND, D. MOUTERDE, R., AND VAIL, P. R., 1993, Depositional sequence cycles, transgressive/regressive cycles. transgressive/regressive facies cycles and extensional tectonics: example This approach should be a very powerful tool, especially for from the Southern Sub-Alpine Jurassic Basin, France: Bulletin de la Societe´ frontiers areas, where well data is sparse. Understanding the Geologique de France, t. 164, nЊ5, p. 709–718. nature and the distribution of third-order depositional sequences GUILLOCHEAU, F., 1991, Mise en e´vidence de grands cycles transgression- re´gression d’origine tectonique dans les se´diments me´sozoı¨ques du Bassin within their second-order framework from mature areas is criti- de Paris: Comptes Rendus, Paris, Acade´mie des Sciences, v. 312, II, p. 1587– cal for prediction in frontier areas of potential distribution of 1593. forestepping sequences with major lowstand reservoirs and of HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J., AND VAIL, P. R., 1987, Chronology of fluctuating starved backstepping sequences with major source rocks. sea-levels since the Triassic: Science, v. 235, p. 1156–1167. HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J., AND VAIL, P. R., 1988, Mesozoic and Cenozoic REFERENCES chronostratigraphy and cycles of sea-level change, in Wilgus, C. K., Has- tings, C. G. St. C., Kendall, B. S., Posamentier, H. W., Ross, C. 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Seismic Stratigraphy-Application to Hydrocarbon Exploration: Tulsa, Amer- SWIFT, D. J. P., 1975, Tidal sand ridges and shoal retreat massifs: Marine Ge- ican Association of Petroleum. Geologists Memoir 26, p. 53–62. ology, v. 18, p. 105–134. NEDERLANDSE AARDOLIE MAATSCHAPPIJ AND RIJKS GEOLOGISCHE DIENST, THIERRY, J., 1980, Jurassique moyen, in Me´gnien, C., ed., Synthe`se geólogique 1980, Stratigraphic nomenclature of the Netherlands: The Hague, Neder- du Bassin de Paris: Orleáns, Me´moire Bureau de Recherches Geólogiques lands Geologisch Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap, Verhandelingen, Geolo- et Minie`res nЊ101, p. 125–194. gische Serie, v. 32, 77 p. UNDERHILL,J.R.AND PARTINGTON, M. A., 1993, Jurassic thermal doming and POSAMENTIER,H.W.AND ALLEN, G. P., 1993, Variability of the sequence stra- deflation in the North Sea: implication of the sequence stratigraphic evi- tigraphy model, effects of local basin factor: Sedimentary Geology, v. 86, p. dence, in Parker, J. R., ed., Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe: Lon- 91–109. don, Geological Society, Proceedings of the 4th Conference, v. 1, p. 337– POWELL, J., 1984, Lithostratigraphic nomenclature of the Lias groups in the 346. Yorkshire Basin: Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society, v. 45, p. VAIL, P. R., 1987, Seismic stratigraphy interpretation using sequence stratig- 51–57. raphy, in Bally, A. W., ed., Atlas of Seismic Stratigraphy: Tulsa, American RAT, P., COUREL, L., SEDDOH, F., THIERRY, J., TINTANT, H., MENOT, J. C., AND Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology 27, part. 1, p. 1– DELANCE, J. H., 1972–1986, Bourgogne Morvan in Rat, P., ed., Guides Geó- 10. logiques re´gionaux: Paris, Masson Publishers, 1st ed., 187 p.; 2nd ed., 216 VAIL, P. R., MITCHUM, R. M., TODD, R. G., WIDMER, J. M., THOMPSON, J. M., p. SANGREE, J. B., BUBB, J. M., AND HATLELID, W. G, 1977, Seismic stratig- REY,J.AND CUBAYNES, R., 1991, Se´quences lithoclinales et se´quences geńe´- raphy and global changes of sea level, in Payton, C. W., ed., Seismic Stra- tiques de de´poˆt dans le Lias moyen du Bassin aquitain: Paris, Comptes Ren- tigraphy—Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration: Tulsa, American As- dus Acade´mie des Sciences, v. 312, II, p. 1557–1563. sociation of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 26, p. 49–212. SCHLAGER, W., 1992, Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy of Reefs and VAIL P. R., AUDEMARD F., BOWMAN S. A., EISNER P. N., AND PEREZ-CRUZ, Carbonate Platforms: Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists C., 1991, The stratigraphic signatures of tectonics, eustasy and sedimentol- Continuing Education Course Note Series 34, 71 p. ogy—an overview. in Einsele, G., Ricken, W. and Seilacher, A., eds., Cycles STEEL,R.J.AND WORSLEY, D., 1984, Svalbard’s post-Caledonia strata—an atlas of sedimentational patterns and palaeogeographic evolution: Petroleum and Events in Stratigraphy: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 617–659. Geology of the North European Margin: Norwegian Petroleum Society, Lon- VAN WAGONER, J. C., MITCHUM, R. M., JR., POSAMENTIER,H.W.AND VAIL, don, Graham and Trotman Publishers, p. 109–135. P. R., 1987, Seismic stratigraphy interpretation using sequence stratigraphy, STEEL, R., 1993, Triassic-Jurassic megasequence stratigraphy in the Northern in: Bally, A. W., ed., Atlas of Seismic Stratigraphy: Tulsa, American Asso- North Sea: rift to post-rift evolution, in Parker, J. R., ed., Petroleum Geology ciation of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology 27, v. 1, p. 11–14. of Northwest Europe: Proceedings of the 4th Conference, London, Geolog- VAN WAGONER, J. C., MITCHUM, R. M., CAMPION, K. M., AND RAHMANION, ical Society, v. 1, p. 299–315. V. D., 1990, Siliclastic sequence stratigraphy in well logs, cores and out- SWIFT, D. J. P., 1968, Coastal erosion and transgressive stratigraphy: Journal crops: Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Methods in of Geology, v. 76, p. 444–456. Exploration, Ser. 7.

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BERNARD C. DUVAL, CARLOS CRAMEZ Total SA, 24 Cours Michelet, La De´fense 10, 92069 Paris La De´fense Cedex France AND PETER R. VAIL Geology and Geophysics Department, Rice University, P.O. Box 1892, Houston, Texas 77251

ABSTRACT: Four types of stratigraphic cycles with a time duration greater than 10,000 years are recognized in the sedimentary record. In order of decreasing time duration and scale they are: (i) continental encroachment cycles, (ii) regression-transgression cycles, (iii) sequence cycles and (iv) parasequence cycles. Continental encroachment cycles are defined on the basis of their onlapping against cratons and are bounded by the unconformities associated with the formation of supercontinents. They are reflected by long-term shoreline displacements induced by first-order eustasy. Continental encroachment cycles can be subdivided into subcycles which are defined using the same criteria at smaller scales. Regression-transgression cycles are defined on the basis of short-term shoreline displacements induced by second-order eustacy and are bounded by major downlap surfaces. Sequence cycles are defined on the basis of shelfal accommodation changes and are bounded by unconformities induced by relative sea-level falls associated with third-order eustasy. Sequence cycles are complete when all systems tracts are present. These complete sequence cycles occur in areas with high rates of sedimentation where all available shelfal space is filled. Incomplete sequence cycles do not have all the systems tracts and occur in areas with low rates of sedimentation where only part of the available shelfal space is filled. Parasequence cycles are intervals bounded by flooding surfaces or their correlative conformities. The recognition and understanding of the architecture of the continental encroachment cycles, subcycles and/or the regression-transgression cycles and the location of the major downlap surfaces are important steps in the study of petroleum systems. They allow explorationists to locate the most likely marine source rocks. On seismic data, continental encroachment cycle and subcycle interpretations are used, particularly in the proximal part of sedimentary basins, where the encroachment is relatively easy to recognize. As an alternative, in the intermediate parts of the basins, where the offlap-breaks are usually identifiable, regression-transgression cycle interpretations can also be used to locate potential marine source rocks. In this paper, applications of the continental encroachment cycle and subcycle concept in locating potential marine source rocks using seismic data are presented, together with comments on the stratigraphic distribution of major potential marine source rocks.

INTRODUCTION gression) can be associated with eustatic cycles of the same nd In the field, sedimentary cycles have been recognized for order (2 order); also, the same type of stratigraphic cycle (e.g., sequence cycles) can be induced by eustatic cycles of different centuries (e.g., Steno, 1669, de Maillet, 1748, Lavoisier, 1789, rd th Lyell 1830, Suess, 1888, etc.), and it has been suggested that orders (3 or 4 order). sea-level rise and fall was the main cause of the cyclicity in TYPES AND HIERARCHY OF THE STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES sedimentary rocks. In this century, geologists (e.g., Lemoine, 1911; Graubau, 1936, Burollet, 1956, Sloss, 1962, etc.) have In order of decreasing time duration and scale, four major recognized the composite effect of tectonics and sea-level var- stratigraphic cycles are recognized in sedimentary records iations on sedimentary cyclicity. Later, the advent of the plate (field, seismic, electrical log and core data): tectonic paradigm provided the foundation for the concepts of 1. Continental encroachment cycles (Fig. 1) are defined on the eustasy and relative sea level changes which are the basis of basis of features showing onlapping against cratons. They seismic stratigraphy, which was introduced in 1977. are produced by eustatic cycles with a time duration greater In summary, the eustatic curve (Haq et al., 1987) depicts the than 50 my, (i.e. 1st order eustatic cycles), induced by con- global mean sea-level variations* during the Mesozoic and Ce- tinental breakup and subsequent aggregation of the super- nozoic and is composed of various eustatic curves with cycles continents. They are bounded by major tectonically en- of different periods or time duration. According to the duration hanced unconformities and are composed of a backstepping of each eustatic cycle component, cycles of four orders can be transgressive phase overlain by a forestepping regressive recognized: phase. A major downlap surface separates the transgressive a. 1st Order, with a duration greater than 50 my, and regressive phases. These phases are reflected by smooth b. 2nd Order, with a duration of between 3 and 50 my, long term shoreline displacements. c. 3rd Order, with a duration of between 0.5 and 3 my, The continental encroachment cycles can be subdivided into d. 4th Order, with a duration of between 0.01 and 0.5 my. different encroachment subcycles (Fig. 2) using significant As each component cycle of the eustatic curve induces a downward shifts of encroachment associated with 2nd-order stratigraphic cycle, some geologists tend to rank the strati- eustatic cycles. These subcycles are bounded by major ero- graphic cycles in terms of eustatic time orders. We avoid such sional unconformities in the proximal parts of basins, resulting a ranking for two main reasons. Firstly, a stratigraphic cycle from the downward shift of onlap, and are bounded by correl- (i.e., the rocks) does not record the corresponding geological ative paraconformities in the distal parts of basins. time of an eustatic cycle due to erosion and non-deposition 2. Regression-transgression cycles (Fig. 1) are defined on the (Ager, 1984). Secondly, different types of stratigraphic cycles basis of long-term displacements of the shoreline and are (e.g., continental encroachment subcycle and regression-trans- associated with 2nd order eustatic cycles. These eustatic cycles are interpreted to be the result of changes in the rate of *Mean sea level avoids reference to local variations induced by gravity anomalies regional tectonic subsidence and/or changes in the rate of

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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FIG. 1.—Classiﬁcation of types and hierarchy of stratigraphic cycles using Stratigraphic Cycles short- and long-term sea-level changes. The eustatic cycles, smooth long-term, CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE long-term, smooth short-term and short- duration Eustacy Break-up of supercontinents Time term, have time durations of 1st,2nd,3rd and 4th orders.

Regressive phase > 50 My major downlap surface

Transgressive 1 st order

Smooth long term phase REGRESSION / TRANSGRESSION CYCLE Changes in rate of tectonic subsidence Long term

R/T

Long term Downlap surface 3-50 My 3-50 My 3-50 My

Transgression Major changes in shoreline position 2 nd order 2 nd Order

R/T 2 nd Order Regression Downlap surface SEQUENCE CYCLE 1-Complete cycle Glacio-eustasy (?) Highstand systems tract Transgressive systems tract

Lowstand systems tract Depositional Sequence Smooth short term

2-Incomplete cycle Glacio-eustasy (?) 0.5-3 My 2

Ex: flooding & forestepping 3 rd order or higher Short term PARASEQUENCE CYCLE Glacio-eustasy (?) Shelfal accommodation SEA - LEVEL CHANGES

6 5 4 3 or higher 4th order 1-6: parasequences 0.01-0.5 My Short term 1 2

sea-floor spreading (Vail, et al., 1984). These regression/ 3. Sequences cycles (Fig. 1) are defined on the basis of shelfal transgression cycles are bounded by significant downlap sur- accommodation changes and are bounded by unconformities faces in distal and intermediate parts of basins, where hia- induced by relative sea-level falls associated with 3rd-order tuses due to non deposition are common. In proximal parts eustatic cycles (i.e., those with a time duration of between of a basin, where hiatuses are insignificant, these cycles are 0.5 to 3 my), which are assumed to be caused by glacial bounded by up-dip correlative surfaces. Regressive and events (Vail et al., 1977). However, in certain areas, se- transgressive facies are separated either by unconformities, quence cycles are associated with eustatic cycles of 4th-order. in proximal parts of basins, or, in distal parts, by first flooding surfaces on top of lowstand deposits. In terms of the presence of various systems tracts, the sequence cycles can be complete or incomplete. They are com- Due to the large range of 2nd-order eustatic cycles (3 to 50 plete (Fig. 1) in areas with high or normal sedimentation rate my), regression-transgression stratigraphic cycles can be sub- (i.e., where all the available shelfal space is filled). In this case, divided, using the same criteria into subcycles depending on we can recognize from bottom to top the following depositional the resolution of offlap breaks on the data available. systems tracts:

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The sequence cycles are incomplete (Fig. 1) in areas with CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE low sedimentation rates, where only part of the shelfal accom- break-up of supercontinents modation is filled. Several types of incomplete sequence cycles bounded by enhanced unconformities can be recognized in the field or on the seismic lines, such as: flooding and forestepping, bypass-forestepping, forced regression, channel-fill and overbanks, backstepping and forestep- > 50 My ping, etc. first order 4. Parasequence cycles (Fig. 1) are intervals bounded by flooding surfaces or their correlative conformities developed in Aggradation Subcycle regressive th phase association with 4 -order eustatic cycles (0.01–0.5 my) or major downlap higher. surface transgressive Supercontinent phase These four types of stratigraphic cycles can be recognized in encroachment the field. However, on conventional seismic data, only the con- induces long term shoreline displacements tinental encroachment and the regression/transgression cycles are usually interpretable. The sequence cycles can only be iden- FIG. 2.—The continental encroachment cycle induced by smooth long-term tified in certain basins with high rates of sediment accumula- sea-level changes consists of a sub-parallel retrogradational transgressive phase tion, such as the Gulf of Mexico or the Mahakam delta. and a progradational regressive phase. A major downlap surface separates these phases and the sediments associated with this surface are likely to be source rocks (Middle Cretaceous or Cambro-Ordovician). CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLES AND MAJOR MARINE SOURCE ROCKS There are two major continental encroachment cycles in the a. lowstand systems tract, including basin floor fans, slope fans, Phanerozoic (Fig. 3) which are associated with 1st-order eustatic and prograding wedge. cycles created by the changes in ocean basin volume induced b. transgressive systems tract, and by the breakup and subsequent gathering of the proto-Pangea c. highstand systems tract. and the Pangea supercontinents.

0 Ma First order Continental time 65 Ma duration encroachment > 50 My cycles 120 Ma R egr essi ve P Gathering ha Sea-level variations se 180 Ma ing T od r flo an ne sg Eustatic curve ari re Smooth long term Periods Age m ss Rising Falling um Drifting iv im e ax P M ha Tertiary s 230 Ma 100 e Cretaceous Pangea Jurassic 200 Triassic 300 Ma Permian 300 e Pennsylvanian as h Mississippian P Devonian e Present sea-level v 400 si millions years s Silurian Gatheringre eg 360 Ma Ordovician R 500 Maxim um ma Cambrian rine fl ooding 420 Ma Precambrian ase P.R.Vail et al.,1977 Ph ve Protopangea ssi Driftinggre ans 500 Ma Tr 560 Ma

FIG. 3.—Two continental encroachment cycles are recognized during the Phanerozoic in association with the breakup and gathering of the supercontinents Protopangea and Pangea. Each of these cycles consists of a transgressive and a regressive phase separated by a major downlap surface, which are the likely location of major marine source rocks.

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Encroachment cycles and subcycles: major organic-rich intervals Time Tectono-eustacy Mid Miocene 10 % 20% 30% 40% Upper Oligocene CENOZOIC Mid Oligocene Ceno / Turonian Aptian / Albian CRETACEOUS Barremian / Aptian Base Valanginian Upper Jurassic JURASSIC Base Jurassic Toarcian TRIASSIC Base Triassic (largest HC loss) PERMIAN Upper Permian

CARBONIFEROUS Mid Carboniferous Late Devonian DEVONIAN Base Middle Devonian Early Silurian SILURIAN Base Silurian ORDOVICIAN Base Middle Ordovician

Paleozoic Cycle Meso-Cenozoic Cycle Gas Oil Kimmeridgian, N. Sea CAMBRIAN Upper Oxfordian, S. Arabia Percent of world's original Jurassic Tithonian, Mexico

Subcycle petroleum reserves (BOE) Volgian, Russia generated by source rocks Subcycle of a stratigraphic interval PROTEROZOIC Late Proterozoic after Ulmichek and Klemme, 1991

FIG. 4.—Major organic-rich intervals in the Phanerozoic are associated with downlap surfaces of continental encroachment subcycles. Their correlation with the percentage of the world’s original petroleum reserves generated by source rocks of stratigraphic intervals proposed by Ulmishek and Klemme (1990), is quite good despite hydrocarbon loss during the aggregation of the supercontinent Pangea. The highest percentage area is associated with the major downlap surface of the continental encroachment cycles (Ordovician-Silurian and middle-upper Cretaceous).

The older cycle (Fischer, 1984) started in uppermost Prote- ages deposited during the seaward displacement of the shoreline rozoic time and extended to the end of Permian time. The Pro- have mainly forestepping progradational geometries and com- terozoic was a time of slow encroachment with regression, prise what is termed the regressive phase. The transgressive whereas Cambrian time was a period of extensive encroach- phase thickens landward to a maximum and then pinches out ment with transgression. A eustatic high was reached during against the craton. The regressive phase reaches maximum Ordovician-Silurian time and from Silurian to Permian time, thickness seaward and becomes condensed in the more distal there was a gradual restriction of the marine domain. parts of the basin. The surface between the transgressive and The younger cycle (Fischer, 1984) started in the Triassic and regressive phases is marked by a major downlap surface which extends to the Present time. The Triassic Period was a time of represents the eustatic high and a period of starved sedimen- slow encroachment of sediments onto the craton, while the Ju- tation. These geological conditions combined with coeval up- rassic and the Early Cretaceous Periods were times of extensive welling currents and anoxic environments are favorable for the encroachment. Early Turonian time is believed to have been the development and preservation of major source rocks. By rec- time of the maximum eustatic high, while Late Cretaceous and ognizing the major downlap surface of continental encroach- Cenozoic time was characterized by a gradual restriction of ments cycles we can locate the most likely marine source rocks sediments to the continental margins and basinal areas. (Fig. 4). The seismic line from southern offshore Angola (Fig. 5) il- The maximum marine transgression within the continental lustrates the post-Pangea continental cycle. Several sedimentary encroachment cycles occurred at the Ordovician-Silurian basins can be recognized (rift type, cratonic and divergent mar- boundary in the older cycle and nearearly late Cretaceous time gin). Despite strong salt tectonic deformation which creates in the younger cycle. Each continental encroachment cycle (Fig. large rafts in the transgressive phase and huge depocenters in 3) shows a smooth long-term landward displacement of the the regressive phase, the downlap surface between these two shoreline followed by a seaward displacement. Sedimentary phases still can be easily identiﬁed on the eastern part of the packages deposited during the landward shoreline displacement line. Also, the contrast between the sub-parallel geometry of show mainly parallel and retrogradational geometry and make the transgressive phase versus the progradational geometry of up what is termed the transgressive phase. Sedimentary pack- the regressive phase helps us to locate the major downlap surface and the associated marine source beds. *TOC: Total Organic Carbon The geochemical logs (TOC%* and Tmax**) of wells A and **Tmax: temperature of the maximum of hydrocarbon generation from pyrolisis B (Fig. 6) clearly illustrate the presence of a major organic

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CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE: MAJOR MARINE ORGANIC INTERVALS West Well A Well B East 0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

ANGOLA

300 km 4 4

Offshore Kwanza 20 km 5 secondst.w.t. 5 Rift Regressive phase Major downlap surface Pre-Pangea Salt Transgressive phase

FIG. 5.—The post-Pangea continental encroachment cycle is illustrated by the interpretation of a seismic line from the southern offshore Angola (Kwanza offshore). The arrows indicate the transgressive phase and the regressive phase. The direction of the thickening of these phases is indicated by the vergence of the arrows. However due to the fact that this line is located in the proximal part of the basin, the thickness of the transgressive phase is already diminishing by pinchout against the substratum. The likely location of potential source rocks is at the major downlap surface between the two phases.

interval between the transgressive and regressive phases. As is located near the right lower corner of the line, landward the indicated by Tmax values (less than 430Њ), these potential combination of backstepping and pinchout geometries reduces source rocks are immature in the area of the section. However, the thickness of the transgressive phase against the craton. The in the northern part of offshore Angola the sediments associated major organic-rich level is associated with the early Late Cre- with this major downlap surface have been buried under the taceous downlap surface between the transgressive and regres- Congo deltaic complex and the associated organic matter has sive phases. reached maturation. These mature marine source rocks have been responsible for the generation of hydrocarbons. CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT SUBCYCLE AND SECONDARY MARINE Another seismic example of the post-Pangea continental en- SOURCE ROCKS croachment cycle is shown in Figure 7. It comes from the eastern offshore Venezuela, where the stacking of a Triassic rift- During a continental encroachment cycle, onlap against the type basin, a Lower-Cretaceous cratonic basin and cratons does not always show continuous landward and upward Meso-Cenozoic divergent margin is recognized above a Paleo- movement (positive aggradation). Occasionally, the onlapping zoic or Precambrian substratum (Bally, 1980). The major down- shows major shifts seaward and downward (negative aggrada- lap surface (in white on the seismic line) separating the sub- tion). During these large downward shifts of onlapping, the parallel geometry of the transgressive phase from the coastal plain and the upper slope are exposed, due to major progradational geometry of the regressive phase cannot be eustatic sea-level falls, and a pronounced erosional unconfor- missed if the progradations of the Upper Cretaceous-Lower Pa- mity is formed. Like the definition of a continental encroach- leogene strata are carefully interpreted. The transgressive phase ment cycle, a continental encroachment subcycle is defined as is indicated by the arrow pointing to the left and the regressive being between two consecutive downward shifts of onlap (i.e., phase by the arrow pointing to the right, where significant Pli- two significant erosional unconformities within a continental ocene growth faults are recognized. The vergence of the arrows encroachment cycle, (Fig. 8). Each subcycle is developed in does not only show the direction of the smooth long-term dis- association with a 2nd-order eustatic cycle (3–50 my). placement of the shoreline, but also the direction of thickening Inside each encroachment subcycle, the most significant of the respective phases, particularly that of the seaward thick- downlap surface (Fig. 8) separates a retrogradational subphase ening of the regressive phase. Since the maximum of thickening from an overlying progradational subphase. The basinward ex-

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CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE: MAJOR MARINE ORGANIC INTERVALS Well A Well B Ages Ages TOC % T max OFFSHORE TOC % T max 5 10 420˚ 440˚ Ages 510 420˚ 440˚ 0 ANGOLA Quaternary 0

Pliocene Pliocene 500 500 Miocene Miocene 1000 Regressive 1000 Oligocene Oligocene phase 1500 1500 Eocene

Eocene UpperMiddle 2000 Cretaceous 2000 Major organic Middle Albian Cretaceous interval 2500 2500 Aptian-Salt Albian

3000 Aptian salt Transgressive Pre-salt 3000

3500 3500 Pre-salt phase ++++++++Basement

4000 Volcanics Pre-Pangea 4000 sediments

FIG. 6.—The major organic interval in the post-Pangea continental encroachment cycle in the southern Angola offshore is located between the transgressive and regressive phases of the cycle and is of middle Cretaceous age. The TOC reaches 10% in well A and 7% in well B. However, as indicated by the Tmax log, this organic matter is immature.

West Projected well (long distance correlation) East 0 0

1 1

2 2 TOC

3 3

4 4 t.w.t.

5 5 seconds Offshore Venezuela 20 km

Courtesy of PDVSA Forestepping regressive phase Major downlap surface VENEZUELA Backstepping transgressive phase

CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE: 150 km MAJOR MARINE ORGANIC INTERVALS

FIG. 7.—The continental encroachment cycle interpretation of a seismic line from the eastern offshore of Venezuela indicates the probability of potential source rocks associated with the major downlap surface of the Meso-Cenozoic continental encroachment cycle.

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CONTINENTAL ENCROACHMENT CYCLE AND SUBCYCLE

Break-up and gathering of supercontinents Regressive phase major downlap surface

> 50 My Transgressive phase first order

Supercontinent Changes in rate of tectonic subsidence 3-50 My second order Subcycle

regressive subphase secondary DS transgressive subphase Regressive regressive subphase secondary DS transgressive subphase phase regressive subphase major DS major downlap surface transgressive subphase Transgressive Supercontinent secondary DS regressive subphase transgressive subphase phase Major downward shifts in continental encroachment secondary DS regressive subphase

FIG. 8.—Continental encroachment cycles can be divided in subcycles using the major erosional unconformities created by signiﬁcant downward shifts of onlapping. Within each encroachment subcycle a retrogradational transgressive subphase and a progradational regressive subphase can normally be recognized. The downlap surface between these subphases represents the most likely location of organic-rich marine sediments. Continental encroachment subcycles interpretation West East 0 0

Mid. Berriasian

Mid. Miocene 1 1 Onlap

Mid. Oligocene

2 2 base Turonian Kimmeridgian North Sea Base Jurassic Onlap

Base Triassic

3 Onlap Elevation 3 ONLAP meters

200 km seconds 10 km Courtesy of TMN Major organic-rich intervals: Middle Miocene, Lower Turonian, Kimmeridgian t.w.t.

FIG. 9.—Three major levels of potential source rocks are identiﬁed in the North Sea in association with the downlap surfaces of the continental encroachment subcycles: the middle-Miocene, the lower Turonian and Kimmeridgian. The Kimmeridgian marine shales, deposited during the base Jurassic-middle Berriasian encroachment subcycle, are by far the richest in organic matter.

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Continental encroachment subcycles interpretation North South 0 0

Meso-Cenozoic continental encroachment cycle

Hercynian unconformity 1 1

Base Mid. Carboniferous

2 Late Devonian 2

3 Base Mid. Devonian Base Mid. Ordovician 3 Late Proterozoic

Base Silurian Early Silurian

4 4

ALGERIA t.w.t. 250 km

10 km Onshore Algeria Courtesy of Sonatrach seconds Major organic-rich intervals: Late Devonian and Early Silurian

FIG. 10.—The continental encroachment subcycle interpretation of the seismic lines of the southern Algeria suggests two major levels of potential source rocks for the Protopangea continental encroachment subcycle. They are associated with the downlap surface of the base Silurian-base middle Devonian and base middle Devonian-base middle Carboniferous encroachment subcycles.

tent of this downlap surface varies from one subcycle to another surface within the ﬁrst subcycle (base Triassic-base Jurassic) is and depends on the construction of each subcycle (Fig. 8). The not discernible, whereas the others, although slightly masked major downlap surface of the continental encroachment cycle by the isostatic uplift, are easily recognized. Their ages are re- coincides with the downlap surface of only one of the subcy- spectively Kimmeridgian, lower Turonian and middle Miocene, cles. Downlap surfaces of the rest of subcycles are therefore and they separate the transgressive phase from the regressive considered to be secondary downlap surfaces (Fig. 8). phase within each subcycle. The lower Turonian downlap sur- In petroleum basins around the world, seismic interpretations face is easier to recognize in terms of geometrical relationships. using stratigraphic cycles and geochemical studies show a cor- It separates the retrogradational and progradational subphases relation between the marine source rocks and the downlap sur- within the Berriasian-mid Oligocene subcycle and also the faces of the continental encroachment cycles and subcycles. transgressive phase from the regressive phase of the continental During the Phanerozoic, two major downlap surfaces at encroachment cycle. Other downlap surfaces are less visible Cambro-Ordovician and early Late Cretaceous times, respec- (secondary downlap surfaces). The sediments related to these tively of the Proto-Pangea and Pangea continental encroach- downlap surfaces are potential source rocks, particularly those ment cycles, are associated with major organic-rich marine within the Jurassic-mid Berriasian subcycle (i.e., the Kimmer- source rocks. Secondary downlap surfaces within the encroach- idgian clays which are the marine source rocks of hydrocarbons ment subcycles are associated with the rest of the important produced in northern North Sea). The sediments associated with marine source rocks. The world’s percentage distribution of the downlap surface of the mid Berriasian-mid Oligocene sub- original petroleum reserves according to their source rock strati- cycle (lower Turonian) have here an abnormally low organic graphic interval (Ulmichek, 1991) shows a good correlation content, and they have not been sufﬁciently buried to reach with the downlap surfaces of the encroachment subcycles. maturation. However, in other parts of the world, such as the As an example, a seismic interpretation of the Meso-Ceno- Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo (Venezuela), Cabinda (An- zoic continental encroachment subcycles from the North Sea is gola), they are excellent source rocks. shown in Figure 9. Four encroachment subcycles are recog- Paleozoic continental encroachment subcycles (Fig. 4) and nized and are characterized by downward shifts of the onlap- the location of the likely potential source rocks in South Algeria ping. They are bounded by the base Triassic, base Jurassic, mid are shown on the subcycle interpretation of the seismic line Berriasian and mid Oligocene unconformities. The downlap illustrated in Figure 10. Below the Hercynian unconformity,

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two significant downlap surfaces are recognizable. The first one HAQ B. U., HARDENBOL, J., AND VAIL, P. R., 1987, Chronology of fluctuating is of Late Devonian age within the base Middle Devonian-mid sea levels since the Triassic: Science, v. 235, p. 1156–1167. HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J., AND VAIL, P. R., 1988, Mesozoic and Cenozoic Carboniferous encroachment subcycle. The second one is of Chronostratigraphy and Eustatic cycles, in Wilgus, C. K., Posamentier, H., Early Silurian age within the base Silurian-base Middle De- Ross, C. K., and Kendall, C. G. St. C., eds., Sea-level Changes: An integrated vonian encroachment subcycle. The downlap surface within the approach: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special encroachment subcycle bounded by the late Proterozoic and Publication 42, p. 71–108. HARDENBOL, J., VAIL,P.R.AND FERRER, J., 1981, Interpreting paleoenviron- base Middle Ordovician unconformities is obscured by noise ments, subsidence history and sea-level changes of passive margins from on the seismic data, while that within the mid Car-boniferous- seismic and biostratigraphy: Oceanologica Acta, NЊ SP, p. 33–44. base Triassic subcycle has been eroded by the Hercynian orog- LAVOISIER, M., 1789, De l’observation geńe´rale des bancs horizontaux de´pose´s eny. These downlap surfaces (Early Silurian and Late Devo- rećemment par la mer et des conse´quences que l’on de´duit de leurs agence- nian) are associated with the best source rocks in the Paleozoic, ments sur l’aˆge de la terre: Paris, Me´moires de l’Acade´mie des Sciences. LEMOINE, P., 1911, Geólogie du bassin de Paris: Paris, Librairie SCI. Hermann particularly Silurian shales, which have generated most hydro- ET FI carbons in Algeria. LYELL, C., 1990, Principles of Geology: Chicago, The University of Chicago Press reprint, MAILLET,B.DE, 1748, Telliamed, ou Entretiens d’un philosophe indien avec CONCLUSIONS un missionaire franc˛ais sur la diminution de la mer, la formation de la terre, In petroleum exploration, the recognition and mapping of l’origine de l’homme. et Mise en ordre sur les me´moires de feu M. de Maillet, continental encroachment cycles and subcycles strongly en- par J.A.G.: Amsterdam, Chez l’Honoreét Fils, v. 1, 208 p. and v. 2, 231 p. PITMANN, W. C., III AND GOLOVCHENCO, X., 1984, Modeling Sedimentary hance the probability of locating the all important petroleum Sequences In Catastrophism and Earth History, The New Uniformitarism. in generative subsystem without which all the other necessary req- Berggren, W. A. and Van Couvering, J. A., eds., Catastrophism and Earth uisites for a play, (i.e., reservoir, trap and seal) become irrele- History, The New Uniformitarism: Princeton University Press. vant. The focus is therefore on 1st-order and 2nd-order strati- SLOSS, L. L., 1962, Stratigraphic models in exploration. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 32, p. 415–422. graphic cycles. In a more practical way, one can say that the SLOSS, L. L., 1963, Sequences in the cratonic interior of North America, Geo- tools of choice in the exercise are: (i) a proper identification of logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 74, p. 93–114. encroachment cycles and subcycles, using all geometrical aids STENO, N., 1669/1916, The Prodomus of Nocolau Steno’s Dissertation: New offered by seismic (onlap, downlap offlap breaks, etc.), (ii) rec- York, University of Michigan Studies, Humanistic Series, v. 11. (translated by: J. G., Winter). ognition and mapping of major downlap surfaces. One can also SUESS, E., 1888, Das Antlitz der Erde: Prague, Tempsky-Freytag, v. 2, 703 p. note that, whereas seismic stratigraphy is generally more fo- ULMISHEK, G. F. AND KLEMME, H. D., 1990, Depositional Controls, Distribu- cused on finding reservoirs, the described methodology con- tion, and Effectiveness of World’s Petroleum Source Rocks; Washington, tributes to identifying regional seals, which is of course another United States Geological Survey Bulletin, 1931. VAIL, P. R., 1987, Seismic stratigraphic interpretation procedure, in Bally, major issue, and (iii) finally the fields of application are mainly A. W., ed., Atlas of seismic stratigraphy, American Association of Petroleum new areas and areas with poor stratigraphic control. Therefore, Geologists Studies in Geology, v. 27, p. 1–10. this approach may become critical for the long-term strategy of VAIL, P. R., HARDENBOL,J.AND TODD, R. G., 1984, Jurassic unconformities, an industry faced with an ever-increasing maturity of estab- chronostratigraphy and sea level changes from seismic stratigraphy and biostratigraphy, in Schlee, J. S. ed., Interregional Unconformities and Hydro- lished petroleum provinces. carbon Accumulation: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 36, p. 129–144. BIBLIOGRAPHY VAIL, P. R., MITCHUM,R.M.AND THOMPSON, S. III., 1977, Seismic Stratig- raphy and Global Changes of sea level, Part 3: Relative changes of sea level AGER, D. V., 1984, The stratigraphic code and what it implies, in Berggren, from coastal onlap: in Payton, C. E., ed., Seismic stratigraphy-applications W. A. and Van Couvering, J. A., eds., Catastrophism and Earth History, The to hydrocarbon exploration: Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Ge- New Uniformitarism: Princeton University Press, p. 94–100. ologists, Memoir 26, p. 63–81. BALLY,A.AND SNELSON, S., 1980, Realms of subsidence, in Miall, A. ed., VAIL, P. R., MITCHUM, R. M., AND THOMPSON, S. III, 1977, Seismic Stratig- Facts and principals of world petroleum occurrence: Canadian Society of raphy and Global Changes of sea level, Part 4: Global cycles of relative Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 6, Calgary Canada, v. 6, p. 9–75. changes of sea level: in Payton C. E., ed., Seismic stratigraphy-applications BUROLLET, P. F., 1956, Contribution a` l’e´tude stratigraphique de la Tunisie to hydrocarbon exploration: Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Ge- Centrale: Annales Mines Geólogie, v. 18, 345 p. ologists, Memoir 26, p. 83–97. FISCHER, A. G., 1984, The two phanerozoic supercycles, in Berggren, W. A. VAN WAGONER, J. C., POSAMENTIER, H. W., MITCHUM, R. M., VAIL, P. R., and Van Couvering, J. A., eds., Catastrophism and Earth History, The New SARG, J. F., LOUTIT, T. S., AND HARDENBOL, J., 1988, An overview of the Uniformitarism: Princeton University Press, p. 128–150. fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy and key definitions: in Wilgus, C. K., GOULD, S. J., 1990, Aux racines du temps: Grasset, Paris. Posamentier, H. W., Ross, C. K., and Kendall, C. G. St. C., eds., Sea-level GRAUBAU, A. W., 1936, Oscillation or pulsation: International Geological Con- Changes: An integrated approach: Society of Economic Paleontologists and gress, Report of the 16th Session, v. 1, p. 539–553. Mineralogists, Special Publication 42, p. 39–45.

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ADAM VECSEI Geologisches Institut der Universita¨t, Albertstraße 23B, 79104 Freiburg i. Br., F.R. Germany DIETHARD G. K. SANDERS Geologisches Institut, Universita¨t Innsbruck, Innrain 52, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria DANIEL BERNOULLI Geologisches Institut, ETH-Zentrum, 8092 Zu¨rich, Switzerland GREGOR P. EBERLI University of Miami, RSMAS-MGG, 4600 Rickenbacher Causeway, Miami FL, 33149, U.S.A AND JOHANNES S. PIGNATTI C.N.R., Centro di Studi per il Quaternario e l’Evoluzione ambientale, c/o Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita`degli Studi “La Sapienza”, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy

ABSTRACT: Sequence and biostratigraphic analysis of the margin of the Apulian carbonate platform in the Montagna della Maiella (central Italy) reveal a platform margin evolution that is controlled by long-term sea-level changes, tectonism and changing platform morphology. The Upper Cretaceous to Miocene strata can be subdivided into six supersequences that are separated by deeply incised truncation surfaces. Biostratigraphy documents a major hiatus for all but one of these boundaries. The supersequences reflect distinct stages of platform development, thus the depositional systems remained the same within each supersequence but changed across the supersequence boundaries. The Apulian platform grew on a passive margin of the Jurassic-Cretaceous (Neo-) Tethys. During the early platform history, subsidence rates decreased exponentially with time and controlled the long-term aggradation potential of the platform. The generally decreasing total subsidence rates permitted the basin in front of the platform to be filled up by the Late Campanian strata (Supersequence [SS] 1), resulting in a change from aggradation to progradation. This enabled slope carbonates of Late Campanian to Late Eocene age (SS 2 to 4 and lower part of SS 5) and finally shallow-water platform carbonates of Late Eocene to Late Miocene age (upper part of SS 5 to SS 6) to prograde basinwards. The supersequence boundaries are to a large extent controlled by long-term (2nd-order) eustatic sea-level changes, but climate and tectonism influenced their duration and expression. Climate, initially tropical to subtropical but temperate in Miocene time, and the respective evolution of flora and fauna were major controls on sequence architecture but did not significantly influence the formation of the supersequence boundaries. The tectonic movements related to Alpine orogeny and foreland basin development were not able to completely obliterate the long-term eustatic signal but greatly enhanced the boundaries, although the exact amount of this influence cannot be assessed. Platform morphology was very influential on sequence architecture. From at least Early Cretaceous to Late Campanian time, the presence of a steep escarpment resulted in detached sequences, consisting of an onlapping basinal part and an aggrading part on the platform top, separated by a bypass slope. In Late Campanian to Oligocene time, a distally steepened slope profile was deeply incised, most pronounced along the platform margin and the upper slope, during 2nd-order sea-level lowstands. Sea-level fluctuations along the gently inclined Miocene shelf resulted in deposition of deepening-upward sequences under conditions of low carbonate productivity.

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND THE EVOLUTION OF ometries and lithologies of the 2nd-order sequences (superse- CARBONATE PLATFORMS quences [SS] of Van Wagoner et al., 1988) in this pure carbon- In the last few years, our understanding of the evolution of ate environment are described. Together with detailed facies carbonate platforms has been substantially advanced by the ap- analysis, this investigation sheds light on the controls of and plication of sequence stratigraphy to their investigation. Studies interactions between subsidence, regional tectonics, relative of both reflection seismic sections (e.g., Eberli and Ginsburg, and eustatic sea-level, biotic communities and climate on the 1987, 1988, 1989; Playford et al., 1989; Sarg, 1988; Schlager, platform. Age correlation is given by biostratigraphic zonation. 1989, 1991) and of large-scale outcrops (e.g., Bosellini, 1984; Emphasis will be placed on the formation of the supersequ- Franseen et al., 1989; Ravenne et al., 1988; Sarg, 1988; Simo, ences, their boundaries and their relation to platform evolution. 1989; Souquet et al., 1989; Arnaud-Vannaud and Arnaud, 1990; Jacquin et al., 1991) include pure carbonate depositional set- GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK tings of isolated carbonate platforms, as well as platforms grow- The Mesozoic to mid-Tertiary platform margin of Montagna ing at the edge of a continental landmass and influenced by della Maiella is exposed in the north-south-trending frontal an- siliciclastic incursions. These studies have revealed some of the ticline of the youngest and most externally outcropping thrust complex interactions of eustasy, tectonics and morphologic sheet of the southern Apennines (Figs. 1, 2). Deep valleys and change, to name only the most important factors, causing ag- an eroded fault scarp expose wide and spectacular outcrops of gradation, progradation, segmentation, coalescence and the platform margin. Biogeographic evidence, both with respect “drowning” of carbonate platforms. Sequence stratigraphy ap- to Cretaceous rudistid assemblages (Accordi et al., 1987) and plied to large-scale outcrops permits tests of the postulates of Early Tertiary larger benthonic foraminifera (Pignatti, 1990), sequence stratigraphy, such as the significance of bounding sur- suggests that this margin was part of a much larger Jurassic to faces and the investigation of the lithologic content of se- mid-Tertiary carbonate platform, the Apulian platform (Accordi quences in great detail. and Carbone, 1992). Most of the Apulian platform was not This study aims at defining in outcrop the sequence stratig- involved in Tertiary thrusting and is still part of the unfolded raphy of a segment of the isolated Apulian carbonate platform, foreland of the southern Apennines. Much of it is covered by the Maiella platform margin, in central Italy (Fig. 1). The ge- younger Tertiary sediments of the Apenninic foredeep and by

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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affected by crustal extension that eventually led to the opening of a small ocean basin. As a result, large parts of the megabank were drowned during the early to middle Liassic, and only a few isolated carbonate platforms, separated by deeper basins, persisted (Bernoulli and Jenkyns, 1974). Deep wells in the northern part of the Maiella anticline show that the Marche- Umbria basin to the north of the Maiella platform margin also originated during Liassic rifting (cf. Crescenti et al., 1969). A strong similarity exists between these platforms and the still active ones of the Bahamian archipelago, not only in terms of facies, size and shape, time-space relationships and subsidence rates (Bernoulli, 1972; D’Argenio et al., 1975), but also in terms of internal architecture (cf. Eberli and Ginsburg, 1989). In the Montagna della Maiella, the platform was bordered by a steep, non-depositional escarpment incised by submarine valleys during much of the Cretaceous (Fig. 3; Crescenti et al., 1969; Accarie, 1988). The escarpment shows pronounced anal- ogies with buried escarpments of the Great Bahama Bank (cf. Eberli and Ginsburg, 1989) and those below the west Florida shelf (cf. Mullins and Hine, 1989). The locally scalloped morphology of the escarpment, outcrops in the escarpment wall of Lower Cretaceous horizontally bedded, lagoonal to supratidal carbonates deposited in an internal platform environment, as well as lithic megabreccias intercalated with the adjacent basinal deposits, show that considerable submarine erosion and gravitational collapse shaped the escarpment in Cretaceous FIG. 1.—Location of Montagna della Maiella and relative position of the time. Most probably, the escarpment was inherited from Early carbonate platforms of Apulia (A) and Southern Limestone Apennines (B). The Apulian platform is largely autochthonous (Apulia, Monte Gargano) and partly Jurassic rifting (cf. Bice and Stewart, 1990). covered by foreland deposits and allochthonous units of the Southern Apen- The “middle” Cretaceous was a time of major crisis for the nines. The platform of the Southern Limestone Apennines is thrust onto basinal peri-Adriatic carbonate platforms. Along the Maiella margin Mesozoic sequences and Tertiary flysch, whereas the Apulian platform is only and elsewhere, subaerial exposure and bauxite formation oc- marginally involved in Tertiary thrusting in the Montagna della Maiella (from Eberli et al., 1993, reprinted by permission). curred during this interval (Crescenti, 1970; D’Argenio, 1970; D’Argenio and Mindszenti, 1992). In other areas such as the Caribbean and the west central Atlantic, carbonate platforms are interpreted to have “drowned” during the same time interval allochthonous units originating from more internal parts of the (Bryant et al., 1969; Schlager, 1989; Winker and Buffler, 1988). orogen; however, large parts of the platform including its north- This suggests that eustatic sea-level change was not the only ern margin are exposed in Apulia and on the Monte Gargano important controlling factor and that tectonic (e.g., intraplate peninsula (Fig. 1; Bosellini et al., 1993). The Apulian platform stresses) and environmental changes played a role. The Maiella was separated from the similar platform of the Southern Lime- platform was flooded again during the Middle to Late Ceno- stone Apennines by a deep basin. manian (Accarie, 1988; Accarie and Delamette, 1991). During The Apulian platform is one of the so-called peri-Adriatic Late Cretaceous platform aggradation, the steep escarpment platforms that in late Mesozoic and early Tertiary time occupied was maintained, and in the adjacent basin to the north, lithic much of the southern continental margin of the Mesozoic Teth- breccias, bioclastic turbidites and pelagic limestones were de- yan ocean (Bernoulli, 1972). This continental margin was either posited. In Late Campanian time, the basin immediately adja- part of a promontory of the African continent (Channell et al., cent to the platform was filled by these deeper marine sediments 1979; D’Argenio et al., 1980) or an independent microconti- onlapping the escarpment, and bioclastic limestones prograded nent, called Adria or Apulia, separated from Africa by an oce- over the basinal deposits, forming a distally steepened ramp anic basin (e.g., Dercourt et al., 1986). Where the basement of (Accarie, 1988; Eberli et al., 1993). This stage of platform evo- the platforms can be traced in the subsurface or in outcrop, it lution was ended by a major relative sea-level fall, documented is continental and of Late Paleozoic (Variscan) age. During lat- by a prominent regional truncation surface and subaerial ex- est Carboniferous, the Permian and the Early Triassic time, posure formed during the latest Maastrichtian and part of the shallow seas encroached from the southeast, and by Late Tri- Danian. Analogous unconformities, though less precisely dated, assic times a carbonate megabank had developed over much of are present on other central Italian platforms (Accordi and Car- the central Mediterranean area (Hauptdolomit-Dachstein me- bone, 1988). gabank). Locally, as in the central and southern Apennines, this Because of nondeposition and/or erosion, only parts of the megabank persisted into the early or middle Liassic (Calcare Tertiary are recorded by sediments on the peri-Adriatic plat- Massiccio Formation). forms (e.g., Colacicchi, 1987; Accordi and Carbone, 1988). The During Late Triassic to Early Jurassic times, the areas that Maiella margin shows a relatively complete early Tertiary rec- were to become the continental margins of the Tethys were ord along its slope, whereas long hiatuses are present on the

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FIG. 2.—A. Simpliﬁed geological map of Montagna della Maiella, after Catenacci et al. (1970; from Eberli et al., 1993, reprinted by permission). B. Locations of Figures 4, 6, 7 and 11. B: Blockhaus, CD: Colle Daniele, MB: Monte del Belvedere, MF: Monte Focalone, RF: Rava del Ferro.

platform top: here Paleocene to Bartonian deposits occur only Ghisetti and Vezzani, 1983). During the formation of the sed- as relatively thin erosional relics. During the Middle/Late Eo- imentary dećollement nappes (Bally et al., 1986), platform mar- cene, the platform was extensively flooded, and the establish- gins typically became the site of tectonic decoupling and thrust- ment of coralgal buildups above the Upper Eocene bioclastic ing; only in the Montagna della Maiella, where the former limestones was followed by progradation of the shallow plat- platform margin is perpendicular to the trend of the tectonic form over the former slope. Much of the Oligocene time is units is the platform margin entirely preserved. represented by a long hiatus both on the platform and on the slope, interrupted only by a short episode of deposition around METHODS OF SEQUENCE ANALYSIS the time of the Early/Late Oligocene boundary. As over large Depositional Geometry parts of the southern Apennines (Carannante et al., 1988), aggradation resumed in the Miocene during several poorly dated In the Montagna della Maiella, outcrops of the platform mar- episodes. The Miocene platform carbonates are relatively thin, gin that reach several kilometers in width and 2 km in height they were deposited on a gently inclined shelf under temperate (Fig. 2) permit examination of large-scale geometries that are climatic conditions. comparable to the ones observed on reflection seismic sections. In central Italy, carbonate platform evolution was ended by Each valley side was photographed in a panorama view. The clastic sedimentation in the foredeep of the advancing Apen- panoramic photomosaics were analyzed like seismic sections ninic orogen and by sea-level lowering during the Messinian (i.e., the sediments were subdivided into unconformity- salinity crisis (cf. Hsu¨ et al., 1978). Thrusting began in the bounded sequences according to the procedure described by Montagna della Maiella in the Pliocene (De Giuli et al., 1987; Mitchum et al., 1977 and Vail, 1988). Sections measured in the

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FIG. 3.—A. Schematic stratigraphic platform to basin cross section, based on measured sections, showing supersequences (SS), depositional geometries and lithostratigraphy of the Maiella platform margin. The Lower Cretaceous platform (KL) is bound by a steep escarpment and unconformably overlain by Upper Cretaceous shallow-water carbonates (SS 1). Onlapping basinal sediments of SS 1 bury the escarpment. After Late Campanian time, sequences are physically continuous from the platform interior onto the low-angle slope (SS 2). A major unconformity separates the Cretaceous from the Tertiary section (SS 2/3 boundary). During Paleocene through Middle Eocene time (SS 3 and 4), the former Cretaceous platform was repeatedly flooded, but most shallow-water carbonates from this interval were subsequently eroded. During the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene (SS 5), reefs prograded over the slope. The Miocene carbonates (SS 6) were deposited on a gently inclined shelf that covered both the former shallow-water platform and slope areas. Formations are from Crescenti et al. (1969) as redefined by Vecsei (1991). Many formations designate shallow-water platform facies (brick signature), or basinal and slope facies units that are part of one of SS 6). The ס SS 2, Bolognano Formation ס several supersequences (shaded or white); only two formations coincide with supersequences (Orfento Formation Gessoso Solfifera Formation, deposited during the Messinian salinity crisis of the Mediterranean, consists of breccias, evaporites and shales. B. Chronostratigraphic chart of the Maiella platform margin.

ﬁeld provide the sedimentologic and stratigraphic information graphic units of Haq et al. (1988). The Upper Cretaceous sed- for sequence analysis. iments are dated by globotruncanids determined in thin section, with the addition in the Campanian and Maastrichtian strata of Biostratigraphy larger foraminifera (mostly orbitoids and siderolitids; van Gor- The biostratigraphic subdivisions used are shown in Table 1. sel, 1978; Neumann, 1980). Cretaceous zonation and chron- The scheme of age units follows more or less the time-strati- ostratigraphic correlation are after Haq et al. (1988).

TABLE 1.—CORRELATION SCHEME OF DANIAN TO AQUITANIAN CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ZONATIONS.

PLANKTONIC LARGER PLANKTONIC LARGER FORAMINIFERAL FORAMINIFERAL FORAMINIFERAL FORAMINIFERAL ZONES ZONES ZONES ZONES SERIES SERIES STAGES STAGES Time in m. y. Time in m. y. (1) (2) (1) (2) 20 40 P14 T. rohri 21 N. perforatus 41 N5 C. dissimilis Miogypsina socini 22

BARTONIAN P13 O. beckmanni 42

23 LOWER MIOCENE 43 N. aturicus AQUITANIAN P12 G. lehneri 24 N4 G. kugleri Miogypsina gunteri 44 N. crassus 25

45 MIDDLE N. beneharnensis P11 G. subconglobata 26 Miogypsina P22 G. ciperoensis 46 septentrionalis / /N3 ciperoensis

LUTETIAN Nephrolepidina 27 morgani 47 N. laevigatus UPPER EOCENE P10 H. aragonensis 28 48 CHATTIAN 29 N. gallensis 49 P21 N. manfredi 30 /N2 P9 A. pentacamerata 50 G. opima opima Nephrolepidina N. praelaevigatus praemarginata 31

51 P8 G. aragonensis N. planulatus OLIGOCENE 32 N. involutus 52 M. formosa LOWER P7 P20 YPRESIAN formosa N. exilis 33 P19 53 G. ampliapertura M. subbotinae LOWER

P6b N. carcasonensis RUPELIAN 34 54 M. edgari N. minervensis N. fichteli P6a M. velascoensis N. deserti 35 P18 G. chipolensis 55 P5 - P. micra 36 56 N. fabianii retiatus Glomalveolina levis P17 37 T. cerroazulensis 57 P4 P. pseudomenardii 38 P16 UPPER

UPPER N. fabianii 58 EOCENE THANETIAN G. semiinvoluta 39 PRIABONIAN P15 Glomalveolina primaeva 59 P3b P. pusilla pusilla

60 P3a M. angulata

61 P2 M. uncinata PALEOCENE

62 P1c S. trinidadensis

63 (not zoned) DANIAN 64 LOWER

P1b G. pseudobulloides 65

66 P1a G. eugubina

Chronostratigraphic subdivisions follow Haq et al. (1988). Planktonic foraminiferal zonations are those adopted in Haq et al. (1988): (1) after Blow (1969) and Berggren (1972); (2) after Stainforth et al. (1975). Larger foraminiferal zones adopted are those of Hottinger (1960), Schaub (1981), De Mulder (1975), and Drooger and Laagland (1986).

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In Paleocene to Eocene strata, the planktonic foraminifera (Table 2). Biostratigraphic data are also in accord with the pos- were zoned, interpreted chronostratigraphically and correlated tulate that time lines do not cut but might merge along sequence with the nannofossil zonation of Haq et al. (1988); this zonation boundaries (Vail et al., 1977). Along only one boundary (SS 1/ can be correlated easily with the zonation for planktonic fora- 2) is the hiatus not long enough to be defined by planktonic minifera of Blow (1969), Stainforth et al. (1975; Table 1) and foraminiferal biostratigraphy. Bolli et al. (1985). However, the determination of planktonic The 2nd-order supersequences are composed of several 3rd- foraminifera in thin section is usually difficult and sometimes order depositional sequences formed during shorter sea-level unreliable. The presence of larger foraminifera, mostly num- cycles (cf. Vail et al., 1977; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). This mulitids (Schaub, 1981), but in a few cases other groups like paper concentrates on the evolution of the 2nd-order superse- the alveolinids (Hottinger, 1960), makes a parallel zonation quences. The complete data sets, further interpretative details possible (cf. Pomerol, 1973; Hillebrandt, 1980). These larger and the more complete descriptions of the 3rd-order sequences foraminifera were important in age dating and in determining are found in Vecsei (1991) and Sanders (1994). stages and their boundaries. The Oligocene and Lower Miocene (Aquitanian) strata are poor in diagnostic planktonic foramini- EVOLUTION AND SUPERSEQUENCES OF THE MAIELLA PLATFORM MARGIN fera but are dated with the help of larger foraminifera, particu- The following sections describe the succession of superse- larly lepidocyclinids and to a lesser degree also miogypsinids quences with particular emphasis on supersequence boundaries (Vervloet, 1966; Lange, 1968; De Mulder, 1975; Schu¨ttenhelm, characteristics and the depositional systems active in each su- 1976; Drooger and Laagland, 1986). For the correlation of the persequence. The depositional systems change from one super- Tertiary larger foraminiferal zonations with the planktonic fo- sequence to another, but remain unchanged within each super- raminiferal zones of Haq et al. (1988) we have used a newly sequence, reflecting distinct stages of platform evolution. Six elaborated scheme (Table 1). supersequences are present between Upper Cretaceous and Up- The strata of the Maiella platform margin are divided into per Miocene deposits. Except for thin “middle” Oligocene sed- supersequences with parts on the shallow-water platform and iments, all deposits of the Maiella platform margin can be parts on the slope and/or in the basin. Each supersequence is a clearly attributed to one of the supersequences. genetic unit and corresponds in all cases but one to a distinct phase of platform evolution characterized by a distinct depo- Upper Jurassic to Upper Albian Succession sitional system and typical facies associations. The characteristics of the supersequence boundaries of the Upper Jurassic to Upper Albian carbonates form the substra- Maiella platform margin are summarized in Table 2. All super- tum of the Upper Cretaceous to mid-Tertiary supersequences sequence boundaries are deeply incised truncation surfaces, al- and comprise the oldest deposits outcropping in the Montagna though the depth of truncation varies between and along the della Maiella. These sediments are of two areally separated fa- boundaries. Most of the supersequence boundaries can be phys- cies: carbonate platform in the south and basinal in the north ically traced and biostratigraphically correlated over the entire (Figs. 3, 4). The carbonate platform succession is part of the Montagna della Maiella. In addition, biostratigraphy shows that Morrone di Pacentro Formation of Crescenti et al. (1969; Fig. all boundaries except one are associated with a major hiatus 3). Although the platform-basin transition is not exposed in the

TABLE 2.—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUPERSEQUENCE BOUNDARIES ON THE MAIELLA PLATFORM MARGIN.

Platform Slope or basin straight ע SS 6 Geometry at base deep truncation, locally channels Hiatus at base Late Cretaceous-Langhian (c. 50 my) Early Rupelian-late Chattian/early Aquitanian (c. 9 my)* SS 5 Evidence for exposure at top microkarst, soils with Microcodium (none) straight, locally channels ע Geometry at base deep truncation, many channels Hiatus at base Late Maastrichtian-early Priabonian (c. 28 my) within Bartonian (Ͻ2 my) SS 4 Evidence for exposure at top microkarst, soils with Microcodium (none) Geometry at base truncation, channels locally slumps Hiatus at base Ypresian p.p.-Maastrichtian p.p. (Ͼ12 my) within Ypresian (M. subbotinae zone, Ͼ0.5 my) SS 3 Evidence for exposure at top microkarst, soils with Microcodium (none) Geometry at base up to c. 50 m truncation, many channels truncation, channels Hiatus at base ?Ypresian p.p.-Campanian (?Ͼ20 my) Late Maastrichtian-Danian** (c. 8 my) SS 2 Evidence for exposure at top and within SS meteoric diagenesis indicated by secondary porosity, ?same as on platform siliciﬁcation straight ע (m 100ע) Geometry at base deep truncation Hiatus at base ?mid-Campanian-Maastrichtian p.p. (Ͻ10 my) within Late Campanian (G. calcarata zone, Ͻ1.5 my) SS 1 Evidence for exposure at top karst, caliche (none) (straight (little exposed ע? Geometry at base up to Ͼ100 m truncation Hiatus at base Middle Albian-Late Cenomanian*** (Ͼ4 my) ?none**** KL Evidence for exposure at top several 10s of meters truncation, deep karst and bauxite (none) Geometries observed along the base, time spans of hiatuses determined along the base, and evidence for subaerial exposure observed at the top and within the supersequences (SS) and their substratum (KL). The maximal time span of the hiatuses on the platform and their minimal time span on the slope are given. *where upper Rupelian/lower Chattian limestones are present two hiatuses occur: Early Rupelian-Late Rupelian (probably Ͼ2 my), and Early Chattian-Late Chattian (c. 5 my) **from Moussavian and Vecsei (1995) ***from Accarie (1988) and Accarie and Delamette (1991) ****from Accarie and Deconinck (1989)

FIG. 4.—Panoramic view of the central Montagna della Maiella, from Blockhaus. Deep valleys expose the more or less horizontally bedded Cretaceous Lower Cretaceous, and SS 1) and the 35Њ inclined escarpment that borders the platform to the north. The northern flank of Cima ס shallow-water platform (KL delle Murelle is possibly an exhumed part of the escarpment. The lower part of the escarpment is onlapped by Cenomanian to Upper Campanian basinal deposits, including megabreccias of Supersequence (SS) 1. Slope carbonates of SS 2 (Upper Campanian to uppermost Maastrichtian) form a wedge thickening basinwards; slope deposits of SS 2 also onlap and bury the escarpment and submarine valleys, and finally overstep the platform top, which is almost flat here. Slope deposits of SS 3 and 4 fill wide channels incised into the top of SS 2, and are locally eroded below SS 5. A thick series of prograding bioclastic limestones with a few reef knolls forms the lower, Priabonian part of SS 5 that buried the previous relief. Below Pesco Falcone, coralgal reefs were reestablished during the early Rupelian stage, and prograded laterally and basinward over the slope (after Vecsei, 1991).

Lower Cretaceous strata, platform and basin already must have whether this is due to local tilting caused by intrastratal karsti- been separated by a precursor of the steep, erosional escarpment fication or whether it reflects tectonic tilting during the “mid- limiting the platform to the north. dle” Cretaceous. In the southern and central Montagna della Maiella, the pre- “middle” Cretaceous carbonate platform deposits are as old as Supersequence 1 (Middle Cenomanian to Upper Late Jurassic age (Crescenti et al., 1969) and are mostly com- Campanian Substages) posed of cyclically bedded shallow subtidal to supratidal limestones with few intercalations of rudist biostromes near the plat- In the Middle to Late Cenomanian, the platform was flooded form margin. Their exposed thickness is estimated at 1400 m again and shallow-water carbonates were deposited above the (Crescenti et al., 1969; Accarie et al., 1986; Accarie, 1988). In supersequence boundary between the underlying platform car- the escarpment, internal platform facies are outcropping, indi- bonates and SS 1 (the mid-Cretaceous unconformity). Accarie cating subsequent erosion of the platform margin. Thus only (1988) and Accarie and Delamette (1991) have documented a part of the depositional system of the platform is preserved. hiatus of variable duration along this boundary that maximally Time-equivalent basinal deposits occur only at a few locali- spans the Middle Albian to Late Cenomanian interval and min- ties in the northern Maiella, where up to 50 m of pelagic lime- imally comprises Late Albian to Early Cenomanian time. stones, bioclastic turbidites, breccias and pebbly mudstones of Until Late Campanian time, the shallow platform was sepa- Late Albian age are exposed (Accarie and Deconinck, 1989; rated from the basin by a steep submarine escarpment (Cres- observations by D. Bernoulli, 1994). In a drill hole approxi- centi et al., 1969; Accarie, 1988). At times, this escarpment may mately 20 km north of the escarpment, Lower Cretaceous pe- have reached a height of 1000 m. Along the north face of Cima lagic limestones (Maiolica Formation), with interbedded black della Murelle, the escarpment is inclined about 35Њ, which ap- shales in the Aptian-Albian interval (Marne a Fucoidi Forma- proximately corresponds to its slope in the Late Cretaceous Pe- tion), are the basinal equivalents (Crescenti et al., 1969). riod. Along the undulatory escarpment surface, the cores of Shallow-water carbonate production was interrupted in the Upper Cretaceous rudist biostromes are exposed. This facies “middle” Cretaceous by long-lasting subaerial exposure. Lo- distribution shows that the escarpment was continuously shaped cally deep karstic cavities formed and were filled by breccias by mass wasting and submarine erosion but that it retained its (Fig. 5A) and partly by pisolithic bauxite. In some places, an steep angle during aggradation as long as it was not buried by angular unconformity is observed. It is not clear, however, the onlapping sediments (Figs. 3, 4). When the escarpment was

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FIG. 5.—The mid-Cretaceous unconformity, and the facies of Supersequence (SS) 1. (A) Karstic collapse breccia along the mid-Cretaceous unconformity. The limestone clasts are predominantly fenestral mud-/wackestones cemented by sparry calcite. The large cavity is filled by laminated internal sediment. Rava del Ferro. Lens cap is 52 mm across. (B) Detail of a rudist biostrome in the platform of SS 1. Densely packed hippuritids are embedded in a matrix of bioclastic wacke-/packstone. Cima delle Murelle. (C) Relation between rudist biostromes and bioclastic sand-bodies in the platform of SS 1. The rudist biostrome in the lower left is the top member of a 4th-order shallowing-upward cycle, overlain by a bioclastic sand wave that downlaps onto the biostrome. Arrow marks interface between biostrome and sand wave. Colle Daniele. Width of view is 25 m. (D) Wide and shallow channels within the basinal series of SS 1 are filled with amalgamated breccias dominated by clasts of lithified platform lithologies; the breccias form steep cliffs. The intercalated sediments (weathering back) are pelagic limestones and biocalcarenite turbidites. Arrow marks SS 1/2 boundary (SSB). North side of Valle delle Tre Grotte.

eventually buried during latest Cretaceous time, headward ero- up-section by a progradational pattern. These systematic thick- sion had created a system of submarine valleys isolating part ness variations suggest a subdivision of SS 1 on the platform of the platform. interior into two sets of sequences. Different cycle stacking patterns are observed on the plat- Along the platform margin, cycles dominated by bioclastic form interior and along the platform margin, respectively. On sand bodies were deposited in a 2.5- to 3-km-wide belt behind the platform interior, a succession of meter-scale cycles was the platform edge. Bioclastic sand bodies make up the lower deposited. The peritidal cycles in the lower part of this succes- part of these cycles, while the upper part consists of rudist bios- sion are arranged in an overall thinning- and shoaling-upward tromes (Figs. 5B, C) and of inter- to supratidal limestones. The stacking pattern. The upper part of the succession is composed rudist assemblages are typical for high-energy platform envi- of thicker cycles with grainstones and rudist-oyster biostromes, ronments (Accordi et al., 1987). The lower part of the external indicating a deepening of facies. These younger cycles are platform succession, consisting of cycles arranged in a progra- stacked in a retrogradational stacking pattern that is followed dational pattern, is again separated from the upper part of the

succession by a surface along which deepening of facies occurs and which is correlated with the analogous surface observed on the internal platform. The bioclastic sand bodies consist of northward (i.e., offbank-dipping sigmoid to oblique) master- beds (Fig. 5C). These are composed of a coarse biodetrital lower part and a bi-directionally cross-laminated bioclastic- oobioclastic upper part. Both truncation and downlap surfaces are present within the sand bodies and, together with the bidi- rectional cross-lamination, suggest progradation under the influence of storms and tides. Excess sediment produced on the platform and lithified clasts reworked from its margins bypassed the escarpment. In Ceno- manian time, a wedge-shaped talus consisting of breccias and coarse bioclastic sand was deposited along the foot of the escarpment (Accarie, 1988; Valle dell’Inferno Formation). This wedge and the remaining escarpment are onlapped by a unit of megabreccias, turbidites and pelagic limestones (Fig. 3; Tre Grotte Formation). The clast-supported megabreccia beds, up to 50 m thick, are either single beds or, more often, amalgamated (Fig. 5D). Their chaotic internal organization and the scarcity of matrix suggest deposition by rock avalanche and, possibly, by debris flow. The megabreccias are intercalated with pelagic limestones and calcarenites (Fig. 5D). The pelagic back- ground sediment probably is a mixture of coccolith ooze and winnowed bank-top derived carbonate lutum (i.e., periplatform ooze). The calcarenites consist mainly of biogenic debris; they are identified as turbidites, partly reworked by contour currents, based on grading and parallel or cross-laminations. The megabreccias fill shallow channels that truncate the underlying beds. Their composition is dominated by clasts of lithified platform limestones. They are interpreted as the products of platform margin erosion and collapse probably during relative sea-level lowstands, whereas the pelagic limestones and intercalated bioclastic turbidites might represent in large part unconsolidated sediment exported from the active, producing platform during relative sea-level rises and highstands. Based FIG. 6.—Subaerial exposure unconformity along the boundary of Superse- on these criteria, seven 3rd-order sequences have been distin- quences (SS) 1/2 at Colle Daniele. The Upper Cretaceous platform (SS 1) is guished in the basin within SS 1. truncated. Its surface is karstified and shows other signatures of subaerial al- The depositional system of SS 1 ended with the formation teration and diagenesis, such as caliche and vadose cements (Mutti, 1995). The of the upper supersequence boundary, along which local sub- erosional relief is infilled by onlapping biocalcarenites and calcisiltites (SS 2). These are in turn truncated and overlain by channelized megabreccias that aerial exposure occurred (Eberli et al., 1993; Mutti, 1995; Fig. contain large blocks of Thanetian coralgal reefs (SS 3). 6). At the platform edge, the boundary runs along the interface between the shallow-water platform of SS 1 and the onlapping upper slope carbonates of SS 2 (e.g., at Monte Rotondo on the In Late Campanian to Early Maastrichtian time, the deposi- right side of Fig. 4). The boundary of SS 1/2 can be traced on tional pattern changed from aggradation to progradation; the the slope over most of the northern Maiella. former basin and the intra-platform valleys were largely filled, and a wedge of carbonate sands and breccias (Orfento Forma- Supersequence 2 (Upper Campanian to Uppermost tion, SS 2, Fig. 3) was deposited on the former platform margin Maastrichtian Substages) and upper slope. Within this wedge, lithic turbidites and mass- flow deposits are overlain by bioclastic sand waves. These sand On the slope, deposition of SS 2 started in Late Campanian waves prograded towards the basin over a gently inclined, dis- time above the SS 1/2 boundary, which is a slight truncation tally steepened ramp that extended above the former basin and surface changing downslope to a conformity. Thus, this is the gradually encroached onto the shallow-water platform (Figs. 4, only supersequence boundary across which no hiatus could be 7). In situ rudistid buildups are preserved only locally along the proved biostratigraphically on the slope; pelagic limestones im- platform margin that, during the course of Maastrichtian time, mediately below and above the boundary were dated as the Late was also covered by offbank transported carbonate sands. Campanian Globotruncanita calcarata zone. On the platform, The carbonate sands of SS 2 onlap the eroded top of the the SS 2/3 boundary is a surface characterized by strong trun- platform along the basal boundary of SS 2 (Fig. 7). In other cation, but the associated hiatus could not be determined places, the carbonate sands show a downlap onto the underlying exactly. carbonate platform. The slope deposits of SS 2 are bioclastic

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FIG. 7.—Panoramic view of the northeast ﬂank of the upper Valle del Orfento. Supersequence (SS) 2 can be followed almost continuously from above the older Cretaceous shallow-water platform onto the slope. The boundary of SS 1/2 is characterized here by slight truncation. The top of SS 2 was eroded down parallel to a major bedding surface in SS 2; the relief is ﬁlled by sediments of SS 3. Less pronounced ע about 50 m at Monte del Belvedere, elsewhere it runs truncation surfaces subdivide SS 2 into four 3rd-order sequences, the uppermost of which is preserved only below Monte del Belvedere and shows a marked erosional relief along the base.

limestones made up mostly of rudist debris. Other constituents Fig. 7). Limestones of SS 3 fill the deep erosional relief along are larger benthonic foraminifera, coral, red algae, and intra- the top of SS 2. In addition to the large-scale erosion, the sed- clasts. The sand waves are up to 20 m high and a few hundreds iments of SS 2 are truncated in many places by shallow chan- of meters wide (Fig. 8A). They prograded unidirectionally nels filled by lithic breccias of ?Early Paleocene and Thanetian downslope, probably under the influence of ebb-dominated age (Figs. 7, 9A). tidal currents. Above the former platform, the sand waves can- SS 3 marks a turning point in the evolution of the platform not be traced as they laterally merge to form sand bodies cross- margin. During the earliest Tertiary Period, deposition on the bedded on the scale of several meters. A few thin beds of pe- Maiella platform margin was minimal, and if sediments were lagic limestone are intercalated with these deposits on the lower deposited, they were eroded shortly thereafter. A shallow-water slope. Additional facies are breccias with shallow-water lime- platform of late Thanetian age was reworked, and its products stone clasts on the lower and upper parts on the slope (Fig. 8B) redeposited as channelized gravity flow deposits. These depos- and breccias with redeposited rudists on the upper slope. These its are intercalated with pelagic and bioclastic limestones that breccias occur above truncation surfaces that subdivide SS 2 mark a rapid deepening over large parts of the platform margin. into four 3rd-order depositional sequences with a similar inter- Thus nondeposition and erosion were the dominant processes nal organization (Figs. 4, 7), and have been interpreted as low- on the platform and its upper slope. stand breccias. No persistent shallow-water platform was established be- The youngest beds of SS 2 are Late Maastrichtian age (late tween latest Maastrichtian and middle to late Ypresian times. G. gansseri or A. mayaroensis zone). Subaerial exposure during However, upper Danian-lower Thanetian coralgal reefs dis- formation of the supersequence boundary is suggested by the placed downslope as slide blocks are preserved at the base of development of important secondary porosity and silicification SS 3 along the northern flank of Valle delle Tre Grotte (Mous- of SS 2 limestones, probably caused by the circulation of met- savian and Vecsei, 1995). Together with the dating of the top eroric waters (cf. Knauth, 1979; Mutti, 1995). of SS 2 as late ?G. gansseri or early A. mayaroensis zone, these reef sediments and the ?Lower Paleocene lithic breccias con- Supersequence 3 (Danian to “Middle” or Upper strain the age of the supersequence boundary as latest Maas- Ypresian Substages) trichtian (near the base or within the A. mayaroensis zone) to The SS 2/3 boundary is a truncation surface that in places Danian. In the Thanetian stage, extensive reefs must have ex- reaches to a depth of 50 m and more (Monte del Belvedere, isted further up the platform, but they were eroded during late

Thanetian time and are found only as large volumes of clasts in channel fills. Channel fills are nearly the only sedimentary record of this time interval on the platform and on the upper slope, which also displays erosion and local nondeposition. The channels are complex, often amalgamated, and younger channels frequently cut older ones. Channel width and depth generally increase up- section, with the width reaching several hundreds of meters. Calcirudite beds in the channels become laterally more extensive and intercalations of calcarenites and pelagic limestones become more common as channel size increases. The calcirudite and calcarenite beds are turbidites and other gravity flow deposits containing lithic and bioclastic sand and gravel transported downslope. The lithoclasts are indurated shallow-water limestone clasts, mostly eroded from older sediments within SS 3, but near the basal supersequence boundary, clasts eroded from the underlying SS 2 are also abundant. Small benthonic foraminifera, green and red algae, and larger foraminifera are the main bioclastic components. There is no evidence of subaerial exposure along the top of SS 3 either on the slope or the platform. However, clasts with Microcodium and microkarst redeposited onto the slope indicate subaerial exposure of the platform top.

Supersequence 4 (“Middle” or Upper Ypresian to FIG. 8.—Facies of Supersequence (SS) 2. (A) Close-up of an unidirection- Bartonian Substages) ally prograding sand wave in SS 2. On the slope, vertically stacked sand waves of this type build up the major part of the supersequence. Note asymptotic Sedimentation resumed on the lower slope in middle to late downlap on the lower master bedding surface (MSB, arrows) and toplap to- Ypresian time above a surface characterized by slight truncation wards the upper master bedding surface, indicated by small arrows. Valle di where underlain by sediments of SS 3. The minimum duration Santo Spirito. (B) In SS 2, the lithic breccias deposited on the upper slope typically show a concave-upward shape onlapped by bioclastic sand beds of the hiatus along this part of the basal supersequence bound- (marked by arrows). Large block (R) is a Maastrichtian rudist reef clast. West ary cannot be determined exactly by biostratigraphy; however, face of Monte Focalone. After Accarie (1988). it lies within the interval between the M. formosa formosa/G. aragonensis zones of the middle Ypresian time and the A. pentacamerata zone of the late Ypresian time. On the platform, sediments (Fig. 3), suggesting deposition on a submarine fan. times of nondeposition and erosion prevailed during middle or Truncation surfaces along the base of the lithic turbidites allow late Ypresian to Bartonian stages, but are more difficult to date. identification of at least four 3rd-order sequences within this A shallow-water platform was reestablished briefly but was supersequence. The bioclastic turbidites are mostly composed eroded subsequently. Thus, SS 3 and 4 are laterally discontin- of larger foraminifera, red algae, small benthonic foraminifera uous on the former platform top and on the upper slope and at and echinoids, typical for a deeper shelf or a temperate climate places the SS boundaries 2/3 and 3/4, and 3/4 and 4/5, respec- zone. Organisms characterizing tropical or subtropical shallow tively, merge (Fig. 3). As a result, SS 4 may directly overlie photic conditions are conspicuously rare. The lithic breccias SS 2. contain clasts eroded from older platform deposits, including On the platform in the southernmost Montagna della Maiella, hemipelagic and shallow-water limestones of SS 3, 4 and in grainstones rich in alveolinids occur (Bally, 1954). The grain- places also of SS 2. Deep channels and slumps are relatively stones form large-scale cross-bedded to massive, up to 10-m- frequent in the slope sediments of SS 4 (Fig. 9B). thick bodies that locally show a convex upper relief. Aside from Subaerial exposure of the platform after deposition of SS 4 alveolinids, they are made up of miliolids, bryozoans, red algae, is indicated only by clasts redeposited onto the slope that con- larger benthonic foraminifera (gypsinids, soritids) and encrust- tain Microcodium or microkarst. On the lower slope, this ing foraminifera. They are, on a scale of meters, interbedded boundary can be observed in only a few places where it is not with plankton-bearing hemipelagic limestones that contain sufficiently exposed for analyzing its exact geometry and graded bioclastic beds. characteristics. Farther north on the former platform, channels similar in geometry to the channels described in SS 3 were filled with litho- Supersequence 5 (Bartonian to Lower Oligocene Stages) and bioclastic components. Sediment funneled from the platform through these channels bypassed the uppermost part of The basal boundary of SS 5 is associated with deep erosional the slope and was deposited further downslope as a succession truncation on the platform and the slope. As a result, SS 5 lies of bioclastic and lithic turbidites up to 40 m thick intercalated directly on SS 2 (e.g., along most of its outcrop in Fig. 4) over with pelagic limestones (Fig. 9B). Reconstruction of the slope large areas. Thick channelized lithic breccias with characteristic reveals a concave-upward upper surface of this pile of slope nummulites in the matrix were deposited above the truncation

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With progradation of the shallow-water areas, larger marginal coralgal reefs were established over most of the pre-existing topographic highs and partially also on the shallowest part of the slope (Figs. 12A, B). Subsequently these reefs prograded at least 4 km basinwards over the gently inclined upper slope (Fig. 4 on both sides of Pesco Falcone). Coeval limestones on the lower slope strongly reflect the change in platform evolution: depositional rates drastically increased in SS 5 due to shedding from the active platform, and the amount of bioclastic material (about 95%) in the lower slope limestones greatly exceeds lithoclastic and pelagic deposition. The turbidite sequences deposited on the lower slope are divided into six 3rd-order depositional sequences (Fig. 11). Most of the sequences are composed of a coarsening and thickening upward cycle (Fig. 12C), interpreted to be the result of increasing shedding during 3rd-order sea-level highstand progradation of the shallow-water platform. Components of the bioclastic beds are mainly large and small foraminifera, green and red algae, bivalves and crinoids. These components reflect the production of organisms in the photic zone. Lithic breccias on the slope are also different from those of the underlying SS 2 and 3; they are exclusively eroded from the penecontemporaneous reefs along the platform margin, and older constituents are lack- ing. These breccias are interpreted as the lowstand deposits of the 3rd-order sequences. The local occurrence of Microcodium in the uppermost reefs FIG. 9.—Facies of Supersequences (SS) 3 and 4. (A) Along the lower of SS 5 suggests subaerial exposure and diagenesis (cf. Klappa, boundary of SS 3, a channel cut into the bioclastic sands of SS 2 (arrows) is filled by a breccia with lower Tertiary platform limestone clasts. Note the flat 1980; Esteban and Klappa, 1983). However, Microcodium oc- top typical for many channel fills. Lower Valle del Orfento. (B) Part of the curs also along exposure horizons deeper in SS 5. Clasts with lower slope, where two 3rd-order sequences in SS 4 are separated by a low- microkarst eroded from SS 5 during formation of the boundary angle truncation surface (SB, bottom marked by line of arrows) overlain by also indicate subaerial exposure. lithic breccia beds. The major part of the sequences consists of pelagic limestones and bioclastic turbidites. Note channels (C) with steep and with gently inclined walls (line of arrows, lower right) and slumps (S) with contorted bed- “Middle” Oligocene Limestones of Uncertain ding. Lower Valle del Orfento. Supersequence Affinity Limestones of “middle” Oligocene age, exposed in a few small and isolated outcrops in the northwestern Montagna della surface that forms the basal supersequence boundary. On the Maiella, cannot be allocated to a specific supersequence with lower part of the slope, these breccias are sometimes deformed certainty, nor are there sufficient biostratigraphic data to define by slumping. Lateral tracing of the breccias allows definition of the lower boundary of SS 5 in places where large-scale outcrops are missing. On the lower slope, the hiatus along this boundary is dated with nummulites and includes a time interval within the Bartonian. This hiatus, documenting nondeposition or erosion, strongly increases in duration towards the topo- graphically higher areas to the south (Fig. 10). SS 5 is on the order of 180 m thick over both earlier platform and slope areas (Figs. 3, 11). This indicates that significant accommodation space was created on the morphological high above the previous platform. In earliest Priabonian time, slope carbonates were deposited in the entire Montagna della Maiella (e.g., at Monte Rotondo and Monte Focalone on Fig. 4). Shallow-water deposition was restricted to the south beyond the exposed area, where a plat- FIG. 10.—The duration of the hiatus along the basal boundary of Superse- form must have become reestablished in the late Bartonian to quence (SS) 5 increases up-slope (from northwest to southeast) from an un- early Rupelian. This Tertiary platform was rimmed by a gently determined interval within the Bartonian in section S. Croce, where SS 5 is inclined slope (right side of Fig. 4, and its continuation down- underlain by SS 4; through intervals spanning Early Paleocene or Thanetian to slope on Fig. 11). Bartonian time at Rava Cupa and Pesco Falcone, where SS 3 underlies SS 5 and SS 4 is missing, to the ?Maastrichtian-Priabonian interval at Monte Ro- During the early Priabonian, sediments of the uppermost tondo, where SS 5 directly overlies SS 2. The basal supersequence boundary slope prograded basinwards. They consist mainly of tempestites everywhere contains an isochron in the Bartonian. Numerical ages are accord- with local small patch reefs (below Pesco Falcone on Fig. 4). ing to Haq et al. (1988; from Vecsei, 1991).

FIG. 11.—Panoramic view of the middle part of Valle del Orfento. The slope series of Supersequence (SS) 4 is here reduced to an amalgamated stack of thick lithic breccias. SS 5 (Bartonian to lower Rupelian) is on this part of the slope subdivided into six sequences bounded by truncation surfaces. The thin unit of uncertain supersequence allocation (upper Rupelian to lower Chattian) is separated from SS 5 by another truncation surface. The lower three sequences of SS 6 are exposed; each consists of a lower bioclastic facies unit and an upper pelagic marly limestone unit. The boundaries of these sequences are channelized truncation surfaces in this section.

another supersequence between SS 5 and 6. The “middle” Oli- However, there must be a relatively long hiatus along the in- gocene time was obviously a period of reduced sedimentation terface between SS 5 and the “middle” Oligocene strata as in- along the Maiella margin, resulting in a package of beds too dicated by the marked faunal change. thin to produce a geometrically recognizable supersequence and On the slope, above the truncation surface along the top of preserved only as erosional relics between SS 5 and 6. SS 5, a few meters of bioclastic turbidites similar to those in Upper Rupelian to lower Chattian patch reefs are located a the upper part of SS 5 are present. Their bioclasts, derived from few kilometers basinward of the lower Rupelian reefs of SS 5 a shallow-water euphotic zone, include small lepidocyclinids (Fig. 3). Their composition is very similar to that of the lower also indicating a late Rupelian/early Chattian age. Rupelian patch reefs, except for the occurrence of small lepidocyclinids instead of lower Rupelian nummulitids. Herma- Supersequence 6 (Uppermost Chattian/Aquitanian to ?Lower typic corals indicate that the Apulian platform was in the sub- Messinian Substages) tropical climate zone during “middle” Oligocene time. The small size and the isolation of the reef outcrop do not permit The basal boundary of SS 6 is a truncation surface recogniz- determination of the depositional geometry along its base. able across the whole Montagna della Maiella. Erosion was

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FIG. 12.—Depositional system and facies of Supersequence (SS) 5: (A) Coralgal reef along the margin of the lower Rupelian shallow-water platform, which prograded over the uppermost slope. The reef base (big arrow) is approximately horizontal, its top is slightly concave upwards (line of small arrows). Note irregular reef surface reﬂecting internal structure, below Pesco Falcone. (B) Coralgal reef facies with large tilted coral heads in an unsorted matrix of reef debris and peri-reefal organisms. Lower Rupelian, below Pesco Falcone. Coin is 25 mm across. (C) Cycle in bioclastic turbidites and intercalated pelagic carbonates on the lower slope. The bioclastic beds become thicker and more frequent up-section. The cycle is intercalated between two thick lithic breccia beds (B). 3rd- order sequence boundaries are drawn at truncation surfaces (arrows) that are overlain by the breccia beds. Slope carbonates of SS 5 in the middle part of Orfento Valley, detail from Figure 11.

most pronounced in the southwestern Maiella where it cut down lated between SS 5 and 6. In the southwestern Maiella, the to Upper Cretaceous or Lower Tertiary strata (Bally, 1954; Miocene (Langhian) deposits of SS 6 overlie the Upper Cre- Crescenti et al., 1969; Catenacci et al., 1982). taceous carbonate platform deposits (SS 1) along an angular During Miocene time, the depositional system of the Maiella unconformity (Catenacci et al., 1982; Accarie, 1988). platform was different from that of the previous supersequ- The Miocene succession is subdivided into four vertically ences. The low-angle slope of the early Tertiary Period evolved stacked 3rd-order sequences, dominated by cross-bedded grain- during latest Chattian to Early Miocene time into a gently in- stones (Fig. 11). In the lower two sequences (Fig. 13), the grain- clined carbonate shelf. This change indicates that the slope had stones contain mainly transported and broken benthonic fora- previously been ﬁlled and that the relief between platform and minifera and bryozoans, whereas red algal rhodoliths dominate slope was greatly reduced. As a result, SS 6 overlies SS 5 along in the upper two sequences. Both small and large benthonic the former slope and platform margin areas; the corresponding foraminifera are abundant in the lower part of all four se- hiatus spans almost the entire Oligocene and large parts of the quences. These biota indicate deposition in relatively shallow Priabonian time, except where “middle” Oligocene reefs and water, probably within or slightly below the euphotic zone, dur- turbidites (of uncertain supersequence allocation) are interca- ing 3rd-order sea-level lowstands and transgression. The car-

FIG. 13.—Facies of Supersequence (SS) 6. At the north side of Valle S. Bartolomeo, the two lower 3rd-order sequences within SS 6 are preserved between the truncation surfaces of the lower and upper supersequence boundaries (SSB, big arrows). The lower facies units of both sequences, forming cliffs, consist of cross-bedded bioclastic limestones. Foresets and cross-bedding are visible in the lower sequence. The beds are arranged into sand waves, bounded by master bedding surfaces that can be followed along the width of the outcrop. The upper facies units of both sequences, weathering back, are composed of pelagic marly limestones.

bonate production rate of these organisms was relatively low; truncations on the platform top, and up-slope subaerial expo- consequently the shelf “drowned” during the sea-level rises and sure is only indicated in clasts redeposited onto the slope that highstands, and marly pelagic carbonates with abundant plank- contain Microcodium or microkarst. The local occurrence of tonic foraminifera were deposited. These pelagic units thin and Microcodium in SS 5 indicates the existence of paleosols and eventually disappear on the upper part of the shelf because of thus of subaerial exposure that probably occurred during the non-deposition or subsequent erosion. The faunal and floral as- formation of sequence boundaries in SS 5 and between SS 5 sociations of SS 6 show that the Maiella had left the subtropical and 6. climate zone and entered the temperate zone (cf. Carannante et The scarcity of preserved karstification and related features al., 1988). along some of the supersequence boundaries is striking. We speculate that truncation during sea-level lowstands and the EXPOSURE VERSUS SUBMARINE EROSION ALONG THE subsequent flooding were so vigorous that most deposits related SUPERSEQUENCE BOUNDARIES to subaerial exposure were eroded. The great depth of trunca- Van Wagoner et al. (1988) and Vail (1988) postulated that tion observed along several supersequence boundaries and the the landward portions of sequence boundaries are truncation abundance of lithoclasts with signatures of subaerial diagenesis, surfaces formed during subaerial exposure, whereas submarine which were eroded from the platform and redeposited in the erosional processes would be active along the boundaries below breccias overlying the supersequence boundaries, are in line sea level. Strong truncation and erosion of the platform (Table with this interpretation. However, the truncation at the platform 2) clearly show that the supersequence boundaries of the margin and the upper slope along SS boundaries 3/4 and 4/5 Maiella platform margin formed during periods of major base may be submarine. level lowering that, at least in part, are connected to relative The processes responsible for submarine erosion along the sea-level lowstands. slope portions of the supersequence boundaries are difficult to Clear evidence for subaerial exposure exists only along two reconstruct. Shanmugam (1988) proposed that submarine ero- supersequence boundaries on the Maiella platform margin, but sion along sequence boundaries is due first to mass movements. there are good indications for exposure along all supersequence Indeed, there are slumps and debris flow deposits along the boundaries (Table 2). The mid-Cretaceous unconformity is as- boundaries of SS 2/3 and 4/5. However, there is no preferential sociated with karstification and bauxite formation. Karst mor- occurrence of slumps and other resedimented units along these phology and associated caliche also document subaerial expo- boundaries, as they are also present within the supersequences. sure along the platform portion of the boundary of SS 1/2 Shallow channels at the platform margin, the upper slope and, (Mutti, 1995). There is evidence for subaerial exposure during although less commonly, also on the lower slope have been the formation of the SS 2/3 boundary by the development of observed at most of the supersequence boundaries. Their origin secondary porosity and local silicification in the slope sedi- may be associated with erosion by mass movement processes, ments of SS 2. Boundaries of SS 3/4 and 4/5 are deep erosional although tidal currents may also have played a role.

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These observations show that the criteria postulated for the their substratum, measured in biostratigraphically well-defined recognition of supersequence boundaries in seismic sections by time intervals. The rates of aggradation generally decreased Van Wagoner et al. (1988) and Vail (1988) can be applied also with time from the Late Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous Period, in good outcrop, even though the lateral extent of the observable whereas there was only discontinuous aggradation during the geometries may be inferior to that seen on many seismic Tertiary Period. A smoothed and averaged curve fitted to the sections. aggradation curve is assumed to be a crude approximation of the total subsidence (i.e., the sum of tectonic subsidence and CONTROLS ON PLATFORM EVOLUTION isostatic adjustment of sediment and water load during the Ju- In order to understand the main factors that have influenced rassic-Cretaceous interval). Total (and tectonic) subsidence the evolution of the Maiella carbonate platform margin, we an- rates decreased approximately exponentially with time during alyze the subsidence and aggradation of the platform, determine the Late Jurassic and the Cretaceous time, indicating that ther- the history of relative sea level and possible eustatic influence, mally induced post-rift subsidence of the continental margin and finally take into account the effect of climate and the evo- was the main controlling factor (cf. McKenzie, 1978). This de- lution of the shallow marine fauna and flora (Fig. 14). crease of subsidence rates allowed sediment production rates to exceed the subsidence rates significantly during Late Creta- Subsidence and Aggradation History ceous time. Consequently, the basin in front of the platform was Subsidence is of particular importance because it controls the filled with redeposited sediments and peri-platform and pelagic long-term aggradation potential of the platform. Although the ooze by the Late Campanian. This in turn allowed progradation pre-Upper Jurassic substratum of the Maiella platform is un- of slope carbonates over basinal deposits from Late Campanian known, its history may be similar to that of the other peri- onwards and finally progradation of the shallow-water platform Adriatic platforms that formed on the same passive margin. over the slope carbonates from the Priabonian stage onwards. Where the subsidence history of this margin can be established In the central Mediterranean area, the change from divergent with some confidence, it shows an exponentially decaying ther- to convergent movements between Adria and Eurasia started as mal subsidence following initial rifting subsidence (Winterer early as Late Jurassic time with subduction and obduction of and Bosellini, 1981; Bertotti, 1991). ophiolites along the eastern margin of Adria (e.g., Dercourt et Figure 15 shows an aggradation curve for the Maiella plat- al., 1986). From the “middle” Cretaceous onwards, Alpine form determined from the thickness of the supersequences and orogeny appears to have influenced the subsidence history of

FIG. 14.—Main controlling factors during the evolution of Maiella carbonate platform margin. Platform morphology is unknown in Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous (KL) strata. Morphologic steps are: a platform with steep escarpment (Supersequence [SS] 1, Cenoman- ian to Upper Campanian); a distally steepened slope (SS 2 to 5 and unit of uncertain supersequence allocation [des- ignated by “?”], Upper Campanian to “middle” Oligocene); and, ﬁnally, a gently inclined shelf (SS 6, uppermost Chattian or Aquitanian to ?lower Messi- nian). The tectonic setting was a passive continental margin during Jurassic and Cretaceous times. From “middle” Creta- ceous time onwards, intraplate stresses must have been important. In Tertiary time, the area became part of the foreland of the Dinaric and Apenninic orogens. Qualitative 2nd-order relative sea-level ﬂuctuations are inferred from sequence stratigraphy and facies analysis. Climate, initially tropical to subtropical but temperate during Miocene time, controlled platform evolution through the productivity of shallow-water biota.

1988). Unfortunately, Miocene time resolution is not good enough to permit the determination of a more detailed subsidence curve that could give a better record of the effects of foreland tectonics. Relative and Eustatic Sea-Level Changes The history of major fluctuations of relative sea-level along the Maiella platform margin during Cretaceous to Miocene time can be tentatively reconstructed from the alternating phases of platform aggradation, indicating relative sea-level highstands and phases of platform exposure or erosion (during the formation of the supersequence boundaries), suggesting phases of relative sea-level lowstands (Fig. 16). In the case of an isolated, flat-topped and, during much of its history, steep-flanked carbonate platform like the Apulian platform, the amplitude of relative sea-level changes cannot be determined by coastal onlap. Therefore, determination of relative sea-level changes is here restricted to the qualitative represen- FIG. 15.—The aggradation curve of the platform (full line) shows that the length of aggradational phases generally decreased with time from Late Jurassic tation of the periods during which 2nd-order supersequences, to Miocene time. In Late Jurassic and Cretaceous time, platform aggradation 3rd-order sequences and their boundaries formed. Flooding is was not interrupted for biostratigraphically resolvable periods except during indicated by deposition on the platform top. However, only a the “middle” Cretaceous tectonic event associated with platform emersion. The relatively small amount of time is represented by the Upper length of the intervals of nonsedimentation and/or erosion (horizontal seg- Cretaceous to Paleogene limestones on the platform top due ments) and of minimal sedimentation increases from the Late Jurassic to the Tertiary time. A smoothed and averaged curve fitted to the aggradation curve both to erosion after deposition and to non-deposition. Even (dashed line) is a crude approximation of the total subsidence curve; it shows where shallow-water limestones have been preserved, their bio- an exponential decay in Late Jurassic and Cretaceous time. In Paleogene and stratigraphic resolution is generally poor. Therefore basinal and in Miocene time, subsidence was no longer governed primarily by the thermal slope sequences, datable with much greater precision, are used subsidence of the passive continental margin, but was increasingly influenced to date sea-level lowstands, rises and highstands (cf. Vail et al., by intraplate stresses and by the evolution of the foredeep of the Dinaric and Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous substratum, 1977; Haq et al., 1987, 1988). Sea-level lowstands are indicated ס Apenninic orogens. KL -Supersequences, minimal duration of major hiatuses along the SS bound- by regional truncation at 2nd-order supersequence and 3rd-or ס SS aries are ruled. der sequence boundaries, and additionally by platform-derived lithified clasts in breccias and turbidities found in the basin and on the slope. large parts of the Adria microplate. A possible slight tilting of The fluctuations of relative sea level are caused by the com- the Maiella margin and emergence of large parts of the Apulian bined effect of eustasy and tectonism. In order to constrain the and South Apenninic platforms during the Albian-Early Turon- eustatic effects, we compare the phases of aggradation with the ian interval might be the first indications of convergence in this onlap chart of Haq et al. (1987, 1988). We assume that at least area. These movements might reflect crustal deformation due the major 2nd-order sea-level excursions recorded on Haq et to intraplate stresses (cf. Cloetingh, 1991), connected with con- al.’s (1988) curve reflect eustatic events, although their ages tinent/continent collision along the northern Adriatic margin in may be offset in time by tectonism (cf. Christie-Blick, 1991). the east Alpine/Carpathian area (Eberli, 1991). In the Maiella, We also recognize the problems regarding the 3rd-order sea- the long phases of erosion during Paleocene to Bartonian time level curve (cf. Kendall and Lerche, 1988; Cloetingh, 1991; (SS 3 and 4) as well as the Priabonian to early Rupelian pulse Miall, 1991). Given its limitations, the comparison (Fig. 16) of aggradation (SS 5), suggest tectonic enhancement of the sea- shows that: level signal. We speculate that intraplate stresses related to the 1. The brackets containing the ages of the mid-Cretaceous un- beginning of collision in the western Mediterranean area are conformity (substratum/SS 1), the boundaries of SS 2/3 (lat- responsible for uplift and subsidence that resulted in prolonged est Maastrichtian to Danian), 3/4 (middle to late Ypresian) emergence and flooding of the platform. and 4/5 (Bartonian), each contain the age of a supersequence In the Miocene Epoch, the prograding emplacement of the boundary as proposed by Haq et al. (1988). Apenninic nappes onto the Adriatic foreland must have influ- 2. The age of the boundary of SS 1/2 (Late Campanian) is the enced uplift (foreland bulge) and subsidence (foreland basin) same as that of a sea-level lowstand ranked between the 2nd of the Maiella platform margin before its incorporation into the and 3rd orders by Haq et al. (1988). fold and thrust belt (cf. De Giuli et al., 1987). Vail et al. (1991) 3. The basal boundary of SS 6 falls within the long-lasting have shown that total subsidence curves typically take a con- period of eustatic sea-level lowstand during the Chattian vex-upward shape under the influence of foreland tectonic stage on the Haq et al. (1988) curve. Its age is possibly only pulses, with phases of increased subsidence during nappe ad- slightly younger than the deepest Phanerozoic sea-level low- vancement. In the Miocene time, aggradation and total subsi- stand at the Rupelian/Chattian boundary. dence rates are on the order of several tens of meters in 0.5 to 4. Four supersequence boundaries proposed by Haq et al. a few millions of years (i.e., similar to the amplitudes of 2nd- (1988) to have occurred in Late Cretaceous to Miocene time order and of major 3rd-order sea-level changes; cf. Haq et al., could not be recognized on the Maiella platform margin.

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5. In the Maiella, 3rd-order sequences can only be recognized in part of the succession, and age resolution is not refined enough for their correlation with the onlap curve of Haq et al. (1988). The ages of several of the supersequence boundaries established on the Maiella platform margin correlate relatively well with ages proposed by Haq et al. (1988) for their global supersequence boundaries. Assuming that the curve of Haq et al. (1988) documents the eustatic signal, this could suggest an eustatic cause of the boundaries. In this case, tectonic overprint could not eliminate the 2nd-order signal. Caution has to be taken when comparing the ages of Haq et al. (1988) with our data. Many of our ages are derived from benthonic foraminiferal stratigraphy, and there is an uncertainty of correlation with the planktonic foraminiferal zonation. Haq et al. (1988) esti- my in Early 1.4 ע mated their uncertainty of numeric dating at my in Miocene time, but no estimates are 0.6 ע Tertiary and given for the individual boundaries. Considering the resolution of our biostratigraphic data set, resulting in long age brackets and shorter but still significant brackets on the dates on the curve of Haq et al. (1988), a worst case scenario could be drawn in which none of the boundaries would match. Nevertheless, the maximally possible deviations between the ages in the Maiella and on the “global” chart are significantly smaller than the length of the supersequences, suggesting that the supersequences were largely deposited during the 2nd-order sea-level highstands and that their boundaries formed during 2nd-order sea-level lowstands. However, we expect that in the Maiella platform margin the global signals are offset in time by the effects of regional tectonics.

Climate and Evolution of Fauna and Flora Changes in the biological associations greatly inﬂuenced sedimentation on carbonate platforms (James, 1983). The biotic changes on the Maiella platform margin are observed across supersequence boundaries, probably because they represent longer periods of time, whereas no equally important ecological changes appear within the supersequences. Plate kinematic reconstruction show that during Cretaceous time, the peri-Adriatic carbonate platforms were located in low latitudes, 10Њ to 30Њ N (Scotese et al., 1989). A tropical to subtropical climate is also conﬁrmed by the abundance of rudists associated with hermatypic corals in the Lower Cretaceous substratum, SS 1 and 2 (Accordi et al., 1987). Clay mineral assemblages, dominated by smectites (Accarie and Deconinck, 1989), suggest a subtropical, warm and only seasonally humid climate. Humid intervals are indicated by extensive bauxite horizons, particularly in “middle” Cretaceous time (Crescenti, 1969; D’Argenio, 1969; D’Argenio and Mindszenti, 1992). On the Maiella, the last rudists occur in beds deposited during the latest Maastrichtian (late G. gansseri or early A. mayaroensis zone, i.e., approximately 1 to 2 my before the Cretaceous/Tertiary

FIG. 16.—Times of platform aggradation in the Maiella platform margin in boundary; Fig. 14). The disappearance of rudists coincides with comparison with the “eustatic” curve proposed by Haq et al. (1988). Thick a major sea-level lowstand documented by the SS 2/3 boundary. lines indicate 2nd-order supersequence boundaries; their ages may lie anywhere This age of the extinction is compatible with Kauffman’s (1984) inside the intervals represented by brackets on the right side. The minimal conclusion that the extinction of low-latitude rudists occurred durations of hiatuses along supersequence boundaries are ruled. Boundaries of 3rd-order sequences, not detailed in this text, are shown by small horizontal 1 to 2 my before the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Kauffman lines. The age brackets of some of the Maiella supersequence boundaries in- (1984) speculates that sea-level lowering and drawback of the clude a sequence boundary of Haq et al. (1988). sea from the platforms and shelves was one of the main factors

for the extinction of the rudistids, whereas Stanley (1984) ar- Subaerial and submarine erosion contributed to the formation gues that a massive temperature drop around the time of the of the supersequence boundaries, although the products of sub- Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary would have been of greater aerial processes are rarely preserved and might have been importance. largely eroded during the same sea-level lowstands or the sub- The existence of coralgal reefs in the Paleocene (SS 3), in sequent flooding of the platform. The hiatus along each super- upper Priabonian to lower Rupelian strata (SS 5) and again in sequence boundary increases in duration from the basin towards upper Rupelian to lower Chattian (unit of uncertain superse- the platform due to more intense proximal exposure and ero- quence allocation), indicates that the platform remained within sion. The duration of Cretaceous to the Miocene hiatuses along the subtropical climate zone, for much of the Early Tertiary the supersequence boundaries generally increased in response period, at least, until “middle” Oligocene time. The extensive to the decreasing total subsidence rates. Thus, the criteria pos- cooling event around the time of the Eocene/Oligocene bound- tulated for recognizing sequence boundaries in seismic sections ary (Oberha¨nsli and Hsu¨, 1986; Frakes, 1986) is possibly re- by Van Wagoner et al. (1988) and Vail (1988) could be applied flected by changes in the benthonic foraminiferal associations also in good outcrop sections. of the Maiella platform margin (Pignatti, 1990). Total subsidence of the platform, approximated by platform An abrupt change is observed in uppermost Oligocene to aggradation, decreased more or less exponentially with time, Miocene biotic associations right above the basal boundary of probably from the rifting period, but certainly from the Late SS 6, where the fauna and flora are strikingly different from Jurassic to the beginning of the Tertiary. However, in detail, the those of the “middle” Oligocene Epoch. Bryozoans and red subsidence pattern was determined by phases of uplift, probably algae were abundant, whereas no corals were found. This biotic related to intraplate stresses. In Oligocene and Miocene time, change indicates that the Maiella had probably entered the tem- uplift and subsidence resulted from loading of the lithosphere perate climate zone, where it remained throughout Miocene by the thrust nappes of the advancing Dinaric and Apenninic time (cf. Carannante et al., 1988). The benthonic foraminifera orogen. Tectonic uplift enhanced the expression of sea-level did not suffer greatly from this climatic deterioration; they show lowerings and is responsible for extensive erosion along the largely continuous evolutionary trends across the boundary of supersequence boundaries. Loading of the lithosphere and sub- SS 5/6. sidence of the foredeep helped to preserve the Upper Tertiary We assume four different causes for the biotic changes on carbonate shelf. the Maiella platform margin: (1) mass extinctions of platform Sedimentation rates began to exceed the total subsidence organisms (e.g., around the time of the Cretaceous/Tertiary rates significantly during Late Cretaceous time, which allowed boundary), (2) the slow drift of the Adriatic microplate to cooler the basin in front of the platform to be filled by the Late Cam- climate zones (VandenBerg et al., 1978) with different ecolog- panian. As a consequence, the slope prograded over the basinal ical associations, (3) the latitudinal shift of the climate zones carbonates from Late Campanian time on, and the shallow-wa- (e.g., by the Miocene cooling of the northern hemisphere; Vin- ter platform prograded over the slope in the late Priabonian to cent and Berger, 1985), and (4) variations in the distribution of early Rupelian. seaways (e.g., the closure of Tethyan seaways; Ricou et al., Assuming our chronostratigraphic correlation is correct, the 1986), which influenced the biota through regional climatic ages of 2nd-order sea-level lowstands recognized in the Maiella changes and geographical isolation. However, such changes are are within the range of the ages of 2nd-order eustatic sea-level more difficult to document on the Maiella platform margin. lowstands proposed by Haq et al. (1988). Therefore, they could suggest synchroneity of the formation of these supersequence CONCLUSIONS boundaries with those proposed by Haq et al. (1988), implying From Late Cretaceous to Miocene time, the Maiella carbon- dominant eustatic control of sea level on the long-term evolu- ate platform margin evolved from an aggrading platform sepa- tion of the Maiella platform margin despite tectonic overprint. rated from an adjacent deep basin by a steep escarpment (Late However, considering the age brackets in our data as well as Cretaceous to Late Campanian, SS 1) to a distally steepened the uncertainties in Haq et al.’s (1988) curve, the supersequence slope (Late Campanian to “middle” Oligocene, SS 2 to 5) and boundaries can all be older or younger than the ages given by finally to a gently inclined shelf (Miocene, SS 6; Fig. 14). The these authors. The mid-Cretaceous supersequence boundary is Upper Cretaceous to Miocene carbonate sediments of the an exception in that uplift and possibly also slight tectonic tilt- Maiella platform margin are divided into six supersequences, ing of the platform were important causes of its formation. separated by deeply incised truncation surfaces that are inter- Climate was an important controlling factor during the evo- preted to have formed during major sea-level lowstands. lution of the peri-Adriatic carbonate platforms, in that its low Each supersequence is characterized by a distinct deposi- latitude position during most of the period from the Cretaceous tional system that drastically changed across most supersequ- to the “middle” Oligocene allowed high rates of carbonate pro- ence boundaries. The evolution of the Maiella platform margin duction. This evolution was severely interrupted during the lat- was interrupted and the platform partially eroded during the est Maastrichtian, when the rudistids disappeared from the relatively long periods of important 2nd-order sea-level low- Maiella platform margin during the time of a major sea-level stands. Platform growth resumed when the platform was again fall. In the Miocene Epoch temperate climatic conditions were flooded, with the depositional system adapted to the new con- established. Corals and other fast-growing organisms are miss- trols exerted by changed topography, the constraints of higher- ing in Miocene strata, and accumulation rates remained rela- order sea-level fluctuations, climate and the evolving fauna and tively low. These faunal and floral changes did not influence flora. The combined effect of all these changes facilitates the the formation of supersequence boundaries, but strongly influ- recognition of the supersequences in the field. enced the internal architecture of the sequences.

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SCHU¨ TTENHELM, R. T. E., 1976, History and mode of Miocene carbonate dep- ogy—an overview, in Einsele, G., Ricken, W., and Seilacher, A., eds., Cycles osition in the interior of the Piedmont Basin, NW Italy: Utrecht Micropa- and Events in Stratigraphy: Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, p. 617–659. leontology Bulletin, v. 14, 54 p. VANDENBERG, J., KLOOTWIJK,C.T.,AND WONDERS, A. A. H., 1978, Late Me- SCOTESE, C. R., GAGAHAN, L. M., AND LARSON, R. L., 1989, Plate tectonic sozoic and Cenozoic movements of the Italian peninsula: further paleomag- reconstructions of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic ocean basins: Tectonophys- netic data from the Umbrian sequence: Geological Society of America Bul- ics, v. 155, p. 27–48. letin, v. 89, p. 133–150. SHANMUGAM, G., 1988, Origin, recognition, and importance of erosional un- VAN GORSEL, J. T., 1978, Late Cretaceous orbitoidal foraminifera, in Hedley, conformities in sedimentary basins, in Kleinspehn, K. L., and Paola, C., eds., R. H., and Adams, C. G., eds., Foraminifera: London, Academic Press, v. 3, New Perspectives in Basin Analysis: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 83–108. p. 1–120. SIMO, A., 1989, Upper Cretaceous platform-to-basin depositional-sequence de- VAN WAGONER, J. C., POSAMENTIER, H. W., MITCHUM, R. M., VAIL, P. R., velopment, Tremp Basin, south-central Pyrenees, Spain, in Crevello, P. D., SARG, J. F., LOUTIT , T. S., AND HARDENBOL, J., 1988, An overview of the Wilson, J. L., Sarg, J. F., and Read, J. F., eds., Controls on Carbonate Plat- fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy and key definitions, in Wilgus, C. K., form and Basin Development: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Min- Hastings, B. S., Kendall, C. G. ST. C., Posamentier, H. W., Ross, C. A., and eralogists Special Publication 44, p. 365–378. Van Wagoner, J. C., eds., Sea-Level Changes: An Integrated Approach: SOUQUET, P., FONDECAVE-WALLEZ, M.-J., AND GOURINARD, Y., 1989, Strati- Tulsa, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Pub- graphie se´quentielle dans l’avant-fosse´ sud-pyreńeénne. Stratigraphie Se´- lication 42, p. 39–45. quentielle et Corre´lations Eustatiques: Toulouse, Reúnion Spećialiseé, So- VECSEI, A., 1991, Aggradation und Progradation eines Karbonatplattform-Ran- cie´te´Geólogique de France, Livret-Guide Excursion, v. 2, 71 p. des: Kreide bis mittleres Tertia¨r der Montagna della Maiella, Abruzzen: Mit- STAINFORTH, R. M., LAMB, J. L., LUTERBACHER, H., BEARD, J. H., AND JEF- teilungen aus dem Geologischen Institut der Eidgeno¨ssischen Technischen FORDS, R. M., 1975, Cenozoic planktonic foraminiferal zonation and char- Hochschule und der Universita¨t Zu¨rich Neue Folge 294, 169 p. acteristic index forams: University of Kansas Paleontological Contributions, VERVLOET, C. C., 1966 Stratigraphical and micropaleontological data on the v. 62, 425 p. Tertiary of southern Piemont (northern Italy). PhD Dissertation, University STANLEY, S. M., 1984, Marine mass extinctions: A dominant role for tem- of Utrecht, Utrecht, 88 p. perature, in Nitecki, M. H., ed., Extinctions: Chicago, University of Chicago VINCENT, E., AND BERGER, W. H., 1985, Carbon dioxide and polar cooling in Press, p. 69–117. the Miocene: the Monterey hypothesis, in Sundquist, E. T., and Broecker, VAIL, P. R., 1988, Seismic stratigraphy interpretation using sequence stratig- W. S., eds., The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO : Natural Variations raphy, part 1. Seismic stratigraphy interpretation procedure, in Bally, A. W., 2 ed., Atlas of Seismic Stratigraphy. American Association of Petroleum Ge- Archean to Present: Washington, American Geophysists Union Geophysical ologists, Studies in Geology, v. 27, p. 1–10. Monograph 32, p. 455–468. VAIL, P. R., MITCHUM, R. M., JR., TODD, R. G., WIDMIER, J. M., THOMPSON, WINKER, C. D., AND BUFFLER, R. T., 1988, Paleogeographic evolution of early S. III, SANGREE, J. B., BUBB, J. N., AND HATLELID W. G., 1977, Seismic deep-water Gulf of Mexico and margins, Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous (Co- stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level, in Payton, C. E., ed., Seismic manchean): American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 72, Stratigraphy—Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration: American Asso- p. 318–346. ciation of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 26, p. 49–143. WINTERER, E. L., AND BOSELLINI, A., 1981, Subsidence and sedimentation on VAIL, P. R., AUDEMARD, F., BOWMAN, S. A., EISNER, P. N., AND PEREZ-CRUZ, Jurassic passive continental margin, Southern Alps, Italy: American Asso- C., 1991, The stratigraphic signatures of tectonics, eustasy and sedimentol- ciation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 65, p. 394–421.

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VITOR S. ABREU* Petrobra´s Research Center (CENPES), Cidade Universita´ria, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21949-900 Brazil; Department of Geology and Geophysics, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005-1892 JAN HARDENBOL Global Sequence Chronostratigraphy Inc., Houston, Texas, 77079-4227 GEOFFREY A. HADDAD Geotechnology Research Institute/Houston Advanced Research Center, The Woodlands, Texas 77381 GERALD R. BAUM, ANDRE W. DROXLER, AND PETER R. VAIL Department of Geology and Geophysics, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005-1892

ABSTRACT: A Cretaceous (Aptian) to Cenozoic composite oxygen isotope curve is presented and correlated to eustatic records and to global tectonic events. The curve was built using deep water benthonic foraminifera from DSDP/ODP sites. In addition, well-dated outcrop and subsurface whole rock samples were used. This composite record provides insight about the evolution of deep-water temperatures and/or ice volume changes from the Aptian to the present. Two important observations can be made from the isotope record. First, three low-frequency isotope cycles are recognized, encompassing most of the Upper Cretaceous (named Uki), most of the Paleogene (named Pi) and most of the Neogene (named Ni) period. These low-frequency cycles correspond well with the sequence stratigraphic supercycle sets Upper Zuni A, Tejas B and Tejas A, respectively. Second, oxygen isotope values for deep-water benthonic foraminifera during the Aptian to lower Albian and Campanian to Maastrichtian are similar to those observed during middle Eocene. Due to the evidence for middle Eocene Antarctic glaciation, similarity between Cretaceous and Eocene isotope values could indicate the presence of polar ice as early as the Aptian.

INTRODUCTION terrestrial plants (e.g., Parrish and Spicer, 1988), marine fossils Carbonate precipitated organically or inorganically in the (e.g., Gordon, 1973), increase in volcanism (e.g., Larson, 1991), increase in atmospheric CO (e.g., Arthur and Dean, ocean records the sea-water isotopic composition. The d18O 2 composition of marine calcite is dependent on diagenesis, water 1986), paleogeographic reconstructions (e.g., Barron, 1983), temperature, salinity and ice volume. Increased ice-volumes black shales (e.g., Arthur and Schlanger, 1979) and stable iso- during glacial periods correspond to heavy or more positive topes (e.g., Douglas and Savin, 1975; Huber et al., 1995). It is d18O values and decreased ice-volumes during inter-glacial pe- generally accepted that the climate remained warm and equable riods correspond to light or more negative d18O values. By ob- throughout the Cenomanian to Campanian stages, coinciding serving downcore variations in the d18O of diagenetically un- with high sea level (Hays and Pittman, 1973; Haq et al., 1987). altered calcite, variations in ice volume can be inferred. This is However, some recent stable isotope studies suggest relatively only a rough estimate because a significant component of the cooler climatic conditions in high latitudes during the lower d18O record is expected to have been caused by global cooling Cretaceous (Sellwood et al., 1994; Price et al., 1996; Stoll and and decreasing ocean temperatures through Cenozoic time Schrag, 1996) and Maastrichtian (Barrera, 1994; Huber et al., (Savin, 1977). Therefore, oxygen isotope records are among 1995). the most widely used proxy indicators of glaciation and sea- level fluctuation. A number of records were generated from DATA SETS AND METHODS Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)/Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) sites (e.g., Shackleton and Kennett, 1975; Matthews and The Cretaceous isotope record (Fig. 1) is based on benthonic Poore, 1980; Miller et al., 1987, 1991a; Prentice and Matthews, foraminifera from DSDP/ODP sites and on bulk rock from out- 1988). Abreu and Haddad (this volume) and Abreu and An- crops. The benthonic isotope record indicates changes in deep derson (in press) compiled deep-water oxygen isotope data sets water d18O and the bulk rock d18O record represents an average and produced a composite smoothed isotope record for the Ce- of calcareous microfossils (nannofossils and benthonic and nozoic to compare to eustatic curves derived from sequence planktonic foraminifera) and fine-grained calcite. stratigraphy. The upper Aptian and Albian record is based on the ben- Matthews and Poore (1980) suggested ice build-up in Ant- thonic foraminifera Gavelinella spp. (upper bathyal paleowater arctica during the Cretaceous based on a generalized oxygen depth) from DSDP sites 392 and 511 (Fassell and Bralower, in isotope record. They assumed constant tropical sea surface tem- press). The Cenomanian to lower Campanian record is based peratures since the Cretaceous to evaluate ice-volume changes. on mixed benthonic foraminifera from DSDP Site 511 (Huber Their approach implied significant ice volumes at least since et al., 1995). The Campanian and Maastrichtian record is based the late Eocene and possibly for much of the Cretaceous. How- on Gavelinella beccariformis and Gavelinella spp. from ODP ever, geological evidence for widespread glaciation on the con- Site 690 (Barrera, in press), respectively. The isotope records tinent at that time is very limited, since no lower Cretaceous for the sites 690 and 511 were kept separate in Figures 1 and exposures exist on Antarctica and upper Cretaceous strata are 2 because the isotopes were derived from disparate foraminifera restricted to the Antarctic Peninsula. Thus, the continent’s Cre- assemblages. taceous glacial and climatic setting is essentially unknown (e.g., The upper Albian to lower Campanian bulk rock record (Jen- Abreu and Anderson, in press). kyns et al., 1994) is from a smoothed oxygen isotope record (7 Several studies indicate warm climatic conditions, generally points least square method) from England (English chalk) and ice free, during Cretaceous time based on different proxies: Italy (Gubbio). The upper Campanian to Maastrichtian record

*Current address: Unocal Corporation, Sugarland, Texas 77478 Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication No. 60 Copyright ᭧ 1998, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-043-3

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to use, as far as possible, sites with isotope records based on CRETACEOUS OXYGEN ISOTOPES the benthonic foraminifera Cibicidoides, situated in mid-lati- Smoothed Oxygen isotope curve based Oxygen isotope curve based on benthic tudes and intermediate paleowater depths (between 500 and on bulk rock from outcrops in England, foraminifera from DSDP/ODP sites. 18 18 CHRONO- Italy and Tunisia. O (â) O (â) 2,000 m). The value and estimated amplitude of each positive TIME (My) -2 -1 0 1 18 STRATIGRAPHY -4 -3 -2 -1 d O event interpreted from DSDP/ODP sites was plotted

Tunisia

Abreu et al. (in prep.) Barrera (in press) 70 MAAST. CHRONO- OXYGEN ISOTOPES EUSTATIC CURVE AND STRATI- 18O (â) SUPERCYCLES SETS -101234 200 (meters) 0

TIME (Ma) GRAPHY

75 PLIO. 5

10 Italy 80 Jenkyns et al. (1994) 15 CYCLE Ni TEJAS A

Huber et al. (1995) 85 20 lower middle upper

90 England 30 lower upper Jenkyns et al. (1994) OLIGOCENE MIOCENE

35 u.

95 CENOZOIC CRETACEOUS 40 CENOM. TUR. CON. S. CAMPANIAN

100 45 middle

LEGEND EOCENE

DSDP Site 392 - Gavelinella spp. 50 TEJAS B CYCLE Pi 105 DSDP Site 511 - mixed benthics lower 55

ALBIAN DSDP Site 511 - Gavelinella spp. Fassell and Bralower (in press) 60 ODP Site 690 - Gavelinella beccariformis 110 65

APTIAN 70

FIG.1.—Correlation between the oxygen isotope record from outcrops and 75 from DSDP/ODP sites for the Cretaceous. The outcrop record is based on bulk rock and the deep water record is based on benthonic foraminifera. 80

85 is based on powder bulk rock from central Tunisia (Abreu et al., in prep.). 90 UPPER ZUNI A We used the composite smoothed isotope record of Abreu CYCLE UKi and Haddad (this volume) and Abreu and Anderson (in press) 95 for the Cenozoic (Fig. 2). They defined positive isotope events CRETACEOUS in the deep-sea benthonic record through the identification of 100 the event in a reference site with a good sampling rate and fairly complete sedimentary section and its correlation with other 105 sites. The chronostratigraphic position of the isotope events was defined through first-order correlation with magnetostratigra- 110 phy and in some cases biostratigraphy. The chronostratigraphic position, oxygen isotope value and amplitude of each event was 115 ZUNI B APTIAN ALBIAN CENOM. TUR. CON. S. CAMPANIAN MAAST. PALEOCENE defined in sites with well represented stratigraphic sections. LOWER Positive events present in only one site but absent in other sites were not considered for the composite record. Abreu and Had- FIG.2.—Correlation between the oxygen isotope record from the upper Ap- dad (this volume) and Abreu and Anderson (in press) attempted tian to the present and the eustatic curve of Haq et al. (1987).

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through time and is presented in graphic form (Fig. 2). Abreu volumes. The pronounced positive shift during the middle Mi- and Anderson (in press) proposed 7 middle and late Eocene ocene is related to a period of major ice build-up in Antarctica positive isotope events, based mostly on sites 689 and 690. (Shackleton and Kennett, 1975; Savin et al., 1975). From the These sites are located in high latitudes but present the best upper Pliocene to the Present, the isotope record shows a con- resolution for the benthonic foraminifera record in the Eocene. tinuous trend towards heavier values with major high-frequency The isotope values showed in Site 690 are similar to those at fluctuations. the equatorial Site 865 (Bralower et al., 1995). The standard isotope records from sites 522 (Miller et al., 1988) and 608 Low-Frequency Cycles and Glacioeustasy (Miller et al., 1991b) are the basis for the Oligocene and Mio- cene records respectively. The isotope events defined by Miller The d18O record reveals three long-term cycles defined by et al. (1991a) and Abreu and Haddad (this volume) were used positive-maximum excursions from the Cretaceous to Cenozoic for the Oligocene and Miocene records. The Pliocene-Pleisto- (Fig. 2). We propose the names: Uki (upper Cretaceous isotope cene isotope records, based on sites 502 (Oppo et al., 1995) cycle), Pi (Paleogene isotope cycle) and Ni (Neogene isotope and 704 (Hodell and Venz, 1992), were smoothed to keep the cycle). The oldest cycle (Uki) extends from the Aptian/Albian 100-ky and longer cycles. The filtered isotope record of Haddad boundary to the uppermost part of the Maastrichtian, with the and Vail (1992) was used for the Pleistocene to the Recent lightest values near the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary. The middle cycle (Pi) spans the uppermost Maastrichtian and most 1/45 מ sections, which is a filtered version (low-pass, 1/66 ky ky) of the stacked benthonic isotopic records from sites 607 and of the Paleogene, until near the base of the Chattian (base of 677 (Raymo et al., 1990). The procedure established by Abreu the upper Oligocene). The lightest middle values in the second and Haddad (this volume) was followed to convert the isotope cycle occur in the lower Eocene. The youngest cycle (Ni) be- record of each site and to the time scale of Berggren et al. (1995) gins near the base of the upper Oligocene, reaching the most for the Cenozoic and Gradstein et al. (1994) for the Cretaceous. negative values at the uppermost portion of the lower Miocene. After the lower Miocene, the d18O values increase in steps until Isotope Events and Trends the upper Pleistocene. These three low-frequency cycles (Fig. 2) show a good correlation to the Haq et al. (1987) second- The Cretaceous composite DSDP/ODP isotope record shows order supercycle sets Upper Zuni A (UZA), Tejas B (TB) and a positive interval characterized by about 0.5% near the Aptian/ Tejas A (TA). There is also a strong correlation between the Albian boundary (Fig. 1). A trend towards lighter values began long-term sea-level curve (Haq et al., 1987) and the low-fre- in the lower Albian and continued to the lower Turonian. From quency d18O positive-negative cycles, except for the Pi cycle, upper Turonian to Maastrichtian, the isotope record shows a which shows a high-amplitude negative shift during the lower gradual trend towards heavier values, reaching about 0.5% dur- Eocene period which does not correspond to a significant sea- ing the uppermost Maastrichtian. level rise in the sequence stratigraphic record (Haq et al., 1987). The Cretaceous bulk rock isotope record shows a period of Correlation between d18O events and sequence boundaries light d18O values during the Cenomanian and Turonian stages has been the subject of several articles (i.e., Miller et al., 1987, with negative events near the Cenomanian/Tu- 1991a; Williams, 1988; Haddad and Vail, 1992; Wright and ,(3%מ about) ronian boundary and in the upper Turonian (Fig. 2). The data Miller, 1992; Abreu and Savini, 1994; Baum et al., 1994; Pekar continues to show light values during the Coniacian and San- and Miller, 1996; Browning et al., 1996; Abreu and Haddad, with a shift towards heavier val- this volume). Abreu and Anderson (in press) show a strong ,(2.5%מ tonian stages (about ues in the upper Santonian. The Tunisia record shows positive correlation between positive shifts in the oxygen isotopes from events during the upper Campanian stage, near the lower/upper the middle Eocene to the Present and the third-order sequence Maastrichtian boundary, two events during the upper Maas- stratigraphic record of Haq et al. (1987) and Hardenbol et al. trichtian and an event near the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. (this volume). Abreu and Anderson (in press) integrated the Two significant light isotope events occur during the upper deep-sea record for glaciation (stable isotopes, ice-rafted debris, Campanian. deep-sea hiatus) in the Southern Ocean with the terrestrial and There is a trend during Paleocene time towards lighter iso- continental margin sedimentary records and presented addi- tope values that persists during lower Eocene. The most nega- tional evidence for glaciation in Antarctica since the middle tive oxygen isotope values for the entire Cenozoic column Eocene. The most compelling evidence for glaciation in East occurred during the lower Eocene. A pro- Antarctica during the Eocene comes from ODP Leg 119 drill (0.5%מ about) nounced positive shift of the oxygen isotopes occurs in the sites Prydz Bay. Site 742 in Prydz Bay recovered middle/upper lower Lutetian Stage (base on the middle Eocene). The isotope Eocene massive diamictons, interpreted as water-lain till (Ham- values in the upper Lutetian Stage reached 1%. Another sig- brey et al., 1991; Barron et al., 1991). The occurrence of till nificant positive shift of the isotopes occurs during the Barton- corresponds to the first significant occurrence of ice-rafted de- ian Stage. The isotope values in the upper Eocene reach 2% tritus at Leg 119 Site 738 on the Kerguelen Plateau (Ehrmann, with high-amplitude (of about 1%) fluctuations. The overall 1991). On the Wilkes Land continental margin (East Antarc- Eocene isotope record suggests cooling of bottom waters and/ tica), the oldest major unconformity on the shelf, interpreted to or an increase in ice volume towards the upper Eocene. The top be a glacial erosion surface, is inferred to be middle/late Eocene of the Rupelian and the base of the Chattian stages are marked in age, based on extrapolation to DSDP Site 269 on the adjacent by the heaviest isotope values in Oligocene time. continental rise (Eittreim et al., 1995). Glacial-marine sedi- The lighter lower Miocene oxygen isotopes values indicate ments with mid-Eocene dinoflagellates (Hannah, 1994) were a period of relatively warmer bottom waters and/or smaller ice also recovered at CIROS-1 in western Ross Sea. However, there

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is no evidence that the West Antarctica Ice Sheet advanced taceous to the Eocene oxygen isotope records from ODP sites across the continental shelf during Eocene time (Cooper et al., 865 (equatorial Paciﬁc, intermediate paleo-water depth) and 1991). Middle Eocene glacial deposits occur in small outcrops 690 (Southern Ocean, intermediate paleo-water depth). The ox- on King George Island (South Shetland Islands), recording an ygen isotopes in sites 690 (Kennett and Stott, 1990) and 865 episode of glaciation in the northern Antarctic Peninsula region (Bralower et al., 1995) show a similar trend during the upper (Krakow Glaciation, Birkenmajer, 1991). Paleocene and Eocene. Oxygen isotope values for the middle The deep-water benthonic isotope record (Fig. 2) for the up- Eocene in these sites are similar to those in the upper Creta- per Aptian/lower Albian and upper Campanian/Maastrichtian ceous section of Site 690. shows d18O values (of about 0.5%) similar to those in the mid- Figure 4 shows a comparison between the long- and short dle Eocene, which suggests perhaps some continental ice in terms eustatic cycles of Vail (Haq et al., 1987) for the upper Antarctica may have been present as early as the Early Creta- Cretaceous and Cenozoic, the short-term sequence stratigraphic ceous. Figure 3 shows a comparison between the Upper Cre- (Hardenbol et al., this volume) and isotopic (Abreu and Had- dad, this volume, and Abreu and Anderson, in press) cycles, and the long-term isotopic cycles (this work). All data is presented in the time scale of Berggren et al. (1995). The long- CHRONO- OXYGEN ISOTOPE RECORDS term isotope record (Fig. 4) was built by using an envelope of STRATIGRA- 18O (â) the lightest values in the smoothed composite oxygen isotope PHY -1 012

TIME (MY) record (Abreu and Haddad, this volume, Abreu and Anderson,

35 PRIABO- in press, and this work). Tentatively, the isotope value of 3.5% NIAN was used to adjust the isotope record horizontal scale to the UPPER zero meter point of the eustatic curve horizontal scale, representing modern value for oxygen isotopes (benthonic foraminifera) in deep-water settings (e.g., Dwyer et al., 1995). The

40 BARTONIAN horizontal scale for the isotope record and the eustatic curve were calibrated using the Pleistocene calibration of 0.11% d18O variation per 10 m of sea-level change determined by Fairbanks and Matthews (1978) and Fairbanks (1989). In fact, the Fair- MIDDLE ODP SITE 865 45 banks calibration is based on the comparison between sea-level 18 EOCENE and d O changes from the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 18 ky Bralower et al. LUTETIAN (1995) BP) to present. The calibration yields reasonable sea-level variations for individual glacial-interglacial cycles. The isotopic variation observed from the Cenomanian to present (almost 5%) 50 is probably strongly inﬂuenced by cooling of the global oceans ODP SITE 690 (e.g., Savin, 1977). In general, the long-term eustatic curve Kennett and (Haq et al., 1987) and the low-frequency isotope cycles show LOWER YPRESIAN Stott (1990) a similar trend, with high sea-level during the Cenomanian/ Turonian, early Eocene and early Miocene coinciding with light 55 oxygen isotope values. However, there are some signiﬁcant differences. For example, the high sea-level indicated by the eus-

THANETIAN tatic curve during the Rupelian stage is not conﬁrmed by the

UPPER isotope record. There is also disagreement concerning a sea-

60 DIAN SELAN- level high during Campanian times showed by the eustatic curve (Haq et al., 1987). In ﬁgure 1, the low-resolution deep-

PALEOCENE sea record based on benthonic foraminifera shows a continuous trend to lighter values from the Maastrichtian to the Cenoman- DANIAN

LOWER ian, although the higher resolution bulk-rock isotope record 65 suggests a shift towards lighter values in the Campanian. ODP SITE 690

Barrera CONCLUSIONS (in press)

70 There is a positive correlation between the stable isotope rec- MAASTRICHTIAN

UPPER ord presented here for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic (Fig. 2) and Vail’s sea-level curve based on the coastal onlap record CRETACEOUS

NIAN (Haq et al., 1987). However, the most negative Cenozoic values CAMPA- (cycle Pi-lower Eocene) show a weak correspondence with sig- Cibicidoides Gavelinella beccariformis niﬁcant high sea-level in the Haq et al. (1987) chart. Acceptance ODP Site 690 ODP Site 690 of continental ice during the Cretaceous and Paleogene is still ODP Site 865 ODP Site 865 highly controversial among stratigraphers. Recent publications FIG.3.—Comparison between the oxygen isotope records from ODP sites have addressed the controversy and a consensus has begun to 865 and 690. emerge for the existence of continental ice as early as the Eo-

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cene (e.g., Baum et al., 1994; Browning et al., 1996; Abreu and Anderson, in press). The composite oxygen isotope record presented here seems to indicate the possibility that continental ice may have existed as early as the Aptian. Data supporting the

LONG-TERM AND SHORT- LOW FREQUENCY CYCLES current consensus in the scientiﬁc community on the absence STANDARD TERM EUSTATIC CURVES -1 0231 4 CHRONO- of continental ice in the Cretaceous are not conclusive and may Haq et al., 1987 STRATIGRAPHY 18O (â) (This work) need to be challenged. TIME (Ma) 200 100 0m 200 100 0m 0 QUATERNARY (Haq et al., 1987) GELASIAN U.L. PIACENSIAN ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ZANCLEAN 5 PLIO MESSINIAN The authors would like to express their gratitude to Petrobras

Tortonian and Rice University for their support. Thanks to Dr. Albert 10 UPPER Haq et al. (1987) Bally for reviewing the manuscript and to Gabor Vakarcs for SERRA- VALLIAN discussions. Thanks also to Dr. Enriqueta Barrera whose review 15 MID. LANGHIAN greatly improved the original work. We are also grateful to NEOGENE

MIOCENE Burdigalian Emoke Vakarcs for the preparation of the Tunisia samples for 20 This isotope analyses.

LOWER Aquitanian work

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