Feral Cats: an Overview

WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository

2005

Feral Cats: An Overview

Margaret R. Slater Texas A & M University - College Station

Stephanie Shain The Humane Society of the United States

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Recommended Citation Slater, M.R., & Shain, S. (2005). Feral cats: An overview. In D.J. Salem & A.N. Rowan (Eds.), The state of the animals III: 2005 (pp. 43-53). Washington, DC: Humane Society Press.

This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Feral Cats: An Overview 4CHAPTER Margaret R. Slater and Stephanie Shain

umans and cats have a long United States examined free-roam- controlling and dominating rather and complex history togeth- ing cat control and licensing, pre- than the part with which humans Her. Since the nineteenth dation on birds and wildlife, and coexist. If cats are viewed as be- century, contradictory ideas about cat territories. Hundreds of scien- longing to nature rather than to the need to protect and care for tific articles have been published civilization, it becomes easier to cats have moved us toward a shift about the domestic cat’s hunting see them as health threats or nui- in ideas, values, and behaviors to a patterns and lifestyles as well as sances rather than as individuals more benign perception of cats control methods in dozens of coun- and companions and to recom- than was generally the case in pre- tries around the world. Feral cats mend their elimination when they vious centuries. In some quarters, began to move into the public view present a “problem” to human but not all, even feral cats have in the United States about two society. When problems with feral begun to be seen as worthy of our decades ago, when the first popu- cats arise, the image of the delight- study and humane treatment. In lar book Maverick Cats (Berkeley ful domestic companion of the many countries, the welfare of all 1982) was published in hardcover hearthside is easily replaced with cats has become a focus of public by Walker and Co. (it appeared in old stereotypes of cats as evil be- concern, but nowhere is the shift paperback from the New England ings separate from humans and in values reflected more than in Press in 1987). Cats have exceeded with no place in the civilized world. the focus on feral cats—defined as dogs as the most common pet in (This transition from “wild and unowned and unsocialized cats. North America and in most of separate” to part of a unified world Feral cats likely exist everywhere Europe (Slater 2005). Controlling is occurring slowly, if the growing humans have traveled, whether the “cycle of stray cats” is even a use of the term, “nonhuman ani- deliberately introduced to control topic of discussion in a popular pet mal,” which deemphasizes the rodents and other pests, when they supply catalog (www.drsfoster- dichotomy between animals and accidentally escape the home, or smith.com). Yet feral cats are still humans, is any indication.) when they have been deliberately viewed in many quarters as liminal Perhaps the most remarkable abandoned. beings existing on the borders of change in the status of feral cats is civilization. The existence of these the fact that they are discussed as a feral cat populations tends to rein- particular population at all. Anna- Feral Cats in the force cats’ peripheral status, re- bell Washburn of Martha’s Vineyard, United States minding us of their wildness and Massachusetts, is generally credited separateness. This wildness and with bringing the concept of Trap- Scientists in biology, ecology, and separateness makes it easier to see Neuter-Return (TNR) to feral cat wildlife conservation have been feral, and perhaps all, cats as management in the United States publishing work on free-roaming belonging to the part of nature in 1980 (Berkeley 1990). Washburn and feral cats since the early that humans are responsible for founded the Pet Adoption and Wel- 1900s. These early studies in the

43 fare Service (PAWS) on Martha’s nia at the start of the program had North Carolina (founded in 1994) Vineyard, which practiced TNR on been reduced to eighty-five (C. and Florida (founded in 1998) are feral cats. In 1986 students and Miller, Stanford Cat Network, per- other good examples of this staff from Tufts University’s School sonal communication with S.S., approach; they also have served as of Veterinary Medicine worked with August 17, 2004) In recent years resources for research on feral cat PAWS to provide sterilization of most of the cats who joined the health. A variation on high-volume feral cats on Virgin Gorda in the feral-cat colony were social, friend- spay neuter is the mobile clinic British Virgin Islands in one of the ly cats and were therefore adopted. approach. A good example is a unit earliest partnerships between vet- In the past several years, many purchased by the Feral Cat Coali- erinary medicine and grass-roots other campus programs have tion of Oregon (FCCO) in 1998 organizations to improve the lot of sprung up around the country. An (Berkeley 2004). In August 2004 feral cats. In 1987 Washburn spoke Internet listserv designed specifi- the FCCO neutered its twenty about her experiences and elaborat- cally to facilitate communication thousandth cat (K. Kraus, personal ed on TNR as a method of control- among these types of programs is communication with M.S., August ling feral cats at a pet overpopula- hosted by Alley Cat Allies. 9, 2004). tion conference in New York City. In 1989 the San Francisco Soci- A more comprehensive approach The founding of Alley Cat Allies, ety for the Prevention of Cruelty to is a grass-roots program for cats in an organization dedicated to pro- Animals (SFSPCA) began a major the community that began as a moting TNR as a nonlethal popula- effort to reduce euthanasia in that TNR-only effort. Merrimack River tion control method for feral cats, city. It put in place a full spectrum Feline Rescue Society, in Newbury- in 1990 in Washington, D.C., of programs to that effect, includ- port, Massachusetts, was founded marked the beginning of legitimacy ing subsidized or free sterilization in the early 1990s to manage feral for feral cats and of TNR as a con- of pets, adoption, advice on main- cats on the waterfront in this trol technique in the United States. taining pets in the home, and, in tourist town. It soon discovered Alley Cat Allies provided informa- 1993, the Feral Cat Assistance Pro- that many of the cats were social- tion, networking, and other re- gram. This program provides free ized pets who had been lost or sources for individuals and organi- sterilization, routine medical care, abandoned. This led to the devel- zations interested in managing education for feral cat caretakers, opment of a cats-only animal shel- feral cat populations. In 2004 its assistance in resolving disputes, ter, an extensive education pro- resource pages on the Web (at the loan of traps and free food, and gram, and many other cat-related www.alleycat.org) included infor- the expertise of Cat Assistance community activities. It has been mation for feral cat caregivers, vet- Team members. Within a seven- extremely successful in decreasing erinarians, animal care and control year period, euthanasia of feral the numbers of feral cats in New- and humane society personnel, and cats dropped by 73 percent, euth- buryport because of the broad government officials. It also provid- anasia of neonatal kittens dropped range of approaches and the wide- ed information on creating new from more than nine hundred a spread geographic application of groups, organizing, and advocating year to two hundred a year, and its work. In ten years, the original on behalf of feral cats. From an ini- more than 47,000 cats were steril- two hundred or so cats in the town tial two-person team, Alley Cat Allies ized (Sayres 2000). had decreased to twenty, many of had grown to almost 95,000 donors Another model grass-roots or- whom were elderly, and, in a few and supporters as of 2003 (B. Robin- ganizations use in working with places, there were no feral cats at son, personal communication with feral cats is the high-volume feral all (S. LeBaron, personal commu- M.S., October 23, 2003). cat sterilization program originally nication with M.S., July 2, 2002). Several other grass-roots organi- developed in 1992 in San Diego by Neighborhood Cats, founded in zations were early pioneers in the the Feral Cat Coalition (Berkeley 1999, practices TNR in New York TNR movement. The first was the 2004). This program was designed City, which few thought was suit- Stanford Cat Network, founded in to sterilize fifty to two hundred able for TNR until this organization 1989 (Rosenblatt 1992). This was cats in a single day and used a demonstrated otherwise (www. probably the earliest formal cam- large core of volunteers, including neighborhoodcats.org/about/about_ pus program in the United States local veterinarians. Since then history.htm). It also is an active to manage cats using TNR with many similar programs have arisen advocacy group that networks with adoption of socialized cats and throughout the country. They have other agencies and promotes TNR young kittens. Within fifteen years, provided manuals and videotapes throughout the area. the approximately five hundred on how to orchestrate this high- Most public or official discussion cats present initially on the Stan- volume approach to sterilization of feral cats in the field of animal ford University campus in Califor- smoothly. Operation Catnip in protection in the United States

44 The State of the Animals III: 2005 seems to have begun around 1990. policies/animalwelfare.asp#comp discussing, studying, and publish- The National Animal Control Asso- anion) and the American Associa- ing scientific work about feral cats ciation began addressing feral-cat tion of Feline Practitioners (AAFP) as early as the 1960s, ’70s and ’80s issues at its conferences in the early worked to update and create, (Universities Federation for Animal 1990s. Other animal protection respectively, position statements Welfare 1981; Neville and Remfry agencies, local and national, began on free-roaming and feral cats. The 1984; Berkeley 2004). The first sci- considering feral cats seriously in balanced AAFP position statement entific conference on “the ecology the mid-1990s. Perhaps the most released in mid-2004 provided a and control of feral cats” was held significant turning point was a joint brief discussion of the problems in London in 1980 and its proceed- conference, “A Critical Evaluation associated with free-roaming cats ings published by the Universities of Free-roaming/Unowned/Feral as well as the need to prevent and Federation for Animal Welfare Cats in the United States,” spon- control free-roaming cats by edu- (UFAW). Subsequent UFAW publi- sored by the American Humane cation, veterinary practice, public cations in 1982, 1990, and 1995 Association and the Cat Fanciers’ policy, and the application of TNR were the primary scientific refer- Association in 1996. The convolut- (www.aafponline.org/positiostate. ences for feral-cat control for many ed title accurately reflected the htm). A model program was de- years. Tabor’s book (1983) was confusion about and complexity of scribed for TNR recognizing that both scientific and appropriate for the free-roaming cat world. In 1998 reducing cat populations was the the cat-loving public. It included The Humane Society of the United primary objective. information on predation, cat terri- States (HSUS) devoted an entire Only recently has control of cat tories, and feral-cat management, issue (September–October) of its numbers become the focus of and it set the stage for much of magazine Animal Sheltering to free- wildlife biologists and conserva- what is known about free-roaming roaming cats. It laid out a radically tionists in the United States. In cats in urban areas based on the new policy statement on free-roam- 2003 the Florida Fish and Wildlife author’s extensive observations on ing cats, including a section on Conservation Commission pro- a colony of cats living in London. managing colonies of feral cats. posed a policy to “protect native Understanding Cats (Tabor 1997) This section outlined guidelines wildlife from predation, disease, was a Reader’s Digest coffee-table under which such management and other impacts presented by book clearly aimed at the general might be appropriate and codified feral and free ranging cats.” After public. It included a chapter on the need for ongoing management much publicity, debate, and a law- feral cats as well as a discussion on and care of a colony of cats. Presen- suit, the final policy was modified feral-cat colony control that cited tations about feral cats and how substantially, and study groups work done on TNR in Great Britain best to deal with them became a were established to look into the in the 1970s. regular part of regional and nation- problem. Later that same year, the al humane organization meetings Pennsylvania Game Commission by late in the decade. proposed an amendment to the Feral Cat In veterinary medical continuing state game and wildlife code to Populations: education, feral cats began to “make the release of captive held appear as a topic in the early and wildlife without a permit or domes- What Are the mid-1990s. In 1992 Tufts Universi- tic dogs or cats into the wild ty’s School of Veterinary Medicine unlawful.” This amendment was Sources? sponsored a feral-cat workshop removed after public debate with Despite the multitude and variety where TNR as a method for control the support of several members of of locations in which feral cats are was presented. The American Vet- the panel who felt that domestic found, the potential sources of the erinary Medical Association (AVMA) dogs and cats were outside the cats themselves are shared by all. Animal Welfare Forum in 1995 scope of their mandate. Owned companion cats may be- focused on the welfare of cats and come lost or may be abandoned included discussions about feral deliberately by their owners. Such cats and their management. In Feral Cats in the animals will become the nucleus of 2002 the AVMA annual meeting United Kingdom new feral cat colonies, particularly included a full day on feral cat if the cats are intact. Intact cats Although concern for the control issues. In 2003 the AVMA Animal still in the home may also con- and welfare of feral cats is a very Welfare Forum focused solely on tribute to the problem, since their recent phenomenon in the United feral cat issues and control meth- unplanned litters may be too wild States, animal welfare organiza- ods. During 2003 and 2004, the to be adopted or may be aban- tions in the United Kingdom were AVMA (http://www.avma.org/ doned as well. The relative propor-

Feral Cats: An Overview 45 tion of each of the sources varies and developing culturally appropri- One is philosophical, based on widely among different locations. ate approaches (Beran and Frith the relative value of cats and wild- Relatively little research has been 1988). Removal of free-roaming life. This view maintains that cats done to document the origins of animals is no longer recommended are a domestic species and as such feral cats in most locations. It is by the World Health Organization are humans’ responsibility. It is, known that stray cats who become (WHO), although it was at one time therefore, irresponsible to allow pets (the reverse of the owned-cat- (WHO Expert Committee 1988, cats to roam freely outdoors and becoming-feral phenomenon) ac- 1994; Meslin, Fishbein, and Matter hunt native wildlife, a particular count for 21 percent to 33 percent 1994). Instead, vaccination pro- problem since cats often are not of the owned cat population (John- grams are the cornerstone of pre- regulated in the wild by food supply son, Lewellen, and Lewellen 1993; vention. Fortunately, a very effec- in the same way other predators Johnson and Lewellen 1995; tive vaccine for cats exists to are. This argument is not based on Patronek, Beck, and Glickman protect against rabies. Research in numbers of animals killed, but 1997; New et al. 2000). the 1980s indicated that a single rather on appropriate stewardship early rabies vaccination provides of the domestic species. It applies protection for more than three to owned cats allowed to roam, not Feral Cat Issues years to cats in a research setting just to feral cats. in the Community (Soulebot et al. 1981). This sup- A second view is that cats are an ports the idea that rabies vaccines introduced, non-native species that Conflict and confusion surround- are very effective, and that even should be removed or prevented ing feral cats generally spring from one vaccination is likely to be much from entering native habitats. This five sources. The first is the vari- better than no vaccination at all. view is based on the idea that intro- ability in human perception about TNR programs that include rabies duced species have a negative im- cats in general and feral cats in vaccinations can potentially pro- pact on native species and that particular. The public views cats in vide a herd immunity against this native species should be valued over a wide variety of roles, ranging disease: once a high enough pro- introduced ones. In fact, native from surrogate child to vermin. For portion of the population is predators are often killed to protect example, some people find cat immune, it is very difficult for the livestock, and native species are footprints on their cars amusing, disease to gain entry and establish often managed to protect other while others believe cats who leave itself in that population. In addi- native species (Cohen 1992). This footprints on their cars should be tion, vaccinated cats form a barrier view assumes that removal of intro- euthanized. Such a disparity in per- between wildlife and humans. If cats duced species results in a return to ception leads to conflict about are simply rounded up and removed a normal, or pre-introduction, state appropriate ways to treat cats, from an area, a few unvaccinated of the ecosystem. In reality, ecosys- even among neighbors. cats will always escape and remain tems are very complex and are Public health and safety concerns in the colony. New cats, also likely changed in many ways, in addition often arise in discussions about feral to be unvaccinated, will move in. In to the introduction of cats, as a cats. It is important to remember a short time the population will result of human habitation (Ter- that these concerns are equally have rebounded and none of the borgh 1992). Cats may integrate applicable to owned cats in the com- cats will be vaccinated. If TNR is into ecosystems such that their munity who are allowed outdoors. practiced, cats are trapped, neut- predation of other non-native ani- Public health officials have as ered, and vaccinated for rabies mals like rats and mice can be very their mandate the prevention of the before being returned to the colony, beneficial in protecting native possibility of disease in the general creating a substantial barrier of vac- species from these predators and human population; therefore, they cinated individuals against the dis- competitors (Courchamp, Lang- are interested in zoonotic diseases ease. When humane caretakers are lais, and Sugihara 1999; Fitzgerald (Patronek 1998; Slater 2002). The very diligent, all cats in the colony and Gibb 2001). actual magnitude of the risk to the will have been vaccinated at least The third view is based on the public varies tremendously by dis- once and possibly more frequently. numbers of birds and other wildlife ease and specific situation. Another concern, the effects of killed by cats, owned as well as Rabies may be the foremost con- predation by feral cats on wildlife, unowned ferals. There are many cern among such transmittable dis- may be coupled with concerns about widely cited figures about the eases. Current recommendations feral cats’ competition with native extent of cat predation on birds in for controlling rabies include un- predators and disease transmission. the United States. Most are based derstanding the relationships be- The debate is a collision of three on extrapolation from three to fif- tween the residents and animals main viewpoints (Slater 2004). teen cats or on estimates made by

46 The State of the Animals III: 2005 wildlife biologists that have been dents to put identification on their some locations trapping may never taken out of context. Effectiveness cats (http://www.co.honolulu.hi.us/ become necessary because the of cat predation appears to vary refs/roh/7.htm; Slater 2002). Iden- neighbors never call the authori- quite a lot, with some cats catching tified cats benefit from longer hold- ties. But, in other locations, bat- no prey and others catching quite a ing periods at the shelter and are tles over free-roaming cats can be bit. It is important to remember much more likely to be returned to quite vicious and unrelenting. that cats are opportunistic hunters: their owners. An exemption for managed they will eat and catch whatever is Another option for communities colonies (which may be defined most readily available. This in- is differential licensing, in which clearly in the ordinance) from any cludes carrion, garbage, and cat owners of neutered animals pay a of these laws is a possible option. It food, as well as prey species. Over- reduced fee—or no fee at all—for allows the law to provide for all, cats are rodent specialists. licensing as compared to owners of enforcement where appropriate More than half their diet is com- intact animals. This can be made to and gives individuals the option to posed of rodents, with other work for managed feral cat colonies manage feral colonies. Alternative- species and other sources of food since colony cats are neutered. ly, a well-written nuisance law will making up a small percentage of Some have proposed registration allow enforcement on complaint if the remainder (Fitzgerald and for the colonies themselves as an specific feral cats are causing par- Turner 2000). alternative, but this may be viewed ticular problems in an area. Holders of these viewpoints dis- as punitive or as putting cats at risk These kinds of punitive laws were agree about what to do with feral to be rounded up by animal control. designed to protect the people and cats. In some cases, local ordinances Defining by law the number of the animals in the community. Yet, about licensing, the numbers of pets cats that can be owned by a resi- positive rewards for doing the right allowed per residence, and cat leash dent or live in a single household thing, once people understand what laws have been put into place to try (so-called limit laws) can be used the right thing is, generally will to control feral and owned free- against feral cat caretakers since result in a faster and more whole- roaming cats. Cat licensing is they are usually considered owners hearted acceptance of the appropri- extremely controversial and is some- of the cats. Many colonies exceed ate behavior. There will always be a times, according to some, used to the usual three- to four-cat limit few people who will not comply even punish or fine caretakers of feral that is common with this type of with laws that punish. But is impor- cats (www.sfspca.org/figs/pdf_ ordinance. Therefore, caretakers tant not to punish those people who feralcats/licenses.pdf. The public may be in violation and fined. These are trying to take responsibility for often views cat licensing as a mon- laws generally are designed to pre- cats no one else wants. eymaking scheme for the benefit of vent hoarding and to provide lever- local government, although, in age or oversight of households that fact, revenues from licensing may may end up with too many animals. Options support animal-care and -control However, they generally do not Most individuals and organizations programs in the community. Licen- allow TNR to be practiced legally if involved in the feral cat debate sing efforts for cats are attempts to the local enforcement agency agree that the ultimate goal is provide cats with protection similar chooses to include feral cats. Such fewer cats. However, the best and to that enjoyed by dogs, including problems can be avoided with most practical method to achieve mandated holding periods in shel- exemptions for managed or man- this is hotly contested and often ters, intervention by animal-control aged and registered feral colonies. obscured by fruitless discussions officers on a cat’s behalf, and re- Leash laws generally require that about the number of birds killed, turn to owners. Unfortunately, animals be kept under the direct the numbers of cats in a neighbor- licensing often is not a constructive control of a person or confined to hood, or the exact costs of a partic- approach to controlling feral cat the owner’s property. Leash laws, ular option. No single approach numbers (Slater 2002). Ordinances like the previously described ordi- will work in every location. Each that require identification rather nances, are nearly always enforced location has a distinct set of prob- than licensing are usually more on complaint: someone has to see lems and available resources as palatable to community residents, free-roaming cats and call the well as a unique public perception. and ear tipping of feral cats can be authorities. They will trap cats, It is critical to remain focused on considered a form of identification. who then will be transported to a the idea that there should be fewer A cat identification law in Hawaii local shelter or veterinarian. feral cats and that practical ap- took this approach as a way of pro- There, feral cats often will be euth- proaches must be considered. The viding a bigger carrot rather than a anized. Depending on neighbors’ options for feral cat control have stick in trying to convince resi- tolerance of free-roaming cats, in included doing nothing; killing

Feral Cats: An Overview 47 cats on location; or removing cats isolated to prevent migration of face living ten or twelve years in a for euthanasia elsewhere. More re- new cats into the ecological vacu- sanctuary, and the cost of high- cently, TNR with adoption has been um created by cat removal. If there quality care and housing for such advocated as an option (Slater is sufficient food and shelter, new animals is often prohibitive, elimi- 2004). Trapping and removal, fol- cats will move in from nearby nating the ability to expand sanctu- lowed by relocation or placement areas, and survivors of the removal ary housing for the large numbers in sanctuaries, has been used as program will continue to repro- of feral cats in the United States. well on a more limited basis (Levy duce until the maximum carrying and Crawford 2004). capacity is reached again (Tabor TNR 1983). Local residents may sabo- The limitations of these options “Doing Nothing” tage attempts to remove cats for have made TNR increasingly viable The options for feral cat control euthanasia. The result is that, even as an option for decreasing the have historically included doing if half the cats are removed, six numbers of existing feral cats. This nothing—or, “letting nature take months or a year later, the num- approach, at its most basic, in- its course.” While still fairly com- bers of cats will be increasing cludes humane trapping of feral mon, this is not a responsible or quickly, climbing to the same num- cats, transportation to a veterinar- constructive choice. ber present before removal. ian, surgical sterilization, vaccination for rabies, and ear-tipping or Relocation notching. Vaccination for rabies is Killing Cats on Site A number of feral cat programs included in the basic option be- Killing cats on location has been have incorporated a relocation cause, in most parts of the United used most commonly on islands component as part of their efforts. States, it is a crucial component of and in countries outside the Unit- Neutered, vaccinated cats are addressing public and animal ed States, including Australia and transported and held for two to health concerns. Ear tipping is in- New Zealand. Cats are commonly four weeks (to acclimate) before cluded in the basic package since killed by poisoning, shooting, being released at their new owners’ some form of visual identification introduction of infectious diseases, selected rural properties or farms. of cats who have already been ster- hunting by dogs, and trapping This is a time-consuming process ilized is critical in preventing re- (Bester et al. 2002). These are typ- complicated by the need to locate trapping, re-anesthetizing, and re- ically components of a complete suitable release sites, and there are operating on already neutered cats. eradication program in an area relatively limited data on success A variation, explicitly includes with few humans and few other of relocation. testing, managing, and monitoring species to worry about. These erad- Increasingly, wildlife advocates as part of the TNR program (trap, ication programs often require have suggested removal of feral test, vaccinate, alter, return, man- years to accomplish and hundreds cats with placement in long-term age, and monitor, or TTVARM-M).It of hours of work and are only suc- sanctuaries. On the surface, this is preferred by groups such as The cessful in closed populations where seems appealing because cats are HSUS. The “test” component no new cats can arrive. Trapping confined in a selected location includes testing for feline leukemia and removal of cats for euthanasia where they may receive care for the (FeLV) and feline immunodeficien- has been used in many communi- rest of their lives. While a number cy viruses (FIV). “Managing and ties as a method of handling ani- of sanctuaries around the country monitoring” includes ongoing feed- mal issues. At times, this was justi- accept feral cats, they fill up rapid- ing, housing, and oversight of cats fied as a way of providing a humane ly and the quality of care can vary in managed colonies. Ongoing death for an animal who could not greatly (Levy and Crawford 2004). monitoring provides the most effec- otherwise enjoy a good quality of Overcrowding can be a serious tive population control because life. At other times, concerns health risk for cats, and feral cats new, probably unneutered cats, will about cat predation, nuisance do not always adapt well to confine- be identified quickly and trapped problems, or public health were ment in a sanctuary. Unlike social- before they can reproduce. The cats motivating factors. It is appealing ized cats, the very presence of are looked after so that any illness to think that removing cats will humans causes feral cats stress. or injuries can be handled in result in a permanent decrease in Thus, they need to be housed as humane fashion. Very commonly, the cat population; however, that is essentially “wild” animals. In addi- the shorthand TNR is used to almost never the case. It is ex- tion, oversight of this type of facili- describe these very extensive pro- tremely difficult to remove every ty is highly variable and the quality grams as well as simpler ones. cat in a particular location, and of care provided is not always ade- The advantages of TNR are its most locations are not sufficiently quate or humane. Young cats may ability to (1) stabilize the popula-

48 The State of the Animals III: 2005 tion through sterilization; (2) small randomly selected number of of the cats in the colony if the cur- increase the proportion of vacci- cats is unlikely to provide accurate rent population continues to multi- nated cats in a community; (3) information about the general cat ply. The feeders discover TNR, often decrease nuisance problems, since population in the community. Lim- through friends, neighbors, or the sterilized cats roam less, fight less, ited testing may prove helpful in internet. Sometimes these individu- make less noise, and are generally specific colonies where there is a als will form networks with others less obtrusive; (4) decrease cat wel- high suspicion of disease, particu- who are feeding cats in the same fare concerns because the cats tend larly of feline leukemia. Animals community. This loose network may to be healthier when they are not who test positive for FeLV present continue as is or may become an breeding and fighting and no kittens another set of problems: for some, incorporated, nonprofit organiza- are born; and (5) garner stronger euthanasia of positive animals is tion. In other situations, once it public support than do programs not acceptable unless the cat is realizes there is a problem with feral that result in killing cats (Slater very ill; for others who know that cats, a group of people may immedi- 2002; Levy and Crawford 2004). FeLV generally causes a slow death ately pull together an organization TNR programs that include within a few years, euthanasia is a dedicated to helping those animals. aggressive adoption components humane option. Animal-care and -control agencies, are the most successful in decreas- FIV is spread through the bite of humane societies, or veterinary ing the numbers of cats short an infected cat. This disease is wellness/sterilization clinics also term. The numbers of young kit- much more common in male cats may begin to offer services or pro- tens and socialized adults varies than in females because intact grams specifically related to feral but can be upwards of 50–70 per- males do most of the fighting. Neu- cats. These can include trap rental, cent in some colonies (Levy and tering males decreases their aggres- subsidized or free sterilization and Crawford 2004). Removing these sion and fighting for mates and vaccination, provision of education animals for adoption results in an disease transmission is nearly elim- or meeting areas, referral networks, immediate and substantial inated. Many FIV-positive cats will and assistance with adoptions. decrease in the numbers of cats at live for many years without any clin- Sometimes these organizations will that site.1 ical problems, and it is less clear partner with existing grass-roots that euthanasia will prevent obvious TNR programs. While it may take The Controversy suffering in the near future. months (or years) to build the level over Testing FeLV is spread from mother to of trust needed among the parties, Testing for FeLV and FIV is contro- kittens and by prolonged close these alliances can be extremely versial. On the one hand, there is contact between cats. By spaying productive. Optimally, all interested concern about leaving “positive” the mother cats, disease transmis- parties will map out a strategy to cats in the environment, because sion to kittens is eliminated. FeLV work together to decrease the feral their own health and well-being is not a highly contagious disease, cat population and prevent new may be in jeopardy, and they have and many cats who are exposed will stray/abandoned cats. The Orange the potential to transmit disease. never contract it. By putting the County, Florida, animal-control When funds are limited, there are money saved by not testing into agency, for example, partnered with cost-benefit considerations since spaying more female cats, organi- a TNR group for an extremely suc- testing costs close to what spay or zations may prevent many more cessful program (Hughes, Slater, neuter surgery costs. Testing de- cases of FeLV. and Haller 2002). creases the number of cats that Ultimately the caregivers and There is no one best template for can be sterilized for the same veterinarians involved will have to introducing TNR in a community. money. On the other hand, sterili- make a decision about testing and Instead, existing veterinary and zation decreases transmission of about what to do with positive cats. sheltering resources should be eval- these diseases between cats. Some cats who are positive for uated and any missing pieces put The frequency of these and other either of these diseases may be into place. For example, in a com- infectious diseases in feral cat pop- removed for placement into sanc- munity that already has subsidized ulations is similar to or lower than tuaries or homes with other dis- or free sterilization for feral cats, a that of owned-cat populations ease-positive cats. feral cat group might focus on trap- (Levy and Crawford 2004; Nutter There are many different ap- ping, adoption, and education. In a et al. 2004a). Because the frequen- proaches to promoting or offering community without subsidized or cy of these diseases is so low and TNR in a community. Often, it will free sterilization, a high-volume, the diseases are not spread uni- start with one or two individuals feral-cat-only monthly surgery ses- formly throughout the feral cat who are feeding cats and realize sion might be the best use of an population, testing a few cats or a that they can’t continue to feed all organization’s resources, since ster-

Feral Cats: An Overview 49 ilization is a key element in TNR. diverse constituents who are in- In discussing what to do with volved in dealing with cat-related Example Programs existing feral cats, communities problems should be brought to the A published study of feral cats often do not address the sources of table and be involved in creating managed on the University of Cen- these cats adequately. Generally, the solutions. tral Florida campus demonstrates irresponsible or ignorant owners the efficacy of TNR coupled with are the core problem. Often, there aggressive adoption in decreasing are many different reasons why peo- Guiding the numbers of free-roaming cats ple choose to allow their cats to Principles (Levy, Gale, and Gale 2003). Dur- roam freely without identification ing the eleven years reported in the While the specifics on approaches or sterilization or abandon cats article, a total of 155 cats were to dealing with feral cat issues in a altogether. More research needs to trapped. After five years, only 68 of community will vary, some core be performed to better understand the original cats remained. At the principles should be followed in all how to identify the problems in end of the study, only 23 cats (15 cases to ensure success. each community and how best to percent) were left, with a median 1. All reputable parties involved intervene. A “safety net” of services residency duration of seven years. with feral cats have as a goal for cats and owners could include Nearly half the cats were initially or fewer feral cats. The problem (1) information on maintaining eventually adopted. Eleven percent is how best to accomplish that cats in the home, such as selection were euthanized, 15 percent disap- goal and to get past other of an appropriate kitten or advice peared, 6 percent died, and 6 per- arguments and issues. on behavior modification; (2) subsi- cent moved to nearby woods. This 2. Each location has a specific set dized veterinary care and mecha- demonstrates that it is possible to of problems and available nisms to improve access to care, decrease their numbers with time resources. While data from such as transportation or language and ongoing monitoring and that other locations can certainly translation services; (3) cat identifi- adoption is important to ensure be helpful in guiding decisions, cation and sterilization information this decrease. each solution must be tailored as well as information on keeping Another campus program, at to the individual location. cats safely at home disseminated by Texas A&M University, had existed 3. Controlling feral cat numbers local veterinarians, through public for six years as of 2004. The initial is really a “herd”-level problem. schools and community education, two-year startup was published to While each individual cat may and by the animal shelter; (4) pro- demonstrate the initial drop in feral (or may not) be seen as having grams that assist people in finding cat numbers (Hughes and Slater value, it is the population as a new homes for cats they genuinely 2002). In the first six years, 264 whole in a neighborhood, com- cannot keep; and (5) better dissem- cats were trapped, with about half munity, or county that must be ination of information about cats returning to campus and a third addressed. Therefore, solutions available for adoption at the local being adopted. Cats positive for must work for populations of shelter. Some central location or FeLV (5 percent) or FIV (6 percent) cats and must be able to be referral system to help residents were euthanized. Well over half the scaled up for the numbers of find these existing resources is cru- cats were trapped and neutered in cats in a given situation. cial as well. Local laws or ordi- the first two years of program. 4. Everyone involved must be nances can have a role in encourag- Several animal-control agencies guided by concern for the wel- ing compliance but should be around the country have embraced fare and well-being of the cats, primarily a mechanism to deal with TNR. Maricopa County (Arizona) as well as for other species, individuals who do not wish to com- Animal Care and Control is the including humans, but also by ply rather than with those who are largest animal-control agency in what is practical and possible unable to comply. “Fix-it” tickets the United States, based on 61,984 in a specific situation. can give enforcement officers a animals handled and more than 5. To reach the goal of fewer cats means of accomplishing the ulti- three million people (Anonymous will require a broad spectrum mate goal of the ordinance, for 2002). Its feral cat programs, of programs. No single ap- example, having a cat sterilized Operation FELIX and a partnership proach will accomplish this rather than receiving a fine. with AzCats, which began in the goal. The more diverse the Each community has an existing fall of 2001, provide high-volume location, the more creative set of resources that should be eval- spay/neuter for feral cats as well as the set of programs must be uated critically so that the missing mobile spay/neuter programs. to result in fewer feral cats. components of the safety net can be These programs are in addition to developed and added. All of the comprehensive spay/neuter and

50 The State of the Animals III: 2005 adoption efforts and have con- Cat’s Café, an area where cats can cational materials needed to tributed to a drop in euthanasia be fed and stroked but that is not launch a TNR program in one easi- rate from twenty-five cats per thou- near restaurants, bars, or swim- ly accessible package (www.Neigh- sand county residents to nine cats ming pools. Signs assure visitors borhoodCats.org). TNR organiza- per thousand. This agency actively that cats are vaccinated and pro- tions are learning to be cohesive promotes TNR in the community. vided with veterinary care (E. Mac- and focused and to define their Recently, county officials pro- Gregor, WSPA, personal communi- mission and scope of work clearly. claimed that TNR was the official cation with S.S., July 1, 2004). This aids them in being as effective management policy for feral cats This solution provides a humane as possible and improves their visi- in Maricopa County. The city of alternative to trapping and bility and respectability. Phoenix, Arizona, planned to allo- euthanasia while addressing sani- While the level of technical cate $200,000, and Animal Care tation and health concerns. knowledge about conducting TNR and Control was to begin to charge An example of an early program programs has certainly increased $61 per feral cat brought in unless to manage feral cats in a prison over time, the philosophical impli- the community it came from setting took place in San Quentin cations of TNR programs have even actively sponsored a TNR program State Prison in San Quentin, Cali- wider-ranging effects. Feral cat (Anonymous 2002). fornia, in 1992. Historically, 100 to management is clearly interrelated Orange County Animal Care and 250 cats were being euthanized with all other animal-related ef- Control partnered with a nonprofit each year (K. White, The HSUS, forts in a community. This means feral cat organization to facilitate personal communication with P. that, to be effective, TNR groups TNR in Orlando, Florida, and the Miller, Marin Humane Society, have to develop a working relation- surrounding area (Hughes, Slater, March 13, 1994). ship with municipal animal-control and Haller 2002). As of 1995 the A TNR program was implement- agencies and other animal-related animal-control shelter provided sur- ed, and approximately 250 cats programs. Feral caregivers also geries, rabies vaccination, and ear were trapped. More than 200 were need each other and can accom- tipping, while the community feral- adopted, and approximately 50 plish more as part of a whole group cat organization handled com- neutered and vaccinated feral cats or network than they can individu- plaints and trapping. Despite a were returned to the prison over an ally. Citywide efforts can work if growing human population and an eighteen-month period. Internal they are truly comprehensive and expected increase in pet population prison correspondence indicated wide reaching, as they are in San and related problems, after imple- benefits to the inmates and staff, Francisco, California, and New- menting the program, cat im- such as less violence and tension as buryport, Massachusetts. pounds and complaints remained well as being able to “model relat- Feral cat problems have a direct stable, cat euthanasia decreased edness” to other species and indi- impact on the intake and disposi- slightly, and the numbers of spay/ viduals (B. Smythe, R.N., prison tion of cats in shelters around the neuter cat surgeries exceeded euth- employee, personal communication country. Feral cats themselves may anasias for the first time. One six- with Warden A. Calderon, n.d.). be brought into shelters, where block residential area had a greater they are often euthanized, some- than 50 percent decrease in com- times after being held for several plaints following implemention of What Has Been days. The offspring of feral cats may TNR. An additional benefit was a Achieved with TNR be brought to shelters as well. significant improvement in the rela- Some of these offspring may be Many resources are now available tionship between animal-control adoptable, adding to the numbers of around the country to implement officers and the community and cats needing homes. However, some TNR programs. Many websites have higher morale among the officers. will be euthanized due to disease or written materials that can be Creativity is imperative when lack of socialization or because they downloaded and shared. Others trying to solve the feral cat prob- are too young to be adopted and no have videotapes, links to other use- lem. The World Society for the Pro- foster home is available. Adoptions ful websites, and advice on starting tection of Animals (WSPA)as of of colony kittens can contribute to new grass-roots groups. Many or- 2005 had a program at the Shera- problems in the community if the ganizations are beginning to ton Rio Hotel in Rio de Janiero, new owners do not sterilize their assemble comprehensive educa- Brazil. Because many cats are at- pets. It is also clear that discus- tional materials to make teaching tracted to the resort area and sions surrounding TNR and its and learning about TNR easier. For many visitors wish to feed them, implementation help shape soci- example, the Neighborhood Cats the cats could have become a prob- ety’s views of and reactions to TNR kit provides all necessary edu- lem. The solution was to set up the unowned cats. The discussion opens

Feral Cats: An Overview 51 the door to new ideas beyond cats in the minds of the public, to 65–73. euthanasia of cats or other animals change people’s behaviors so that Cohen, A. 1992. Weeding the gar- to control their population or deal it is no longer acceptable to leave den. The Atlantic Monthly, with homeless animals. We are cats behind or allow them outside November, 76–86. beginning to ask not why we should without identification or steriliza- Courchamp, F., M. Langlais, and G. care about feral cats but rather how tion, and to provide the public with Sugihara. 1999. Control of rab- we can make a difference. the knowledge and impetus to help bits to protect island birds from cats who appear to be homeless. cat predation. Biological Conser- Finally, those in the animal-care vation 89:(2) 219–225. The Future field must provide communities Fitzgerald, B.M., and D.C. Turner. There is an ever-increasing body of with the knowledge and resources 2000. Hunting behaviour of knowledge being produced and to help cat owners trying to do domestic cats and their impact published about feral cats. right by their own cats and by on prey populations. In The Researchers’ long-term, detailed, homeless or feral cats in their Domestic cat: The biology of its follow-up study of feral cat colonies neighborhoods. behaviour, ed. D.C. Turner and P. using several different control Bateson, 151–175. New York: methods conducted in North Car- Note Cambridge University Press. olina was published in the Journal 1Kittens younger than about eight weeks are Fitzgerald, B.M., and J.A. Gibb. of the American Veterinary Medical generally the easiest to socialize. Kittens 2001. Introduced mammals in a older than this may or may not socialize well Association in 2004. Three articles within a few days to weeks. Adult cats may New Zealand forest: Long-term report on disease frequency in pet need a few days’ “cooling off” before they can research in the Orongorongo and feral cats (Nutter et al. 2004); be definitively assessed as feral. Many previ- Valley. Biological Conservation ously owned cats when trapped and transport- reproduction and survival of kittens ed may seem unsocialized, but with time they 99: 97–108. in feral colonies (Nutter, Levine, return to their former socialized status. Adult Hughes, K.L., and M.R. Slater. and Stoskopf 2004a); and live trap- feral cats can be socialized on occasion, but 2002. Implementation of a feral the process requires great care and commit- ping efficiency of feral cats (Nutter, ment since these cats are often terrified cat management program on a Levine, and Stoskopf 2004b). A sci- and/or aggressive and generally require university campus. Journal of entific chapter on feral cats, with months to years of effort before they become Applied Animal Welfare Science socialized, if ever. They may also only be emphasis on the international per- friendly with one or two people they know 5: 15–27. spective, is included in The Welfare well. Adult feral cats in managed colonies may Hughes, K.L., M.R. Slater, and L. of Cats (Rochlitz 2005). An in- become more social with time, sometimes to Haller. 2002. The effects of im- the point where they are adoptable. This is depth and carefully crafted re- another means by which colony size may be plementing a feral cat spay/ search project in Auburn, Alabama, decreased over time. neuter program in a Florida comparing feline activities and ter- county animal control service. ritories before and after TNR will be Journal of Applied Animal Wel- completed and published in the Literature Cited fare Science 5: 285–298. near future. And a project to study Anonymous. 2002. Alley Cat Johnson, K., and L. Lewellen. the population dynamics of free- Action, Spring, 1. 1995. San Diego County: Survey roaming owned and feral cats as of Beran, G.W., and M. Frith. 1988. and analysis of the pet popula- 2004 had just begun in a communi- Domestic animal rabies control: tion. San Diego: San Diego Cat ty in Texas. An overview. Reviews of Infec- Fanciers, Inc. Impressive strides have been tious Diseases 10: S672–S677. Johnson, K., L. Lewellen, and J. made in bringing the plight of feral Berkeley, E.P. 1990. Feral cats. Cat Lewellen. 1993. Santa Clara cats to public view and into the sci- Fancy, July, 20–27. county’s pet population. San Jose, entific and animal protection are- ———. 2004. TNR past, present, Calif.: National Pet Alliance. nas. TNR can now be considered as and future. Washington D.C.: Levy, J.K., and P.C. Crawford. 2004. an alternative to doing nothing or Alley Cat Allies. Humane strategies for control- to euthanasia for feral cats cur- Bester, M.N., J.P. Bloomer, R.J. van ling feral cat populations. Jour- rently in communities. Yet commu- Aarde, B.H. Erasmus, P.J.J. van nal of the American Veterinary nities must grapple with the chain Rensburg, J.D. Skinner, P.G. Medical Association 225(9): of events that results in establish- Howell, and T.W. Naude. 2002. A 1354–60. ment of feral cat colonies, particu- review of the successful eradica- Levy, J.K., D.W. Gale, and L.A. larly the initiating event, the delib- tion of feral cats from sub- Gale. 2003. Evaluation of the erate abandonment or accidental Antarctic Marion Island, South- effect of a long-term trap-neuter- loss of companion cats. They must ern Indian Ocean. South African return and adoption program on find ways to increase the value of Journal of Wildlife Research 32: a free-roaming cat population.

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