TWIN VILLAGES

Settlement development that is in harmony with the agricultural reclaimed landscape in the Rhenish Mining Area

Amarens Lock MSc Thesis Landscape Architecture December 2019 Wageningen University & Research

TWIN VILLAGES

Settlement development that is in harmony with the agricultural reclaimed landscape in the Rhenish Mining Area

Amarens Lock MSc Thesis Landscape Architecture December 2019 Wageningen University & Research COLOPHON

© Wageningen University December 2019 Landscape Architecture Chair Group

Contact information: Postbus 47 6700 AA Wageningen The Netherlands Phone: +31 317 484 056 E-mail: [email protected]

Author © Amarens Daphne Lock Student nr.: 960907524070 E-mail: [email protected]

First supervisor Prof. ir. Adriaan Geuze

External Supervisor Dr.-Ing. Timo Matti Wirth (RWTH Aachen University)

All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of either the author or the Wageningen University Landscape Architecture Chair group. PREFACE

The interest in creating and fantasying about the future has brought me five years ago to the study Landscape Architecture. I was glad to learn to play with the ‘building blocks’ of landscape architecture: water, soil, and vegetation.

This project is the last step toward landscape architecture maturity and the crowning achievement of my studies. The development of new land in the Rhenish Mining Area made my Dutch heart beat faster and I enjoyed to design future living environments. I hope this project will convince the reader of the importance of speculating about how we want to inhabit our landscapes.

I would like to thank my supervisor Adriaan Geuze for sharing his opinion and sharp arguments. He gave me new insights into the design process and helped with exploring new design ideas. Moreover, thanks to Matti Wirth, for sharing his knowledge about the region and discussing potential futures, as an external supervisor. It was indispensable for making the work relevant to the region. Also, I would like to thank Volker Mielchen and Gero Vinzelberg and their colleagues, for their willingness of providing information and sharing their perspective on the region. And, a special thank you for my family and friends - for brainstorming with me, listening, providing the Peugeot 207, and many other things. Thanks to you all, I developed a project I am truly proud of. A thesis submitted for the requirements for the Master of Science degree in Landscape Architecture at the Wageningen University, Landscape Architecture Chair Group.

Supervisor and Examiner: Prof. ir. A (Adriaan) Geuze Professor Landscape Architecture Wageningen University

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Second Examiner: Dr. ir. R (Rudi) van Etteger MA Assistant Professor Landscape Architecture Wageningen University

...... ABSTRACT

Extensive suburbanisation is taking place around Cologne in the agricultural landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area. An area that, at the same time, deals with unsustainable agricultural practices and large-scale reclamation efforts after a period of open-pit lignite mining. The design research presents a design of agricultural urbanism, which enables alternative settlement development in the Rhenish Mining Area and that contributes to sustainable forms of agriculture and the development of the reclaimed landscape.

Five settlement development strategies are evaluated and the advantages of the best models are merged into one final model: ‘Twin Villages’. With the concept of the Twin Villages, the reclaimed, post-mining landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area is enhanced and further developed. The model aims to keep the presence of the urban-rural dichotomy intact. It includes villages that are dispersed over the landscape, but all have a compact concentric form and contribute to a revival of the rural reclaimed landscape, as a rural answer to the exploding urban areas.

The design implementation of Twin Village ‘Kantweiler’ shows that, when contributing to the landscape qualities, the threat of settlement development to the agricultural sector can be reversed into an opportunity. The design shows an alternative for the unlimited settlement development, which is threatening the agricultural landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area. TABLE OF CONTENTS

COLOPHON 2

PREFACE 3

ABSTRACT 5

INTRODUCTION problem context 9 problem statement 10 knowledge gap 10 thesis statement 10 conceptual framework 11 research strategy & methods 11 relevance 12 structure of the report 12

I THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK urban / rural 15 agricultural urbanism 16 intermezzo - parc du vexin français 17 reclamation of mining landscape 18 intermezzo - garden cities of to-morrow 19

II RECLAIMED LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT geological history of the lower rhine bay 21 agricultural land-use 22 lignite mining landscape 23 reclaimed post-mining landscape 28 timeline 34 III MODELS swot-analysis 37 parameters 42 models 43 development of the preferred model 50

IV DESIGN EXPLORATIONS location 53 twin villages 55 life in jackerath 58 the new village 60 interaction twin villages 66 connectivity surroundings 72 design of kantweiler 78 agricultural strategy 80 die kante 82 life in kantweiler 90

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 93

REFERENCES 96

APPENDIX I 101 APPENDIX II 102 APPENDIX III 104

introduction

INTRODUCTION

Urbanisation has completely changed the link between and based on an on-going growth model, resulted urban and rural. Continuous urban expansion at rates in large-scale monotonous landscapes. The highly much higher than population growth led to an enormous efficient businesses that emerged have a relatively increase of the urban footprint in Europe (European low contribution to the biodiversity and landscape Environment Agency, 2017). Cities spread out over the appearance. The agricultural business may be landscape and have become less compact (Wandl, profitable for individual farmers on a short-term level. 2012). However, there is an obligation to society to re-think the agricultural sector, since they are setting the scene of The process of rapid spreading urbanisation has led the landscape and are defining the quality of the rural to the loss of agricultural landscape. Agricultural areas landscape as a public good. Agricultural practices and nearby cities are subjected to development pressure their belonging landscapes can contribute to either a and rural landscapes are at risk to be seen solely positive or negative effect on regional development. as expansion areas for cities’ new neighbourhoods Also, a sustainable agricultural landscape is less (Santangelo, 2019; Vidal & Fleury, 2008). The vulnerable to the pressures on space when the relationship between rural and urban should be re- population continues to grow in the coming years thought and cities have to be contextualized within the (Roggema, 2016). larger landscape and its dynamics. Lastly, the agricultural landscape of the Region PROBLEM CONTEXT Cologne/Bonn is influenced by extensive open-pit This process can be also recognized in the metropolitan lignite mining, as part of the Rhenish Mining Area. At area Region Cologne/Bonn, which is situated within the the beginning of 2019, Germany decided to end its use larger Rhine-Ruhr Region and forms a counterbalance to of coal power by 2038, which is faster than originally the Ruhr Region. The enormous demand for residential planned (Kommission ‘Wachstum, Strukturwandel und area in Cologne put pressure on the existing settlement Beschäftigung’, 2019). Therefore, the area is at the structures and landscape qualities. Land-consuming start of a comprehensive transformation process and forms of living and extensive commercial areas already long-term challenges for economical, technical, social led to a loss of agricultural land, especially west of and ecological development. Extensive compensation Cologne, where the land prices are cheaper compared measures are provided by the federal government to the east. The suburban areas, also called urbanised to cope with structural change (Wirth, 2019). Last landscape or city agglomerations, took up large areas decades, discussions around the lignite mining and became a seedbed of privatization, segregation, industry have given the Rhenish Mining Area a negative congestion, monotony and car dependency. The prognosis is that the next decade the population in the region will continue to increase, whereby demographic growth and shrinkage will occur geographically close together in the region (Region Köln/Bonn e.V., 2017). As land is limited, the pressure on the agricultural area increases and conflicts between settlement development, agriculture and open space protection grow (Kötter, 2018). Berthold Rothe, the head of the planning department in Rhein-Erft-Kreis, states that an on-going practice of settlement development of Cologne will lead to continuing urban diffusion (Kötter, 2018).

A second issue in the region concerns the industrializing and intensification of the agricultural sector which led to unsustainable farming practices. The agricultural Figure 1: spreading urbanization into the agricultural landscape (Region Köln/ businesses, which are steered by the global market Bonn e.V.)

9 introduction

reputation. Nevertheless, the lignite industry is rooted in Cologne in the agricultural landscape of the Rhenish the lives of many generations and the reclaimed land Mining Area. An area that, at the same time deals with forms a unique cultural post-mining landscape. Now unsustainable agricultural practices and large- as the lignite era is ending, the post-mining landscape scale reclamation efforts after a period of open-pit should be preserved as a positive legacy for the future. lignite mining.

Those three issues, set on different agendas, should KNOWLEDGE GAP be approached holistically. Therefore, the eastern part In this research, a shared understanding of sectoral of the Rhenish Mining Area is chosen as research approaches is developed. The issues as outlined above location. This reclaimed landscape is mainly used for are set on different agendas and this research will shed agricultural practices and it is proximate to heavily a different light on them, by taking a comprehensive urbanised cities along the Rhine. Here the demand for approach. settlement development, agricultural practices, and the land reclamation process manifest themselves Design research can contribute by exploring today’s spatially. meaning of the relationship between the traditional dichotomy between town and country and adopt synergetic solutions, whereby agriculture plays a role in maintaining environmental resources and provides positive externalities for the urban area (Dymitrow & Stenseke, 2016; Gottero, 2019). This research contributes to the body of knowledge on the design of agricultural urbanism. Last decade, some has been written about agricultural urbanism. Yet, little has DÜS been published on the design of agricultural urbanism MG and its potential for the rural landscape. In that way, this project feeds the debate about the perception of landscape and city. It is a reaction to the changing relationship between rurality and urbanity over Europe, whereby the traditional dichotomies of urban and rural CO are approached critically.

THESIS STATEMENT This design research state that a form of agricultural urbanism can foster alternative settlement development in the Rhenish Mining Area that Figure 2: Rhenish Mining Area and research location contributes to sustainable forms of agriculture and the development of the reclaimed landscape. This Situated within a densely populated area, the results in the following research questions. reclaimed agricultural land can stand out as a unique rural landscape and pleasant living environment, with Central Question: economic value and valuable experience for people in What is the potential of agricultural urbanism for an the region. Besides, the proximity of the post-mining alternative settlement development in the Rhenish agricultural land to the cities should be approached as Mining Area that contributes to sustainable forms of an opportunity and not a threat. Helpful is that urban agriculture and the development of the reclaimed residents have recently shown more interest in food landscape? quality, green spaces, and cultural services. Urban and suburban agriculture is now more appreciated and Research questions: the availability of reliable farmland can provide food 1. In which ways is agricultural urbanism applied in security for residents (Takatori, Kawaguchi & Shimizu, examples in the European rural context? 2019). 2. How did the reclaimed landscape of the eastern PROBLEM STATEMENT part of the Rhenish Mining Area evolve in a physical, Extensive suburbanisation is taking place around political and social way?

10 introduction

- What different landscape types of the reclaimed Agriculture and urbanisation both influence and shape landscape can be defined? the landscape. By taking the landscape as a starting - What social, physical and political developments point for designing, the relationship between agriculture influenced the evolvement of the reclaimed and urbanisation can be harmonized. The agricultural landscape? landscape, in this research, is taken as a base for designing settlement development. The landscape is 3. What measures of success (parameters) can be used as structuring and organizing element instead of defined for settlement development in the rural a backdrop of architecture. By merging city structures landscape of the eastern part of the Rhenish and landscape systems, the focus of design shifts to Mining Area? processes rather than appearance (Waldheim, 2010). - What are the strengths and weaknesses, and Landscape architects are experts on the landscape the opportunities and threats that the reclaimed medium and able to apply a holistic approach when agricultural landscape faces? putting the site in context through space and time (Assargard, 2011). Design question: In which way can settlement development take place RESEARCH STRATEGY & METHODS that is in harmony with the agricultural reclaimed In this project, a design attitude is taken at an early landscape? stage of the process. This approach, research through design, is characterized by its cyclic nature. The design CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK is constantly updated with newly acquired knowledge,

designing through testing the effects of the design and reflecting on it. Because of this, the design will steer the research and this could lead to new insights and unexpected results.

urbanization agriculture LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE

Figure 3: relationship between concepts used in the research

In Figure 3, the relationship between the different concepts of this research can be seen. Landscape, as defined by the European Landscape Convention, is ‘an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors’ (Council of Europe, 2000, p.2). Based upon the matter-, power- and mindscape, described by Jacobs (2004), the landscape can be understood as a combination of physical, political and social components. Conceptually, the definitions of landscape and cultural landscapes are close to each other, since the holistic understanding of the concept of landscape already includes the term cultural (Roe, Figure 4: overview research structure 2007). In general, the cultural landscape is understood as ‘the meeting place between humankind and the The research is built upon theories of agricultural environment, reveals that there are often natural urbanism and urban-rural relationships, gained through qualities of great value which have co-evolved with literature study. Additionally, a key-case reference study human society’ (Phillips, 1998, p.36). relating to agricultural urbanism in a rural context has

11 introduction

been used to give insight into the wide range and many to move forward. Designing throughout the whole possibilities of designing agricultural urbanism. This process helps to entangle academic knowledge and exploration inspired the designing and gave input for applicability (Lenzholzer, Duchhart & Koh, 2013). reflection on the design (process). More detailed information about the methods applied, The cultural richness and development of the reclaimed will be provided at the beginning of each chapter. rural landscape are investigated, by a bibliographical review of literature on the cultural history of the region, RELEVANCE combined with an analysis of satellite images over time The Rhenish Mining Area faces a comprehensive and own observations of the landscape during site transformation process and long-term challenges visits. for economical, technical, social and ecological development. An approach is needed that turns the At the same time, a set of twelve performance history of the lignite mining industry into something indicators (parameters) is defined. To be able to define positive for the people in the region (Kommission the parameters for future development a swot-analysis ‘Wachstum, Strukturwandel und Beschäftigung’, is carried out, based on the landscape development 2019). Historically, worked-out mines were left behind research and interviews with experts in the region. An abandoned. In the 1970s mine closure practices overview of the interviews and site visits is shown in started to develop, with an emphasis on the restoration Appendix I and II. of the landscape and a return to the ‘natural’ pre- mining situation (Limpitlaw & Briel, 2014). Today, a legal Different models for urban expansion at the rural-urban framework obligates the mining industry to rehabilitate fringe of the reclaimed agricultural lands are developed their landscapes. The question remains: How should through sketching, discussing with experts and the landscape be left behind now the lignite era is speculating about different futures for the relationship coming to an end? This research is a contribution to the between rural and urban in the Rhenish Mining Area. process of transformation of the Rhenish Mining Area. The strategies are evaluated and compared with the help of the parameters, by making a table of plusses Baida (2012) mentions that the mining industry (high score) and mins (low score) for each parameter. should utilize new areas of expertise, such as the Thereby, the models and its potential design direction design professions, to deliver successful reclamation are discussed with an expert in the region, which led to outcomes. As ‘generalists’ a landscape architect can more reliable design knowledge. It also encourages the come up with creative and innovative scenarios for post- other actors to become more aware of different ways mining legacies. The focus is not solely on economy or to apply their knowledge. A preferred model (a hybrid engineering but includes aesthetical considerations, form) has been chosen and is tested on a location social functions and cultural issues (Baida, 2012). in the Rhenish Mining Area. The designing includes sketching, digital drawing, and mkaing sections and STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT artist impressions. As shown in Figure 5, the design This report starts with presenting the theoretical findings will be continuously discussed, evaluated and framework, including existing knowledge on the improved, as it is an iterative process. concepts of urban/rural, cultural landscapes, reclamation, and agricultural urbanism, supported by evaluation an illustration of two examples of agricultural urbanism

design in a European rural context.

In the second chapter, the development of the reclaimed agricultural landscape in the Rhenish Mining Area is final design preferred model presented. In the third chapter, a SWOT-analysis of the region is presented and a set of twelve performance Figure 5: design on site indicators (parameters) is defined. Also, different urbanisation models are developed and evaluated The research is characterized by a constant reflection and a preferred model is chosen. In the fourth chapter, on choices, research findings and information the preferred model is implemented and tested on a gathering on-site. The design process consists of specific site. Lastly, the report includes an discussion many overlapping and repetitive steps to be able and conclusion.

12

theoretical framework

I THEORY

In this chapter existing knowledge around the needed. Also, Thompson (2012), when questioning concepts of urban and rural, agricultural urbanism, and Landscape Urbanism, brings up that it is not possible reclamation of (mining) landscapes is presented. ‘to wave a linguistic wand and make them disappear, because they are enmeshed in our forms of life’ (p.17). URBAN / RURAL He further explains that Landscape Urbanists tend The world is often understood in dichotomies, like good towards embracing urban sprawl into the landscape. or bad. As such, people also divide urban and rural. He criticized this idea and argues that sometimes good Expressions, like ‘city-girl’ or ‘in the countryside’, are design means stopping things from happening, like often used in daily life. However, often it remains unclear fighting unlimited urbanisation into the rural. Breaking where the urban ends and the rural starts (Dymitrow & down the urban-rural binary and the simultaneous Stenseke, 2016). yearning for urban and rural ideals can open the way for planners and designers to ignore existing landscape Starting around 700 B.C. from South-East Europe, structures and develop a ‘Nowhere’, where a sense urbanisation and its associated infrastructure gradually of detachment is lacking (Thompson, 2012; Sieverts, spread over the whole continent. The distinction 2003). between urban and rural has blurred and it became problematic to define something as completely urban Following the position of accepting the rural-urban or rural. They became strongly related spaces that dichotomy, it is important to better understand the cannot exist separately from each other. In general, nature of their relatedness today. Often, planning the outdatedness of the rural-urban dichotomy is classifications of urban and rural do not reflect social, widely acknowledged under academics (Santangelo, historical and cultural factors. For example, the 2019). The discourse of Landscape Urbanism even dominant recognition of urban and rural is based on completely rejects the binary opposition between city solely population density. However, the urban-rural and landscape, in the face of global urbanisation. model is primarily rooted in people’s imaginations and They state that it is a naive approach to reality since experiences (Dymitrow & Stenseke, 2016). Santangelo the urban footprint is infringing in the traditionally (2019) points out that both urban and rural are socially spoken countryside and the countryside is organized and materially produced, thereby referring to Lefebvre’s to deliver resources to the city (Waldheim, 2006). The social production of space (1974). This is relevant early socialists Owen and Fourier, reformers Cerdà and because the rural should not be seen as an idyllic pre- Howard and the visionary architect Frank Lloyd Wright, human natural environment, and the urban not as the Le Corbusier and Hilberseimer aimed to combine the realm of artificiality and technology per se (Santangelo, comforts of the city and the pastoral romanticism while 2019). Furthermore, Santangelo (2019) explains that thinking about new settlement developments (Sieverts, urban and rural cannot be conceived if the other is not 2003). physically there, so they cannot exist separately.

Despite this, the urban and rural thinking is still As rurality and urbanity as geographical spaces used to study places and is a foundation for many became blurred, it is the social dimension that remains planning policies. Concepts as peri-urban, exurban, a significant distinction (Dymitrow & Stenseke, 2016). suburban and rurban appeared, but they all relate to This social-cultural aspect is also the factor that the rural-urban continuum. The question rises if this is transforms space into place. However, the social problematic since the blurring of both concepts makes constructionism and cultural approach are criticized categorizing at least subjective (Dymitrow & Stenseke, for neglecting the physical aspect of the experience 2016). of people in rural space. For example, major changes in the physical environment can transform a place Dymitrow and Stenseke (2016) argue that the urban- into space, when people lose their meaning they rural dichotomy is so deeply rooted in the understanding attached to the place. It has been pointed out that the of the world, that its presence should be accepted, physical aspects are primarily defining experiences while at the same time a critical approach towards the and perceptions of town and countryside. So, although blurring and subjective nature of ‘rural ’and ‘urban’ is urban and rural are socially constructed, they are still

15 theoretical framework

reflecting the materialized world, which is framing us of food and non-food products, reusing mainly human (Dymitrow & Stenseke, 2016). and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban area, and in turn supplying In this design research, the urban and rural are seen as human and material resources, products and services a large interlocking system rather than a set of discrete largely to that urban area’ (Mougeot, 2000, p.11). cities surrounded by countryside. This approach leads often to prioritize landscape features above the Urban agriculture goes beyond its role as food built environment (Bruegmann, 2005). However, it is producer and includes functions such as management not aimed to break down the urban-rural dichotomy of natural resources, biodiversity conservation or completely but explore, through designing, their contribution to socio-economic viability of the area. relatedness from a perspective of human experience. This multifunctional aspect is applauded, because of its ecological and economic benefits at local and AGRICULTURAL URBANISM regional scale (Sanz Sanz et al, 2016). Last decade, Last decades, discussion regarding urban sprawl and multifunctional agriculture has started to play a role in urban expansion versus rural withdrawal and rural were the development of the rural landscape. As the pressure present in the public debate. New concerns are coming on a place is increasing, society is searching for ways up, like landscape preservation, ground-water quality, to use agricultural land in a multifunctional way. At the and food security, which legitimate the protections same time, there is a bottom-up movement of farmers of agricultural zones (Sanz Sanz, Napoléone & that focus on the renewing of their farm. Farmers Hubert, 2016; Vidal & Fleury, 2008). In this light, the of regular agriculture are focused on optimizing city infringing into farmland can be framed as a risk production, while multifunctional businesses are extern (European Environmental Agency, 2006). focussed (Kierkels et al., 2012).

As the borders of urban and rural are blurring, Roggema It might seem difficult to compete with the prices (2016) states that approaching the city as solely urban of bulk products on the global market. However, the and agriculture as solely rural is not relevant anymore. value locally might be measured in a different way An alternative is to approach the city and agricultural and products are sold on a different market (Keeffe, system as a strongly connected system, whereby urban 2016). Instead of producing for the bulk market, urban and rural can both profit from each other (Roggema, agriculture is searching for its own customers and is 2016). therefore strongly connected with the local economy, ecology, community, and markets. Contrasting with Urban agriculture to protect agricultural land traditional agriculture, the link between producer In the time of industrialization, the up-coming railways, and consumer in urban agriculture is direct, which steamships, and international food systems, urban creates new economies. Keeffe (2016) defines this farmers lost their advantage in producing close to the as the interface between consumer and producer. He urban market. Farmers started to enlarge and produce presents urban agriculture as an urban design strategy, cash crops for the global market. Urban agriculture including agricultural know-how (technological), biotic though aims to specialize in niches to still benefit from elements and the interface (sociological component). proximity to the city (Lohrberg, 2019). Urban agriculture Now urban agriculture is more than agriculture in/ opposes conventional agriculture, which has marginal around the city, but a ‘holistic urban design problem that interactions with the city’s markets and flows but is interdisciplinary and based on networks and agents addresses global markets. A key characteristic of rather than purely the technical issues of agriculture at urban farming is that it is more deeply integrated a small scale’ (Keeffe, 2016, p.18). The main objective into the urban system compared to other agriculture. of urban agriculture is not efficiency, but effectiveness. In other words, it is responding to the pressure and It is about bringing people together, educate a healthy opportunities that arise from its adjacency to cities and lifestyle, economic activity in areas of deprivation, focusses on urban needs (Fleury, Moustier & Tolron, reconfigure the city and so on (Keeffe, 2016). In the 2003; Sanz Sanz et al., 2016). intermezzo on Page 17, an example is given of urban agriculture, as a reaction to an urbanisation threat to Urban agriculture is defined as: ‘an industry located the agricultural landscape. The project enhances a within (intra-urban) or on the fringe (peri-urban) of renewed vision on the rural agricultural landscape a town, an urban centre, a city or metropolis, which and urbanisation, rather than integrating agricultural grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity practices into the city’s downtown.

16 theoretical framework

INTERMEZZO - PARC DU VEXIN FRANCAIS by Farm Development Agent of the Regional Natural Park of Vexin Français (1995)

Context - A few kilometres north of Paris the picturesque landscape, that attracted impressionist painters centuries ago, is still intact. At the same time, the pressure of urbanisation, tourism and large infrastructural projects threaten the landscape qualities. Therefore, local municipalities decided together with the national government to reverse this process and protect the rural area with its scenery and heritage, as well as setting up a sustainable economic development (Darly, 2012).

Concept - In a rural area of 66000 ha, including 79000 inhabitants divided over 94 small municipalities a regional park is developed: The Regional Natural Park of Vexin Français. 70% of the park is covered with arable land. An important purpose of the park is to develop agriculture while considering the environment and by promoting the multifunctional use of land. The identity of the rural landscape should be protected against peri-urbanisation. An urban countryside is created that is based on the qualities of the agricultural area and its historic foundations, with a plurality of mixed-use (Vandermeulen, 2011). For example, a local supply chain for school restaurants in the surroundings is initiated to create marketing opportunities for the farms located in the park and promote diversification of activities.

Reflection - The agricultural landscape of the Vexin Français is protected from unlimited urbanisation for growing food near the city. Thereby, it emphasizes that other landscape functions legitimize the existence of the food production landscape. Preserving the landscape and its functions like ground-water quality and food security are considered important for society. The agricultural businesses are not seen only as food producers, but rather as the managers of the landscape. In the project, the rural is approached as something different than the urban. However, their relatedness is used to improve the quality of both urban and rural. The countryside can be preserved as a public good that improves the quality of life in the city.

Also, the project explores a local way of distributing the food to the citizens by responding to a high-quality sustainable market, whereby the link between producer and consumer is more direct. The branding of the area, as a whole, is an important element of the project, whereby public enjoyment is part of the business model. Together, the farms and municipalities show society the importance of the landscape. Qualified products, like fruit, vegetables, and cheese from the region have the ‘Valeurs Parc’ brand to get the attention of locals and tourists. An important part of the business strategy is to enable people to enjoy the food production landscape. Customers can buy products at the farm and enjoy the landscape for recreational activities. By diversifying the agricultural businesses the rural profits from the proximity to the urban.

At the same time, Parc du Vexin Français does not respond to all facets of the pressure of the city, since it does not reply to housing demand. An urban design that creates a union with the rural landscape is lacking. Based on the vision of this project, it can be interpreted that a very dense urban area contrasting to a non- dense rural area is desired by the Farm Develop Agent. In Europe, other projects have a similar approach to protect the cultural landscapes from peri-urbanisation, like Parco Agricolo Sud Milano, a rural park around Milan.

Agricultural informed urbanization design became more and more complex because of Historically, agricultural practice is directly linked to socio-economic changes triggered by developments, the form of the city (Keeffe, 2016). The relationship like the introduction of railroads. The beginning of the between city form and food production has always been 18th century and especially during the 19th century in present. The foundation of the first cities was linked to Europe, social, economic and technological changes issues like storage and distribution of food from the created a disconnection between agriculture and the nearby fields. Food markets and ports shaped the city (sub)urban world. structure (Buchanan, 2016). Since the industrialization of the farm, consumption, and production have been The historical relationship between city and agriculture separated. The linkages between urban and rural brings up the question if agriculture can function as a

17 theoretical framework

method for urbanisation. It can be considered to use this breaking down is not taking as a starting point for agriculture as the basis for designing settlements, which this design research. Connecting systems and forms goes beyond the protection of agricultural land for sub- of city and agricultural should not lead to the denial urbanisation. The concept of agricultural urbanism, and breaking down of urban and rural. The picturesque or also defined as agriurbanism, agrourbanism or image of agriculture is still relevant since a desire to the agrarian urbanism refers to a new partnership between Arcadian landscape can be the motor of the survival urban and rural, which leads to ‘a new form of the city, of the rural (Donadieu, 1998). A design effort is made but also a renewed rurality’ (Gottero, 2019, p.3). The for settlement development that creates a union with approach is built upon ‘a multifunctional economy agriculture landscape, whereby agriculture ground is made up of local products and high environmental not approached primarily as a place to be developed. quality, on a low growth model compared to the industrial one’ (Gottero, 2019, p.3), aspects that are RECLAMATION OF MINING LANDSCAPE also mentioned for urban agriculture. On Page 19, Reclamation is based upon the assumption that a an example is presented whereby the growing and landscape cannot and should not be turned to the state distribution of local agricultural products defined the before the mining activities. The opposite of reclamation form of new settlements. Together with the example on is restoration, whereby it is seen as desirable to return Page 17, it gives a small insight into the wide range and to the landscape system of an earlier stage (Del Tredici, many possibilities of designing agricultural urbanism. 2008). However, thereby a question arises: ‘To what point in time should we try to go back?’. As Del Tredici Donadieu (1998) explores the power of the peri- (2008) points out, the concept of restoration is naïve, urban farmer to organize the territory of the city in since it does not take into account the inevitability of a sustainable way (Vandermeulen, 2011). He is ecological change. Underlying the evaluation and describing this complex landscape as the ‘urban prioritization in this design research is the view that countryside’ (Campagnes Urbaines) and argues that nature is essentially dynamic, open-ended irreversible maintaining and developing peri-urban agriculture and humans are part of the process (Turner, 2008). By can play a crucial role in improving the food product enhancing the progressive concept of place, described quality and life-quality of the city dwellers. For example by Massey (1995), a place is not static, but a place is by recycling organic waste from the city, educational a process. The landscape is seen as constructed and farms, pick-your-own products or horticultural space shaped by different social interactions that tie together (Donadieu,1998). and these interactions change of time (Massey, 1995).

Based on the theory of John Dixon Hunt of three The metaphor of palimpsest is often used for landscape. natures: natura decorum (e.g. ocean), altera natura Palimpsest originally describes the manuscript used in (e.g. agricultural space) and terza natura (e.g. garden), medieval times, in which text was written over previous Donadieu (1998) develops a vision of an urban text that had been scrapped. Within a palimpsest, countryside that crosses between altera natura and the previous texts always remained recognizable terza natura. The countryside can survive, because and therefore reminds of different cultural layers in of its beauty and appealing desire of the Arcadian the landscape (Mitin, 2018). Using this metaphor, the landscape. In his vision, the peri-urban countryside landscape is seen as a valuable cultural archive and should supply products to the city and the countryside the tangible objects are valuable for future generations’ should be designed and interpreted as a public good identity. This activates designers to utilize the site layers in a way that is improving the quality of life for the city to reveal aspects of the history of the site (Krinke, dweller. Therefore, a plurality of mixed uses has to be 2001). At the same time, the metaphor of a palimpsest created, whereby the qualities and historical layers of allows adding layers to the cultural landscape. the agricultural landscape have to be recognized, while Although cultural landscapes are often associated proposing new spatial compositions and practices. with historic landscapes (Roe, 2007), the reclaimed This requires an activist approach of a landscape lignite mining landscape can be considered as a new architect who is representing the interests of the public cultural landscape. Instead of aiming to go back to the good (Vandermeulen, 2011). landscape system before the lignite mining activities, reclaiming means building further upon historical layers However, reinterpreting the connection between of the landscape, while achieving a new future-oriented agriculture and the city seems to lead to denying the post-mining landscape system. dichotomy between urban and rural. As argued before,

18 theoretical framework

INTERMEZZO - GARDEN CITIES OF TO-MORROW by Ebenezer Howard (1902)

Context - The Garden City model has its origins in the late 19th century in England. Ebenezer Howard, born in London, has spent most of his early adulthood in Chicago. At that time, Chicago was experiencing rapid urban growth resulting in a housing shortage. Returned in London, Howard recognized the issues around rapid urbanisation in England and published his ideas on how to solve these issues. He discussed the devastating consequences of urbanisation, whereby the countryside is depleting and cities are overcrowding (Keeffe, Hall & Jenkins, 2016). Additionally, he described that agriculture was being separated from the industrial cities. As a solution, Howard proposed to design cities elsewhere: Garden Cities, that would combine ‘all the advantages of the most energetic and active town life, with all the beauty and delight of the country’ (Howard, 1902, as cited in Keeffe et al., 2016, p.91).

Concept - Howard describes the Garden Cities as 6000 acres (2428 ha), designed in a circular form, with the potential to house 32000 inhabitants (Keeffe et al., 2016). In the circular formed town, a dense central zone of 1000 ha accommodates 30.000 inhabitants and the remaining 5000 ha is occupied by 2000 inhabitants. Various functions, like industry, residential living and retail are arranged in different concentric circles, radiating from the central garden. Around the central part, farms are producing food for all inhabitants. A circular railway, that is also connected to other Garden Cities allows fast and efficient distribution of products on a local scale, saving transportation costs. The Garden City is often described as a ‘self-sufficient entity’ capable of accommodating a stable population, and ‘ringed by an agricultural belt’ (Brittanica Encyclopedia, 2014, as cited in Keeffe et al., 2016, p.93).

Reflection - Howard’s model responds to the issues regarding rapid urbanisation, whereby urban sprawl is inflicting in the agricultural land. As a reaction to urban sprawl, he aims to combine the positive aspects of the urban with the positive aspects of the rural in new cities in the countryside (Keeffe et al., 2016). Thompson (2012) warns that this way of thinking and designing, a hybrid of urbanity and rurality, can lead to areas that become a ‘Nowhere’.

The local food production system has to harmonize the countryside and the new town. Howard proposes local agriculture to feed the people in a concentric city (Keeffe et al., 2016). Also, the agricultural land is being considered as a collective property and common good for the inhabitants of the city, who in return pay rent, which is used to finance facilities for the community (Vernet & Coste, 2017). In that way, the inhabitants profit from the proximity to the agricultural land and as Howards describes: ‘every farmer now has a market close to his doors’ (Howard, 1902, as cited in Keeffe et al., 2016, p.93). The products can be transported efficiently in the city, to the indoor market place, and other Garden Cities. However, the Garden Cities as Howard describes them, are in practice incapable to supply enough for the inhabitants. Keeffe et al. (2016) state that the average land-share per person for consumption, based on 2300 calories per day is 0.17 ha for a vegan diet, 0.18 for a vegetarian diet, 0.61 for a diet including white meat and 2.01 ha for a diet including red meat. Based on this the available land-share for food production in the garden cities is, in terms of food production, not able to be self-sufficient. Still, Howard defended the agricultural productive space and aimed to integrate urbanisation rather than solely remove agriculture for urbanisation (Vernet & Coste, 2017). The growing and distribution of local agricultural products define the form of the city in Howard’s proposal (Keeffe et al., 2016).

Also, food production and recreation are separated in the Garden Cities. Because of the strict zoning, the possibilities for a function mix of relaxing and food production is restrained. For example, the inner garden is for relaxing only and is not utilized as a production area.

Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the Garden City model is very theoretical. It does not consider the countryside as an Arcadia, but approaches the rural landscape as solely productive place.

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new land

II RECLAIMED LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT s

The landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area has running fault system that runs through Europe. The been affected, influenced and shaped by human fault became active at the end of the Eocene when the involvement (Dworschak & Rose, 2014). The landscape continental crust had been stretched and as a result, is telling the narrative of the culture and expresses the the graben structures were subsiding and the horst regional identity. As a cultural landscape, the Rhenish blocks were pushed upwards along the faults. The Mining Area is a legacy that reflects the relationship tectonically-formed ridges and valleys are recognizable between human and the natural environment and in the landscape. Some regions, like the Ville, were reveals aspects of developments in society. Cultural pushed up and elevated above the surroundings and landscapes can provide scenic, economic, ecological, other regions conversely sank, like the Erft Block and social, recreational, and educational opportunities to the Cologne Block, see Figure 7 and 8 (Meschede & help communities to better understand themselves Warr, 2019; Zagwijn & Hager, 1987). (Cultural Landscape Foundation, 2019). Because of the depression process of the Lower Because of favourable arable conditions, the Rhenish Rhine Bay, the area was invaded by the sea in the Mining Area has a long history of agricultural land-use. Oligocene. When the coastlines moved gradually to However, lignite mining did intervene in this landscape. the west widespread coastal swamplands were formed The aim of this chapter is to deeply understand the in the embayment (Zagwijn & Hager, 1987). Climate cultural richness of the different identities of the conditions, that were similar to today’s tropics supported reclaimed land. The landscape will be understood as lush vegetation growth. The accumulated plant litter including different layers of human intervention, very was prevented from rotting by water that blocked historical layers, and more recent ones. contact with the air. As time passed, the dead organic substance was covered by depositions as sand, gravel, First is elaborated on the geological history, to and clay. The pressure on the substance in combination understand the determinants for the agricultural history with the temperature caused a coalification process and lignite mining practices and the available ‘building and over time lignite seams from up to 100 meters materials’ for reclamation. Also, an overview is given of thick were formed. With an average thickness of 40 the lignite mining process. meters the lignite occurrences in the Lower Rhine Bay are one of the world’s largest (Dumbeck et al., 1996; Then, a map is presented including the different ages Jansen, 2017). The lignite seams are located between of the different pieces of reclaimed land. For this, 100 meters and 400 meters deep. Only on the pushed satellite images are analysed and information provided up Ville ridge, which has a length of 50 kilometres and by the mining company is used. During a biking tour a width of 7 to 10 kilometres, the lignite comes so near at the site, the reclaimed pieces of land are visited and to the surface that some parts became visible. differences in landscape identity between the areas are defined and photographed. Detailed information about Characteristically for the Lower Rhine Bay is the the routes during site visits can be found in Appendix II. blanket of loess. The blanket of loess was formed by the accumulation of wind-blown silt derived from The different reclaimed landscape types are related gravel beds of the Rhine River and permafrost affected to physical and social-political developments in the landscapes and has a texture size between 20 and 50 region, to get a deeper understanding of the human μm. The chalk-rich fine sand forms a particularly fertile intervention and forming of the post-mining landscape. The outcomes are presented in a timeline, combining key events in time and the changes within the reclamation landscape.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE LOWER RHINE BAY

The Rhenish Mining Area is situated in a lowland plain, Pleistocene (sand, gravel) Mesozoic/Paleozoic brown coal seams the so-called Lower Rhine Bay. The Lower Rhine Bay is Oligocene to Miocene (fine sand) Pliocene (sand, clay) a depression area that relates to a southeast-northwest Figure 7: section A-B through the Lower Rhine Bay (Meschede, 2019)

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Figure 9: loess distribution in the Lower Rhine Embayment (Fischer et al., 2019)

productive in Germany (soil evaluation numbers: 75/100 to 85/100). Thereby, the climate conditions are favourable for highly productive agriculture, since the winters are mild and the summers humid and warm. Tertiary/Quaternary brown coal Tertiary volcanics Cretaceous Triassic/Jurassic Paleozoic earthquakes of magintude >5 and > 4 over the last 1000 years Because of the favourable conditions for arable farming, Figure 8: tectonic system of the Lower Rhine Bay (Meschede, 2019) the cultural landscape is dominated by influences of agriculture, whereby agricultural history goes back soil. The loess shaped the landscape more even, but 3000 years when hunter-gatherers started to become nonetheless, the landscape is a little hilly as a result of cultivators (Rhein-Erft-Kreis, 2018). This Neolithic the fault system (Fischer et al., 2019). Revolution was the beginning of an irreversible change in Europe’s landscapes, from ‘wilderness’ to ‘cultivated Luvisol soils (soil classification system: World Reference landscape’ and provided the base for modern-day Base for Soil Resources) developed through soil- agriculture. The shift in lifestyle pattern triggered forming processes, like decalcification and acidification social, technological and economic changes and and neo-formation of clay minerals, followed up by clay led to a renewed relationship between humans and movement and the stagnation of infiltrating water. The nature (Mosler & Hobson, 2018). For centuries, farmers main characteristic of Luvisols is an argic horizon, a cultivated the land, starting with labour-intensive subsurface zone with a higher clay content than the methods, as shown in Figure 10, an image from about material above because it is washed downwards by water and accumulates at greater depth. The total pore space is the lowest in the argic zone and the bulk density is a bit higher in the compacted plough top layer. Typical for loess soils is a rather high amount of available water for plants (up to 260 mm/m), because of the water holding capacity of loess. Therefore, loess soils without the influence of groundwater, have high productivity (Dumbeck et al., 1996).

AGRICULTURAL LAND-USE Figure 10: example labour-intensive forms of agriculture (source: https:// The fertile loess soils of the region are among the most programm.ard.de/TV/Programm/Jetzt-im-TV/?sendung=28486793094216)

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100 years ago in southwest Germany. in small open-pits, compressing it into blocks, drying it and selling it in the region. Although it had only low In the 18th and 19th centuries, the situation for calorific value, it provided a welcome energy source as farms substantially changed. An international food a replacement for extensive deforestation. Industrial system developed with the upcoming of railways and mining began in the 19th century when the construction steamships and urban farmers lost their advantage of of the railways in the area allowed more efficient mining producing close to the urban market. The most common and large-scale distribution. With the generation of reaction was to enlarge the farms and produce cash electricity from the end of the 1890s, the small pits crops for the global market (Lohrberg, 2019). gradually transformed into bigger opencast mines. The last small private pits closed in the 1920s. Mid-1950s, With the land consolidation of the 19th century the the deposits close to the surface were depleted and the irregularity of the landscape made place for an extraction of lignite that is stored more than 200 meters organized system of bigger and coherent parcels for deep started. This required more big-scale extraction the owners (Rhein-Erft-Kreis, 2018). fields and due to the bundling of mining operations, some big open-pit mines emerged from the many ‘Die bereinigte Flur zeigt in ihrer Entstehung und ihrer small open-pits. Nowadays, lignite is excavated in the Morphographie eine völlig neue Form. Sie ist das three open-pits: Garzweiler, Hambach and Inden, by Ergebnis eines geplanten Vorganges, der durch die RWE Power AG, which emerged in 1959 as Rheinbraun individuelle Wirtschaftsweise hervorgerufen wurde’ AG from previous companies. For decades, RWE is the (Zschocke, 1959, as cited in Rhein-Erft-Kreis, 2018, most important company and employer in the Rhenish p.5). Mining Area. Within the Rhenish Mining Area, annually, 100 million tonnes of lignite is excavated (Otzen & [The consolidated land shows in its emergence Otzen, 2017; RWE Power AG, n.d.-a). Because of a complete new morphology. It is the result of the loose layers of the soil in the Rhineland, it is only a planned process, which was caused by the possible to extract the lignite by opencast methods. In individual-centred economy.] Figure 11, an overview of the opencast mining process is given. The industrialisation of agriculture has led to the simultaneously upscaling and decline of agricultural farms and specialisation on efficiently producing crops for the global bulk market. Highly productive agricultural industries have emerged, which are based on modern agriculture technology. The landscape scene is set by fields with mainly sugar beet, winter wheat, and winter barley cultivation, in a rotation system (Dumbeck et al., 1996; Rhein-Erft-Kreis, 2018).

LIGNITE MINING LANDSCAPE The open-pit mining did invade this cultivated landscape and, at the same time, it is also part of the man-made evolution of the landscape. The Rhenish Mining Area is the most extensive lignite area of central Europe. The Roman historian Tacitus already wrote about abnormities on the edges of foothills, that according to him could point to mysterious fires that destroyed the former civilizations in the surroundings of today’s Cologne. In fact, he described the brown coal seams. For centuries, today’s value of the lignite remained unknown (Dworschalk & Rose, 2014; Otzen & Otzen, 2017). At the end of the 17th century, it was first discovered that the wet layer of brown coal was combustible after drying it. Day laborers under command of a landlord were mining lignite with hoes and shovels

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Lignite mining process (Halder, 2018; RWE Power AG, 2011). The residual lake First, settlements, streams, lakes, forests, agricultural of Garzweiler I & II, which is planned to be filled from fields are removed. Resettlements are planned for the 2038 will be the second largest lake of Germany, as people who have to leave the area and farmers are shown in Figure 33 (Forkel et al., 2017). bought up or get substituting fields in already reclaimed areas. Within the open-pit mine the masses are transported by the conveyer belt system and distributed at The groundwater is extracted till 500 meters under the conveyer collection point. The overburden is surface to keep the open-pits dry, with a system of transported to the dumping side or stored for future more than 1000 wells, which affects the whole region backfill. The coal reaches first the coal bunker per (Dumbeck et al., 1996). The pumped water is primarily conveyer belt. An industrial railway network is used for used to cool the power plants, for water supply for the transport of coal between the opencast mines and industry and population, or to recharge groundwater powerplants and coal refinement industries. Most of the again. About a quarter of the water is discharged via lignite is used to produce electricity in the powerplant. surface water bodies (Dworschalk & Rose, 2014). The remaining lignite is refined to produce briquettes, pulverised lignite, fluidised-bed fuel and lignite coke The open-pit mine is divided into two main areas: (RWE Power, 2011). the extraction side and the dumping side. On the extraction side, the bucket-wheel excavator is digging Some natural areas that are dependent on the and removing overburden (the material above the groundwater level, like the German-Dutch Nature Park lignite). The bucket wheel excavators are a trademark Maas-Schwalm-Nette, are provided with engineered for the lignite industry, as they are the largest working irrigation, whereby injection wells safeguard the water machines in the world (RWE Power AG, 2011). regime and protect the wetlands (Jansen, 2017; RWE Power AG, n.d.-a). Some water is also been used for The overburden (loess, gravel, and sand) is primarily water sprinkling systems to prevent dust from swirling used to refill the areas of the mine where operations are up during the excavating of the open-pit mine (RWE complete. Thereby, gravel is used for the construction Power AG, n.d.-a). industry and clay for the sealing of landfills. On the dumping side, a stacker is spreading the overburden During the lignite mining, the landscape scene is set by and preparing the revegetation of the soil, with the the large opencast lignite mines, enormous machines loess as topsoil again. Because of this system, the towering over the edge, and associated powerplants open-pit mine is moving through the landscape while and refinement industries. Furthermore, the landscape keeping the same size. The deeper the lignite seams is characterised by pumping installations, pipelines, are the more terraces are necessary. At the beginning of sound protection walls, an intensive network of high- mining an open-pit mine, when no worked-out part had voltage lines, a conveyer belt system, and coal railways. to be filled yet, overburden hills were thrown up, which A photo-reportage of the landscape during the lignite caused a change in the topography of the landscape. mining is presented in Appendix III. On the next page, At the end of the open-pit mining, when not enough in Figure 12, the different open-pit mines in the eastern overburden is left, the holes are filled as residual lakes part of the Rhenish Mining Area are shown.

Figure 11: lignite mining process (BUND Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen)

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1800 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2038

Small open-pit mines 17th century-1951)

Frechen (1951-1986)

Fortuna-Garsdorf (1955-1993)

Bergheim (1984-2002)

(1983-2038 Garzweiler I several small open-pits merge into Garzweiler I Garzweiler II (2006-2038)

Figure 12: overview open-pit mines in the research area

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‘Ein Bagger räumt die Mühen weg in denen hundert Jahre Arbeit steckt. Von Generation zu Generation hat man es weitergegeben nun wird alles kahl tot wo wir lebten.’ (Martin, 1985, as cited in Pflug, 1998, p.1).

‘Mein Blick vom Grubenrand ist der Blick auf eine offene, nicht mehr verheilende Wunde’ (Grass, 1990, as cited in Pflug, 1998, p.1).

[An excavator clears away the effort of a hundred years of work. From generation to generation it has been passed further now it is all getting bleak dead where we lived.]

[My view from the edge of the pit is of an open, no longer healing wound.]

26 ‘Der Bergbau vernichtet im Durchschnitt nichts, sondern schafft neue Kulturwerte’ (Heusohn, 1929, as cited in Pflug, 1998, p.1).

‘Landschaft vom Reißbrett’ (Krummsdorf & Grümmer, 1981, as cited in Pflug 1998, p.1).

[In the end, mining does not destroy anything, but creates new cultural values.]

[Landscape from the drawing board.]

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RECLAIMED POST-MINING LANDSCAPE grounds for job creation and tax income (Dumbeck et A view on the open-pit mine shows the extent of the al., 1996; RWE Power AG, n.d.-b). In the Rhenish Mining mining intrusion in the landscape. However, mining Area, about 290 km2 of land has been mined, including activities are temporary. Out-mined areas are cultivated two-thirds of agricultural land (Eyll-Vetter & Sihorsch, and new land is made. It is regulated in public-law 2009). 200 km2 has been reclaimed, including 103 km2 procedures that the mining company is obligated of arable land, 77 km2 of forest and 20 km2 of water to redesign the land when the open-cast mining is and other types of surfaces (RWE Power AG, n.d.-b). gone. The moment the first section of lignite from an open-pit mine has been stripped, the re-cultivation In the Rhenish Mining Area, totally new land is created, starts (RWE Power AG, n.d.-b). Therefore, the mine is similar to the creation of the polders in the Netherlands. moving through the landscape, leaving behind a track However, the land is not reclaimed from the sea of reclaimed land. but created after the disturbance of an old cultural landscape. Table 1 and Figure 13 give a systematic Different land-use types of reclamation are possible, overview of the different reclamation periods in the generally including afforestation or agriculture research area. Over time, different types of reclaimed (Szelagowska, 2003). Due to the lack of material after landscapes were developed. The different reclaimed the lignite-mining, large bodies of water are planned landscape types are identified and described as a in the final voids of the opencast-mines (RWE Power result of physical, social and political factors. These AG, n.d.-b). The large scale reclamation also means factors include changing trends in society, adaptations land-use conflicts, associated with conflict of interest. of the legislative framework, technical reclamation For example, farmers want new arable land and conditions, and developments in the agricultural sector. municipalities wish for new industrial development

oldest newest

Figure 13: reclaimed landscape elements from old to new

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Landscape elements reclaimed landscape name time type land-use mine

TYPE 1: A SMALL SCALE MOSAIC OF LAKES AND FOREST (till 1955) Röttgenhöhe (163 m) before 1950 outside overburden hill forest Grefrath and Horrem

Abtsbusch (141 m) before 1950 outside overburden hill forest Fortuna

First afforastation & Ville lakes before 1955 forest and lakes from many small open-pit mines (not specified further in this project)

TYPE 2: A PRODUCTIVE ARABLE LAND (1955-1970) Rekultivierung Neurath 1907-1962 reclaimed open-pit mine arable land Neurath

Gürather Höhe (115 m) before 1940 outside overburden hill arable land Neurath

Berrenrather Börde 1965-1975 reclaimed open-pit mine arable land Berrenrath and Louise

Wilhemshöhe (155 m) before 1950 outside overburden hill arable land Berrenrath and Louise

Vollrather Höhe / Allrather Höhe (187 m) 1955-1968 outside overburden hill arable land, wind park Frimmersdorf

Neurather / Frimmersdorfer Höhe (110 m) 1960s inside overburden hill* arable land, windmill test field Frimmersdorf

Fischbachhöhe (163 m) 1950 - 1970 inside overburden hil* arable land Fortuna-Garsdorf and Bergheim

Glessener höhe (206 m) 1955-1970 outside overburden hill arable land Bergheim

TYPE 3: A DIVERSE ARABLE LAND (1970-2000) Rekultivierung Frechen 1980-2003 reclaimed open-pit mine arable land, nature, business Frechen

- Boisdorfer See 2000 ecological zone recreation Frechen

- Fürstenbergmaar 1982 ecological zone recreation Frechen

- Fürstenberggraben 1982 ecological zone recreation Frechen

- Marienfeld 1999 place of memory recreation Fortuna-Garsdorf

Rekultivierung Fortuna-Garsdorf 1985-2004 reclaimed open-pit mine arable land Fortuna-Garsdorf

- Wiedenfelder Höhe (126 m) 1974-1983 inside overburden hill arable land Fortuna-Garsdorf

Kasterer Höhe (100 m) 1970s inside overburden hill* arable land Garzweiler I

Gustorfer Höhe (90 m) 1967-1981 inside overburden hill* arable land, glider airfield Garzweiler I

TYPE 4: LARGE-SCALE ARABLE LAND & HUMAN-SCALE LANDSCAPE (from 2000 till now) Rekultivierung Bergheim 1990-2012 reclaimed open-pit mine agricultural Bergheim

Garweiler I 1983-now reclaimed open-pit mine agricultural Garzweiler I

Königshovener Höhe (105 m) 1988-1990 inside overburden hill agricultural, wind park Garzweiler I

Garweiler II 2006-now reclaimed open-pit mine agricultural Garzweiler II

*The overburden is dumped on another former open-pit mine

Table 1: overview landscape elements reclaimed landcape

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TYPE 1: A SMALL SCALE MOSAIC OF LAKES AND re-cultivated at the beginning of the 1950s. The Lignite FOREST (till 1955) Mining Law in Nordrhein-Westfalen of 1950 had to give the reclamation a new impulse. Due to the demand for The first lignite mining extraction was done close to the wood after the Second World War, a large-scale area surface, by small scale open-pit mines. At that time, a was planted with the fast-growing poplar. However, the centralized reclamation practice was lacking. However, soil led to a bad root penetrability and the poplars were the idea of reclamation already started early. When not growing as well as expected (Dworschak & Rose, landlords recognized that after the lignite mining the 2014). This resulted in knowledge-based practices on land was useless, they started to make contracts for soil development. From the 1960s, a mixture of gravel, afforestation after the lignite extraction. The first lease sand, and loess in defined proportions, so-called: agreement, which obligated the lessee to revegetate Forstkies is used for afforestation. The topsoil had to be the land after the end of the mining, was made in loose enough for rooting and loamy enough for holding 1766 for the Roddergrube (Pflug, 1998). The landlords water. The topsoil is not levelled, to avoid compaction. had an interest in transforming their land as soon as Also, it became known that to improve soil development possible into profitable land after the mining. Prince- one should directly plant vegetation belonging to the elector Maximilian Friedrich defined the first reclamation end-succession stage of the forest, like beeches, oaks regulation in 1784, which secured rehabilitation of and some pines, instead of the fast-growing poplars the post-mining land. That reclaiming the land was (RWE Power AG, n.d.-b). an issue in society very early, is shown by Friedrich von Hardenberg, later known as Novalis. He claimed The first landscape type, a small-scale mosaic of already in the 17th century that ‘mit dem Abraum der forest and lakes, is the result of the early reclamation ausgeförderte Raum wieder ausgefüllt und planiert practices. The small lakes were created, because not werden müssen‘ [with the overburden the out-mined enough overburden was left to fill up everything. Large space must be refilled and levelled] (Hardenberg, as parts of this reclaimed forest-lake landscape (so-called: cited in Schlenstedt et al., 2009, p.17). In 1865, the Ville-Seen) are protected and used as a recreation mining regulations were replaced by the General Mining landscape (Dumbeck et al., 1996; Goldbach, 2013; Act for the Prussian States (Allgemeines Berggesetz für Zukunftsagentur Rheinisches Revier, 2017). die Preussischen Staaten). It prescribed rehabilitation that was controlled by a special government agency (Bergbehörde) (Goldbach, 2013; Otzen & Otzen, 2017; Schölmerich, 1998). The Oberbergamt Bonn determined in 1929 in an interpretation of the ‘Bergpolizeiverordnung’ that the overburden must be brought back in such a way that the largest possible land for agriculture and forestry is created.

The first planned reclamation practices date from the Geneay (2019) Jan (2019) 1920s. The small open-pit mines were filled with gravel, Figure 14: small rest lakes (left) and afforestation (right) sand and little amount of loess by using simple tools. Since the land-use before the mine was mainly forest, TYPE 2: A PRODUCTIVE ARABLE LAND (1955-1970) the reclamation was focussed on afforestation. There was no experience with which tree sorts would grow As the open-pit mine moved northward, the landscape well and therefore they experimented with fast-growing which was covered with a thick blanket of loess and trees, like alder, birch, and poplar, but also with beech, which had, therefore, for centuries been used for oak, and wild cherry. This experimentation phase farming, was mined out. Therefore different reclamation functioned later as a model for reclamation and helped outcomes, compared to the more southern land, were to improve reclamation techniques. Today forests with desirable. beech and oak can be found there, with species-rich herb layers and also pines were added, in combination In the former open-pit mine Berrenrath, a forest- with evergreen conifer species. lake landscape was planned. However, this planning changed, because of the demand for agricultural fields During the Second World War, the reclamation as a replacement for the fields in the open-pit mine practices stagnated and therefore much land had to be area. Berrenrath was the first agricultural reclamation

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and functions as an example of a successful and consequent reclamation planning.

The thick layer of loess provided the reclamation practices with different building material. For the reclamation, a flushing technique was used, whereby water is mixed with loess and flushed with pipes into a dammed area. This enabled a spreading of loess without putting pressure on it, which could lead to soil compaction. Later, the dams were removed, because Figure 15b: farmers resettled in groups outside the village the irregularities were experienced as impractical by the farmers. The topography of the former mine TYPE 3: A DIVERSE ARABLE LAND (1970-2000) area Berrenrath changed after the finishing of the reclamation. The area lies 5 meters lower than before Till the mid-20th century, the impact of the lignite and on the beside a small hill is created (Willemshöhe) mining on the landscape was relatively small. However, with overburden material. because of a tectonic fault, the remaining lignite seams were situated much deeper. Since 1955, the bucket- In 1961, a ‘loess agreement’ was made between the wheel excavator (see Figure 16) is used for the extraction mining company and the provincial government, which of lignite seams that are more than 200 meters below. obligated the mining company to restore fertile fields, The bucket-wheel excavator was first used in the open- that could be offered to the farmers who had fields pit mine Frechen. With this advanced technology, the in the open-pit mine areas. (Otzen & Otzen, 2017; open-pit mining started to create deep craters in the Sihorsch, 1998). landscape. The impact on the settlement structures increased and complete landscapes disappeared. Besides the land acquisition, the resettlement of agricultural buildings is essential. The resettled farms were organized in groups, like the group of 9 farms in ‘Weiler Brüggen’ and 7 farms in ‘Weiler Berrenrath’. Because of the new emission rules at that time (around noise and smell), it was favourable to separate the farms from the villages. This increased the trend of resettled ‘sleeping’ villages. Also, one would think grouped farmers would collaborate with each other. Exhibition RWE Schloss Paffendorf (2019) However, Sihorsch (1998) states that collaborations Figure 16: bucket-wheel excavator, 1956 (left) and predecessor, 1930 (right) rarely increased. Also the size and number of overburden hills increased So, the second landscape type consists of large with the size of the open-pit mines. For example, the plots for agriculture, which are planned by a land Glessener Höhe was formed, from which you can consolidation process and based on the demand see the Rhine Tower in Düsseldorf. Thereby, nothing for arable fields. The landscape includes trees and remained from the typical building tradition, like the hedges along the roads and plots that function as brick as a building material, the farms formed around windbreakers. The groups of farmhouses are typical a courtyard and the irregular conglomerate streets for the early agricultural reclamation works. (Kleefeld, 2016).

Besides the development of mining techniques, also methods used in reclamation have been adapted to new insight and innovation. Research programs, together with practical experience, brought forth that the flushing technique, used for the first agricultural reclamations, had many disadvantages. The flushing technique could only apply a layer of 1 meter and Otzen & Otzen (2017) because of the flushing, the grain fractions became Figure 15a: windbreakers (left) and extensive productive fields (right) segregated. To achieve fertile soils, a minimum of two

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meters of pure loess and loess loam is needed as topsoil. Thereby the soil had to be levelled after the flushing, to create a gradient and secure surface water drainage. This levelling practices led to soil compaction (RWE Power AG, n.d.-b).

Since then, the agricultural fields are always reclaimed by using a dry process. Only providing loess topsoil does not fulfil the requirements for fertile arable soil. The reclaimed fields are initially farmed by farmers of RWE Power for seven years, to develop a layer of humus. This storage of nutrients and micro-organisms is needed for plants to grow. During the seven years, the farmers are growing pioneering plants (like alfalfa), that root deep in the soil and enrich it with nitrogen. These plants are used for biological activation of the soil. After seven years the fields are given to the farmers who made their land available for the open-cast mine elsewhere (RWE Power AG, n.d.-b). Since 1973, the Figure 17: green areas (left), ecological corridor (right) and overburden hill development and treatment of the soils are regulated (under) by guidelines of the provincial government (Dworschak & Rose, 2014). TYPE 4: A LARGE-SCALE ARABLE LAND & HUMAN- SCALE LANDSCAPE (from 2000 till now) In 1982, the General Mining Act, which was based upon the Prussian General Mining Act from 1865, was replaced Last decades, climate change awareness under a broad by the regulations of ‘Bundesberggesetz’ to better public led to criticism on the lignite mining practices in cope with the extensive land transformation process Germany. Knowledge about the implications of lignite (Dworschalk & Rose, 2014). The aim of reclamation was mining on the global environment and impact on the redirected from just producing a productive landscape regional landscape systems have put pressure on to developing a productive and diverse landscape the mining company RWE, which is also responsible with a positive impact on ecology. Green areas as, the for the post-mining landscape. Influenced by society, Boisdorfer See and Marienfeld, are part of this tradition. the mining company has put the development of The open-pit mine Fortuna-Garsdorf contained 86% of landscapes, that contribute to biodiversity and the living agricultural land before the mining. Nowadays, the open- environment, high on its agenda. Also, the regulations pit mine is completely reclaimed, whereby the amount around soil development were broadened to enable the of forest is tripled and 76% of arable land is developed development of more diverse soil types, which should (Eyll-Vetter & Sihorsch, 2009). increase local diversity (Dworschak & Rose, 2014). The headline of the Westdeutsche Zeitung (3 May 2018) The third landscape type has a completely new confirms this trend: ‘RWE plant nach dem Tagebau ein appearance after the lignite mining: a new relief, a Biotop‘ [RWE plans a biotope after the open-pit mine]. new open/ closed pattern, and new settlement- and Driven by the public opinion on the open-pit mine, the building structures. Some remembrance stones remind mining company integrates more green zones in the of settlements that had to be removed for the lignite reclaimed land of Garzweiler I and II. Society asks for mining. It is recognizable in the landscape that forest less uniformity, more diversity and more nature. and arable land were developed next to each other and ecological connections towards the wider landscape Therefore, a park-like landscape is planned, including were formed, as shown in Figure 17. open and half-open structures and forest groups on the reclaimed land, close to settlements. The landscape offers more places for animals and diverse vegetation but also functions as a leisure area for residents. The focus is directed more towards creating an interesting landscape experience. The voice of the people appears to be increasingly important. The green zones do not

32 new land

serve as a functional element for the farmers (like the windbreakers) but are serving nature conservation and recreation, which are considered to be public interests. The new topography is characterized by embankments and wide trenches, which are functioning as green corridors (Schumacher et al., 2011; Schulz and Wiegleb, 2000).

Besides the public interests, like recreation and environmental protection, the private interests of the Figure 18: park-like landscape farmers for an optimal layout of the plot system play a role. The scale of the arable plots increased because, TIMELINE NEW LAND as mentioned before, global trends led to the upscaling The timeline on the next page shows how the of agricultural farms and producing bulk products for arable reclaimed landscape was planned differently the global market. This trend is accelerated visibly dependent on the reclamation time. Important social- in the reclaimed landscapes because through land political and physical developments are summarized consolidations the fields could be planned effectively on the timeline, to show their relationship with the after the newest developments. Private forest groups planning of the new land. It became clear that lignite around old farms did not come back since farmers mining and the following reclamation practices shape have more interest in agricultural areas in exchange the (landscape) identity of the Rhenish Mining Area. The (Sihorsch, 1997 Dumbeck et al., 1996; RWE Power different reclamation landscapes are representations AG, n.d.-b). In 1990 a warranty agreement was made of their time. Now the lignite mining era is ending, a between the Rheinische Landwirtschaftsverband tradition of 200 years of land-making is coming to an e.V. and Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland for the end. protection of farmers on the new land. Farmers got the possibility to test on reclamation areas without While designing, the area is understood as an economic risks at the testing farms from the mining embodiment of history, whereby historical and cultural company. However, till now, this did not lead to many values are important. However, as Massey (1995) diverse forms of agriculture. states, ‘the identity of a place is very much intertwined with the histories by which they are remembered, In the fouth landscape type, the land consolidation had how those histories are told and which history turns a large impact, of an industrial character. Despite the out to be dominant’ (p. 186). It means that different inclusion of some green zones and recreation areas, people can have different perspectives on history and one can have an infinite view over the arable fields, cannot identify themselves with protecting the chosen including some windmills. And although some areas story. While telling stories, through the design of the are planned to enhance more diversity, the overall landscape, one should be aware of that. landscape scene is set by large-scale monotone agriculture.

Figure 18: routes through forest groups (left) and large-scale arable fields (right)

33 TIMELINE The developemt of landscape types of reclaimed land influenced by social-political and physical factors.

lignite mine moving northward, towards fertile loess grounds used for arable practices

TYPE 1 TYPE 1 TYPE 2

Villenhofer Maar (source: google maps) Köttinger See (source: google maps) Berrenrath (source: google maps)

1936 1955 1975

1970s dry 1766 Pacht- 1965 reclamation arable vertrag 1920s first afforestation 1945 end of with flusing reclamation Rodergrube planned experiments World War II technique technique reclamation 1955 1973 practices bucket- regulations wheel 1961 ‘loess on soil excavator agreement’ development

1865 Allgemeinen 1970s new Berggesetz 1960s: increasing emmision rules demand arable fields farms

34 TYPE 3 TYPE 4 TYPE 4

Frechen (source: google maps) Bergheim (source: google maps) Garzweiler (source: google maps)

2003 2012 2018

1982 2019 decision to Bundes- end lignite mining berggesetz 1990 warrant before 2038 agreement 21th century increasing climate change 1980s increasing awareness research on soil delopoment

upscaling of agricultural businesses due to global trends

35

models

III MODELS

In this chapter, different models for urban expansion at communication, April 1, 2019). Berthold Rothe, the head the rural-urban fringe of the reclaimed agricultural lands of the planning department in Rhein-Erft-Kreis, states in the east of the Rhenish Mining Area are explored. that an on-going practice of settlement development will lead to continuing urban diffusion (Kötter, 2018). A SWOT-analysis (Strength & Weaknesses and Compared to the east of Cologne, the land prices in the Opportunities & Threats) of the reclaimed agricultural west are lower, which leads to a greater concentration landscape is carried out. Based on the SWOT-analysis, of commercial architecture. Settlements, like the ones a set of performance indicators (parameters) is between Grevenbroich and Bergheim, expanded developed for the models. Subsequently, five different during the last decades due to population growth models for settlement development are presented. that was amplified by the re-settlements. A type of Lastly, the models are evaluated based on the urban diffusion developed, what could be defined as parameters and a preferred model is presented. ‘Zwischenstadt’, a term introduced by Thomas Sieverts (2003). SWOT-ANALYSIS For the SWOT-analysis, interviews are carried out with While the Rhenish Mining Area is suburbanized, the experts in the region and a presentation and seminar reclaimed agricultural ground itself has been cleared about the reclamation landscapes is attended, from settlements to make a place for the open-pit from which an overview can be found in Appendix I. mines. Since the farmers that had to resettle have Additionally, documents are analysed from strategy a claim on new agricultural ground, the mines are & planning agencies in the region: Zukunftsagentur mainly reclaimed for agricultural use. Till 10 years Rheinisches Revier, Zweckverband Tagebaufolge(n) after reclamation, a regulation prohibits the area Landschaft Garzweiler and Region Köln Bonn; from changing its agricultural use, to protect the Regionalmanagement. The findings are interpreted in resettled agricultural businesses. As a result, the combination with the reclaimed landscape development reclaimed agricultural grounds form an exceptionally research of Chapter 2. wide and open landscape, compared to their direct surroundings, where the re-settlements are located and The SWOT-analysis is carried out for the reclaimed suburbanization was going on for the last decades. agricultural landscape in the east of the Rhenish Mining Area, which is the research area of this project, However, people are still attracted to metropolitan areas as shown in Figure 2. The SWOT-analysis is described and the prognosis is that until 2030 the population at the and summarized in an overview on Page 40. west surroundings of Cologne will increase with around 167.000 inhabitants. As land is limited, the pressure on a metropolitan area the reclaimed agricultural area continues to increase The reclaimed agricultural grounds are located in a very and conflicts about the use between settlement densely populated area, close to the cities of Cologne, development, agriculture and open space protection Monchengladbach, Neuss, and Düsseldorf. Many grow (Kötter, 2018). The reclaimed landscape is at risk people live, work and drive through the landscape to be not recognized as a valuable cultural landscape (Zukunftsagentur Rheinisches Revier, 2018). The rural and just seen as an empty potential development area areas near the gates of large cities are experiencing for functions such as extensive housing and commercial population growth as a result of growing welfare, areas. Often, in suburban areas, the legibility of the improved transportation links, increased personal landscape becomes more difficult and spatial cultural mobility, and global economic forces. It became values are less recognizable, while cultural-historical possible for people to keep the advantages of living traces can contribute to a perception of a historically near a central location while living further away from grown place with identity (Kleefeld & Schenk, 2012). it (Nabielek, Kronberger-Nabielek, & Hamers, 2013). Thomas Sieverts (2003) characterized the suburban However, in the Rhenish Mining Area it becomes area directly west of Cologne already as ‘anästhetische more and more difficult to reach the cities from the Wüste’ [unaesthetic desert]. surroundings because the highways towards the cities along the Rhine are congested (V. Mielchen, personal At the same time the positioning of agricultural

37 models

landscape in a densely populated area, with a strong greater variety in landscape appearance. The wide economy can be an advantage. Agricultural businesses and open landscape of the reclaimed land provides can profit from the proximity to local markets and the opportunity to enhance the contrast between rural knowledge hubs, which is also part of the concept of and city, whereby sustainable agricultural practices can agricultural urbanism, as elaborated on in Chapter 1. contribute to an Arcadian landscape. Then, the rural landscape of the reclaimed fields becomes a place agricultural landscape where people live because they deliberately choose The region west of Cologne is characterized by a the rural lifestyle. vast landscape with intensive arable farming, mostly consisting of: wheat, potatoes and sugar beet. A well- post-mining landscape known regional product is a golden syrup (Rübenkraut), Relph (1976) states that landscapes that are disturbed by which is obtained from sugar beet. As stated in mining activities are a manifestation of placelessness. It Chapter 2, the conditions for arable farming are means a situation without a sense of place, and in which favourable, mainly because of the availability of loess people’s mental bond with the landscape is destroyed for reclamation. Over the year, the colours and patterns (Relph, 1976). Also, in the Rhenish Mining Area, the of the fields are changing dramatically, determined cultural heritage is removed and people are dismantled by the growing season and weather conditions. The from their origins. As Knoot & De Waal (2009) point out, slightly hilly landscape covered with a blanket of loess, it is important to leave legible traces of the mining in the causes unexpected views over the fields, interesting landscape, to enable the re-development of an identity light exposure and sense of depth. and prevent placelessness of the mined sites. This narrating includes, for example, articulating landscape However, the industrializing and intensifying of the memoirs, by using accentuations or metaphors (Knoot agricultural sector leads to unsustainable farming & De Waal, 2009). practices. The agricultural businesses, that are steered by the global market and that are based on an on- The (landscape) elements that are characteristic for going growth model, lead to large-scale monotone the mining period should not get lost, since they prove landscapes. The highly efficient businesses that have of the unique mining history and are an opportunity to emerged have a relatively low contribution to the make a rich history visible in the landscape (Knoot & biodiversity and landscape appearance. Thereby, the De Waal, 2009). The risk of losing the identity of the intensive cultivation practices lead to soil compaction place increases, when reclamation is solely seen and decomposition of humus in the ploughed topsoil, as a technical problem that is based on economic which form especially a risk for the young reclaimed considerations, without considering visual values fields (Dumbeck et al., 1996; G. Vinzelberg, personal (Sklenička & Kašparová, 2008). It can be considered to communication, April 1, 2019). The soil compaction can, keep some parts of the industrial infrastructure to tell the for example, be caused by the use of heavy machinery. story of the lignite mining history and at the same time re- A low content of organic matter in combination with a use it for new purposes. For example, the 300-kilometre fast decomposition of crop residues causes the danger long industrial rail track, now used for lignite and loess of surface sealing during heavy rainfall when the plants transportation. However, the industrial relicts should are still young (Dumbeck et al., 1996). be looked at critically and should be carefully placed. For example, the huge amount of electricity lines and The agricultural business may be profitable for power stations can create an immense experience with individual farmers on a short-term level. However, their silhouette working. At the same time, they can also there is an obligation to society to re-think the disturb the open landscape qualities. agricultural sector, since they are setting the scene of the landscape and are defining the quality of the The impact of the lignite mining industry on the rural landscape as a public good. The image of the environment, has led to a negative association with landscape and green infrastructure plays an important the Rhenish Mining Area. Last decade, demonstrations role in for example the decision for companies and their against re-settlements and global warming pollution, employees with families to settle in an area. Therefore, have presented a negative image of the area in the agriculture practices and their belonging landscapes media. For example, the demonstrations demanding can contribute to either a positive or negative effect action to prevent further global warming at the end on regional development. New business models of June 2019, as shown in Figure 19. It is a risk that can be added to the existing ones and can lead to a negative perceptions of the landscape will persist and

38 models

that the cultural qualities of the newly reclaimed land also trends like digitalization, sustainable mobility, and will be overlooked in the future. The reclaimed mining inclusive public space can be taken into account. Also, landscapes are something to be proud of. It required there is the chance to experiment with new types of inventive thinking to create the new land and it resulted in sustainable settlements that enhance the requirements different types of new cultural landscapes, as explained of the future and at the same time are exemplary for in Chapter 2. The legibility of the reclaimed landscape current questions regarding energy, climate and food structures can be improved to create a stronger (Zukunftsagentur Rheinisches Revier, 2018). Moreover, character of the place. For example, the overburden there is space for transport connections in the post- hills that intervene in the slightly hilly landscape and rise mining landscape to be developed as a coherent above the fields could function as strong landmarks. system again, to improve connections between the Also, clear entrances of the reclaimed area and cities of Cologne & Dusseldorf and Monchengladbach improvement of the recreation facilities can contribute & Aachen. However, if the new large-scale infrastructure to the branding of the landscape as a former mining is integrated there is a risk that the landscape becomes area. In that way, the ugliness of the lignite mining solely a transit zone through which traffic is cutting. history could give a boost to a beautiful future. New creative mobility services in combination with innovative technologies can help to overcome distances between rural and urban areas better (Zukunftsagentur Rheinisches Revier, 2018). Anyway, the conventional formula for achieving prosperity that is based on the relentless pursuit of economic growth has to make a place for reflection on more sustainable prosperity in the future.

Figure 19: news article climate demonstration Garzweiler (SpiegelOnline, 2019)

Baida (2012) states that local communities should be convinced, that what they perceive negatively as a result of the lignite mining, gives also opportunities for renewal. As explained in the theoretical framework, reclamation does not mean to go back to the original state. The post-mining landscape will be different and can be more valuable than the pre-mining landscape (Burley, 2000). For the community, the post-mining landscape should be at least as useful and at least as beautiful as the pre-mining land-scape (Szelagowska, 2003).

An extensive transformation process and a completely new landscape is a unique chance for developing innovative new structures. Because of the pressure of space and land-use conflicts between agriculture, settlement development, traffic, and commercial areas increases, multifunctional post-mining landforms are essential. A new interlocking system for agricultural and settlement areas can be developed, in which

39 STRENGTHS seasonal experience openess of the landscape

fertile soils different reclaimed landscape identities

hilly landscape availability of mining history

OPPORTUNITIES close to regional market & knowledge hubs storytelling of mining history

re-use of industrial infrastructure sustainable mobility multifunctional use of space

new forms of living enhanced contrast between rural and city

40 WEAKENESSES

electricity lines traffic congestion

monotone agricultural fields no clear entrances of the area cultural heritage is removed

lack of legibility of the landscape lack of recreation facilities

THREATS

placelessness unsustainable farming practices

cut-through traffic neglect landscape qualities

negative associations with the area urban diffusion

41 models

PARAMETERS The agricultural businesses are occupying large The parameters are based around the themes amounts of land and influencing the scene of the ‘landscape identity’, ‘agricultural development’ and landscape in a very dense area, which can lead to ‘lifestyle & living standards’. These themes help to land-use conflict. To secure social acceptance of explore which model can facilitate an alternative the agricultural sector in the future, the agricultural settlement development for the urban-rural interface of land should be approached as a public domain and the reclaimed agricultural landscape, by contributing host multiple services to society. Therefore, models to the rural landscape qualities and agricultural are preferred that include facilities connected to the development. agricultural landscape, like flexible working spaces within the agricultural landscape and leisure activities Landscape identity focussed on the agricultural experience.

1 Protection of wideness/openness of the landscape; 7 Participation in growing food; Future urban development should not destroy the It is valued when the settlements include space openness of the landscape. Therefore, a low footprint for private or common gardens for growing own and low-rise buildings are preferred. Also, the distance vegetables. In that way, new rural dwellers can get in between the dwellings can contribute to an open touch with the origin of their food and benefit from the landscape view. fertile soil in the area.

2 Legibility post-mining landscape; Lifestyle and living standards The post-mining landscape should be legible to contribute to (the forming of) a landscape identity. 8 Accessibility to cities; Settlement structures that emphasize the post-mining It is valued when the settlements are related to the overburden hills, former mining edges and different railway or highway to ensure a connection to the bigger reclaimed landscape types are prioritized. cities for commuting.

3 Relation to reclaimed agricultural landscape; 9 Distance to basic services; For people to relate and connect to the reclaimed Models, whereby the basic services, like general agricultural land it should be easily accessible and a practitioner or school are within walking or biking visual relationship is preferred. distance (maximum 15 minutes) are preferred.

Agricultural development 10 Sustainable mobility; Since the capacity of the infrastructure towards the 4 Protection of fertile soils; bigger cities has reached its limits, it is important to The reclaimed soils that are developed with care and include forms of innovative and/or sustainable mobility. are favourable for arable farming should be secured to grow food. Therefore, a low footprint of the buildings 11 Access to green space; is desirable on agricultural grounds. Also, settlement For the liveability of the new settlements, access development around existing infrastructure is to green space on walking distance (maximum 15 preferred, to avoid new infrastructure construction on minutes) is important. the agricultural land. 12 Experimenting with new forms of living; 5 Regional agricultural production; The comprehensive transformation brings forward the If agricultural businesses can profit from a close-by chance to experiment with different forms of living that settlement development, urbanization is not a threat, enhance the requirements of the future. Preferred is a but an opportunity. A clustered urbanization, with model, which is based on explorative forms of living nearby land for diverse food production, is favourable and new lifestyles. for a focus on the regional market. Besides, the orientation on a regional market, with diverse farming practices can create possibilities for more biodiversity and an interesting landscape appearance.

6 Multifunctional use of agricultural land;

42 models

MODELS on reclaimed land The different models show different options for settlement development, resulting in different living 4 5 environments and relations to the agricultural landscape. The models include different characteristics 3 related to the morphology, location of the settlement development, types of mobility and building density. compact Therefore, design-related questions are addressed

like: Should new settlements re-colonize the reclaimed dispersed agricultural grounds? What form of development 1 strengthens the story of the post-mining landscape? What amount of dwellings and degree of density fit to the reclaimed agricultural landscape? On an abstract 2 level the settlement strategies can be organized in settlement development inside or outside the former along reclaimed land open-pit mines and the degree of density, as shown in Figure 20. The models are described and evaluated Figure 20: models categorized in a matrix and then rated according to the parameters. Lastly, a preferred model is presented.

1 LIVING ALONG THE RIVER:

2 LIVING ON THE EDGE:

3 JUMP OVER THE EDGE:

4 RIBBONS IN THE MINE:

5 NEW CITY ON THE NEW LAND:

43 models

Model 1 I living along the river

Organizing principles: Erft (river) and the railway Settlement type: ‘living in low-rise dwellings in a green city’ Housing density (net): 35-50 dwellings/ha Mode of transport: train

Description play outside. There is a clear division of private and New dwellings are developed along the river the Erft, public space and people can lead a nice and quiet with multiple clusters around the (new) railway stations. conventional family life. Together, they form a green linear city. The overburden hills, which are legacies from the mining period, Evaluation (see Table 2, p.49) enclose the settlement as public agricultural parks and The model scores low in the category ‘landscape function as green ‘lungs’ for the linear city. The arable identity’. Although the overburden hills are emphasized farming on the hills provides extra services to society, in the model, the model ignores the beginning of the like day-care for children in greenery, local restaurants, reclaimed agricultural landscape. Therefore, the post- educational activities and Bed & Breakfast. mining landscape identity is not emphasized very strongly and the risk of neglecting the identity of the Because of the rising groundwater after the mining place increases. Because the settlement is developed period, the low grounds directly next to the river will along the river and railway station, the relationship be unsuitable for settlement development. Therefore, between the settlement and the reclaimed fields as a flooding zone along the Erft is developed as the a whole is weak. Thereby, settlement development green backbone of the linear settlement, with extensive along the Erft can increase conflicts between living agricultural functions and providing fresh air and space and leisure facilities and nature protection (V. Mielchen, for leisure activities. Here, children can play along the personal communication, August 13, 2019). water or people can walk with their dogs. However, this model scores high on the potential for The bigger cities, like Cologne and Düsseldorf, are ‘agricultural development’, mainly because of the new accessible by the rail transportation system. Facilities, role of the overburden hills. There, multifunctional as a general practitioner, primary school and shops are agriculture is not only re-connecting people with clustered around the main railway stations. The green agriculture but also facilitating new opportunities for city contains neighbourhoods with low-rise dwellings farmers. Thereby, farmers can keep their fertile arable with private gardens and safe streets for children to land, because the settlement is developed around the existing settlements and existing infrastructure along the Erft and not on the extensive reclaimed fields.

The central role of the railway contributes to high performance on the category ‘lifestyle & living standards’. Nuisance and emissions from cars are brought to a minimum in the village. Further development of the railway secures a fast and sustainable connection to the nearby cities. The cluster forming of facilities around the railway stations influences the accessibility of basic needs positively.

LEGEND existing settlement new settlement river railway and train station overburden hill Figure 4:21: overview model 1 research structure Figure 22: impression model 1

44 models

Model 2 I living on the edge

Organizing principles: former mining edge and the highway exits Settlement type: ‘living in high-rise buildings with public green’ Housing density (net): 50-65 dwellings/ha Mode of transport: car

Description well accessible and experienceable for the residents. Settlements are developed along the highway, with At the same time, the relation between the reclaimed concentrations around the exits of the highway and land and the dense settlement is questionable, since therefore the residents are well-connected to the big the residents’ lifestyle is focussed on commuting to cities by car. The settlements include buildings that the cities. High-rise buildings do not occupy much form a dense block until the former mine edge. As a agriculture ground, but they ignore the importance of result, the dwellings create an interesting interface with rural living qualities for people who choose deliberately the reclaimed landscape of the former mine. to live outside the urban space.

The agricultural land will stay open and function as The model scores well on ‘agricultural development’ a backyard for the settlements. It can be used for since the footprint of the densely built settlement is leisure activities, like an evening run or ‘fitness with relatively low. Much of the open and wide agricultural nature’ between the large-scale agricultural fields as a landscape will be preserved. Also, the high density of landscape scene. the settlements and the local distributions concentrated near the highway exits enables farmers to focus on a The highway exits play a central role in the settlements local market. as they are simultaneously used as a public park. In contrary to a typical exit with a McDrive or a creepy The ‘lifestyle & living standards’ score moderately as parking lot, they function as a warm welcome when well, since the forms of living within the settlement are people arrive home after a working day. The highway not very experimental, which is a missed opportunity, for park includes vegetation that improves the air quality the comprehensive transformation of the area. Thereby, along the highway. In the park, a local restaurant and the focus of mobility is on the highways. Using the a fresh food selling point are combined with a Park & highway is causing pollution and increases the already Ride. In that way, people can experience that they live existing congestion. This is only partly compensated by in an agricultural area close to their food source when the emphasis on car-sharing and the important role of taking the exit on their way home. the Park & Ride.

Evaluation (see Table 2, p.49) In the category ‘landscape identity’ the model scores moderately. The wideness and openness and the former mine edge in the landscape are very well emphasised by the contrast that is formed by the high-rise buildings. However, from a distance, the high-rise dwellings are influencing the horizon. Because the settlement is developed directly till the former mine edge, the reclaimed land is

LEGEND existing settlement new settlement highway and exits former open pit mines Figure 23: impression model 2 Figure 24: model 2

45 models

Model 3 I jump over the edge

Organizing principles: former mining edge and existing settlements Settlement type: ‘living in a village, with strong community feeling’ Housing density (net): 25-35 dwellings/ha Mode of transport: bike

Description edge is designed as a green ribbon that connects the Last era settlements had to make a place for the open- centres of all other villages along the mine edge. pit mines. The villages were developing in the direction away from the mine. Now that the lignite mining comes Evaluation (see Table 2, p.49) to an end, it is time to recolonize the reclaimed land. In The special position of the former mine edge has this model, the existing settlements around the mine a positive influence on the ‘landscape identity’. It are extended over the old mine edge into the reclaimed connects both old and new settlements with the post- fields. mining landscape. Also, the development of dwellings within the mine can contribute to further development The new settlement consists of ecological of the landscape identity of the reclaimed land. neighbourhoods, which are structured in courts and Thereby, it improves the relationship between the form an own identity. Community gardens play a vital inhabitants and the reclaimed agricultural landscape, role, so the inhabitants can directly profit from the fertile since they inhabit it themselves. However, because of soils and grow their own food. The gardens provide an the settlement development on the reclaimed land, the active leisure activity for the inhabitants and improve open landscape gets disturbed. social engagement. The harvest from the gardens can be consumed in the settlement or sold along the bicycle The model is scoring moderately on ‘agricultural highways towards the city. Compost from settlements development’ since the settlement is developed on the is used in the community gardens, creating a circular fertile soil. However, the settlements include community system. To minimize commuting, places for flex- gardens, whereby the inhabitants still profit from the working are reserved at the edges of the settlement, soils. Furthermore, the settlement development on with an open view on the landscape. the agricultural land creates favourable conditions for multifunctional agriculture on the sides of the village. While expanding the settlement into the reclaimed land, Here, multifunctional farms can be close to both the the former mine edge becomes the connecting centre residents and the agricultural grounds. of the old part and the new part of the settlement. The The model scores well on ‘lifestyle & living standards’. The type of settlement is optimal for experimenting with innovative forms of living. On the new land, there is space for circular communities and new ways of social engagement can be tested. The concentric form of the village results in minimum distance towards basic facilities. At the same time, the accessibility towards the big cities is relatively low in this model. The model is suitable for inhabitants that want to work in flexible working spaces in the village and experience authentic rural living.

LEGEND existing settlement new settlement reclaimed land new green centre green former mine ege Figure 25: model 3 Figure 26: impression model 3

46 models

Model 4 I ribbons in the mine

Organizing principles: former mining edge and topography in the mine Settlement type: ‘living in the landscape’ Housing density (net): 15 dwellings/ha Mode of transport: bike and car

Description openness of the landscape are preserved, despite Houses are developed within the reclaimed agricultural building on the reclaimed land. Also, the relationship land. The settlement is shaped in a ribbon with dwellings and the access to the reclaimed land is optimal. The on both sides, following the relief of the reclaimed ribbons are spread over the different landscape types land. The dwellings are tiny houses, surrounded by a and emphasize the human-made relief of the former big private parcel, suitable for vegetable gardens. The mine and overburden hills. ribbon is not very densely built and therefore does not disturb the openness of the landscape. Between the The model includes chances for the ‘agricultural houses at the ribbon ecological zones are designed development’ since it creates an attractive, lively zone which function as biotopes for insects. Instead of within the reclaimed land, which attracts people to the separated groups of farmhouses, the farmers have a agricultural land and creates chances for multifunctional position at the ribbon, between the other inhabitants agriculture. Besides, the spacious private gardens of the reclaimed landscape. Here they can profit from provide the opportunity for people to grow their own seasonal recreation at the attractive peaceful ribbon. food. At the same time, the occupation of the reclaimed soils by the settlement at the ribbon and developing a The inhabitants enjoy the peacefulness and like living complete new infrastructure has a negative influence in the wide and open agricultural landscape. They on the availability of parcels for agricultural use. have an amazing view over the rural landscape, from their garden. Although everyone has a big private Regarding the ‘lifestyle & living standards’, the model space, there is a strong feeling of community, because is facing some problems. The low density of this model the ribbon as a whole is shared. In this model, the has a negative influence on the distance to basic reclaimed land is inhabited again by people who can services. When people live too far from each other build up a relationship with the landscape and care for car-dependency is a problem to face, caused by the it. The ribbon is only for residents accessible by car and lack of walkability. Also, the connectivity by train and therefore the mine is no transit zone, but a place to stay fast access to the highways to the big cities is limited, and enjoy the agricultural landscape. because a connected settlement cluster is lacking.

Evaluation (see Table 2, p.49) The model is performing well in the category ‘landscape identity’. Because of the low density, the wideness and

LEGEND existing settlement new ribbon village reclaimed land former open pit mines Figure 27: impression model 4 Figure 28: model 4

47 models

Model 5 I new city on the new land

Organizing principles: location of the new land Settlement type: ‘living in a new and modern city’ Housing density (net): 35-50 dwellings/ha Mode of transport: car and train

Description society, like leisure activities. A completely new city is developed within the reclaimed land. By creating one new concentric city, the Evaluation (see Table 2, p.49) growing population can be accommodated, without In the category ‘landscape identity’ the model scores low suburbanization within the older cultural landscapes. because the wideness and openness of the landscape It has a dense centre and more dispersed outskirts are disturbed by the new city. Although residents live on fading into the landscape. People, who cannot pay the the reclaimed landscape, they cannot read this post- rent in the overpriced centres of for example Cologne mining story, because the qualities and characteristics or Düsseldorf, but want to enjoy the city vibe, can live of the post-mining landscape are neglected. In this in the new city. model a part of the rural landscape is transformed into an urban landscape, which is a missed opportunity for The new city is accessible over the highway and by the reclaimed rural landscape development. railway, which secures the connectivity to nearby knowledge hubs and makes it an attractive location for For the ‘agricultural development’, the model scores businesses. Green axes cross the city, forming public not so well. The settlement has a big footprint on the parks and an entrance to the reclaimed landscape. reclaimed soils and therefore occupies a big share Over the axes, people can escape the city for leisure of the fertile soils. The conditions for farms to offer activities in the agricultural landscape. The axes come additional services for society are improved because together in a central park that functions as a place inhabitants live now close-by the arable fields. However, for events, like food festivals and sports days. Also, in this model the new settlement does not contribute to products from the surrounding agricultural fields can a revival of the rural since it invades the rural landscape be sold here. with a new urban centre.

At the more dispersed flanks of the city, the agriculture Regarding the ‘lifestyle & living standards’, the new city and settlements interlock with each other. Here, the is performing high. The accessibility of the new city by agricultural businesses can provide extra services to car is possible over the highway and a new city could give an impulse to the railway network in the region. Also, the concentric form of the city and the green axes lead to well-accessible basic facilities by bike or foot

LEGEND existing settlement new settlement reclaimed land highway former open pit mines Figure 29: model 5 Figure 30: impression model 5

48 models

PARAMETER INDICATOR MODEL MODEL MODEL MODEL MODEL 1 2 3 4 5

low footprint of dwellings +/- + - - -

wideness/openess landscape low-rise buildings + - + + -

space between buildings - + - + -

emphazising overburden hills + - - + -

legibility post-mining landscape emphazising former mining edge - + + +/- -

emphazising different landscape types - +/- + + -

within walking distance (15 min) - +/- + + + relation to reclaimed agricultural landscape view from the dwellings on the landscape - + + + +/-

LANDSCAPE IDENTITY 7 15 15 19 4

use of excisting infrastructure structures + + +/- - - protection fertile soils low building footprint on agricultural soils + + - +/- +/-

nearby land for diverse food production + + + + - regional agricultural production availability of a clustered market +/- + +/- - +

flexible working space at agricultural land - - + + +

multifunctional use of agriculture facilities at agricultural land (e.g. childcare) + - + - +

leisure activities at agricultural land + + - + +

participation in growing food availability gardens to grow food - - + + -

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 16 15 14 13 12

accesibility to the big cities car or train connection + + - - +

distance to basic services (GP, school) within walking or biking distance (15 min) + + + - +

train connection + - - - - sustainable mobility car sharing - + + - +

access to green space public green on walking distance (15 min) + + + + +

experimenting with new forms of living innovative forms of living - - + + +/-

LIFESTYLE & LIVING STANDARDS 12 12 12 6 12

TOTAL 35 40 43 38 24

Table 2: evaluation of models based on the parameters

49 models

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PREFERRED MODEL fields (models 3, 4, 5) is not per se positive for the - TWIN VILLAGES - landscape identity. The rising demand for residential and commercial areas and suburbanization can still be In Table 2, an overview is given of the evaluation of a serious threat to the agricultural land. The question is the five models. The different models have different what type of settlement is destructive for the landscape outcomes on the three themes: ‘landscape identity’, identity and what type of settlement helps to develop ‘agricultural development’ and ‘lifestyle & living the landscape identity. Looking at Table 2, model 4 standards’. It can be seen that not one model is scores best on landscape identity. The ribbons fit scoring best on all themes. Therefore, a more detailed the agricultural atmosphere and built further on it. As comparison between the models is made based on the stated in Chapter 2, the reclaimed fields are rather rural three themes and by referring back to the main aim of and the main type of land-use is agricultural. Model 4 this project; harmonizing agriculture and urbanization. enhances a type of settlement in which the agricultural Based on this comparison, the advantages of the best identity and wide open landscape, will not get lost. On models are merged into one final model. the contrary, model 5 has a destructive influence on the reclaimed landscape identity. It occupies too much of Regarding the ‘agricultural development’, Table 2 shows the agricultural landscape and does not fit to a rural an interesting outcome in combination with Figure 20, identity. For model 5 can be said that it does not fit the on Page 43. In Figure 20 is shown that, on an abstract rural landscape, since it invades in it, aiming to create level, the models can be distinguished between the a new urban. Settlement development in the reclaimed settlement development within or outside the former field, should enhance the rural atmosphere and be mines. All models that include settlement development integrated in the arable fields. That is why model 5 within the reclaimed fields (models 3, 4 and 5), score cannot be followed. lower on the agricultural development since the settlement is occupying a part of the reclaimed soils. It is important that settlement development within As claimed before, the agricultural activities are part the former mine is combined with advantages for the of the cultural identity and the fertile reclaimed soils agricultural businesses. High-quality settlements that should be utilized for food production in the densely are integrated into the arable landscape can, together populated area. with more sustainable agricultural practices, contribute to a positive appearance of the agricultural land-use. However, it can be concluded that settlement development outside the reclaimed lands (models 1 Model 3 and 4 both create a more lively reclaimed and 2) does not contribute to the ‘landscape identity’ landscape, which strengthens the position of the of the reclaimed landscape. The reclaimed landscape agricultural sector and brings along opportunities for is so young, that its identity needs to be further multifunctional agriculture. However, both models developed and emphasized. Settlement development, have some disadvantages as well. Model 4, scores as part of a landscape, can contribute to the identity low on the lifestyle & living standards, because of the development of the reclaimed fields (V. Mielchen, dispersed form of the village, in combination with the personal communication, August 13, 2019). Aiming low degree of density. It is difficult to create a system of for settlement development outside the reclaimed land sustainable mobility and easy access to basic services. neglects the chance to build further on the landscape Model 3 includes settlement development in the identity, by adding an additional layer of settlement reclaimed fields, based on existing villages that expand development. In fact, building inside the mine is not over the mine edge. However, solely an expansion of just fostering landscape identity but ironically also the the settlements will not mark the reclaimed fields in a agricultural development, because landscape without very unique way (Wirth, personal communication, 24 a strong developed identity will create a vulnerable July 2019). Therefore, the strong character of model 4 position for the agricultural landscape. Ongoing should be merged and combined with the advantages suburbanization can then continue without resistance of the more concentric form of model 3. To achieve of inhabitants of the metropolitan area. Therefore, settlement development within the reclaimed fields, despite the occupation of some fertile soils, a model that is in harmony with agriculture, strict boundaries within the reclaimed land should be developed. between the new settlement and the arable land should be drawn and taken seriously. In the merged model this At the same time, it is important to notice that, as Table should be considered since this condition is lacking in 2 shows, settlement development within the reclaimed model 3 and 4.

50 models

preferred model relating to another existing village. This strategy protects The merged model is shown in Figure 31. This preferred the agricultural fields from the ongoing expansion of new model includes new villages that are dispersed over neighbourhoods which downgrades the identity of the the landscape, but all have a compact concentric form. villages. The potential locations for different Twin Villages The new villages are designed in the reclaimed land to are shown in Figure 31. Together, the Twin Villages will not solely create space for living, but also contribute to be characteristic for the reclaimed landscape. a revival of the rural reclaimed landscape. It is a rural answer to the increasing move towards the exploding As Mielchen (2019) states, future agriculture in the urban areas, leading to problematic suburbanizing. reclaimed land may be more oriented towards the local As mentioned in the problem statement, growth and and regional food production (personal communication, shrinkage are spatially close together in this region. The April 1, 2019). By developing the Twin Villages in places of potential shrinkage can help to balance this combination with sustainable agricultural development, out. the reclaimed land can form a unique cultural landscape. It can be branded as a landscape that should be Every single new village forms a ‘Twin Village’ of an preserved to maintain both food production and living existing village on the other side of the former mine quality in the whole metropolitan region, following, the edge. The existence of new and old next to each other example of Parc du Vexin, in France, as discussed in is emphasized and the two villages can strengthen each Chapter 1. The inhabitants of the rural landscape can other. Like in model 3, the Twin Villages are related to the be proud of the land the farmer is cultivating and the old land and existing villages. However, the new Twin food he grows. In the village the rebounding between Villages are no expansion of the existing villages, but consumers and farmers starts. they form a system of unique settlements with a strong own identity, like in model 4. Like in both models, the The preferred model ‘Twin Villages’ will be explored Twin Villages are completely oriented to the surrounding further by physical modelling and site design in the next agricultural landscape. By developing the Twin Villages chapter. The combination of agriculture and settlement on the edges of the reclaimed land and the old land, the development will be central in the further development villages can be connected to existing infrastructure, to of the model. The aim is that inhabitants appreciate their make efficient use of space and prevent unnecessary arable living environment and experience that they live loss of arable fields. close to their food source. At the same time, farmers should profit from the new settlements, in particular from Small-scale villages, with mixed-density, are developed. the renewed support of the metropolitan inhabitants On the one hand, high densities do not fit to the rural and improved landscape identity. identity and will not fulfil the living quality of living in an Arcadian landscape. On the other hand, the low densities in the dormitory settlement that appeared in many metropolitan regions include problematic suburb characteristics, like privatization, monofunctional zoning, and car dependency. To perform better, the new villages have a concentric form, which has advantages for the walkability and accessibility towards facilities. Also, the more concentric form brings advantages to agriculture since it creates a lower footprint. The Twin Villages will be connected to the region by either highway or railway network, LEGEND depending on their location. The rural existing settlement new Twin Village villages are connected by a regular and old Twin Village fine-grained regional bus-network. railway highway reclaimed land At the moment a Twin Village reaches its former open pit mines limits, a new Twin Village is developed Figure 31: preferred model: ‘Twin Villages’

51

design

IV DESIGN EXPLORATIONS

In this chapter, the preferred model ‘Twin Villages’ an old village and a new settlement can be tested. is further explored by sketching, and physical and computer modelling on scale, based on the findings A location is chosen where the highway is situated in previous chapters. A new ‘Twin’ is designed to an between the old and the new land. Through designing existing village on a scale from 1:5000 to 1:50. Some it has to be explored how it can be prevented that the additional site analysis will be presented for clarification. highway is experienced as a barrier between the two villages. Design-related questions are addressed like: What is the relation between the arable fields and the new village? The reclamation planning of Garzweiler I & II is not How are the two villages interacting? What density and size should be achieved for the new village? How do people experience their departure from the highway and DÜS arrival in the villages? MG

LOCATION The area, as shown in Figure 32, is chosen for further design exploration. This location is suited to test the preferred model as developed in Chapter 3. The area includes both land that is not taken by the open-pit mining (old land) and land that is (to be) reclaimed CO from the open-pit mine Garzweiler II (new land). Also, the area includes an existing settlement (Jackerath) on the old land. At this location, the relationship between Figure 32a: location design implementation

Kreis Heinsberg Rhein-Kreis Neuss

erkelenz jüchen

REGIERUNGSBEZIRK DÜSSELDORF

REGIERUNGSBEZIRK KÖLN

Kreis Düren Rhein-Erft-Kreis

titz erkelenz bedburg

LEGEND administrational borders

Figure 32b: area design implementation 0 100 200 300 400m

53 design

finished yet. However, the first landscape planning However, when the production phase ceases, the already started before the mining period . The pumping ends and issues arise like the impact of the mining plan has to reassure soil development and mine water on groundwater bodies and the restoration stable slopes. In Figure 33 the latest plan (2019) for of residual lakes. Because of the extraction of lignite, the reclaimed agricultural landscape is shown. In the upper low hydraulic aquiclude disappeared and the plan, very general types of land-use are defined: aquifers will balance. This also influences the final arable fields, green corridors, and the residual lake. As groundwater table, which will either slightly decrease described in Chapter 2 the open-pit mine is filled up or increase. It will take more than 100 years before the and the new topography is defined by embankments groundwater storage has been replenished (Forkel as green corridors and levelled arable fields (as et al., 2017). The reduction of groundwater during Garzweiler is part of the newest land reclamation type). mining can lead to soil subsidence. However, the soil The topography of the landscape plan is used in the subsidence does not lead to water-logging, since further design explorations. the water system is sinking as well and the surface is sinking equally. Besides soil depletion, geologic formations are disturbed and harmful substances like nitrates and pesticides can stream without barrier through the groundwater. Also, sulphide that leached out of low depth can rise to the surface, where it reacts with oxygen and changes to a harmful substance. The treatment of the mine water with for example chalk prevents pollution and contamination (Sitte, 2019).

In the west of the design area a lake will be developed after the mining period. The lake will be separated by overflow weirs to prevent that the water level of the lake will lead to a surrounding groundwater rise residual lake (Braunkohlenausschluss Bezirkregierung Köln, 2018). arable fields green corridors In the design, explorations will not be focussed on the Figure 33: Garzweiler I&II planning (RWE, 2019) development of the lake, but rather on the development of the new village in relation to the reclaimed agricultural The design location crosses different administrative fields. borders and includes Regierungsbezirk (administrative division) Köln with municipality Titz in district Düren and soil quality design location Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf with municipality Jüchen At places, where the groundwater level was between in district Rhein-Kreis Neuss (Figure 32b). However, 3 and 5 meters under the surface, the groundwater for this project freedom is taken to think beyond the extraction directly influenced the ecosystem. In the administrative borders. design area, the groundwater before the extraction was about 40 meters under the surface. Because of the use water system of the fertile loess for the reclaimed soils, as elaborated Both during the mining years and in the post-mining on in Chapter 2, the arable farming can be carried out landscape, water plays a critical role in the Rhenish in good conditions. Mining Area. As explained in Chapter 2 the water is pumped away during the mining period to keep Pihlap et al. (2019) compared a chronological the operation free of water and create a functioning sequence (0, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 years) of agricultural working environment (Sitte, 2019). A distinction is reclaimed loess soil in the open-cast mining area of made between the aquifer above and the aquifer below Garzweiler. The different stages of soil development the lignite. The aquifers are separated by low hydraulic are observed and a process of soil structure formation aquiclude (coal seams, clay, and sewage sludge) and and soil organic carbon accumulation is assessed below both aquifers, there is a very low hydraulic unit under the conventional crop rotation agriculture. It was (conductivity bedrock). Drainage is carried out up till stated that the loess material positively influenced the both low hydraulic units, to prevent flow pressure on soil aggregation. Over time, the porosity and the soil the open-pit. organic content increases.

54 design

The alfalfa cultivation in the pioneering phase by the TWIN VILLAGES mining company, was essential for the development of The footprint of the existing settlement (Jackerath) and microbial biomass in the topsoil, as a result of the litter the new village (Kantweiler) in relation to the former incorporation. The following arable farming in a crop mining edge is shown in Figure 34. Both villages have rotation system distributed to the soil organic matter an own identity and at the same time strengthen each throughout the plough layer. Besides, by composting other’s identity, because old and new are defined by the soil organic carbon content increases as well. each other. The qualities of the old village, as described However, on the long term, only crop residues as input on Page 58 and the atmosphere of the new village, as for the organic matter would be not sufficient to build described on Page 90, are complementing each other. up a stable soil organic matter content in the plough Jackerath gets revived through its new partner in the layer (Pihlap et al., 2019). new land and Kantweiler can relate to the historical landscape and traditions of Jackerath. In Figure 35, the Based on this recent research and the experiences in masterplan of Kantweiler is shown in its context with the already agricultural reclaimed soils, it is assumed Jackerath. that the reclaimed agricultural soils at the design location will be very suitable for agricultural land use. The agricultural strategy of the reclaimed land will be elaborated further on in this chapter.

NEW LAND

OLD LAND

Figure 34: footprint of the existing settlement (Jackerath, left) and the new town (Kantweiler, right), in relation to the former mine edge

55 TWIN VILLAGES: JACKERATH & KANTWEILER; OLD & NEW

+89 m DIKE

AGRO HUB + 89 m

+99 m DIKE +105 m

RESIDUAL LAKE

FIRE PLACE JACKERATH

1200

CHAPEL ST. BARBARA

Figure 35: masterplan TWIN VILLAGES: JACKERATH & KANTWEILER; OLD & NEW

IMBISS

+109 m

KANTWEILER

rows of incredibly delicate poplars

FIRE PLACE

2025

GREEN PLAYGROUND WALD DER ZEIT

0 100 200 300 400m design

LIFE IN JACKERATH When one drives fast through the small village Jackerath, one can only wonder how nicely to live the place is. The over 600 years old village has a rich historical culture, with its beautiful neo-gothic church. Massive farmhouses out of brick are spread everywhere in Jackerath, with huge welcoming gates leading into a courtyard, that wake the envy of every farmer. Next to the church lies a football field – the unofficial centre of the village life. There are three restaurants, a small supermarket, two kiosks, a bank, and even an electricity shop – a lot for this small place.

But if one drives slower and takes time to inspect more closely, one sees the reality. There are seldom people on the street and many windows are always dark. The church is closed throughout the week, the priest office opens only once a month. The once nice brick houses are run down and dirty. The huge farmhouses are often half-deserted because the farmers sold their fields. The football field lies deserted, two corner flags are missing, and the grass has also seen better days. Of the three restaurants, just one is still open. What stays are the shop and restaurant signs – just a glimpse of the once vibrant place.

What shapes people’s minds here is the mine edge. Just a hundred meters away starts the vast lignite open- pit mine Garzweiler. No one knew for sure if the edge is going to move towards the village or not. Maybe that’s why the village is run down – who cares for something that might be demolished in a few years.

And now, the lignite era is ending. The chance for a revival of Jackerath. The fear of the mine edge ends and - where once the seed of fear was - a Twin Village is born. This new Sister Village enables the comeback of her Brother, the historical village of Jackerath. Together the villages form a perfect match: The rustic charm of Jackerath with its rich culture, where half of the village meets again in the evening for a beer in the last local Gaststätte (local restaurant), merges with the modern vibe of Kantweiler. That means modern facilities as shops and sports associations, combined with a village atmosphere, where people live together (Wir-Gefühl). In Figure 36 is the renewed identity of Jackerath is shown. The historical farms are used as shared living spaces and the church bells ring again. A light is shining from behind every window and the people of both villages celebrate a traditional October feast where once was the football field.

Figure 36: impression life in Jackerath

58 design

59 design

THE NEW VILLAGE to a lifestyle based on individualism and isolation of The form, size and density of Kantweiler are explored vulnerable members of society (like single-parent by physical modelling. families and elderly). A more mixed-density, while persevering the experience of living in a spacious rural density and size landscape, is achieved by creating more high-quality As concluded in Chapter 3, it is desirable to achieve a common places and easy access to surrounding little denser living environment. Errors of the past, like agricultural fields, rather than big private gardens. The privatization, monotony, monofunctional zoning and car buildings are human-scaled and walkable blocks and dependency in suburbs should be avoided. However, streets are achieved. Housing and shopping are close the advantages of spacious rural living should not be to each other and the public spaces are hosting the lost, like fresh air supply. This paradoxical relationship interaction in public life, which is in line with the tradition between living quality and density is explored by of New Urbanism (Congress for the New Urbanism, physical modelling, see Page 62, 63 and 64 (Figure 38 n.d.). Compared to the villages in the region this village to 41). consists of more apartment buildings, for elderly and young couples, among others. The outstanding The new village has a building density of 25 dwellings architectural apartment buildings of each 20 meter per hectare and accommodates approximately 2500 high, form the landmarks of the village with a view over inhabitants. This size still relates to the Twin Village the agricultural landscape, likewise the concept of the Jackerath with 800 inhabitants and a building density apartment buildings ‘Red Dare Devils’, in Almere. In the of 16 dwellings per hectare. Still, compared to an inner- new village, the ‘towers’ are named after the resettled city centre the new village is less compact and together villages from Garzweiler before the mining period, like with the comprehendible size, this contributes to a cosy Immerath as shown in Figure 41. Other housing types atmosphere in the new village. that the new village includes are detached houses, terraced houses and, tiny houses. In contrast to the traditional suburbs, the extra space is not used for much private ground. This would lead The design of space is based on a communitarian vision, whereby the focus is on achieving a social mix why physical modelling? by creating public and semi-public gathering places. Physical modelling helps the design thinking and Instead of the privatization of entrance roads of the enables to test the preferred model described in houses and the hiding of facades behind hedges, the Chapter 3. Therefore, it is used as a bridge between new village includes a balanced mixture of private, semi- thinking and making. Daniel Ganz, a landscape private and public green spaces that reconcile with architect, points out that building a model enriches the building forms. The achieved density guarantees the design process because so much is happening in that local services and lively public services can be the brain during the model making. As an example, he accommodated on walking and biking distance. explains that when one sometimes does ‘stupid things like gluing roads’, one has several thoughts at the agriculture and forest same time, ‘like thinking about your wife, the project, The bucolic fondness for the countryside is utilized, the topography’, which stimulates the creativity (Ganz, since the landscape is a part of the new village. The 2016, as cited in De Jong, 2016, p.26). At the same new village is surrounded by agricultural fields and is time, physical modelling helps to order thoughts. planned in such a way that the surrounding agricultural ‘When you make a model, you will see much faster fields extend into the village, like fingers keeping what you have thought about and what still should be the village at its place. The arable fingers form a no- thought of’ (students TU/e, 2016, as cited in De Jong, building zone and function as a border for residential 2016, p.26). As a tool for testing, physical modelling development to protect the reclaimed arable fields is used to test the shapes and functions, like the ratio from nibbling of by dispersion of the village. The arable building blocks, agricultural fields and infrastructure fields that stretch till inside the village, guarantee a and the relation of the design towards the shaped perpetual reminder for the inhabitants that they live in topography. For the physical model different layers of an agricultural area. In this way, each house is related cardboard are used to simulate the topography. For to the surrounding landscape. The arable fields in the houses, foamboard is used and the vegetation is the village are used as common places, where the simulated with peas and couscous. inhabitants can relate to the scale of the agricultural fields in the village and use it for example for leisure

60 design

activities. These no-building zones become part of the the edge (in German: Die Kante): Kantweiler. DIE KANTE life of the inhabitants and secure the interaction with the is the metaphor, that enables the re-development of surrounding landscape (as shown on Page 90). identity and prevents placelessness within the post- mining landscape. Further design developments of At the same time, the size of the surrounding reclaimed DIE KANTE are presented further on in this chapter. agricultural fields leaves an endless impression. A ‘Weiler’ is German for a small settlement existing of Therefore, a new forest offers a feeling of protection grouped houses and farms (in English: hamlet). and secureness from the wide-open landscape. As shown in Figure 39, the new village is situated along the edge of the forest.

Figure 40 shows that the forest is designed at a relatively higher zone and the agriculture is situated lower in relation to the village. The village is located between the wide-open landscape and the wall of trees. It faces towards the agricultural fields and has the protection from the higher situated forest.

DIE KANTE As shown in Figure 37, a slope is crossing the village. This slope is part of the new topography of the reclaimed land and is integrated into the village as a symbol of the former mine edge. It upgrades the experience of the area as a former mining area. The village is named after

102.5 m 92.5 m

Figure 37: height differences DIE KANTE (physical model)

61 design

Figure 38: agricultural fields extend into the village (physical model)

Figure 39: forest adjacent to village (physical model)

62 design

110 m

108.75 m

108.75 m

98.75 m

107.5 m 97.5 m

106.25 m 96.25 m

105 m 95 m

103.75 m 93.75 m

102.5 m 92.5 m

101.25 m 91.25 m

Figure 40: heights related to land-use division forest and agriculture (physical model)

63 SHARED FOREST VILLAGE ENCLOSED BY AGRICULTURE

TINY HOUSES IMMERATH

VILLAS

Figure 41: overview physical model

64 DIE KANTE KUCKUM

TERRACED HOUSES OTZENRATH

65 design

INTERACTION TWIN VILLAGES are served and people can drink a coffee at the village The soft mobility connection (the biking highway) is plaza. Every morning a small truck from the bakery in separated from the main car connection, as shown in Kantweiler is driving to Jackerath to make sure both Figure 42. Because of the biking highway and walkable inhabitants can enjoy fresh bread when the sun rises. blocks and streets in the villages, inhabitants are not The no longer needed football field in Jackerath is forced to own more than one car to reach daily facilities, now used as a shared event place, for example for the which makes them less dependent on fossil fuels. yearly ‘Oktoberfest’. shared facilities The villages share different facilities, to guarantee the proximity between home and services, despite the small size of the villages. For example, a new tennis and football place are located in Kantweiler and the old church in Jackerath is now shared with inhabitants of Kantweiler. In Figure 43, the different facilities in both villages are shown. In Jackerath the inhabitants can visit the local Gaststätte for a traditional schnitzel in every variation. In Kantweiler cuisines from foreign countries

LEGEND highway main car connection biking highway Figure 42: connection between the villages

66 design

crèche

‘Gaststätte’ church

fire brigade / ATM cafeteria church

crèche

Gaststätte (Gaststätte Friedrich, 2019) Figure 43a: public facilities Jackerath

supermarket

supermarket

coffee house/bakery sport club community centre (https://lampenfieberer.de/ ) community centre

school/GP

pharmacy/GP Figure 43b: public facilities Kantweiler

67 design

shared forest bridge, one makes a journey through time from the over The Twin Villages seem to be separated by a highway. 600 years old Jackerath to the newly born Kantweiler. However, the highway is not dividing the villages Therefore, the name of the bridge is: ‘Zeitüberbrückung’. anymore, since both are integrated into the shared The style and material of the ‘Zeitüberbrückung’ are forest. In the forest, a walking and cycling bridge is inspired by the machines used for the lignite mining. connecting both sides of the highway. The car road is The steel frame of the bridge reminds of the towering situated at an existing tunnel under the highway. arm of the bucket-wheel excavator. A passenger path is situated on both sides of the bridge that is marked with Several places of experience are integrated into the a texture reminding of the tracks, which heavy trucks forest, as shown in Figure 44: a natural playground, a leave within the open-pit mine. chapel, and a shared fire site. The forest is the place where the people of both villages can make their From the bridge one has a view on the chapel in the Sunday walk and it offers a feeling of ‘Geborgenheit’ forest, as shown in the impression on Page 70 (Figure (in English: feeling protected). Small forest paths are 47). The chapel is named after Saint Barbara. She offering routes for leisure. On several trees along the is the patron of miners. Every year on her feast day, paths, small wooden signs are telling stories about December 4, two processions from both villages are living in the region during the lignite mining period and meeting in the chapel to celebrate a mess, memorizing interesting facts about it. For example, that the open-pit the mining history of the region. mines are one of the best-documented archaeological sites in Germany, which led to many discoveries from The forest plays a key role in the ecological connection the Stone Ages, the Romans and many more. Or that between the green zones in the agricultural landscape, a strike from stone coal miners led to the industrialized the residual lake and the connection to the Kasterer lignite mining. The biking way is lighted in the night see (small lake) and the Erft (main river), as shown in when one passes by, to secure a safe passage for Figure 45. Isolated nature has less worth, compared to everyone. The shared fire site is a place of laughter, a situation in which plants and animals can move from storytelling and barbeque. one to the other area. Under the highway several tubes for forest animals are situated and along with the matrix When one cycles the biking highway, crossing the signs robes for squirrels hang.

Figure 44: places of experience in the shared forest

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agricultural strips residual lake residual

green corridor residual lake

Erft & Kasterer See

Figure 45: ecological connections

robes for squirrels along matrix signs A12 (de Gelderlander, 2018) natural playgorund

street lights (.hess, 2016) lights bucket wheel excavator (quadpilot, www.fotocommunity.de) material bucket wheel excavator (Jeremy Repanich, 2010) Figure 46: references and inspiration

69 Figure 47: impression view on chapel from the ‘Zeitüberbrückung’

70 71 design

CONNECTIVITY SURROUNDINGS To make a place for the open-pit mine Garzweiler, the highways in the region had to be removed and replaced temporarily. Between 2005 and 2018 the A44 between the intersection Jackerath and Holz disappeared in the open-pit and cars and trucks went over A61 on the west side. Since 2018, the A44 is reconstructed with 6 lanes on the already reclaimed land and the open-pit mine arrived at the A61 (RWE Power AG, 2017). It has been discussed recently to combine the two highways A44 and A61 within the former mine, to create more place around the future lake. However, the curves, broadness and short distance of the merging of the highways do not meet safety requirements. Thereby, the A44 is just newly constructed. The actual highway planning is shown in Figure 48 (Bezirksregierung Köln, 2018). When the highways are reconstructed, Jackerath and Kantweiler are connected by the highway A61 and A44. The A61 leads from Hockenheim in Baden- Figure 48: infrastrucutre planning Garzweiler I & II (RWE, 2019) Württemberg through Rheinland-Pfalz and Nordrhein Westphalia to the Dutch border near Venlo, where it the landscape. Therefore, the highway is embraced merges in the A74 and A73. in this project and designed as an integral part of the landscape, whereby cohesions exist between the route The surrounding villages are accessible by bus. The and the surrounding landscape. public transport system is also supplemented by the so-called ‘Bürgerbus’ driving between Jackerath and The design of the area around Kantweiler contributes Kantweiler at times the public bus is not driving. This to the user experience of the passing travellers on the Bürgerbus is driven voluntarily by inhabitants of the highway. The new forest shields the Twin Villages from village, to help for example elderly people to reach the the highway. Highway users experience it as driving other village. In Figure 50 the connections towards the through a green tunnel, as shown in Figure 51. This surrounding urban centres are shown, including the tunnel opens abruptly into the vast open landscape of highway and bus connection. the reclaimed open-pit mine, as shown in Figure 52. On the left side of the highway, a dike is designed that highway experience forms a barrier between the highway and the residual The highway plays an important role in German culture. lake, as shown in Figure 49. Behind the dike a leisure Germans love the Autobahn and the freedom with their zone with for example water sports facilities can be car. However, in the SWOT-analysis was also pointed developed, for inhabitants of the Twin Villages and out that the highway is experienced as a barrier in people from the wider surroundings.

lake

Figure 49: dike between highway and residual lake

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exit Jackerath/Kantweiler the diamond interchange make road users aware of The interchange between the highway and a secondary their actual speed. An agricultural hub is located at road is designed as a diamond interchange, whereby the highway exit, between the transition of the wide the highway is grade-separated from the secondary open-dike landscape and the forest between the Twin road, whereby the highway is crossing the secondary Villages. The large-scale buildings are restricted to the road over a bridge. The highway is connected to the lower part along the exit to not disturb the highway secondary road with off-ramps and on-ramps that experience. only diverge slightly from the highway. The curves of

Monchengladbach (20 minutes)

agricultural hub

Neuss (20 minutes)

A44 A61

LEGEND highway Aachen (40 minutes) Cologne (40 minutes) bus system Figure 50: connection towards surrounding urban centres

dike

A61

90 30 25 2 36

73 Figure 51: impression highway view, ‘driving between green walls’

Figure 52: impression highway view, ‘open infinite view’

KANTWEILER

STRIP AGRICULTURE ORCHARD

ENTRANCE CAR

ORCHARD

GREEN BUFFER BOULEVARD

PLAZA

LIVING AT THE FOREST ENTRANCE BIKE

FOREST LANDSCAPE

LEGEND (public) facilities architecturally outstanding apartments

Figure 53: Kantweiler STRIP AGRICULTURE

LIVING AT THE FIELDS

TENNIS

SOCCER

FIELD IN

THE VILLAGE BOULEVARD

PLAZA

ORCHARD STRIP AGRICULTURE LIVING AT THE FOREST

0 40 80 120 160m design

DESIGN OF KANTWEILER memorizing the old land Kantweiler is designed as an open village with physical and visual connections towards the surroundings, to celebrate the beauty of the reclaimed land. Kantweiler enables the exploitation of the reclaimed land and the revival of the rural post-mining area in a way that respects the agricultural land-use. The building blocks are in line with the agricultural plots.

On the south side of Kantweiler, the forest invades into the village. Living on this side means living in a forest- like environment, where on other sides of the village inhabitants live at the agricultural fields.

Together, the public spaces (DIE KANTE & the common fields) form the backbone of the village. As Figure 54 shows, these public spaces enable to simultaneously memorize the old land and celebrate the new land. On the one hand, DIE KANTE is representing the rich history of the lignite mining in the region and the lost old land (before the mining). On the other hand, the arable common field in the village celebrates the newly reclaimed land with its unique landscape identity (after the mining).

Small orchards are designed at the edges of the village that strengthen the pattern of the strip agriculture. The blossoming trees are standing for the new life at the new land. This public gardens can be used by people to celebrate a birthday or wedding.

The tree-lined roads in the surrounding landscape lead through the fields, towards the farms. The slopes within the agricultural landscapes, that are typical for the new topography within the reclaimed land, form rich ecological buffers and contribute to a lively landscape.

Both entrances of Kantweiler, one for cars and one for bikes are marked with the architecturally outstanding apartment buildings, that are named after the removed villages.

Figure 54: old and new land symbolic in public spaces Kantweiler

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memorizing the old land celebrating the new land

‘Der Bergbau vernichtet im Durschnitt nichts, sondern schafft neue Kulturwerte’ (Heusohn, 1929, as cited in Pflug, 1998, p.1).

‘Ein Bagger räumt die Mühen weg in denen hundert Jahre Arbeit steckt. Von Generation zu Generation hat man es weitergegeben nun wird alles kahl tot wo wir lebten’ (Martin, 1985, as cited in Pflug, 1998, p.1).

0 10 20 30 40m

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AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY Thirdly, strip cultivation with alternating open and closed crops increases the biodiversity, since it creates a more strip agriculture attractive living environment for farmland birds and As the conventional agricultural sector is industrializing other animals. Also, when open and closed crops grow and intensifying, the agricultural landscapes adjacent to each other, the crops have fewer problems transformed into monotone landscapes with a relatively with heat stress, because of fresh air flowing through. low contribution landscape appearance, as pointed out in the problem statement. Conventional farming There is a trend to integrate borders of flowers around practices do not contribute to biodiversity and lead the arable fields in the reclaimed fields, as stated to soil compaction and decomposition of humus, in Chapter 2. Although this contributes to general especially in the young reclaimed fields. Therefore, a biodiversity, this does not contribute to soil fertility new type of agriculture is proposed for the reclaimed and the reduction of global deceases. However, their fields: strip cultivation, as shown on Page 76 (Figure function can be improved by integrating them between 53). This means that diverse crops grow together on the arable strips. adjacent strips, ranging between 3 and 48 meters wide. Those widths are successfully tested at Erf B.V. Some challenges for strip cultivation at the moment in Lelystad, in The Netherlands (AkkerbouwActueel, relate to applying the most optimal width and 2018). The crops that are suitable to the reclaimed combinations of crops. This can be an advantage soils are for example swede, cabbage, wheat, carrot, because the reclaimed land can function as a large- onion, potato, and clover. Strip cultivation fits into scale testing field for strip cultivation and act as an the movement of organic arable farming and nature example for other regions (Beekman, 2017). inclusive farming, whereby the link is made between organic growing and the quality of products. Another challenge of strip cultivation is that most agricultural machinery is developed for monoculture The strip cultivation leads to a higher resilience of and therefore it is more labour intensive. At the same the crops. Firstly, because diseases are less likely to time, the development of more energy-friendly, small spread between the strips, when a minimum width of machinery is increasing rapidly. Systems like gantry, 3 meters is applied. For example, phytophthora, which which are including conveyer belt systems, bring the is destructive for potatoes can only spread into the products to a central point (Beekman, 2017). It could direction of the infected strip (De Boo, 2018). be considered to use the conveyer belt system of the lignite mining for this. Secondly, strip cultivation integrates more natural enemies as pesticides, as testing fields at Wageningen agricultural hub University showed (De Boo, 2018). Alternating crops Growing food is only one piece of the food system. that are either mowed or dug up ensure that the The biggest economic share of the food system occurs natural enemies can stay in the stubbles of the mowing ‘post-field’. In order to reconnect people to the sources crop when the ground of other crops is disturbed of their food, the complete food system should be visible after digging up these crops. A test with peas in strip in the communities. Therefore, an agricultural hub is cultivation had fewer problems with aphids because of located between the Twin Villages, at the highway exit, more existing natural enemies like ladybugs, ground including processing, storage and distribution facilities beetles and ichneumon wasps. Therefore, the yields for the crops from the reclaimed fields. It is chosen to increase and the costs for pesticides are lower. Also, not locate the agricultural hub directly at the village in the stubbles can be used as a transport lane to prevent order to preserve the small-scale experience of the that the structure of the soil is disturbed. For example, village and its relation to the arable fields. Thereby, this carrots can be planted next to a wheat strip. During location enables to develop an efficient functioning the harvesting of the carrots, one can drive over the logistics system for the hub. adjacent strip with wheat stubbles. In this case, the well-rooted soil of the wheat prevents soil compaction The inhabitants of the Twin Villages can be proud of of the carrot strip (De Boo, 2018). This is especially the agricultural hub since the industry is related to the important because the hilly landscape in combination crops produced on their strip-cultivated, reclaimed with the young soil is vulnerable to soil compaction landscape. Thereby, the hub creates local employment erosion. for the village inhabitants. The processing of arable products at the edge of the arable land reduces

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transportation-related energy use. As Cohen (2007) stated, the energy efficiency of food production and transportation depends mostly on proximity. From the agricultural hub, products can be transported to surrounding centres of the metropolitan region. social and cultural level Strip cultivation is an improvement in terms of scenery and attractiveness for people. The agricultural landscape is kept open to emphasise the wideness and at the same time, the strip cultivation creates a different colour pattern that changes through all seasons. In the fields, tree lines along the roads are designed to give a sense of depth and distance and emphasise linear structure, which can be seen in the masterplan, in Figure 35 on Page 56.

Where in the older reclaimed lands, as described in Chapter 2, the farms are concentrated in groups, on the strip cultivated fields the new farms are spread over the area. This creates a more vibrant landscape and thereby expected collaboration between farmers that are living in a group rarely occurred (Sihorsch, 1998). Located in the middle of the landscape farmers have the space to set up a business related to agriculture or the agricultural landscape. This can be for example an educational centre, where children can learn about plant cultivations and gain practical experience in agricultural activities. Another example is rural camping or a bed & breakfast. Broadening their agricultural activities can help farmers to actually benefit from being situated in a densely populated area.

Kantweiler has a strong food-agricultural identity. As stated before, the agricultural strips extend till inside the village Kantweiler. Integrating the food system visibly into the village creates vibrant public spaces and a place where inhabitants can meet their farmers. Far into the vast open landscape, an Imbiss is located, as shown in the masterplan on Page 56, for a small break and chat when discovering the landscape and agricultural activities.

From the agricultural hub, the food can be transported by truck towards the nearby urban centres: Cologne, Monchengladbach, and Düsseldorf. Here, products can be sold in the supermarket and branded as ‘reclaimed products’ of the new land, following the example of Parc du Vexin Français, discussed on Page 17.

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DIE KANTE In the following sections (Figure 58a to Figure 58i) is shown how DIE KANTE is shaped through the village. The location of the sections is shown in Figure 57. As a starting point for the design, the terrace-shaped form of the open-pit mine is taken. In section A-A’ and section I-I’ the green zones can be seen, that are going through the agricultural landscape on the slopes.

In the north-south direction, the edge is steeper and includes three rows of trees. Two broad stairs (section D-D’ and section G-G’), going from the boulevard to the plaza, connect ‘Unten’ and ‘Oben’. Section F-F’ shows the barrier-free ramp for wheelchair users among others. Some terraces are broad enough to walk on, some are suitable for playing and climbing and others are nice to sit on. Figure 56: Art Garzweiler by Koen Fraijman (an inspiration for use of colours) (source: https://popinnart.nl/kunstenaar/fraijman/koen-fraijman-garzweiler-ii/)

Along DIE KANTE a broad boulevard is leading towards night the square is illuminated by street lamps, which the surrounding landscape. The boulevard is used for remind of the lamps used in the open-pit mines (see the traditional Carnival procession. On Page 86, in Figure 46 for a reference). Figure 59 an impression of DIE KANTE is shown. In Figure 55 different references for the material and At the corner of DIE KANTE, a plaza is situated with colours of the design are shown. Colours of the loess both a low part and a high part. At the high part, one (yellow/orange) and lignite (black/brown) are taken as sits along DIE KANTE under the trees, while looking inspiration. Artist Koen Fraijman uses the same colours down and contemplate or observe the people walking when he aims to capture the open-pit mine Garzweiler, by. Down you can enjoy a coffee and self-made as shown in Figure 56. ‘Kantweiler’ Kuchen’.

The plaza serves the inhabitants of Kantweiler with its multiple functions, as shown on Page 88 and 89 (Figure 60 to 62). During the day fountains are popping up, where children can have fun. On Wednesdays, there

is a local market to sell products from the region. In the

A’ A

(Portscapes2, Jan Konings)

B’ B

C’

G C F H

D’ D

E’ E

I G’

H’ F’ I’ (Barangaroo Delivery Authority) (Heron Instruments, 2017) Figure 55: references Figure 57: location sections DIE KANTE

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2 6 2 22 31 22 2 6 2

Figure 58a: A-A’

2 6 2 22 31 22 2 6 2

Figure 58b: B-B’

2 22 31 14 26

Figure 58c: C-C’

83 2 6 24 31 32 8

Figure 58d: D-D’

12 2 6 24 31 32 8

Figure 58e: E-E’

53 30 6

Figure 58f: F-F’

84 15 22 16

Figure 58g: G-G’

5 15 22 16 5 18 2 6 2

Figure 58h: H-H’

5 47 5

Figure 58i: I--I’

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BOULEVARD

DIE KANTE

PLAZA

Figure 59: impression DIE KANTE

86 design

PLAZA

87 STAIRS COFFEE BOULEVARD

STAIRS RAMP

LOUNGE LOUNGE

FOUNTAINS

PLAZA

0 4 8 12 16m Figure 60: plaza and boulevard

88 MARKET

0 4 8 12 16m Figure 61: plaza on a market day

0 4 8 12 16m Figure 62: light concept plaza

89 design

LIFE IN KANTWEILER When one walks through Kantweiler, one is surprised by the modern gleam that is unusual for a village. The different types of houses attract a mixture of people: from young families to the elderly. One can feel an atmosphere of togetherness; thinking about each other and caring for your neighbour. There are modern facilities like the brand new sports centre with football and tennis fields and a fancy coffee place.

Kantweiler is a special village. The long fingers of the strip agriculture hold the village in a firm grasp. This means that the inhabitants have a unique relationship with their food. One can see the potatoes, beets and carrots grow through the seasons, from the kitchen window or while playing tennis. The straight houses are in line with the large scale patterns of the agricultural plots.

As shown in Figure 63, the central common field in the village is marked by the community house, which includes a winter garden for tropical plants. On the common field, everyone has the opportunity to breathe the healthy air, while harvesting or enjoying locally produced food. In the community house, one can enjoy a meal in which the local products are mixed with cuisines from other cultures. Once a year, when the swedes (Steckrüben) harvest starts, the farmers organize a Steckrüben-party, with Steckrüben-soup at 12:00, on the common field. The community house is named ‘Bauerntheater’, after the theatre that is played during the dark winter months after Christmas, by inhabitants of the Twin Villages. Figure 63: impression life in Jackerath

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discussion and conclusion

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In this chapter, the meaning and relevance of the design park benefit from the proximity to the city, by producing research findings are discussed. Then, the conclusion for a high-quality local market rather than the global is presented, including the developed main argument bulk market. The multiple functions of the landscape are which underpins the design research statement. embraced, as biodiversity conservation and contribution to socio-economic viability of the area. Secondly, the DISCUSSION Garden Cities of To-morrow of Howard were explored. This design research is a reaction to the extensive The form of those new cities in the rural landscape is suburbanization that is taking place around Cologne in defined by local food production and distribution. The the agricultural landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area. direct agricultural surroundings of the new city supply An area that at the same time deals with unsustainable products to the inhabitants of the city and is therefore agricultural practices and large-scale reclamation efforts interpreted as a public good, whereby farmer and after a period of open-pit lignite mining. The design of inhabitants both profit. the ‘Twin Villages’ in the reclaimed landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area is presented as an alternative Together the best practices showed that settlement way of settlement development, that contributes to development is not per definition a threat for agricultural sustainable forms of agriculture and the development of development. Thereby, it turned out that reversing the reclaimed landscape. settlement development to an opportunity for agriculture can be done in different ways. To get a complete the comprehensive approach overview of the design practices around Agricultural A landscape architect is able, through an integral Urbanism more projects should be analysed. However, design, to provide a solution for complex problems only two examples that related to the (rural) context of (Assargard, 2011). The statement of this design this project were taken due to the time constraints of research circles around the combinations of different this project. They were regarded as sufficient for the issues in the region, set on different poltical agendas. understanding of the concept and as inspiration for the Therefore, the process of designing was a suitable design process. strategy for this project. Different issues are brought together in a comprehensive design, by taking a holistic reclaimed landscape development approach towards settlement development in relation Different landscape types within the reclaimed land to the agricultural and reclaimed landscape. During were defined: ‘a small- scale mosaic of lakes and the process, there was a constant reflection by using forest’ (till 1955), ‘a productive arable land’ (1955- the input from research and knowledge of experts and 1970), ‘a diverse arable land’ (1970-2000), and ‘a gradually, the design took shape. large-scale arable land mixed with a human-scale landscape’ (2000-now). It was shown that the reclaimed agricultural urbanism in European rural context landscape development reflects the narrative of cultural The design outcome builds upon the concept of development, by linking the physical and social-political Agricultural Urbanism. Agricultural Urbanism refers to a events to the development of the identified landscape new partnership between urban and rural, which leads types. The reclaimed landscape can stand out as a to ‘a new form of the city, but also a renewed rurality’, unique cultural landscape that should be treasured. The and is based on ‘a multifunctional economy made up of landscape sets the base for agriculture and settlement local products and high environmental quality, on a low development. At the same time, it became clear that the growth model compared to the industrial one’ (Gottero, landscape development of the reclaimed landscape 2019, p.3). has not reached a state of maturity, as it is a very young landscape. This inspired the idea of using settlement The examples of Parc du Vexin and Garden Cities of To- development to contribute to the further forming of the morrow illustrated the concept of Agricultural Urbanism landscape identity of the reclaimed landscape. in practice, in a rural European context. Firstly, Parc du Vexin, a regional arable park showed how to preferred model: Twin Villages protect the rural landscape against the pressure of the Five settlement development strategies were evaluated suburbanization around Paris. Instead, the farms in the using parameters. The Strengths & Weaknesses and

93 discussion and conclusion

Opportunities & Threats of the reclaimed landscape different design outcome or different considerations. were identified and they set the base for the parameters. The Twin Villages concept is presented as an alternative The five models were developed in a creative process for the conventional suburbanisation. However, using and by speculating about different futures. Using the the landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area is not set of parameters gives insight into the decision making sufficient to meet the complete housing demand in the within the creative process. metropolitan Region Cologne/Bonn. Including other landscapes in the metropolitan area was beyond the It should be mentioned that the design outcome is scope of this study. Further design research is needed not fully applicable to other regions, because the set in other parts of the metropolitan area Cologne/Bonn for of parameters and SWOT-analysis are specific for the an implementation of the remaining housing demand. research area. The generalizability of the outcome for metropolitan areas over Europe is limited by the specific a village that is in harmony with the agricultural reclaimed conditions of the research area, as it is, for example, a landscape post-mining landscape. It can be stated that the design of the Twin Village ‘Kantweiler’ takes place in harmony with the agricultural The development of the models brought forward some reclaimed landscape. important considerations for settlement development in the region. Settlement development within the Firstly, because the new village contributes to the reclaimed land was considered to be important to landscape identity, rather than destructing it. The develop the landscape identity. A landscape without integration of DIE KANTE emphasises the new a strong developed identity will create a vulnerable topography of the reclaimed landscape and functions as position for the agricultural landscape. At the same a metaphor for the open-pit mine. Kantweiler adds a new time, some types of settlement development within the unique layer of settlement to the reclaimed landscape, reclaimed landscape were considered as destructive. while at the same time contributing to the old landscape The settlements have to mark the reclaimed fields by upgrading the existing settlement Jackerath. The in a very unique way. Thereby, to achieve settlement design helps to distinguish and recognize the reclaimed development within the reclaimed fields, that is in landscape as a former mining landscape. While harmony with agriculture, strict boundaries between the designing this asked for a subtle approach, recognizing new settlement and the arable land should be drawn the landscape features and playing with different forms, and taken seriously. Additionally, the settlement should sizes, and density of the village. bring along opportunities for multifunctional agriculture. Secondly, strip agriculture on the reclaimed land Based on the model comparison, the advantages delivers a product that can be sold on a high-quality of the best models are merged into one final model: market. The strip agriculture is not solely focussed on ‘Twin Villages’. This preferred model includes villages food production, but on biodiversity and landscape that are dispersed over the landscape, but all have a experience as well. It fosters that agricultural businesses compact concentric form and contribute to a revival of can broaden their farms with other functions for society. the rural reclaimed landscape as a rural answer to the The reclaimed landscape can now be protected as a exploding urban areas. Every single new village forms public good of the metropolitan area. The Twin Villages a ‘Twin Village’ of an existing village on the other side with their inhabitants act as ambassadors of the of the former mine edge. The existence of new and old agricultural reclaimed landscape. landscape next to each other is emphasized and the two villages can strengthen each other. Thirdly, the arable strokes that extend into the village are defining the life quality of the inhabitants, since they This design is in line with the objective to keep the enable a connection to the surrounding landscape. presence of the urban-rural dichotomy intact, despite Also, the common fields are linked to the traditions and the blurring and subjective nature of what urban and local feasts of the village. The arable fingers keep the rural exactly are, like also argued by Sieverts (2003), village on its place and secures it from further diffusion. Thompson (2012) and Dymitrow and Stenseke (2016). They contribute to the living quality and embrace the experience of living in an arable landscape. In this project five models were developed, that led to the idea of designing ‘Twin Villages’. Developing Lastly, an agricultural hub is located between Jackerath different models or more models could have led to a and Kantweiler, at the highway exit. The industry is joined

94 discussion and conclusion

to the strip cultivation and creates local employment food. for the village inhabitants. From the agricultural hub, the food can be transported by truck towards the This design research can function as a tool for nearby urban centres, where products can be sold as communication and discussion about the future of the ‘reclaimed products’ of the new land. metropolitan region of the Rhenish Mining Area. The design is illustrative and visual and appeals directly The design decisions are explained as much as as a tool for communication. To bring the research possible throughout the report. However, designing is a under the attention of local stakeholders an article was process of creativity and therefore subjective. Different published in the local newspapers of the research area, designers may have different perceptions. at the beginning of this research project, as shown in Figure 64. A publication including the research results When choosing the design location administrative will follow. Thereby, this research will be presented at restrictions were not taken into account. The idea of this Zweckverband LandFolge Garzweiler for representatives design research was to provide an alternative settlement from the city of Mönchengladbach, city of Erkelenz, city development based on the agricultural reclaimed of Jüchen, the municipality of Titz, and representatives landscape, and not steered by existing regulations. of the mining company.

CONCLUSION This research aimed to explore the potential of agricultural urbanism for an alternative settlement development in the Rhenish Mining Area, that contributes to sustainable forms of agriculture and the development of the reclaimed landscape.

It can be concluded that the theoretical concept of Agricultural Urbanism can be translated into practical solutions for harmonizing agriculture and settlement Figure 64: design research as tool for communication (RP-Online, 15 May 2019) development by designing. The reclaimed landscape of the Rhenish Mining Area is enhanced and developed As mentioned above, the design research is focussed further with the concept of the Twin Villages. The on a specific design area and cannot be applied one design of Kantweiler shows that, when contributing to one to other regions. However, in a time where to the landscape qualities, the threat of settlement urban and rural are diffusing, the design research development to the agricultural sector can be reversed can be an inspiration for other metropolitan regions in in an opportunity. Now, an alternative is offered for the Europe, since it contributes to the exploration of today’s unlimited settlement development that is threatening the meaning of urban and rural relationships. In this wider agricultural landscape. perspective, the project takes an exemplary position for cities and metropolitan areas that attract increasing further research suggestions and recommendations amounts of inhabitants. Therefore, this design research Since this project does not meet the complete housing should be taken into account when considering demand of the metropolitan region it is recommended settlement development in an agricultural landscape. to do design studies based on the other landscapes Also, the design research sets an example for other in the metropolitan area when considering settlement post-mining landscapes since it shows that a positive development at different locations in the metropolitan attitude towards the unique cultural landscapes can region. For this, a comprehensive approach strategy help regional development. For example, for the Lusatia based on the landscape medium can be applied, as is coal district and the Central German coal district in done in this design research. Germany, or, on the longer term, for lignite mining areas in Poland, like the Bełchatów lignite basin. As mentioned, Agricultural Urbanism covers a very wide range of approaches and scales. This design focuses As a whole, this project is an appeal to put hold on the on a rural context and on the ‘growing’ part of the food ongoing settlement development at the urban fringe system (agricultural fields). However, one could also and to speculate about different ways to live in our focus on a strategy for more urban areas or a more landscapes. The design gave a glance into the possible central focus on either the distribution or processing of future of rural living in a metropolitan area.

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100 appendix

APPENDIX I

OVERVIEW INTERVIEWS AND ATTENDED MEETINGS

Date Type Interviewee Position Time Zweckverband Tagebaufolge(n)landschaft 1 April 2019 Interview Volker Mielchen 1.5 hours Garzweiler, Geschäftsführer RWE Power Aktiengesellschaft, 1 April 2019 Interview Gero Vinzelberg 1.5 hours Regionalinitiativen und Projekte RWE Power Aktiengesellschaft, 1 April 2019 Interview Ribanna Schaffarczyk 1.5 hours Regionalinitiativen und Projekte Evaluation Matti Wirth & Nathalie RWTH Aachen University, Landschape 24 July 2019 1.5 hours models Pszola Architecture Evaluation Zweckverband Tagebaufolge(n)landschaft 13 August 2019 Volker Mielchen (by e-mail) - models Garzweiler, Geschäftsführer

Date Type Organizer Name Speakers RWE Power im 8 April 2019 Presentation RWE Power AG Rheinischen RWE Power AG, mitarbeiter Braunkohlenrevier RWTH Aachen Tagebaufolge(n) Stephan Muckel (Gemeine Titz) and 9 April 2019 Seminar University, Institute of landschaften: das Reiver Volker Mielchen (Zweckverband Landscape Architecture und das Modell IBA See Tagebaufolge(n)landschaft Garzweiler

101 appendix

APPENDIX II

REPORT OF SITE VISITS

Date: 8 April 2019 Mode of transport: biking and driving (and walking) Observations recorded with sketching and photos Distance: 50 km Route:

LEGEND bike route car route

Date: 19 July 2019 Mode of transport: driving (and walking) Observations recorded with written description and photos Distance: 100 km Route and stops:

LEGEND car route stops

102 appendix

APPENDIX II

REPORT OF SITE VISITS

Date: 18 October 2019 Mode of transport: driving and walking Observations recorded with photos and notes Distance: 10 km Route:

LEGEND car route

103 appendix

APPENDIX III

PHOTO REPORTAGE MINING LANDSCAPE

104