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Distributed Amplification in CMOS KATHOLIEKE UNIVERSITEIT LEUVEN FACULTEIT INGENIEURSWETENSCHAPPEN DEPARTEMENT ELEKTROTECHNIEK Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, 3001 Leuven (Heverlee) Distributed Amplification in CMOS Jury: Prof. Dr. ir. P. Moldenaers, voorzitter Proefschrift voorgedragen Prof. Dr. ir. P. Reynaert, promotor tot het behalen van de Prof. Dr. ir. M. Steyaert, promotor graad van Doctor in de Prof. Dr. ir. B. Puers ingenieurswetenschappen Prof. Dr. ir. B. Nauwelaers Prof. Dr. ir. P. Leroux door Prof. Dr. ir. P. Wambacq Prof. Dr. ir. J. Bauwelinck Brecht Machiels July 2012 © Copyright by Katholieke Universiteit Leuven–Faculteit Ingenieurswetenschappen, Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden vermenigvuldigd en/of openbaar gemaakt worden door middel van druk, fotokopie, microfilm, elektronisch of op welke andere wijze ook zonder voorafgaandelijke schriftelijke toestemming van de auteur of de promotor. Voor aanvragen tot of informatie i.v.m. het overnemen van gedeelten van dit werk, wendt U tot de K.U.Leuven, Dept. Elektrotechniek, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, B-3001 Leuven, Belgie.¨ All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be reproduced in any form by print, photo print, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the author or the promotor. For requests or information about the reproduction of parts of this work, contact K.U.Leuven, Dept. Elektrotechniek, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, B-3001 Leuven, Bel- gium. D/2012/7515/65 ISBN 978-94-6018-529-8 “Disappointment is the nurse of wisdom.” Sir Boyle Roche ii Voorwoord Zonder goed te weten waar ik aan begon, heb ik ongeveer vier jaar en zeven maanden geleden mijn doctoraatsstudies aangevat. Al gauw werd mijn initiele¨ enthousiasme wat getemperd door een, tot op heden nog steeds onverklaarbaar, probleem met het eerste versterkerprototype. Op miraculeuze wijze werkte het tweede prototype wel, met mooie resultaten, wat het allemaal weer wat aangenamer maakte. Hoewel er later nog enkele tegenslagen volgden, kijk ik met een goed gevoel terug op mijn tijd bij MICAS. Gedurende de doctoraatsopleiding, maar ook in de aanloop ernaar, hebben vele individuen¨ in meer of mindere mate mijn werk en leven daarbuiten be¨ınvloed, en ik wil ze hier dan ook graag bedanken. In de eerste plaats dank ik mijn promotoren, Patrick en Michiel, om mij de kans te geven om een doctoraat aan te vatten en mij vrijwel carte blanche te geven met betrekking tot mijn onderzoeksfocus. Die vrijheid waardeer ik erg, en daar heb ik dan ook gretig gebruik van gemaakt. Juist door die vrijheid was mijn werk echter misschien niet voldoende gericht op de heilige graal van de academische wereld, het produceren van zo veel mogelijk publicaties, maar desondanks ben ik er wel van overtuigd dat ik zeer veel technische kennis heb opgedaan door mijn eigen werk en door interacties met collegas. Ook bedankt, Patrick, voor de erg behulpzame technische discussies, vooral in de beginfase van het doctoraat. Bovenvermelde vrijheid is mede mogelijk gemaakt door financiering met een IMEC-beurs de eerste vier jaren, en het (laat het ons houden op een) misverstand dat hier rond bestond. Dank aan beide partijen om mij niet bij deze discussie te betrekken. Verder dank ik de leden van mijn jury, prof. Bob Puers, prof. Bart Nauwelaers, prof. Paul Leroux, prof. Piet Wambacq en prof. Johan Bauwelinck, voor het nalezen van het proefschrift en het aanreiken van verbeteringen. Dank aan de voorzitter van de jury, prof. Paula Moldenaers, voor de vrijgemaakte tijd. Ik dank ook het technisch personeel van ESAT, zonder wie een doctoraat een heel pak moeilijker zou zijn; Frederik, Noella,¨ Thomas, Luc, Ludo, Jan, Sven en Rudi. Ondanks de Linux-omgeving viel het gebruik van de computerinfrastructuur op ESAT al bij al nog mee, dankzij de inspanningen van Stef, Rik, Piet, Marc, Frank en Ben. Danielle,¨ Chris en Lut hebben mij onder andere ondersteund bij het verwerken van de vele formulieren. Als laatste dank ik twee personen die vaak onterecht worden vergeten in het dankwoord; Erwin en Jo van Europractice voor de, over het algemeen, zeer goede dienstverlening. Voor expertise over onderwerpen buiten de traditionele MICAS-kennis ben ik al eens met een al-dan-niet domme vraag op zoek gegaan naar een slachtoffer in het gebouw. Zo ben ik door professoren Dominique Schreurs, Patrick Wambacq, Guy Vandenbosch, Emmanuel Van Lil en Joos Vandewalle hartelijk ontvangen. Also the expertise of Ilja, Majid and Vahid of TELEMIC has helped me more than once. iii iv Over the years, I have shared an office with quite a number of people: Peter, Hans, Tom, Xu, Noel,¨ Ying, Dixian, Shailesh and Iman. Thank you for the countless interesting discussions, both technical and non-technical, and not making too many irritating noises. I also enjoyed learning a little about Chinese, Indian and Iranian culture. A special no thanks to whoever is responsible for the ELECTA engines above our offices for the maddening noise and vibrations. En dan nu het meest geanticipeerde deel van dit dankwoord, waar de MICAS-collegas gretig op zoek gaan naar hun naam, waarna ze vervolgens tevreden het boekje toeslaan, of het lichtjes ge¨ırriteerd weggooien. Alvast mijn excuses aan de mensen die bij deze laatste horen, maar misschien hebt u niet voldoende uw best gedaan om op te vallen? Hier gaan we dan. Ik dank de MICAS-collega’s, en ook enkele andere mensen die ik bijna even vaak tegenkwam, voor de aangename sfeer in de ESAT-kelders en daarbuiten. Dank aan Elie voor het samen ontcijferen van die Poynting-vector-paper. Hans M. voor de absurditeit. Johan voor de tekening. Dimitri voor de vele doorbraken. Bo for continuing to amaze me. Hagen voor de letsels. Bram voor de verhitte discussies over Linux. Piet C. voor dat vleugje magie. Ben voor de laid-back IT-support. Frederik C. voor de opgewektheid. Hans D. voor het aanreiken van onderwerpen tijdens de pauzes en het kunstig illustreren van bepaalde details, maar ook voor het delen van de pijn. Nico voor de nervositeit. Piet VDW., Tom VB., Greet, Luc en Michiel voor de onvergetelijke e-mails. Noel¨ voor de sausjes. Brecht F. voor de onbedoelde arrogantie. Stef voor de vele boeken. Ercan for the sarcasm. Lianming for the calculations. Christophe voor de games. Evelien voor de beach-volley. Wim D. voor de yoghurt. Shailesh voor de Indische gerechten. Pieter N. voor het gebruiken van de wiki. Tom R. voor de internetaankopen. Stefan voor zijn dankwoord. Frank voor het meisjesachtige gegiechel. Nele voor het logo. Dimitri, Ying, Hans, Jens, Jelle, Wouter, en vele anderen voor het sjotten. Bart voor het ontdekken van de relatie tussen Hans en Tom. Maarten T. voor de blog. Lianggong voor de integratie. Ying H. voor de vrolijkheid. Valentijn voor de ziekenhuis-verhalen. Pieter DW. voor de gelatenheid. Frank the T. voor WOW. Filip, Elie en Mike voor de kortstondige fotografie-rage. Nick voor de klassieke mannelijkheid. Koen voor het pokerface. Jorg voor zijn pokerface. Philippe voor de onvolledige dankmatrix. Wim V. voor het heimelijke vertrek. Hier wil ik ook prof. Luc Bienstman bedanken om mij aan te moedigen mijn elektronica- studies verder te zetten na mijn studies bij GroepT. Uw grote inzet voor de studenten is mij altijd bijgebleven en is na al deze jaren nog steeds ongeevenaard.¨ Graag bedank ik ook vrienden en familie, gewoon om er te zijn en mij te steunen te alle tijde. In het bijzonder mijn ouders; bedankt pa en ma voor mij alle kansen te geven en achter mij te staan in alles wat ik doe. Als laatste, maar als voornaamste, kom jij aan de beurt, Veerle. Niemand heeft grondiger als jou mijn thesis nagelezen. Maar belangrijker was je grote geduld met mij op de drukkere momenten van het doctoraat, en eigenlijk gewoon in het algemeen. Na moeilijkere dagen kon ik ook steeds bij jou terecht. Bedankt voor alles. Leuven, juni 2012 Samenvatting De gedistribueerde versterker is een type versterker waarin een signaal in parallel wordt versterkt door een aantal transconductantie-elementen zoals vacuumbuizen¨ of transistoren. Dit staat in contrast met de klassieke gecascadeerde versterker, waar de versterkende elementen in serie staan. Een beperking van deze laatste is dat zijn versterkings-bandbreedteproduct inherent gelimiteerd is. De gedistribueerde versterker is niet onderworpen aan deze beperking; versterking kan worden uitgewisseld met vertraging, in plaats van met bandbreedte. Ten tijde van zijn uitvinding meer dan 70 jaar geleden werd de gedistribueerde versterker gebouwd met behulp van vacuumbuizen.¨ Meer recent is er vernieuwde interesse voor de topologie sinds het mogelijk geworden is om monolithische gedistribueerde versterkers te produceren dankzij ge¨ıntegreerde circuittechnologie. Onderzoekers zijn er inmiddels in geslaagd om gedistribueerde versterkers te ontwerpen met bandbreedtes die 100 GHz overstijgen. Een nadeel dat vaak aan de gedistribueerde versterker wordt toegewezen, wanneer ze vergeleken wordt met andere versterkertopologieen,¨ is het hoge vermogenverbruik. Dit negatieve imago vindt gedeeltelijk zijn oorsprong in het feit dat gedistribueerde versterkers meestal worden ontworpen voor maximale versterking en bandbreedte, wat haaks staat op een laag vermogenverbruik. Het mag echter niet ontkend worden dat de topologie enkele karakteristieken heeft die de efficientie¨ beperken. Zo gaat bijvoorbeeld de helft van de uitgangsstroom die wordt opgewekt door de versterkende elementen verloren. Daarom wordt het gebruik van de gedistribueerde versterker vaak niet overwogen voor laag-vermogen breedbandtoepassingen zoals in draadloze ontvangers. In een eerste luik richt dit werk zich op de minimalisatie van het vermogenverbruik van de gedistribueerde versterker. Een eerste mogelijkheid om het vermogenverbruik te beperken bestaat erin het hierboven besproken verlies van de helft van het uitgangsvermo- gen te elimineren. Een gedistribueerde versterker met een tapse uitgangstransmissielijn laat toe dit te verwezelijken. Deze laatste heeft wel enkele nadelen, wat de toepas- baarheid ervan beperkt. Daarom wordt ze in dit werk in detail bestudeerd en wordt een nieuw taperingschema voorgesteld dat de beperkingen van het klassieke schema over- wint.
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