Digital Marine Osteoarchaeology - the Problematization of Bodies and Bones in Water

Department of Archaeology and Ancient History

Digital marine osteoarchaeology - the problematization of bodies and bones in water

Matilda Fredriksson

Master's thesis, 45 ECT's, spring 2017 Uppsala University Campus Gotland Supervisor: Sabine Sten Co-Supervisor: Johan Rönnby

Cover photo of the diver and photographer Ingemar Lundgren at the Gribshunden site by the author.

All pictures and illustrations in this thesis are by the author unless anything else is stated.

ABSTRACT

Fredriksson, M. 2017. Digital marine osteoarchaeology: the problematization of bodies and bones in water Fredriksson, M. 2017. Digital marinosteoarkeologi: problematiseringen om kroppar och ben i vatten

This master's thesis is intended as a foundation for further development of methods for digital marine osteoarchaeology. The main purpose of this thesis was to examine and problematise the process of locating, documenting, and analyzing skeletal remains in marine archaeological, and other hard to reach sites. Three forms of osteological analysis' was performed and assessed: one based on analysis of physical skeletal remains, another based on 2D documented skeletal remains, and a third on analysis on 3D reconstructed skeletal remains. The secondary purpose of this thesis was to problematise the taphonomic effects on bodies, body parts, and bones in marine environments, necessary for the evaluation of the different methods. The analysis' has been conducted on source material provided by the research projects for the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, the National Maritime Museum of Sweden, the Sandby Borg project, and the Çatalhöyük project. In addition, a test was carried out, with eight volunteer osteology students at Campus Gotland, Uppsala University, during a seminar exercise. The results collected through the osteological analysis' performed on the three different formats and the students osteology exercise could be used in order to highlight a variation of data available in the different formats. The results was then used in order to create a basis for future digital documentation methods that may be applied in the field. The secondary aim of this thesis was addressed through the use of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden as case examples in order to address the limited amount of skeletal remains located so far at the marine archaeological sites.

Denna master uppsats är ämnad som grund för vidare utveckling av metoder för digital marinosteoarkeologi. Det huvudsakliga syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka och problematisera problemen kring at lokalisera, dokumentera, och analysera skeletala kvarlevor vid marinarkeologiska, och andra svåråtkomliga lokaler. Tre olika slags osteologiska analyser utfördes: en baserad på analyser av skeletala kvarlevor, en annan baserad analyser av 2D dokumenterade skeletala kvarlevor, och en tredje baserat på analyser av 3D rekonstruerade skeletala kvarlevor. Det sekundära syftet uppsatsen var att problematisera den tafonomiska påverkan på kroppar, kroppsdelar, och ben i marina miljöer, nödvändiga för utvärderingen för de olika metoderna. Analyserna har utförts på källmaterial som tillgängliggjorts genom forskningsprojekten för skeppen Mars och Gribshunden, Statens Maritima Museer i Sverige, Sandby borg projektet, och Catalhöyük projektet. Utöver detta har även en studie utförts tillsammans med åtta frivilliga osteologistudenter vid Campus Gotland, Uppsala Universitet, under en seminarieövning. Resultaten som samlades in genom de osteologiska analyserna av de tre olika källmaterialen och student studien användes för att kunna understryka den datavariation som fanns tillgänglig för de olika källmaterialen. Resultaten användes för att skapa en grund för framtida digitala dokumentationsmetoder som kan appliceras i fält. Det sekundära syftet med studien besvarades genom att använda skeppen Mars och Gribshunden som exempel för att kunna diskutera den begränsade mängden skeletala kvarlevor som hittills hittats vid de marinarkeologiska lokalerna.

Master's thesis in Archaeology with focus in osteology 45 ECT's. Supervisor: Sabine Sten. Co- Supervisor: Johan Rönnby. Ventilated and passed [June 2nd 2017] © Matilda Fredriksson. Uppsala University Campus Gotland, Cramér gatan 3, 621 57 Visby, Sweden. Keywords: Digital marine osteoarchaeology; Marine archaeology; Marine osteology; Osteoarchaeology; Bioarchaeology; Birka; Mars; Gribshunden; Mary Rose; Sandby borg; Çatalhöyük; Marine osteoarchaeology; Animal remains; Human remains; Taphonomy; Fluvial transport.

Acknowledgments

A great thank you to...

My supervisor Sabine Sten, professor at Uppsala University Campus Gotland, for all the help and support that you have given me through the years. You showed me the world of marine osteoarchaeology, and through this you helped me find a way to combine two of the things that fascinate me the most, osteology and digital photography. For this and much more, I am forever grateful.

My co-supervisor Johan Rönnby, professor at Södertörn University, for all the help and support you have given me through the years. You did not only invite me into the world of marine archaeology, but you also showed me that research may be an adventure when part of a good team.

The project groups for the research projects for the naval ships Mars (1564) and Gribshunden (1495), for letting me be a part of these two amazing projects. You have all taught me so much, and I look forward to many more exciting and lucrative meetings with you in the future.

All the archaeology and osteology teachers at Uppsala University Campus Gotland, and the archaeology teachers at the masters program at Uppsala University, for passionately guiding us students through the wonderful world of archaeology, for all the hours of hard work that you do, and for never leaving a question unanswered.

Nina Eklöf, marine archaeologist at the Swedish Maritime Museum, for inviting me to the maritime Birka project, as well as supporting and aiding me in my search of taphonomic changes in the animal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka.

Anneli Ekblom, PhD, Uppsala University, for all the advice and support you have given me, concerning my thesis, during the last two years.

Ian Hodder, professor at Stanford University, USA, for the lucrative discussion concerning my thesis work and for providing me with articles concerning the digital documentation at Çatalhöyük, as well as granting me access to part of your digital material.

Scott Haddow, PhD, Editing assistant at Stanford University, USA, for providing me with both answers and articles concerning the digital documentation at Çatalhöyük, as well as granting me access to part of your digital material.

Alex Hildred, PhD, at the Mary Rose museum, England, for granting me access to the collection, answering my questions concerning the remains and their taphonomic conditions, and for the discussions concerning future possibilities.

Simon Ware, Collectors assistant at the Mary Rose museum, England, for granting me access to the collection and answering my questions concerning the remains and their taphonomic

conditions.

Max Jahrehorn, conservator at Oxider AB, for the long and interesting discussions concerning the disintegration and taphonomic effects on human bodies and skeletal remains in marine environments.

Fredrik Gunnarsson, archaeologist at Kalmar Länsmuseum, for providing me access to the digital documentation from the Sandby borg project.

Fredrik Svanberg, head of the Swedish Maritime Museum's dive unit, for granting me continued access to the animal skeletal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka.

Jhonny Therus, PhD student at Uppsala University, for the lucrative discussions concerning the use of the digital documentation collected at the Sandby borg site, as a comparative material for my thesis.

Leena Drenzel, first curator at the Swedish History Museum, for letting me use the Swedish History Museum's reference collection and aiding me with the species assessment for some of the more complicated bone elements.

Jim Hansson, marine archaeologist at the Swedish Maritime Museum's dive unit, for the lucrative discussions concerning the possibilities of applying the digital method in both archaeological and forensic contexts.

Clara Alfsdotter, PhD student at Grasca and archaeologist at Bohuslän museum, for all the support and discussions concerning the skeletal remains at the Sandby borg excavation, and advice prior to my visit at the Mary Rose museum.

The osteology students at Uppsala University Campus Gotland who participated in the osteology students exercise. Thank you all for partaking in the study and adding valuable data to my research.

The 'Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet in Uppsala Enequistska medlen' for granting me a travel scholarship, and making my visit to the Mary Rose Museum in Portsmouth, England, possible.

My friends and family, for all the love and support you've given me during the last five years.

You are the wind in my sails, and the light that guides me home.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 9 1.1 Purpose ...... 9 1.2 Research questions ...... 10 2. SOURCE CRITICISM AND DELIMITATION ...... 12 2.1 Digitally documented 2D and 3D skeletal remains ...... 12 2.2 Physical skeletal remains...... 13 2.3 The osteology students exercise ...... 13 2.4 Literature limitations ...... 13 3. BACKGROUND ...... 15 3.1 The naval ship Mars, Baltic Sea, Sweden ...... 15 3.2 The naval ship Gribshunden, Ronneby, Sweden ...... 16 3.3 Maritime Birka, Uppland, Sweden ...... 17 3.4 Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, Turkey ...... 18 3.5 Sandby borg, Öland, Sweden ...... 19 3.6 The naval ship Mary Rose, Portsmouth, England ...... 20 3.7 Previous research ...... 21 4. MATERIAL ...... 23 4.1 The skeletal remains of the naval ship Mars ...... 23 4.2 The skeletal remains of the naval ship Gribshunden ...... 23 4.3 The skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka ...... 24 4.4 The skeletal remains of Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, Turkey -3D ...... 24 4.5 The skeletal remains of Sandby borg, Öland, Sweden - 3D ...... 24 4.6 The skeletal remains of the naval ship Mary Rose, England...... 25 4.7 The osteology students exercise ...... 26 4.8 Human and animal remains in marine environments ...... 26 5. THEORY ...... 27 6. METHOD ...... 28 6.1 Osteological analysis ...... 28 6.2 Literature review ...... 29 6.3 The osteology student exercise ...... 29 7. RESULTS ...... 30

8. DISCUSSION ...... 67 9. CONCLUSIONS ...... 77 10. SUMMARY ...... 78 11. FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 79 12. REFERENCES ...... 81 APPENDIX 1: Bone list ...... 85 APPENDIX 2: The osteology students exercise ...... 210 APPENDIX 3: General taphonomy, and bodies and bones in water...... 225

1. INTRODUCTION

This thesis is a continuation of a study that was initiated in my bachelor's thesis The skeletal remains of the naval ship Mars: An osteological pre-study for analysing digitally documented skeletal remains in a marine context (Fredriksson, 2015). The aim of the bachelor's thesis was to lay the ground for future osteological analysis of the skeletal remains of the naval ship Mars. The purpose of this master thesis, is to further examine the possibilities of using digital documentation to analyse skeletal remains in marine environments. I also address how to create a work method applicable in the field. A taphonomic understanding is crucial for assessing different field methods, therefore, I also study the taphonomic effects of human and animal remains focusing on the disintegration of bodies and bones in marine environments. The study includes: fluvial transport of bodies, body parts, and separate bone elements in marine environments, as well as the absorption of foreign substances in bone tissue. The discussion concerning the fluvial transport is also connected to the limited amount of documented skeletal remains at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. The study was based on both physical skeletal remains, digitally documented 2D remains, and 3D reconstructed skeletal remains. As a part of the study I have also carried out a student osteology exercise where a group of osteology students performed osteological analysis' on ten bone elements in both physical and digital 2D format. The skeletal remains used in the osteology students exercise consist of fragmented animal bones from the training materials in the osteological laboratory of Uppsala University Campus Gotland. The other physical remains discussed here consist of the animal skeletal remains from the 2014 excavation at the Viking Age harbour of Birka, Sweden, and a selection of human skeletal remains of the naval ship Mary Rose, England. The digitally documented 2D skeletal remains were collected through the use of ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) and divers with handheld cameras at the sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden in the Baltic Sea, Sweden, through the use of remote sensing documentation. The 3D reconstructions were based on the image material of skeletal remains collected during the terrestrial excavations of Sandby borg, Sweden, and Catalhöyük, Turkey. The terrestrial 3D image material of the human skeletal remains were added as a contribution to this thesis in order to allow for further discussion concerning the possibilities and limitations of in-situ 3D reconstructions of skeletal remains as source of data collection through the use of an osteological analysis.

1.1 Purpose The primary focus of this thesis is to further examine the possibilities and limitations of digital marine osteoarchaeology, and create a field methodology, through comparison of the amount and form of data that may be collected through the use of different types of source material. Underwater excavations are, just like conservation, expensive. Occasionally, the marine archaeological sites are placed too deep or contain artefacts or remains that are too fragile to collect, at such sites it would be ideal to be able to collect as much information as possible without disrupting the site. The development of the work method is based on the comparisons between the three types of source material, the physical skeletal remains, the 2D

documented skeletal remains, and the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains, in order to contrast the information available to the osteologist through the different formats. In order to be able to assess these different techniques with a sufficient amount of empirical studies from a wide range of contexts are included, not only marine archaeological sites (the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, the Viking Age harbour of Birka), but also some terrestrial sites (Çatalhöyük and Sandby borg). The comparison between the collected data from the performed osteological analysis presented here provide a basis for development of the documentation method, based on the represented osteological features available to the osteologist through the two forms of image material, 2D and 3D. In addition I have also tested results of identification using physical skeletal remains and photo imaging in a test group of students to further assess the different methods. The comparison of the information collected through the different formats may, therefore, be used in order to determine how skeletal remains preferably should be documented at marine archaeological sites in order to collect as much information as possible. It has become clear in the research process that there is a need for a greater understanding and acknowledgement of the taphonomic processes. A secondary aim of this thesis has, therefore, been to present and discuss the taphonomic effects of human and animal skeletal remains in marine environments. This in order to create a greater understanding of how bodies and bones are transported in fluvial systems, and how this affects the amount of skeletal remains visible or present at the marine archaeological sites for the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. These factors are of great importance within the context of digital marine osteoarchaeology since the understanding of how bodies are transported may allow researchers to pinpoint certain areas in the marine system where it is more or less likely to discover skeletal remains. The study of taphonomic effects of human and animal remains in marine environments is also done in order to create a greater understanding of how skeletal remains absorb foreign substances in the bone tissue. A greater understanding of how the bone tissue is affected by the marine environment may provide the researchers with additional information of the skeletal remains during an osteological analysis of both physical and digitally documented skeletal remains. In the end of the thesis a recommendation for designing a documentation strategy and photographic documentation is also given resulting from the study presented in this thesis.

1.2 Research questions To summarise from the above I here address the following three main research questions:

- How do the collected data differ between a physical, 2D, and a 3D osteological analysis? - How should the skeletal remains preferably be documented at the site in order to retrieve as much information as possible? - How are bodies and skeletal remains affected by the marine environment? And how may this explain the lack of located skeletal remains at the sites?

The first research question was formulated in order to discuss and assess the quality of information available to the osteologist on the basis of three different methodologies: analysis' based on 2D documented skeletal remains, and analysis' on 3D reconstructed skeletal remains. The second research question was formulated as a consequence of the results presented in the first research question. The aim is here to formulate a recommendation for the basis of a documentation method for skeletal remains at marine archaeological sites. The third research question is also an outcome of the results of the analysis' carried out connected to research question 1. The research question was formulated in order to problematise how bodies, body parts, and bone elements are affected by the marine environment. To answer this question I

have had to compile a lengthy review as marine taphonomic processes in themselves are an under researched field within archaeology. Some of the review has been placed in the appendix. In the thesis text the aim is to explore how taphonomic factors may explain the limited amount of skeletal remains at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden.

2. SOURCE CRITICISM AND DELIMITATION

2.1 Digitally documented 2D and 3D skeletal remains Most of the digital documentation performed at the marine archaeological sites (the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden) where collected by non-archaeology/osteology trained divers. The lack of archaeological/ osteological training may be an important factor that affected how the divers searched for and documented the bone elements at the site. The image material collected during the first field season was taken with the aim to document the wreckage and the surrounding site, and did, therefore, not focus specifically on the documentation of specific objects. The skeletal remains documented during the field season of 2015 were collected before the author had been contacted by the project group (the research project for the naval ship Mars) and was, therefore, documented from a limited amount of angles and without a measuring stick. The documented skeletal remains of the naval ship Mars have been documented in two different formats, film and photography, where the photography has been performed in two different ways. The majority of the images containing bone elements or possible bone elements are images where the diver has not actively documented the specific bone element, but has instead by chance taken pictures where bones or possible bones happen to be in the surrounding area. A small amount of bone elements, and possible bone elements, were documented according to the instructions given to the divers by the author during a presentation at the base camp for the 2015 naval ship Mars (1564) examinations. The instructions included the placing of a measuring stick near the bone element in order to create a size reference applicable in the osteological analysis. Recommendations were also given as to documentation angles and amount of images. The divers were urged to document the bone elements from above, as well as from all sides, and to collect as many different images as possible of each bone element in order to ensure that as many osteological characters would be available to the osteologist during the analysis in the laboratory. A large amount of the image material was also collected for other purposes than to perform a digital osteological analysis, such as in the case of the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains at the sites Catalhöyük, Turkey, and Sandby borg, Öland, Sweden, and were included here for comparison. Most bone elements at the Mars site were not discovered until the image material was thoroughly examined. This because of the specific diving conditions at the site where the divers had a hard time locating the skeletal remains due to limited access to light and the marine sediment cover at the site. Unfortunately, the skeletal remains located in 2014 could not be relocated at the site in 2015. It is, therefore, possible that either the bones and/or the marine sediment had been swooped around the seabed, or carried off by undercurrents. The author of this thesis was present as an osteoarchaeologist during the archaeological excavation at Sandby borg, Kalmar County Museum, in 2015 and assisted the main osteologist, Clara Alfsdotter, during the collection of the individual referred to as individual 2 in this thesis. The author has, therefore, knowledge of some of the osteological characters not visible in the digital 3D reconstruction of the individual. This information has not been included in this thesis since the purpose of the analysis of the digitally 3D reconstructed individuals at the Sandby borg site, is to underline the amount of information available in the actual image material, not in the ocular information collected by the author during the

collection and handling of individual bone elements during the collection process at the site. It is, therefore, important to underline that the author has previous knowledge of the age and sex of the analysed individual.

2.2 Physical skeletal remains The majority of the physical skeletal remains from the Viking Age harbour of Birka was analysed without the use of a physical reference collection. This since the Swedish Maritime Museum did not have access to an osteological reference collection. The bone elements were, therefore, instead compared to a number of articles and reference books of human and animal remains. Some of the bone elements were, however, analysed in the osteological reference collection at the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm. The skeletal remains studied at the Mary Rose museum, Portsmouth, England were picked based on their exposure to foreign substances in-situ. A small selection was made for this thesis and may, therefore, not be seen as representative for all the skeletal remains at the site.

2.3 The osteology students exercise The osteology students at Uppsala University Campus Gotland analysed animal skeletal remains in both physical and documented form (in printed digital pictures) and the results differs to a large extent between the students. The student trial was intended be performed individually, the results of the study do, however, indicate that the students discussed the different bone elements amongst themselves. Student assessments of one of the specific bone elements concur with the students seating in the two joint rooms, region A and B, in the laboratory. The results from their analysis of both the image material and the physical bone elements show that there was some discussion among the students. Sheets 1-2 were collected first in area B, whereas sheets 3-7 were collected in area A, sheet 8 had been left by a student on a table in area B instead of handed in at the assigned desk and was, therefore, collected last and given the number 8. Bone 10, a horse femur, was during the analysis of the image material determined as the bone element as a large bovine femur by students 3, 4, 5, to small bovine femur by students 6,7. All these students were seated in region A. The three students, 1, 2, and 8, seated in region B, determined the bone to be horse (Equus caballus) femur. The physical analysis of the same bone element resulted in a slight change of species assessment. Here students 1,2,6,7, and 8 determined the bone element to be a horse femur and students 3, 4, and 5, determined the bone to a large bovine femur. Meaning that the students who determined the bone element to belong to a small bovine changed their answer concerning species from small bovine to horse. These students were seated in region A. The species determination divide between region A and B during the digital analysis of bone 10 may be of chance, but since this is an unknown factor it is of great importance to underline this as a possible contributing factor. The collected data is, therefore, unfortunately, not representative of the individual interpretations of each bone element. However, since the image material was analysed prior to the physical skeletal remains it may be possible to draw some form of conclusion regarding the different analysis methods as will be discussed further below.

2.4 Literature limitations There is a limited knowledge concerning taphonomic processes. There are a few books 13

focusing on the theme, but most information can be retrieved from forensic articles, some of which represent archaeological perspectives. Most do, however, focus on modern forensic cases (Sorg, et al. 2006:567). Anderson and Bell (2016) underline in their article Impact of marine submergence of decomposition of Carrion that the knowledge of taphonomic effects of human bodies in water is rather limited. Most research of human remains have been conducted in terrestrial environments, whereas the marine environments have remained rather unexplored. Some observations have been done on the decomposition of marine animals, the taphonomic effects do, however, differ from the ones that have been noted on terrestrial mammals of humans or human sized animals placed in a marine context (Anderson & Bell, 2016:2). For this reason and because of the limited knowledge on marine taphonomic processes, a discussion on taphonomic processes is included here.

3. BACKGROUND

Since several forms of source materials and sites have been used as a basis for this master's thesis, each material and site is be presented separately through a short presentation based on some of the most important factors relevant to this thesis. A short summary of the previous research is also presented in this chapter.

3.1 The naval ship Mars, Baltic Sea, Sweden The naval ship Mars was found, in the Baltic Sea at a depth of sixty-five to seventy-five meters (Eriksson, et al. 2011:5), north east of the Island of Öland, Sweden, by Ocean Discovery in the summer of 2011. The wreckage was examined in October the same year (Rönnby, et al.. 2013:5) where the identity of the ship was confirmed through an assessment of markings found on one of the large cannons located at the site (Eriksson, et al. 2011:15). Further archaeological surveys were conducted in the summers of 2012, 2013, 2014, and 2015, where sonar, ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle), and divers with handheld cameras were used in order to document the wreck and any possible artefacts and remains at the site (Rönnby, et al. 2013:5; Eriksson, 2015:5; Eriksson & Rönnby, 2017:94). Three silver coins were located and salvaged during the second archaeological survey (Rönnby, et al.. 2013:5) and two canons and several wooden structures were collected during the third archaeological survey in order to evaluate possible future preservation methods (Eriksson, 2015:5). The ship sank due to an explosion in the fore ship where the black powder was stored (Smirnov, 2009:106).

Fig 1 The naval ship Mars, Mosaic picture compilation of the wreckage. Photo by Tomasz Stachura

3.2 The naval ship Gribshunden, Ronneby, Sweden The naval ship Gribshunden, also known as the Griffon, was located at the depth of approximately 9 meters by sport divers near the island Stora Ekön, Sweden, in the 1970's but remained undocumented until 2001 when the divers group Doppingarna contacted the Kalmar County Museum (Einarsson & Gainsford, 2007:3; Einarsson, 2008:23; Warming, 2015; Rönnby, 2015:5-7.). Three types of marine archaeological surveys were conducted on the site; an ocular survey, an archaeological investigation, and a sample collection. Further examinations of the site were performed in the autumn of 2006, where a small trench on 100x80x110cm was placed near the keelson of the ship. The excavation revealed finds of ceramics, glass, leather, metal, wood, and animal bones (Einarsson, 2008:37; Warming 2015; Rönnby, 2015:5-7). The surveys at the site then continued in 2013 through a cooperation project between the MARIS Ships at war project, Blekinge Museum, and Kalmar County Museum. The cooperation project was later expanded to include the University of Southampton and the companies MMT (Maritim Mätteknik) and Combat archaeology (Warming, 2015). The figure head of the Gribshunden ship was located in June 2015, and was due to its sensitive position collected through a protective salvage attempt in August 2015. The figure head was then sent to Blekinge museum to await conservation. Further archaeological surveys are to be conducted in cooperation of Blekinge museum, MARIS, MMT, Southampton University, The South Danish University, Kalmar County Museum, the divers club Doppingarna, Deep Sea productions, and several other volunteer colleagues and divers (Rönnby, 2015:6).

Fig 2 Illustration of the Gribshunden wreck in-situ by Niklas Eriksson published in Marinarkeologisk Tidskrift 1. 2016.

3.3 Maritime Birka, Uppland, Sweden The first notes of the presence of a cultural layer in the Björkö strait was made in the mid 1800s but no confirmation was made until the early 1870s when the archaeologist Hjalmar Stolpe collected soil samples from the water area in an attempt to locate trace of amber. The first marine archaeological surveys were, however, not performed until 1957 when the archaeologist Clas Varenius examined the area with the aid of British divers. New surveys were then performed in the years 1969 to 1971 by the Swedish National Maritime Museums and the Stockholm diver community in an attempt to relocate old shore lines and traces of old port structures. They noted the presence of a possible bulwark and collected wood samples that after a 14C analysis indicated that the structure dated back to the 700’s. They also noted the presence of several jetty foundations that could be dated to the 900’s due to their position in relation to previous shore lines. Several minor surveys were performed in the Björkö strait in the 1990’s, and underlined the presence of several different harbours. Further surveys were conducted by the Swedish National Maritime Museum and Södertörn University (MARIS) in the years 2004-2014. The first survey was a preliminary investigation where the marine archaeologists excavated a 1m2 area, and found a 120 cm thick cultural layer, where most of the located finds consisted of wood. The further surveys focused mainly on marine archaeological excavations where six 1m2 areas were excavated in 2010, and resulted in the mapping and further understanding of the formation of the cultural layers at the site. Two trenches on a total of 12m2 were excavated in the years 2011-2012 and recovered a large amount of timber, pikes, two possible stone anchors, and a cultural layer filled with well- preserved organic find material. The surveys continued in the years of 2013 and 2014, where a 6m2 trench was excavated in 2013 and an approximately 6m2 trench was excavated in 2014, as well as the collection of 34 drill samples and three cross sections (Olsson, in prep).

Fig 3 The marine archaeological area examined at the Viking Age harbour of Birka in 2014.

3.4 Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, Turkey The early Neolithic town Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, Turkey, was discovered by British archaeologists in 1958, and was first excavated in the years 1961-1965 and resulted in the discovery of 40 houses, some of which contained wall art, pottery and figurines (Çatalhöyük Research Project site). The remainder of the area remained unexamined until 1993 when Ian Hodder and his team started up their new Çatalhöyük research project (Berglund et al. 2016:434; Catalhöyük Research Project site). In 1998 two new west mound teams continued the research that was started in 1961. The excavations continued in the northern area in the years 2007-2008. In the 2010s the excavations started to become more and more digital. The traditional excavation work continued but new digital methods for documentation and visualisation started to be used (Çatalhöyük Research Project site). The 3D reconstructions at Çatalhöyük were created through the use of regular cameras and the two softwares Meshlab and Photoscan. Each individual was documented with as many as 15-50 images from as many angles as possible in order to create as good a representation of the individual conditions of each individual grave. The aim was to through the use of the documentation avoid the timely task of manual drawings of the graves and limit the amount of exposure of the remains before being collected and sent to an osteological laboratory for further analysis. The 3D reconstructions have mainly been used in order to illustrate the conditions of the site and the placement of individual objects or skeletal remains for several different public purposes. No attempt to analyse the skeletal remains through the use of digital methods have been attempted since the remains were collected at the site (Haddow, 2012).

Fig 4 Illustrative image from the Çatalhöyük site. Photographer: Jason Quinlan. http://server.catalhoyuk.com/netpub/server.np?original=85048&site=catalhoyuk&catalog=catalog

3.5 Sandby borg, Öland, Sweden The Iron Age ring fort of Sandby borg at the eastern coast of the swedish island of Öland is clearly visible in the landscape, and has been examined at several different occasions from the early 1800's to present day, where the main purpose was to examine the ring fort itself (Viberg et al., 2014:414-415). The present day excavations at the ring fort Sandby borg was, however, not initiated until 2010 after the discovery of looting pits during some initial GPR and magnetometer surveys within the fort structure. The looting pits where reported to the Kalmar County Museum who performed a metal detector survey in 2010 prior to their first excavation performed in 2011 (Viberg, et al. 2014:416). The initial archaeological excavation by the Kalmar County Museums archaeological unit showed traces of what turned out to be a massacre that took place in the 400's. Annual excavations are performed with the aid of digital documentation techniques through the project the Digital Sandby borg. A project that includes both 3D reconstructions of the site as well as the web based portal Sandby borg - a digital discovery where the general public is allowed to follow the archaeological excavation in real time. The digital Sandby borg is a cooperation project between the Swedish exhibition agency, the south eastern museum archaeological unit at Kalmar County Museum, and Kulturmiljö Halland (Gunnarsson, et al. 2016:6-7).

Fig 5 Drone photograph of the Sandby borg site. Photographer: Sebastian Jakobsson – Kalmar County Museum. http://www.sandbyborg.se/bilder

3.6 The naval ship Mary Rose, Portsmouth, England Mary Rose sank in the salty strait of the Solent, in the Atlantic sea, in 1545 (Stirland, 2013:2, 66-67), was rediscovered in 1971 and salvaged in 1982 (Bell, et al. 2009:167). The first plans to raise the Mary Rose was, however, formed in 1545, and resulted in a partial recovery of the ships rigging, sails, and yards, whereas the remainder of the ship was locked into the deep sediments at the seabed due to its rapid sinking and the sweeping tides of the Solent. Several attempts were made in the following years but none fully successful until 1982 (Stirland, 2013:6). The wreckage of the Mary Rose was located approximately one kilometre of shore, and was due to the sweeping tides of the Solent, both covered and macerated by the silt that was swooped along with it (Stirland, 2013:66-67). The silt was of a fine grey character, and is one of the contributing factors for the good preservation conditions at the site (Stirland, 2013:71; Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29.). The skeletal remains were lifted from the site immediately after the excavation and was sent to be put in rinsing baths, desalination. No human skeletal remains were left on the seabed (Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29). The human skeletal remains located at the site had been placed in netting bags (Stirland, 2013:71), marked with a human bone number (Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29), during the excavation and underwent a desalting process where the bones were placed in four different baths, each for one week, before being placed to dry (Stirland, 2013:71). The desalination process was highly prioritised (Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29). Once dried they

were numbered and sent to an osteologist for analysis (Stirland, 2013:71).

Fig 6 Documentation image of the Mary Rose wreckage after being salvaged from the seabed in 1982. Photographer: The Mary Rose Museum. Collected from http://www.maryrose.org/discover-our-collection/story-of-the-ship/image-galleries/ on may 15 2017. [Usage of the image in this thesis work has been approved by the Mary Rose Trust]

3.7 Previous research Digital marine osteology is a new field and there is, therefore, a very limited amount of previous research to be listed. Information concerning the taphonomic processes affecting human and animal bodies and skeletal remains have mainly been compiled from forensic taphonomic literature due to the limited amount of research within the field of marine archaeology. A digital osteological analysis was performed on the digitally documented skeletal remains of the naval ship Mars in the spring of 2015. The results of the analysis underlined that it was possible to collect osteological data through the use of image material as source material. Only four bone elements were distinct enough to be used for an osteological analysis. The bone elements consisted of a right human femur from an individual with the minimum age of 22, and showed possible trace of trauma in the knee region. The three other bone elements were determined to make up the right hip of a pig. The bone elements were determined to a femur, a tibia, and the right side of a pelvis (coxae). The pig femur showed signs of trauma probably related to the butchering process, and a discolouration possibly connected to absorption of foreign substances in the marine sediments or from exposure to 21

fire (Fredriksson, 2015:16). There is today a digitalisation project, referred to as the Digital Tudors project, between the Mary Rose museum and Swansea University, where photogrammatry is used in order to create 3D reconstructions of human skeletal remains in their collections. These 3D reconstructions are then sent out to different institutions for osteological analysis' of the digital reconstructions. The collected data is then sent back to the Digital Tudors project in order to be compiled and evaluated as an analysis method (http://www.maryrose.org/virtual- tudors-project/). There has been very little research concerning the human and animal skeletal remains in marine contexts. The majority of research within this field has, however, focused on the taphonomic processes that affect skeletal remains at marine archaeological sites, but hardly any research has been done concerning the factors that affect the bodies before they are fully skeletonised. Some research has been done, but the researchers themselves stress the lack of previous research in the field (Sorg, et al. 2006:567; Anderson & Bell, 2016:2). It is, therefore, of great importance to underline the importance to problematise the taphonomic affects of human and animal bodies in marine archaeological environments. The majority of the research that has been performed has mainly been based on hard cases, for human remains, and experimental cases, for animal remains (Sorg, et al. 2006:567-568; Anderson & Bell, 2016:2). This means that there is no cheat sheet for the taphonomic effects on human remains in marine contexts, and that the collected data is connected to accidents, homicides, or suicides. This also means that that very few experiments have been made on human remains in a controlled environments, similar to those performed on human remains placed in a terrestrial environments where the human decomposition process may be fully monitored, such as at the University of Tennessee’s Forensic Anthropology Centre (http://fac.utk.edu/) often referred to as the Body farm.

4. MATERIAL

This chapter include the material descriptions of the analysed skeletal remains from the different sites. The chapter also introduce the compilation of taphonomic texts presented in Appendix 3. As the discussion is quite lengthy it has been separated as an appendix, but is introduced in this chapter and forms the basis of the taphonomic discussions presented in the discussion chapter (chapter 8).

4.1 The skeletal remains of the naval ship Mars The skeletal remains documented at the naval ship Mars in 2015 consists of 220 images containing objects that could possibly be bone, as well as 7 confirmed bones. No possible bone elements or confirmed bone elements were documented in the 30 minutes of film material collected in 2015 (for further clarification concerning the possible bone elements see 2.1). For complete amount of image material, images containing possible bone elements and number of confirmed bones see table 1. For complete amount of film material, amount of possible bone elements, and number of confirmed bone elements see table 2.

Table 1 Compilation of image material; possible bones; confirmed bones, at the site of the naval ship Mars in 2014 and 2015

Field season Images Total amount of Number images Number of confirmed images containing possible bones bones 2014 6 X 3 2015 10 942 220 7

Table 2 Compilation of film material; possible bones; confirmed bones, at the site of the naval ship Mars in 2014 and 2015

Field season Film Total hours Number films Number of confirmed containing possible bones bones 2014 18 3 1 2015 0,5 X X

4.2 The skeletal remains of the naval ship Gribshunden The skeletal remains documented at the naval ship Gribshunden in 2016 consists of one possible bone element and one confirmed bone element (table 3 and table 4). Both elements were documented successfully according to the recommendations presented by the author to the divers. The noted possible bone element in table 3 is the same as the one noted as a possible bone element in table 4.

Table 3 Compilation of image material of possible and confirmed skeletal remains at the naval ship Gribshunden at the field season of 2016.

Field season Pictures Total amount of Images Number of possible bones Number of confirmed bones 2016 852 1 1

Table 4 Compilation of film material of possible and confirmed skeletal remains at the naval ship Gribshunden at the field season of 2016.

Field season Film Total amount of film Number of possible bones Number of confirmed bones 2016 31 min 1 X

4.3 The skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka The skeletal remains collected in the Viking Age harbour of Birka in the field season of 2014 consisted of 16 289 grams of macerated dried bone element consisting of 10 593 fragments. The osteological analysis was performed and compiled into an osteological report (See Fredrikson, In. Prep). For the complete amount of bone elements collected in the harbour see table 5. The analysis results from the 2014 osteological analysis are compiled in Appendix 1: Bone lists, this due to the vast amount of information collected during the analysis.

Table 5 Compilation of the collection type, amount of bone elements, and weight of macerated bone elements retrieved at the Viking Age harbour of Birka.

Field season Bones Collection type Amount of bone elements Weight of macerated dried bone elements 2007 Core sample 304 3000 grams 2010 Excavated 864 x 2012 Excavated 87 5335 grams 2014 Excavated 10 593 16 289 grams

4.4 The skeletal remains of Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, Turkey -3D The 3D reconstructed skeletal remains of Çatalhöyük consist of human skeletal remains placed in grave 40. The individual was placed in a foetal position on its back. The 3D reconstructions at Çatalhöyük were created in order to illustrate the conditions at the site and are in this thesis work used in order to illustrate and discuss the possibilities and limitations of 3D reconstructions as source data for an osteological analysis. This in order to underline and discuss the general possibilities and limitations of analysing digitally documented skeletal remains in a terrestrial context to further discuss the possibilities of applying the same work method in a marine context. The human skeletal remains of grave 40 was analysed with the permission of PhD Scott Haddow and Professor Ian Hodder at Stanford University, USA.

4.5 The skeletal remains of Sandby borg, Öland, Sweden - 3D The skeletal remains of Sandby borg used in this thesis consists of two individuals located at the excavations in 2015. Both individuals were found within house 40 together with six other individuals. All eight individuals had been killed at the site, and neither had been buried. The 3D reconstructions were created in order to illustrate the conditions at the site and

are in this thesis work used in order to illustrate and discuss the possibilities and limitations of 3D reconstructions as source data for an osteological analysis. This in order to underline and discuss the general possibilities and limitations of analysing digitally documented skeletal remains in a terrestrial context to further discuss the possibilities of applying the same work method in a marine context. The human skeletal remains of Sandby borg were analyzed with the permission of Fredrik Gunnarsson at Kalmar County Museum, Sweden.

4.6 The skeletal remains of the naval ship Mary Rose, England The documented bone elements consist of a selection of human skeletal remains stored at the Mary Rose Museum. The documented bone elements range from well preserved with limited amount of taphonomic alterations to well preserved and highly taphonomically affected. The collected image material has been sent to the Mary Rose Museum for approval for usage in this thesis work, and stored for future reference connected to the skeletal remains of the analysed individuals. The image material consists of 276 images connected to the individuals and 20 bone elements listed in table 6. Some images have been included in this thesis in order to illustrate the representation of noted taphonomic effects of the skeletal remains of the crew of the Mary Rose. The selected image material includes taphonomic alterations such as salt staining, metal absorption, mineral absorption, and general staining. The selected image material also include image material of well preserved skeletal remains, this in order to underline the contrast between the highly altered bone elements in contrast to the bone elements with very little to none alterations. It is also important to underline that the bone elements were retrieved in a marine context where the sediments consisted of grey silt (Email conversation with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29).

Table 6 The skeletal remains of the crew of the Mary Rose. Compilation of the collected data of taphonomic changes noted for the individual bone elements, as well as information noted during the documentation process.

Additional information Individual #75 LH Archer. Cranium Images 443-467 Taphonomy Discolouration, metal absorption Pathology & Trauma Trauma temporal/occipital. Swimmers ear - Otitis externa Scapula 2 Images 693-719 Taphonomy Metal absorption

Individual #84 Humerus 2 Images 470-481 Scapula 2 Images 482-486 Coxae SIN Images 487-491 Coxae DEX Images 492-500 Ulna 2 (discolouration DEX) Images 501-520 Radius SIN Images 521-530 Radius DEX Images 531-542 Femur DEX Images 543-559 Femur SIN Images 560-574 Tibia SIN Images 575-603 Tibia DEX Images 604-615 Taphonomy Slight staining. Some traces of salt absorption

Individual #14 25

Femur SIN Images 616-628 Coxae DEX Images 629-667 Coxae SIN Images 668-692 Taphonomy Metal and clay mineral absorption

4.7 The osteology students exercise The osteology students exercise was based on ten animal bone elements hand-picked from the practice material available at the osteological laboratory at Uppsala University Campus Gotland. The ten bone elements were documented individually and were placed next to a measuring stick for size reference. The image material was compiled into a work sheet together with the work instructions needed in order to fulfil the task. Each bone element were then given an individual number and placed in an archaeological find box. Each bone number correlated to the collected image material of each bone element (Appendix 2: The osteology student exercise). The osteology students exercise was performed in two stages where the students at the first stage performed an osteological analysis of the image material presented to them in the work sheet, through the use of the osteological reference collection and literature available in the osteological reference collection at Uppsala University Campus Gotland. The students were handed the physical bone elements during the second stage in order to perform a physical osteological analysis of the same bone elements that had previously been analysed based on an image material. The students were allowed to sit in any of the two areas of the osteological laboratory at Uppsala University Campus Gotland. The two areas are here referred to as region A and B. The work sheets were to be collected in a pile at one of the assigned desks in each room, and numbered in the order they were collected, but one work sheet was left at one of the work desks in region B and was, therefore, collected and numbered in a different way than intended. For complete osteological results see Appendix 2: The osteology student exercise: compilation.

4.8 Human and animal remains in marine environments One of the main focuses in this master's thesis is the combination of osteology and forensic science. It is of great importance for osteologists to understand, not only the cause of death of an individual, but how the taphonomic effects of the surrounding environment affect both the process of decomposition, distribution patterns, and the preservation conditions of skeletal remains. Taphonomy is the main key when working with skeletal remains that have been submerged in water for centuries, and is a field that conjoins the forensic sciences with osteoarchaeology in a way where the two fields may learn a lot from each other through combining their experiences and intellectual resources. In order to understand skeletal remains it is, therefore, important to have a greater understanding of what happens at the event of death, during the process of decomposition, and how different environments affect both bodies and bone tissue. It is, therefore, important to form an understanding of general taphonomy during the initial stages after death before striving to understand the taphonomic effects of bodies and bones in marine environments. These factors are, therefore, presented in Appendix 3, and are used for the basis of the discussion concerning bodies and bones in water (Appendix 3: General taphonomy, and bodies and bones in water).

5. THEORY

Osteological analysis' of skeletal remains found in marine archaeological contexts is nothing new, but the approach where digital documentation of skeletal remains left in-situ may be used as a source material for osteological analysis has not previously been tested by others than the author of this thesis. It is, therefore, not possible to position the work in this thesis directly to similar research. It is, however, important to underline that this thesis approach the results collected through the different forms of source material through applying a methodological uniformitarianistic perspective. This based on the idea that what is true today was also true in the past, and that we may only explain the world through the laws of nature as they are dictated by scientists at this point in time (Lyman, 2005:47-48). Through the use of this approach it is possible to discuss how different internal and external taphonomic processes may have affected bodies and skeletal remains in marine archaeological contexts through the use of forensic literature based on modern cases and experiments. Through this perspective it is also possible to apply the debate concerning the perception differences between visual and tactile sensation, where it is highlighted that some materials may appear different in an image than it would in real life (Chen & Chuang, 2014). The two main objectives in this thesis concern which information is available to the osteologist through the different forms of source material, and in extension how the skeletal remains should be documented in order to increase the amount of osteological information available to the osteologist. The second objective is to highlight how bodies and skeletal remains are affected by the marine environment, and in extension how these factors may explain the limited amount of skeletal remains located at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. The taphonomic processes related to bodies and skeletal remains in marine environments were compiled and used as a basis for the discussion in order to attempt to both present a general description of how bodies and skeletal remains are affected by the marine environment, as well as in an attempt to discuss how these factors may have affected the skeletal remains at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. In order to further discuss the taphonomic processes that directly affect the bone tissue, an observational study was performed on the physical skeletal remains of the men of the naval ship Mary Rose, and the animal skeletal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka. In this thesis the skeletal remains are analysed based on the information that may be retrieved from the three different source materials (physical, 2D, 3D), and is used in order to highlight the information available to the osteologist through the three formats. The analysis results may then be compared to each other in order to form a basis for a discussion concerning how skeletal remains preferably should be documented in-situ in order to retrieve as much information as possible during an osteological analysis.

6. METHOD

The theoretical part of this thesis is based on literature including previous research of human and animal remains in marine environments. The literature was here used in order to present how bodies, body parts, and bone elements can be affected by the marine environment both when it comes to fluvial transport, disintegration, and discolouration. This in order to discuss how the located skeletal remains have been affected by the environment, and why only a small amount of skeletal remains have been located at the sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. The practical part of this thesis is based on the observations made on three different formats of skeletal remains: physical; 2D documentation (photographs and film); 3D reconstructions (a three dimensional picture where the viewer may see an object from several different angles through rotating and turning the reconstructed object). The osteological analysis was performed according to the methods listed under heading 6.1. The documentation and collection of data through digital documentation, may also be described through the use of the term remote sensing, where information is collected through non- invasive methods in-situ through either direct ocular observations or photographic documentation (Haralick, 1976:5).

6.1 Osteological analysis The osteological analysis was performed based on morphological characters of the digitally documented skeletal remains, this due to the lack of possibility to measure the different bone elements. The osteological reference collection at Uppsala University Campus Gotland was used for bone element assessment and species identification during the analysis of the digitally documented skeletal remains of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden.

6.1.1 Identification of species Identification of species was performed through the use of the Uppsala University Campus Gotland reference collection, the Swedish History Museum reference collection and the books: Comparative Osteology (Adams & Crabtree, 2012); Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques (Barone, 1976); Atlas of animal bones (Schmidt, 1972); Human and Nonhuman bone identification (France, 2009); Birds (Serjeantson, 2009); Fishes (Wheeler & Jones, 2009).

6.1.2 Bone element assessment Identification of bone elements was performed through the use of the Uppsala University Campus Gotland reference collection, the Swedish History Museum reference collection and the books: Comparative Osteology (Adams & Crabtree, 2012); Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques (Barone, 1976); Atlas of animal bones (Schmidt, 1972); Human and Nonhuman bone identification (France, 2009), Birds (Serjeantson, 2009), Fishes (Wheeler & Jones, 2009).

6.1.3 Age assessment Age assessments for domestic animals are based on epiphyseal closure according to Silver 28

(1969) and tooth wear according to Grant (1982). Age assessment for humans are based on epiphyseal closure according to Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994). Epiphyseal closure occurs at different stages in an individual's life and can, therefore, be used to estimate an approximate age.

6.1.4 Withers height Withers height calculations for domestic animals are based on the greatest length of the talus bones of pigs and sheep according to Teichert (1969).

6.1.5 MNI assessment For this Master's thesis the simple MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals) count based on Gautier (1984) was used in order to estimate the minimum number of individuals documented on the sites of Mars, Gribshunden, and Birka. This through sorting the bone elements into species, bone elements, estimated ages, and then comparing the results to the amount of singular or plural bone element representation for a singular individual.

6.2 Literature review As discussed above. In an attempt to answer the theoretical work questions of this thesis a thematic literature review has been performed. This means that information has been retrieved and compiled (see Appendix 3: General taphonomy, and bodies and bones in water) through the use of literature and video documentation concerning: the fluvial transport of bodies, body parts and bones, the disintegration of human and animal bodies in marine environments (Haglund & Sorg, 2002; Phillipe & Modell, 2005; Nawrocki, et al. 2006; Boyle, et al. 2006;. O´Brien, 2006; Sorg, et al. 2006; Brooks & Brooks, 2006; Lange, 2006; Magnell, 2008; Evans, 2014; Video1, 2015; Video2, 2015; Andersson & Bell, 2016), taphonomy and the absorption of foreign substances in bone tissue (Haglund & Sorg, 2002; Nawrocki, et al. 2006; Higgs & Pokines, 2014; Dupraz and Schultz, 2014) and any additional information these aspects may provide during the osteological analysis.

6.3 The osteology student exercise The osteology student exercise was performed in the spring term of 2016 by eight osteology bachelor students at Uppsala University Campus Gotland, where the students performed osteological analyses on ten different bone elements in both physical and 2D format.

7. RESULTS

This chapter will begin with presenting the osteological analysis results, and then proceed to present the factors affecting human and animal bodies and bones in marine environments.

The osteological analysis results The analysis results differ between the physical, the 2D, and the 3D osteological analysis' for several different reasons. One of the main reasons is that the amount of bone elements represented in each format differs greatly from 10 593 bone fragments at the Viking Age harbour of Birka, to one bone element at the wreckage site of the naval ship Gribshunden. What is, however, important to underline is the type of information that could be retrieved through the use of different forms of osteological source material. One of the factors to take into consideration is the representation of bone elements, some bone elements contain more information about the individual than other bone elements and may be easier to separate from other species than other bone elements. The represented bone element is, therefore, key in the collection of osteological data, and the more bone elements that are documented, the more likely is it that there will exist some bone elements that are more likely to be identified and used for the purpose of age assessment, sexing, or calculations of withers height etc. During the osteological analysis of the animal skeletal remains in the Viking Age harbour of Birka, it stood clear that it was possible to retrieve information such as species, age, withers height, age, side, trauma, and taphonomic changes to the bone tissue. During the osteological analysis of the 2D format digital documentation (the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden) it stood clear that it was possible to retrieve information such as species, bone element, possible trauma, bone elements greatest length, and taphonomic changes to the bone tissue. During the osteological analysis of the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains (Çatalhöyük & Sandby borg) it stood clear that it was possible to retrieve information such as species, bone element, age, sex, trauma, and taphonomic changes to the bone tissue.

The Viking Age harbour of Birka Due to the large amount of bone elements analysed during the osteological analysis of the animal skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka, the results will here be compiled into a short summary in order to highlight the information available to the osteologist during the analysis. The bone element fragments that could be determined to a specific species during the osteological analysis was: Cattle, horse, pig/boar, elk, sheep, goat, badger, fox, dog, fish, and bird. Several bone elements could only be determined as mammal, ungulates, sheep/goat, bovines, cervid, elk/deer (table 7). For species representation in the different cultural layers see Fredriksson (in. prep). Thirteen age assessments could be performed on cattle, based on Silver (1969), where ten of the individuals were younger than four at the time of death. Four of the cows were younger than one and a half year at the time of death. One of the cows were at least one year old, and only one of the cows were older than two and a half years at the time of death (table 8). Two age assessments could be performed on sheep, based on Silver (1969), where one of 30

the sheep were younger than ten months at the time of death, whereas the second sheep was younger than 20-28 months (table 9). Five age assessments could be performed on pig/boar, based on Silver (1969), where three of the pigs/boar were younger than three and a half at the time of death, one pig/boar was older than three and a half to four years old at the time of death, and one was between two to five years old at the time of death (table 10). Two age assessments could be performed on fish, based on the growth rings in three vertebraes. One fish was nine years old at the time of death and the other was eleven years old (table 11). Two sex assessments could be performed on two pigs/boars based on the shape of the tusks. Both individuals were assessed as male and possible male (table 12). Withers height for pig/boar could be assessed on three talus bones based on Teichert (1969), and indicate a withers height ranging between 59-60cm (table 13). Withers height for sheep could be assessed on fourteen talus bones based on Teichert (1969), and indicate a withers height varying between 47,6-61,2cm (table 14). The MIND estimation was based on the simple MNI estimation by Gautier (1984) underline the presence of minimum 46 cattle, 4 boars, 3 elk, 8 sheep, 1 goat, 1 dog, 2 fish, 5 birds. Several traces of butchering in the form of crushed bone tissue, and groves from slicing and cutting the meat off the bones, could be noted on a large portion of the analysed bone elements.

Table 7 fragments and species representation

Species Fragments

Cattle 464

Large mammal 288 Pig/boar 184

Ungulates 173 Cervid 151

Bird 45 Sheep/goat 41 Large Ungulate 26 Cervid/bovine 17

Small mammal 15

Horse 10 Cattle/Cervid 10 Medium mammal 8 Fish 7

Cattle/elk 7

Dog 5 Elk 5

Small Cervid 4 Fox 2

Bovine 2 Goat 1 Badger 1 Elk /deer 1

Table 8 Age assessment Cattle

Species Bone Number of Age element fragments cattle phlnx r2 1 Unfused proximal. Fused distal.. = 0-1 1/4 y cattle phlnx r2 1 Unfused proximal. Fused distal.. = 0-1 1/4 y cattle radius 1 Unfused distal. Younger than 3½ - 4y cattle humerus 2 Unfused distal. Younger than 1-1½y cattle humerus. 1 Unfused proximal. Prox Younger than 3½ till 4y cattle femur 2 Unfused proximal. Younger than 3½y cattle radius. 1 Unfused distal. Younger Distal than 3½ - 4y epifys cattle tibia 1 Fused distal. Older than 2- 2½y cattle phlnx r2 2 Younger than 1½y cattle humerus 1 Unfused distal and proximal. Younger than 3½ - 4y cattle radius 1 Unfused proximal. prox Younger than 3½-4y cattle humerus 2 Unfused distal. Younger than 12-18 months. cattle phlnx r2 1 Fused. Older than 1½y

Table 9 Age assessment Sheep

Species Bone Number of Age element fragments Sheep mt/mc distal 1 Unfused distal. Younger epiphysis than 20-28 months

Sheep humerus 1 Fused distal. Older than 10 months

Table 10 Age assessment Pig/boar

Species Bone element Number of Age fragments Pig/boar radius 1 Fused distal. Older than 3½ - 4y. Pig/boar femur. Distal 1 Unfused distal. Younger than 3½y. Pig/boar mandibula. 1 2-5y. Dentes p4,m1,m4 Pig/boar femur 1 Unfused. Younger than 3½y Pig/boar femur 1 Unfused. Younger than

3½y

Table 11 Age assessment Fish

Species Bone element Number of Age fragments Fish vertebrae 1 9 y Fish vertebrae 1 11 y Fish vertebrae 1 11 y

Table 12 Sex assessment Pig/Boar

Species Bone Number of Sex assessment element fragments Pig/boar dentes:canini 1 Possible male Pig/boar dentes:canini 2 Male

Table 13 Withers height Pig/boar

Species Bone Number of Withers height element fragments Pig/boar talus 1 GL:33mm. Withers height: 59,07cm. Pig/boar talus 1 GL: 33mm. Withers height: 59cm. Pig/boar talus 1 GL: 34mm. Withers height 60cm.

Table 14 Withers height Sheep

Species Bone Number of Withers height element fragments Sheep talus 1 GL:27mm. Withers height: 61,2cm Sheep talus 1 GL: 21. Withers height: 47,6cm. Sheep talus 1 GL: 29mm. Withers height:65cm Sheep talus 1 GL: 22mm. Withers height: 49,8cm. Sheep talus 1 GL:25,5mm. Withers height: 57,8cm Sheep talus 1 GL: 23mm. Withers height: 52,1cm. Sheep talus 1 GL: 26mm. Withers height: 59cm. Sheep talus 1 GL: 22mm. Withers height:49,8cm. Sheep talus 1 GL: 23mm. Withers height: 52,1cm Sheep talus 1 GL: 27mm. Withers height: 61,2cm Sheep talus 1 GL: 24mm. Withers height: 54,4cm Sheep talus 1 GL: 24mm. Withers height: 54,4cm.

Sheep talus 1 GL: 25mm. Withers height: 56,7cm. Sheep Talus 1 GL: 25mm. Withers height: 56,7cm.

The naval ship Mars The osteological data collected from the 2D image material of the documented skeletal remains at the Mars site underline that it is possible to retrieve information such as species, bone element, age, and information concerning the bone elements length, trauma, and the taphonomic effects of the bone tissue. It was, however, not possible to retrieve information concerning withers height, or sex, at this point. This information was unfortunately not available to the osteologist due to the specific bone elements, and/or the partial sediment cover at the site. The specific bone elements were determined to consist of a talus from cattle (fig 7), a sacrum from cattle (fig 8), the proximal end of a radius from cattle (fig 9), and four possible human (fig 10) bones, two possible femurs, and possible two tibias. It is, however, problematic to assess the information needed in order to determine for certain if the objects are human skeletal remains due to the documentation angles. An attempt to collect more image material of the possible human remains were made in the field season of 2015, but the attempt was unfortunately unsuccessful. Through analysis of the cattle talus (fig 7) it was possible to retrieve information concerning both trauma and taphonomic effects on the bone tissue. The noted trauma is likely to be traces of the butchering process, this since only a small fragment of the bone element appear to be missing from its original position (see white arrow, fig 8), and not completely shattered. The taphonomic affects noted on the bone element consist of a discolouration of the bone tissue where the bone appear to have assumed a light brown colour similar to the one of the silt. This through the absorption of foreign substances in the surrounding environment. The bone element is placed on a wooden structure once a part of the naval ship Mars, and is covered by a thin layer of silt blended marine sedimentation (table 15). Through analysis of the cattle sacrum (fig 8) it was possible to retrieve information concerning the length of the bone element, signs of trauma, and taphonomic effects on the bone tissue. The noted length of the bone element was used as one of the osteological factors taken into consideration during the determination of species. The trauma noted in the sacral ala may have been severed during the butchering process in an attempt to divide the cattle's meat prior to the storage aboard the ship. The taphonomic effects noted on the sacrum consists of a discolouration of the bone tissue where the bone element appear to have assumed a light brown colour in the exposed areas, similar to the colour of the silt in the top and left part of the mage. The bone element is, however, to a large extent covered by a light grey, ash-like sedimentation, that appear to be partially spread in the surrounding area. It is likely that the bone element to a large extent may have absorbed this foreign substance into the bone tissue, which would lead to a partial light brown and light grey discolouration of the bone tissue in the covered areas. The light grey sedimentation appear to be fine porous, due to the sunken measuring stick in the picture (table 15). Through analysis of the epiphyseal closure of the proximal end of the cattle radius (fig 9) according to Silver (1969) a minimum age of 12-18 months has been estimated. The estimation is based on the fact that only the proximal end of the radius had been documented and appear to be fully fused. Due to the sediment cover, it has only been possible to document a small part of the bone element, something that has limited the amount of retrievable information during the osteological analysis. The taphonomic effects noted on the radius consists of a discolouration of the bone tissue where the bone element appear to have assumed a light brown colour in the exposed areas, similar to the colour of the surrounding silt in the upper part of the image. This through the absorption of foreign substances in the surrounding 34

environment. The bone element is to a large extent covered by a light grey, ash-grey, sedimentation that appear to be partially spread in the surrounding area. It is likely that the bone element to a large extent may have absorbed this foreign substance into the bone tissue, which would lead to a light grey discolouration of the bone tissue in the covered areas. The light grey sedimentation is likely to be as fine-porous as the light grey sedimentation noted surrounding the cattle sacrum (table 15). The analysis of the possible human long bones, two femurs and two tibias (fig 11), did not result in a large amount of osteological data due to the uncertainty of the species and bone element determination. The taphonomic effects noted on the four bone elements consists of a discolouration of the bone tissue where the bone element appear to have assumed a light brown colour in the exposed areas. The bone elements are, however, to a large extent covered by a part of a wooden structure once a part of the naval ship Mars. Something that limits the amount of information retrievable by the osteologist through an osteological analysis (table 15). The minimum number of individuals (MNI) documented on the site in this particular thesis is at least one possible human, and one cattle. This estimation has been made on the singular bone element representation, as well as the limited amount of information retrieved from each bone element (table 15). The minimum number of individuals documented on the site in the pre-study (Fredriksson, 2015), and this thesis combined is, however, one cattle, one pig, and two possible humans. This due to the representation of three human femurs, whereas the bone elements assessed to cattle and pig consist of singular bone elements.

Fig 7 Cattle Talus. Signs of trauma. Possibly connected to the butchering process. Anatomically the bone is placed in the 35

hind legs. Photo by Kirill Egorov 2015.

Fig 8 Cattle Sacrum. Cannot for sure state if the bones in the sacrum has fused or not. Signs of possible trauma. Photo by Kirill Egorov 2015.

Fig 9 Cattle, proximal radius. Fused epiphyseal closure. Photo by Daniel Tapia 2015.

Fig 10 Seemingly human skeletal remains: femur and tibia. Close ups and pictures from other angles could provide more information. Photo by Ingemar Lundgren.

Table 15 Compilation of the osteological data collected through the digital osteological analysis of the skeletal remains at the naval ship Mars

Photographer / Species Bone Age Length Trauma Taphonomy Image element Kirill Egorov. 5 July Cattle Talus. x x Signs of Light brown. 2015: Mars 2015 62. trauma. Kirill Egorov 7. July Cattle Sacrum. x 26 cm. Signs of Grey sediment 2015: Mars 2015 trauma. cover. Light Items 6. brown. Daniel Tapia. 30 Cattle Proximal Older than x x Grey and light June 2015: Untitled- radius. 12- brown sediment. 128. 18months Light brown. Ingemar Lundgren. Seemingly Probable x x x Light 2015: DSC_4399 + human. femur and brown/grey DSC_4400. tibia. sediment. Light brown. The naval ship Gribshunden Due to the limited amount of digitally documented skeletal remains at the naval ship Gribshunden, only one bone element has been analysed. The represented bone element consists of a non-human distal femur. The analysis of the non-human distal femur (fig 11) did not result in a large amount of osteological data, due to the fragmentation and the cover of silt, algae and other marine vegetation growth in the exposed porous parts of the bone element. The noted trauma on the femur consists of a fractured corpus and epicondyles. The bone element has assumed a dark shade in a similar colour to the underlying silt, and has also been severely overgrown by algae and other marine vegetation. Something that may affect the colouration of the bone due to the shallow depth and the vegetations growth and absorption of the nutritious substances within the bone tissue. It is also noticeable that the bone element appear to have a partly cracked surface around the corpus, something that may be connected both to the fragmentation of the bone element and the taphonomic processes during the decomposition process (table 16). The MNI is estimated to one individual of an undetermined species. The estimation was made based on the singular bone element representation, as well as the limited amount of information retrieved from the analysed bone element (table 16).

Fig 11 Possible distal femur. 16cm. Nonhuman?. Fragmented corpus and epicondyles. Overgrown with algae. Photo by Johan Rönnby 2016.

Table 16 Compilation of the osteological data collected through the digital osteological analysis of the skeletal remains at the naval ship Gribshunden.

Image Species Bone element Length Trauma Taphonomy

P6151370 Non- Distal femur. 16cm. Fragmented Overgrown with algae. Partly Human? corpus and cracked surface. A darker colour epicondyles. similar to the underlying silt.

Çatalhöyük The osteological analysis of 3D reconstructed skeletal remains in grave 40, resulted in the determination of species, bone element, sex, age assessment, trauma, and the taphonomic effects of one human individual (fig 12). Due to the positioning of the cranium is apparent that the individual have been placed directly in a relatively small burial pit and covered with dirt, and perhaps also been wrapped in some kind of pelt or fabric. It is also apparent that the arm bones or legs have not been falling out to the sides, which also indicate that the body has been placed in a fixed position. The placement of the femur, tibia and fibula show that it is apparent that the individual have been placed lying down slightly to the side with drawn up and bent knees. The positioning of the humerus, radius and ulna show that the individual had its arms bent at the elbow and the hands placed on its chest near the neck. It is possible that the body has been partly disarticulated prior to the funeral, this since the femurs position in relation to the coxae: acetabelum. The age assessment was performed through the analysis of the epiphyseal closures of the long bones according to Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994) in White and Folkens (2005), and indicated that the individual was younger than 14½ - 183/4 at the time of death (fig 12, table 17). The sex assessment was performed based on the mandibular angulus (fig 13) according to Petrén (1984), and indicated that the individual carried feminine characters of the jaw line. It is, however, important to underline that the masculine osteological characters develop later 39

in life during puberty, and that the previously stated age span underline the possibility that the individual had not yet reached this stage (table 17). The osteological analysis of this individual also showed a number of fractures of the majority of the identified bone elements (fig 12 - 13). The cranium had been fractured through the parietal bones, the frontal bone, and the maxilla in such a way that it is evident that external force has been a factor, it is, however, unclear if this occurred anti-, peri-, or post- mortem. This means that the identified fracture is due to trauma, and not due to any rendering issues, during the 3D reconstruction, connected to any unfused epiphyseal closures. The mandibula had been fractured along the oblique line (fig 13), and the right (dex): ulna; humerus; femur; tibia; fibula, and the left (sin): femur, and two ribs on the right side of the body had been fragmented in the corpus. The right coxae had been fractured along the anterior gluteal line, and the left tibia had been fractured in both the proximal and the distal end of the corpus. There has also occurred a separation between the lumbar vertebrae during the decomposition process where the vertebraes to a large extent remained articulated but in such a position that it may be note worthy (table 17). The taphonomic effects on the individual bone elements are to a large extent similar. The majority of the bones are coloured in a patchy variation of dark grey to white, with the exception of the ribs (costae) that has more of a light brown undertone. The whiteness of the majority of the bone elements are, however, most likely connected to the absorption of foreign substances from the light grey to white coloured soil (fig 12 - 13), (table 17). The MNI is estimated to one human individual. The estimation was made based on the singular bone element representation, as well as the limited amount of information retrieved from the analysed bone element (table 17).

Fig 12 3D reconstruction at Catalhöyük: Sp40burial. https://p3d.in/ppeZI with additional information added by the author. Light beige-grey soil. The bones appear to have partly absorbed a similar colour in most of the areas [Collected 2015-12- 19].

Table 17 Compilation of the data collected through the digital osteological analysis of the individual in grave 40 at Çatalhöyük

Bone element Age Sex Taphonomy Trauma Others Cranium X X Dark grey to Fractured x DEX white through parietal bones, temporal bones, frontal bone, maxilla, Mandibula X Mandible Dark grey to Fractured x DEX Angulus: white along the Feminine Oblique line Costae DEX X X Light brown Fractured: x tone corpus. 2. Radius DEX Dist: open. X Dark grey to X x white >18-22y Ulna DEX Dist: open. > X Dark grey to Fractured x 14½- 18 3/4 white corpus Humerus Prox: open . X Dark grey to Fractured x DEX white corpus. > 14½-23y Lumbar X X Dark grey to X Articulated vertebrae white but separated. Coxae DEX X X Dark grey to Fractured x white along the anterior gluteal line. Femur DEX Prox: Open. X Dark grey to Fractured x > 14½-23 white corpus years Tibia DEX X X Dark grey to Fractured x white corpus Fibula DEX X X Dark grey to Fractured x white corpus Femur SIN X X Dark grey to Fractured x white corpus Tibia SIN Prox: Open. X Dark grey to Fractured x white proximal and > 16-22 distal end of years corpus Fibula SIN X X Dark grey to X x white

Fig 13 reconstruction at Çatalhöyük: Sp40burial. https://p3d.in/ppeZI with additional information added by the author [Collected 2015-12-19]. Sandby borg The osteological analysis of 3D reconstructed skeletal remains in house 40, resulted in the determination of species, bone element, trauma, and the taphonomic effects of two human individuals and a separate bone element from a cattle (fig 14 - 15). The first individual (fig 14) was positioned laying on its right side with bent legs and slightly bent arms. The individual had not been buried and was relocated within house 40 together with the second individual, and six others that had all been killed and left within the same building. No age or sex assessment could be performed based on the 3D reconstruction of the first individual due to the soil coverage of the distal and proximal ends of the longs bones. The osteological analysis of the first individual showed several traces of trauma and possible trauma. The cranium was heavily fragmented, something that may be the result of the eventual collapse of the building, perhaps even in combination with previous peri-mortem head trauma. The maxilla show possible traces of trauma but are still clearly distinguishable and appear intact at the first glance, both humerus bones do, however, show clear fractures of the corpus. The right (DEX) radius show trace of possible fracture, and the left part of the rib cage (SIN) are clearly fractured, as well as the left (SIN) tibia that contain a clear proximal fracture (fig 14 and table 18). The taphonomic effects on the individual bone elements are to a large extent similar. The majority of the bones are coloured in a patchy variation of dark grey to beige and light grey to beige areas with the exception to the cranium and the maxilla that are mainly medium brown with grey patches (fig 14 and table 18). The second individual (fig 15) was positioned on its back with the weight positioned on the left side of the body. The individual had not been buried and was relocated within house 40 together with the first individual, and six others that had all been killed and left within the same building. A cattle mandible was placed near the right shoulder blade (scapula) of the second individual, and another individual was placed in near proximity of the left tibia of the second individual. No age or sex assessment could be performed based on the 3D reconstruction of the second individual due to the soil coverage of the distal and proximal ends of the longs bones (table 19). The osteological analysis of the second individual showed several traces of trauma and possible trauma. The cranium was heavily fragmented, something that may be the result of the eventual collapse of the building, or perhaps even in combination with previous peri-mortem 43

head trauma. The mandible is not clearly distinguishable in the 3D reconstruction of the second individual. The left humerus is fractured in the distal end of the corpus, whereas the proximal end of the tibia showed traces of trauma. A slight disarticulation has occurred in the vertebrae column, something that may be due to the underlying surface or peri-mortem trauma (fig 15 and table 19). The taphonomic effects on the individual bone elements are to a large extent similar. The majority of the bones are coloured in a patchy variation of dark grey to beige and light grey to beige areas with the exception to both femurs, and tibias that are mainly medium brown with grey patches (fig 15 and table 19).

Fig 14 3D reconstruction at Sandby Borg. Dark grey- brown soil. patches. Example 1: https://sketchfab.com/models/5625e95f9faf4220a825c16e5982785c# with additional information added by the author.

Table 18 Compilation of the data collected through the digital osteological analysis of the individual 1 at Sandby borg

Species Bone element Age Sex Taphonomy Trauma Others Human Cranium X X Medium brown Fractured. Likely Soil coverage with grey crushed under the limiting visibility patches. collapsed of important building features Human Maxilla SIN X X Medium brown Fractured? Soil coverage with grey limiting visibility patches. of important features Human Mandible X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Humerus DEX X X Dark grey to Fractured corpus Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Humerus SIN X X Dark grey to Fractured corpus Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Radius DEX X X Dark grey to Possible trauma Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Radius SIN X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Ulna DEX X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Ulna SIN X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Femur DEX X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Femur SIN X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Coxae DEX X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Coxae SIN X X Dark grey to Fractured ribs Soil coverage 45

beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Tibia DEX X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Tibia SIN X X Dark grey to Proximal fracture Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Fibula SIN X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Pedes Phalanges X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage DEX beige with light limiting visibility grey to beige of important areas features Human Pedes X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage Metatarsals beige with light limiting visibility SIN grey to beige of important areas features

Fig 15 3D reconstruction at Sandby Borg. Example 2: https://sketchfab.com/models/1fdd0e03f0 4d4adfa833074404a2dc6d 47

with additional information added by the author.

Table 19 Compilation of the data collected through the digital osteological analysis of the individual 2 at Sandby borg

Species Bone element Age Sex Taphonomy Trauma Others Human Cranium X X Dark grey to Fractured. Soil coverage beige with Likely limiting visibility light grey to crushed under of important beige areas the collapsed features building Human Scapula SIN X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with limiting visibility light grey to of important beige areas features Human Humerus SIN X X Dark grey to Fractured Soil coverage beige with distal corpus limiting visibility light grey to of important beige areas features Human Radius & X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage Ulna SIN beige with limiting visibility light grey to of important beige areas. features Human Costae X X Dark grey to X Possible beige with disarticulated light grey to position due to beige areas the underlying surface during the decomposition process. Soil coverage limiting visibility of important features Human Vertebrae X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with limiting visibility light grey to of important beige areas features Human Coxae DEX X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with limiting visibility light grey to of important beige areas features Human Coxae SIN X X Dark grey to X Soil coverage beige with limiting visibility light grey to of important beige areas features Human Femur DEX X X Medium X Soil coverage brown to beige limiting visibility with dark grey of important to beige areas features Human Femur SIN X X Medium X Soil coverage brown to beige limiting visibility

with dark grey of important to beige areas. features Human Tibia DEX X X Medium Proximal Soil coverage brown to beige trauma limiting visibility with dark grey of important to beige areas features Human Tibia SIN X X Medium X Soil coverage brown to beige limiting visibility with dark grey of important to beige areas features Human Pedes SIN X X Medium X Most of the brown to beige bones are with dark grey missing or to beige areas undocumented.

Cattle Mandibula X X Dark grey- X Soil coverage brown with limiting visibility grey patches. of important features

The osteology student exercise The results from the osteology students exercise show that there exists an underlying problem considering the species and bone element assessment within osteology. The results concerning species, bone element, side, age, withers height, and other collected data, differ even when the student participants in the study analysed the physical skeletal remains. It is, however, clear that there is a higher rate of consistency between the results from the image material and those based on physical bone elements, primarily when it comes to bone element, and secondarily when it comes to species determination.

Bone 1 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 1 compares well with the identification based on the physical bone element both concerning species and bone element, where all 8 students determined the bone element to a cervical vertebrae from a large bovine. The age assessments do, however, differ both between the physical and image analysis, and between the students. The age assessments based on the image material included two notes stating that the vertebrae was unfused. Four stated that the large bovine was younger than 5 years old, one stated that it was younger than 7-9 years old, and one stated that it was younger than 9 years old. The age assessments based on the physical analysis on the other hand included one note that stated that the vertebrae was fused. Four stated that the large bovine was younger than 5 years old, and one stated that it was younger than 7-9 years old. The osteological results concerning other characters noticeable on the bone element included the note of the presence of butchering patterns. The osteological analysis of the image material included one note stating that the presence of butchering patters, and one missing processus transverses. Whereas, the osteological analysis of the physical bone element included four notes that underlined the presence of butchering patterns and one note of a missing processus transverses (table 20).

Table 20 Compilation of the results for bone 1 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Others element height Image Large Cervical Unfused:2 x x Butchering bovine: 8 vertebrae:8 Younger patterns:1 than 5y:4 Processus Younger transverses than 7-9y:1 missing:1 Younger than 9y:1 Bone Large Cervical Fused:1 x x Butchering element bovine: 8 vertebrae: 8 Younger patterns:4 than 5y:4 Processus Younger transverses than 7-9y:1 missing:1

Bone 2 The identifications of the students concerning bone 2, based on the image material underline a partial consistency of information collected during the two forms of osteological analysis. The information collected through the osteological analysis of the image material concerning species and side compares well with the information collected during the osteological analysis of the physical skeletal remains, where the bone element was assessed to be femur from the left side of the body. The species determination, on the other hand, did differ between the two forms of osteological analysis. The comparison of identification show that that five of the students assessed that the femur came from a pig/boar, this based on the image material. The three other students stated that the bone element came from a small bovine (sheep or goat). The results based on the physical osteological analysis show that one of the students who had previously determined that the femur came from a pig/boar changed his/her answer from boar to sheep/goat during the physical osteological analysis. The age assessments show a full range of different ages where six of the students, based on the image material, stated that the individual was older than 3½ years old, and one student stated that the individual was an adult. The osteological analysis of the physical bone element, on the other hand, showed that one of the students stated that the bone element just recently had been fused, two students stated that the individual was older than 3½ years, two students stated that the individual was older than 3 years, and one student stated that the individual was between 3-5½ years old (table 21).

Table 21 Compilation of the results for bone 2 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Others element height Image Sheep:1 Femur:8 SIN Older than x x Big muscle Sheep/Goat:2 (left):6 3½y:6 attachment:1 Pig/Boar: 5 Adult:1 Bone Sheep/Goat:4 Femur:8 SIN Recently x x Big muscle element Pig/Boar:4 (left):6 fusioned:1 attachment:1 Older than 3½y:2 Older than 3y:2 3-3,5y:1

Bone 3 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 3, compiles well with the data collected through the osteological analysis of the physical bone element concerning species and bone element, where all 8 students determined the bone element to a humerus from a pig/boar. The age assessments differ both between the physical and image analysis, and between the students. Based on the image material: one student stated that the pig was older than 10 months, one stated that it was between 1-3½years old, one stated that it was older than 3 years, and one stated that it was an adult. Based on the physical bone element two students stated that the bone element was fused. One student stated that the pig/boar was older than 10 months, one stated that it was older than 1 year. Based on the image material, one student stated that the humerus was from the left side of the body, whereas five of the students stated that the bone element was from the right side of the body. Based on the physical skeletal remains all eight students stated that the humerus was from the right side of the body. There was also one note of a possible proximal fragmentation based on the image material (table 22).

Table 22 Compilation of the results for bone 3 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Others element height Image Pig/Boar:8 Humerus:8 Dexter Older than x x Proximal (right):5 10 fragmentation?:1 SIN months:1 (left):1 1- 3½years:1 Older than 1y or1- 3½y:1 Older than 1y: 3 Adult:1

Bone Pig/Boar:8 Humerus:8 Dexter Fusioned:2 x x x element (right):8 1 y:1 Older than 10m:1 Older than 1y:2

Bone 4 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 4, compares well with the data collected through the osteological analysis of the physical bone element concerning species and bone element, where eight students, based on the image material, determined the species as fish. Seven of the students determined the species to fish, based on the physical bone element. One of the students did, however, leave the species field empty. Five of the students determined the bone element to dentale, and three of the student stated that the bone element was a mandibula/dentale, based on the image material. Seven of the eight students stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body, based on the image material, and all eight students stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body (table 23).

Table 23 Compilation of the results for bone 4 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone element Side Age Withers Sex Others height Image Fish:8 Dentale:5 Dexter x x x x Mandibula/dentale:3 (right):7 Bone Fish:7 Dentale:7 Dexter x x x x element Mandibula/dentale:1 (right):8

Bone 5 The identification of the students when it comes to bone 5, showed a great variety in the determination of species for the image material. Six of the students stated that the bone element came from a sheep or a goat, one stated that it was from a sheep, and one stated that the bone element came from a large bovine. All eight students stated that the bone element came from a large bovine based on the physical bone element. Four of the students stated that the bone element was a mandibula, based on the image material, one stated that it was either a mandibula or a maxilla, and one stated that it was a maxilla. Whereas, all eight students stated that the bone element was a mandibula, based on the physical skeletal remains. Based on the image material, one student stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body, and three students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the physical osteological analysis, four students stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body, and three students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the age assessments on the image material, one student stated that the bone element belonged to a young individual, one stated that the individual was older than 2½ years, and one students stated that the bone element belonged to an old individual. Based on the physical skeletal remains, one student stated that the individual was older than 2½ years, and one student stated that the individual was an adult. Based on the image material: one student stated that the individual had worn down teeth. Based on the physical bone element: two students stated that the third molar in the mandible was very worn down ( table 24).

Table 24 Compilation of the results for bone 5 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone element Side Age Withers Sex Others height Image Sheep/Goat: Mandibula:4 Dexter Young:1 x Worn 6 Mandibula/Maxilla:1 (right):1 Older than down Sheep:1 Maxilla:3 SIN 2½y:1 teeth:3 Large (left):3 Old:1 bovine:1 Bone Large Mandibula:8 Dexter Older than x M3 element bovine:8 (right):4 2½y:1 worn SIN Adult:1 down:2 (left):3

Bone 6 The identification of the students when it comes to bone 6, showed a great variety in the determination of species for the image material. Based on the image material: one student stated that the bone element belonged to a large bovine, two students stated that the bone element belonged to either a sheep or a goat, and one student stated that the bone element belonged to a sheep. Based on the physical bone element: four students stated that the bone element belonged to either a sheep or a goat, and the other four students stated that the bone element belonged to a pig/boar. Based on the image material: one student stated the bone element was a femur, one student stated that the bone element was a mandibula, one student stated that the bone element was either a coxae or a temporal bone or a cranial bone. Based on

the physical bone element all eight students stated that the bone element was an occipital condyle. Based on the image material one student stated that the bone element was from the right side of the body, another student stated that the bone element was from the left side of the body. Based on the physical bone elements: five of the students stated that the bone element was from the left side of the body. One age assessment was performed based on both the image material and the physical bone element where it was stated that the bone element was fusioned. Two notes of the presence of butchering patterns on the bone elements were made based on the physical bone element (table 25).

Table 25 Compilation of the results for bone 6 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Other element height Image Large bovine: Femur:1 Dexter Fusioned:1 x x x 1 Mandibula:2 (right):1 Sheep/goat:2 Coxae/ SIN Sheep:1 Temporale (left):1 /Craniale:1 Bone Sheep/Goat: Occipital SIN Fusioned:1 x x Butchering element 4 condyle 8 (left):5 pattern:2 Pig/boar:4

Bone 7 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 7, compares fairly well with the data collected through the osteological analysis of the physical bone element concerning bone element, where all eight students determined the bone element to a scapula. Based on the image material, seven students stated that the bone element came from a pig/boar. Based on the physical bone element, two students stated that the bone element came from either a sheep or a goat, six students stated that the bone element came from a pig/boar. Based on the image material, one student stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body, six students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the physical bone element, six students stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body, two of the students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the image material, one student stated that the individual was older than one year. Based on the physical bone element: two students stated that the individual was older than 8 months, two students stated that the individual was older than one year. One note of pathology, worn down, was made based on the image material. Four notes of the presence of butchering patterns was made based on the physical bone element (table 26).

Table 26 Compilation of the results for bone 7 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Other element height Image Pig/Boar:7 Scapula: 8 Dexter Older than x x Pathology: (right):1 1y:2 worn SIN down (left): 6 Bone Sheep/Goat:2 Scapula: 8 Dexter Older than x x Butchering element Pig/Boar:6 (right): 6 8m:2 patterns: 4 SIN Older than (Left):2 1y:2

Bone 8 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 8, compares fairly well with the data collected through the osteological analysis of the physical bone element concerning bone element, where all eight students determined the bone element to a femur. 53

Based on the image material: four students stated that the bone element came from either a sheep or a goat, four students stated that the bone element came from a pig/boar. Based on the image material, six students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body, one student stated that the bone element came from the right side of the body. Based on the physical bone elements, six students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the image material: one student stated that the bone element came from a young individual, one student stated that the individual was between 2½-3½ years old, five students stated that the individual was younger than 3½ years old. Based on the physical bone element: six students stated that the individual was older than 3½ years old, one stated that the individual was younger than 3½ years old (table 27).

Table 27 Compilation of the results for bone 8 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Other element height Image Sheep/Goat:4 Femur: 8 SIN Young:1 x x x Pig/Boar:4 (left):6 2½-3½y:1 Dexter Younger (right):1 than 3½y:5 Bone Pig/Boar:8 Femur: 8 SIN Older than x x x (Left):6 3½y: 6 Younger than 3½y: 1

Bone 9 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 9, compares fairly well with the data collected through the osteological analysis of the physical bone element concerning bone element and species. Based on both the image material and the physical bone element: one student stated that the bone element came from a sheep, seven student stated that the bone element came from either a sheep or a goat. Based on the image material: eight students stated that the bone element was a coxae. Based on the physical bone element: seven students stated that the bone element was a coxae. Based on the image material: six students stated that the bone element was from the right side of the body. Based on the physical bone element: seven students stated that the bone element was from the right side of the body. Two notes of butchering patterns was made based on the image material. One note of butchering patterns was made based on the physical bone element (table 28).

Table 28 Compilation of the results for bone 9 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Others element height Image Sheep: 1 Coxae: 8 Dexter Older than x x Butchering Sheep/Goat: (right): 6 6 y:1 patterns: 2 7 Bone Sheep:1 Coxae:7 Dexter Older than x x Butchering Sheep/Goat: (right): 7 6 y:1 patterns: 1 7 Older than 3½ y:2

Bone 10 The identifications of the students based on the image material of bone 10, compares fairly well with the data collected through the osteological analysis of the physical bone element concerning bone element and species. Based on the image material: three students stated that the bone element came from a large bovine, three students stated that the bone element came from a horse, two students stated that the bone element came from a small bovine. Based on 54

the physical bone element, three students stated that the bone element came from a large bovine, five students stated that the bone element came from a horse. Based on the image material, seven students stated that the bone element was a femur. Based on the image material, eight students stated that the bone element was a femur. Based on the image material: six students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the physical bone element, seven of the students stated that the bone element came from the left side of the body. Based on the image material: one student stated that the individual was 1 year old, two students stated that the individual was older than 3½ years, two students stated that the individual was older than 3-4 years, and one student stated that the individual was older than 3-5 years. Based on the physical bone element: One student stated that the bone element was fusioned, four students stated that the individual was older than 3½ years old, one student stated that the individual was older than 3-4 years (table 29).

Table 29 Compilation of the results for bone 10 in the osteology students exercise

Species Bone Side Age Withers Sex Others element height Image Large Femur:7 SIN 1 y: 1 x x x bovine:3 ( Left):6 Older than Horse: 3 3½ y:2 Small Older than bovine:2 3-4 y:2 Older than 3-5y:1 Bone Large bovine: Femur:8 SIN Fusioned:1 x x x 3 ( Left):7 Older than Horse: 5 3½ y:4 Older than 3-4y:1

How are bodies and skeletal remains affected by the marine environment? The general answer to this question is that bodies, body parts, and separate bone elements placed in marine environments undergo a certain type of taphonomic processes affecting both the amount of remains present at the site, the distribution pattern of the remains, and the preservation conditions of the remains (see detailed review in Appendix 3). One of the most important factors is the fluvial transport of bodies, bones, and separate bone elements. Full bodies may be transported both along the horizontal axis along the water surface, along the vertical axis from the surface to the seabed and vice versa, as well as along the horizontal axis along the seabed. The vertical transport is dictated by the diseased body's buoyancy that is affected by any air still trapped in its lungs, the build up of decompositional gases within the intestinal system, and the escaping of air or decompositional gases through the breakdown of soft tissue. The horizontal transport is dictated by the waves and currents at the surface, and by undercurrents at the seabed. Any diseased body connected to a buoyant object, or wearing clothes that may have trapped air between the fabric and the body, may remain floating at the surface. At the buoyant stages, at the surface, the body is exposed to the outer force from weather and wind, currents and waves, the heat from the sun, and any present insects or scavengers. The forces of currents and waves may bring the diseased body away from the site, either further out in the fluvial system, into another fluvial system, or to a nearby shore. The presence of insects increase the rate of decay due to their activities on the diseased body. Their presence is, however, dictated to the distance to land, the season, and temperatures. Once the body has lost its temporal buoyancy due to the escaping air and intestinal decompositional gases through the breakdown of soft tissue, it is brought down to the seabed. At the sinking stage, vertical transport, the body is mainly exposed to scavengers 55

and the forces of gravity. At the seabed the body is exposed to the forces of undercurrents bringing the body along the horizontal axis of the seabed. The body is also exposed to any present scavengers. Any post-mortem injuries withdrawn through collision with static or non- static objects along the seabed may increase the rate of decay and disarticulation (Nawrocki et al. 2006:530-534) (fig 16). The decomposition of a diseased body may be severely altered in a marine environment due to several different factors such as the temperature of the water. The thermal conductivity of water lead to an increase cooling of diseased bodies, resulting in slowed down decompositional processes, such as in the case of the onset and duration of rigor mortis. The onset and duration of rigor mortis may, however, be alternated by cramping of the body during the drowning process, or the temperature of the diseased individual and the temperature of the water, the individuals clothing, or the presence of currents at the site (Phillipe & Modell, 2005:45). Another alternated part of the decompositional process is livor mortis that generally result in the sinking of blood in the lowest placed regions of the body. In a marine environment the blood tend not to sink and stay put in one specific area, and it may, therefore, be hard to note (Lange, 2006:139). Since bodies in marine environments undergo fluvial transport both along the horizontal and the vertical axis, it is unlikely that an individual may be covered by sedimentation throughout the full decompositional process. This means that the general division between Biostrationomy, before sediment cover, and Diagenesis, after sediment cover, is not representative in marine environments due to the constant movements. The decomposition of soft tissues connected to anaerobic putrefaction is, however, highly relevant. This process occur in environments with no or a limited amount of oxygen, resulting in a build up of decompositional gases within the abdominal cavity. The build up of gases result in an increased buoyancy that bring a sunken body back up to the surface. The rate of decompositional gas build up is, however, dictated by the surrounding temperature, and may due to the temperature of the water be slowed down. The trapped decompositional gases may, however, keep the diseased body floating for up to two to four weeks depending on the rate of decay (Magnell, 2008:134). Other decompositional processes specific to water related environments are cutis anserina and adipocere. Cutis anserina appear as a whitish pale rugged surface on the epidermis, that in the initial stage mainly occur on hands and skin, and may result in the shedding on the epidermis and nails (Lange, 2006:139). Adipocere may develop on the body within the first couple of days, and is mainly dependent on the presence of water, body fat, and the surrounding temperature. The adipocere lower the ph-levels of the body and may, therefore, slow down the decompositional process (Magnell, 2008:134-135). Low water temperatures may slow down the rate of the autolysis process, that break down soft tissue through enzymes that break down protein and carbohydrates in the body. The process start in the intestinal system and then spread to the brain, nerve tissue, and the connective tissues of the body (Magnell, 2008:134). The slowdown of this process is of importance due to the disarticulation of limbs from the body, meaning that the body may remain intact longer in a marine environment than on land. The breakdown of the body's connective tissue plays an important role in the distribution pattern of skeletal remains in marine environments since a diseased body due to any fluvial transport. The disarticulation of specific body parts generally occur in a specific order, meaning that body parts are disarticulated from the diseased body at different stages of decay. This means that some body parts may be disarticulated from the diseased body during its transport along either the horizontal or vertical axis, leaving the disarticulated limb in one area while the diseased body is transported to another.

Fig 16 Illustration over the main forces affecting diseased bodies in marine environments..

There are both hollow and solid limbs, which move differently through the water due to their surface areas and density. This due to the amount of decompositional gases that may be generated during the putrefaction process, this is something that alter the individual limbs' buoyancy and through this their ability to be transported in the fluvial system. The hollow limbs are more likely to be dragged along with currents and undercurrents, whereas the solid limbs are more likely to stay in a fixed position (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:532). The transport of both bodies, limbs, and bone elements are also dependant on the energy level of the fluvial system, meaning that the flow rate of currents and undercurrents may leave all in a relatively fixed position on the seabed, or pull all rapidly from one end of a river to another (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:533-34). Once the body parts have been fully skeletonised their ability to be transported along the seabed are mainly dependant on their individual shapes. It is assumed that rounder bone elements, or bone elements abbreviated through impact with static or non- static objects, are more likely to be carried around in the marine environment than those with sharper or flatter edges. The bone tissue is sensitive to foreign substances in the surrounding environment and may due to this show traces of several different forms of bone staining and alterations from algal growth, circumferential absorption, and silt painting (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:213; Nawrocki. et al. 2006:534). Several of these forms of alterations have been noted on the skeletal remains from the naval ship Mary Rose, and on the skeletal remains from the Viking Age harbour of Birka. The skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka showed a great colour variation ranging from multicoloured, light brown to dark brown, and also showed orange discolorations. All bone elements showed more or less signs of coal absorption, which has not been noted individually in the bone lists. There were also six noted cases of algae growth (fig 19, fig 21, and table 30). The analysis also revealed a varied degree of bone disintegration varying from light to hard. The cases of light disintegration showed very little or no noticeable break down of the surface, whereas the cases with hard disintegration mainly consisted of the spongious bone tissue of the inner core of the bone elements. There were also some cases of burnt bone elements, where no distinct taphonomic effects could be noted on the bone elements (fig 20 and table 31). Some of the species bone elements were generally found to be in a very good condition, where most cases were more fragmented than disintegrated, such as the bird bones (fig 18). One common feature among the analysed animal bone elements at the site is the erosion of the extreme exterior bone (fig 17), where the surface have been both eroded and slightly polished during its time in the water, exposing pores and craters. The bones were very light due to 'leaching', which means that the water has eroded the bone from within, due to long term storage in water. The skeletal remains from the naval ship Mary Rose were in very good condition with none or very small amounts of discolouration, disintegration and other taphonomic features (fig 22). The silt at the site was in general made up of fine grey silt (Email conversation with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29), something that rendered both the good preservation conditions, and the general colouration of the skeletal remains. As the silt built up within the ship, so did the dark brown weeds, both may be contributing factors to any discolouration's of the skeletal remains. In three areas there were a high density of cast iron shot, where the human remains often showed traces of staining (Email conversation with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29). Most bone elements showed a very limited amount of taphonomic discolouration, but some cases of partial discolouration could be made. The partial discolorations' were generally varying from a light to a medium grey colour (fig 23), connected to circumferential absorption where the bone tissue absorb foreign substances from the surrounding environment, from a darker shade of silt in the form of clay. Some of the bone elements also showed partial discolouration due to their position on clay, resulting in an absorption and petrification of bone tissue (fig 24 and fig 25). Several bone elements also show clear evidence of partial metal absorption (fig 23- 29). The partial metal absorption is very clear in several of the cases but foremost in the documented case with the scapula (fig 26 - 28). There has also occurred a partial algae cover 58

that has been petrified on the bone surface through the bones absorption of minerals from the clay combined with a partial metal absorption (fig 26). Some of the human skeletal remains are described to have been trapped under large bronze guns and may, therefore, also have been exposed to some levels of copper staining (Email conversation with Alex Hildred, 2017- 05-29). The presence of algae growth could also be noted on the femur located at the Gribshunden site (fig 11), and at the Viking Age harbour of Birka (fig 19). All marine environments are unique in their own right. Factors such as geographical position, seasonal changes, the surrounding environment, the energy level of the fluvial system, different scavengers at the site, the distance to the land, inflows and outflows into the marine system, air temperature, water temperature, the debris, rocks, and vegetation at the site, are all important factors that affect the decompositional rate, fluvial transport, and distribution pattern of remains at the site. Other factors such as the individual's physique, stature, clothing, anti- or peri-mortem injuries etc affect the movement patterns of the diseased body, and its rate of decay. It is also of importance where, when, and at what state the individual entered the marine environment (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:530-535).

Fig 17 Taphonomically affected vertebrae from a large mammal. White arrows highlights some of the pores/craters. black arrows highlights eroded and slightly polished areas

Fig 18 Taphonomically affected and slightly fragmented humerus from a bird.

Fig 19 Algae growth on a phalanx r1 from a cervidae. Corpus fracture. Taphonomically affected: medium to hard. Colour varying from light brown to dark brown.

Bone disintegration representation burnt

hard

medium

light

Fig 20 Bone disintegration representation of the skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka Growth and colour variation

representation medium brown

light brown

dark brown

multicoloured

algae growth

orange areas/metal absorption

Fig 21 Growth and colour variation representation of the skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka

Table 30 Growth and colour variation representation of the skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka

Growth and Amount of colour bone variations elements algae growth 6 orange 6 areas/metal absorption multicoloured 36 dark brown 91 light brown 219 medium 737 brown '

Table 31 Bone disintegration representation of the skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka

Disintegration Amount of degree bone elements burnt 19 hard 265 medium 298 light 979

Fig 22 Left femur. DSCN0560 the Mary Rose.: Example of the general taphonomic effects of the skeletal remains of the crew of the Mary Rose.

Fig 23 Left Femur. DSCN0622 the Mary Rose. Example of common taphonomic discolouration among the taphonomic features represented on the skeletal remains of the crew of the Mary Rose. Discolouration from metal absorption and discolouration from contact with darker clay at the site.

Fig 24 Coxae. DSCN0633 the Mary Rose. Example of Metal and mineral absorption.

Fig 25 Coxae. DSCN0644 the Mary Rose. Example of metal and mineral absorption.

Fig 26 Scapula. DSCN0704 the Mary Rose.: partial algae cover that has been petrified on the bone surface through the bones absorption of minerals from the clay combined with a partial metal absorption.

Fig 27 Scapula DSCN0697. the Mary Rose. Partial metal absorption.

Fig 28 Scapula. DSCN0693 Mary Rose: One sided discolouration from metal absorption.

Fig 29 Scapula. DSCN0694: One sided discolouration from metal absorption.

The skeletal remains at the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden In the case of the naval ship Mars the lack of located skeletal remain may be explained due to some of the previously described factors. The wreckage is located approximately 65-75 meters deep at the open waters south east of the island of Öland, Sweden (Eriksson, et al. 2011:5). Since the ship sank due to a gunpowder explosion in the fore ship (Smirnov, 2009:106), it is likely that individuals within a close proximity of the explosion received a certain degree of primary and/or secondary injuries due to debris or another objects that was flung towards them by the force of the explosion (Sejlitz, 1987:100). The amount of men brought down with the ship was probably rather limited due to the fragmentation of the ship during the descent. Any bodies dragged down with the ship that was not trapped within the hull or under any loose structure of the ship are likely to have returned back up to the surface either due to air trapped in their lungs or through the build up of decompositional gases.

Any bodies placed near the surface would be exposed to both the remaining ships at the surface, this since the battle did not come to an end immediately after Mars sank, but also by factors such as the heat of the sun, weather and wind, currents and waves, and any present scavengers. Whether any insects were present at the site or not, is uncertain, but the presence of insects would increase the rate of decay. The force of currents and waves may have carried some of the individuals away from the wreck site, either further out to sea or in towards the shores of either the islands Öland or Gotland, or either the mainland of Sweden. Once the decompositional process had reached the point of decay where the trapped air and intestinal decompositional gases could escape the body, it would start to make its way down to the seabed. As the water pressure increase the deeper it gets, the more any remaining air or intestinal decompositional gases would compress and thereby increase the vertical journey down to the seabed. Once down on the seabed the bodies would be exposed to not only any present scavengers, but also to the force of any present undercurrents. The undercurrents would drag the body along the seabed, and exposing it to post-mortem trauma through any form of collision with any static or non-static objects at the site, such as stones, debris, or the seabed itself. Any post-mortem trauma would increase the rate of decomposition. The force of the undercurrents may also drag the diseased bodies further away from the wreck site. As the decomposition of the body continues, the jaw, hands, and feet, start to disarticulate, and are soon followed by the radius and ulna, and the tibia and the fibula. The disarticulation continue with the cranium, the top three vertebraes, and the humerus. At the fourth stage the scapula disarticulates from the torso, and the torso disarticulates from the lower part of the spine and coxae. Since the disarticulation of the different body parts occur in four different stages and the bodies are likely to move both along the horizontal axis and the vertical axis, it is very likely that the separate bone elements may be spread over a larger area (Nawrocki, et al.. 2006:532), especially due to the depth and width of the Baltic Sea. Once skeletonised the individual bone elements would be differently susceptible to movement along the fairly horizontal axis of the seabed. Bone elements such as the cranium and the mandible are more likely to stay fixed in the position where they landed, unless fragmented during the descent. Bone elements such as the longs bones, scapula, pelvis, and the bones of the hands and feet, are more likely to move along gradually, whereas bones like the vertebrae, sacrum and ribs are highly likely to immediately follow the currents (Nawrocki et al. 2006:533-534). Something that would further result in a more spread out distribution pattern of the remains in the surrounding area. It is, therefore, likely that any present bodies of the diseased individuals are highly scattered due to the gradual disarticulation of body parts at the site. In the case of the naval ship Gribshunden the lack of located skeletal remain may be explained due to some of the previously described factors. The wreckage is located at a depth of approximately 10 meters, in the Ronneby archipelago, Sweden (Warming, 2015). The amount of men brought down with the ship was probably rather limited due to the fragmentation of the ship during the descent. Any bodies dragged down with the ship that was not trapped within the hull or under any loose structure of the ship are likely to have returned back up to the surface either due to air trapped in their lungs or through the build up of decompositional gases. Any bodies placed near the surface would be exposed to the heat of the sun, weather and wind, currents and waves, and any present scavengers and insects. The presence of insects would increase the rate of decay. It is less likely that the bodies would move far away from the wreck site through the force of waves, this due to the protected natural harbour in the archipelago. It is more likely that the bodies drifted ashore at any of the small islands in this area. If discovered it is quite likely that the bodies may have been discovered and buried. However, any bodies that were not buried may have been placed in such a position that part of the body remained on land, whereas, the remainder of the body was placed in the water and pulled out further out in the water as the decompositional process continued, releasing separate body parts from the proximal ends of the hands and feet, the legs and arms, and eventually from the torso. Any remaining diseased bodies would lie at the 65

surface exposed to any insects in the area, and lead to an increased rate of decay due to their break down of the body's soft tissue. Once the decompositional process had reached the point of decay where the trapped air and intestinal decompositional gases could escape the body, it would start to make its way down to the seabed. As the water pressure increase the deeper it gets, the more any remaining air or intestinal decompositional gases would compress and thereby increase the vertical journey down to the seabed. Once down on the seabed the bodies would be exposed to not only any present scavengers, but also to the force of any present undercurrents. The undercurrents would drag the body along the seabed, and exposing it to post-mortem trauma through any form of collision with any static or non-static objects at the site, such as stones, debris, or the seabed itself. Any post-mortem trauma would increase the rate of decomposition. The force of the undercurrents may also drag the diseased bodies further away from the wreck site. As the decomposition of the body continues, the jaw, hands, and feet, start to disarticulate, and are soon followed by the radius and ulna, and the tibia and the fibula. The disarticulation continue with the cranium, the top three vertebraes, and the humerus. At the fourth stage the scapula disarticulates from the torso, and the torso disarticulates from the lower part of the spine and coxae. Since the disarticulation of the different body parts occur in four different stages and the bodies are likely to move both along the horizontal axis and the vertical axis, it is very likely that the separate bone elements may be spread over a larger area (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:532), in this case most likely within the archipelago. Once skeletonised the individual bone elements would be differently susceptible to movement along the fairly horizontal axis of the seabed. Bone elements such as the cranium and the mandible are more likely to stay fixed in the position where they landed, unless fragmented during the descent. Bone elements such as the longs bones, scapula, pelvis, and the bones of the hands and feet, are more likely to move along gradually, whereas bones like the vertebrae, sacrum and ribs are highly likely to immediately follow the currents (Nawrocki et al. 2006:533-534). Something that would further result in a more spread out distribution pattern of the remains in the surrounding area. It is, therefore, likely that one of the contributing factors connected to the limited amount of located and documented skeletal remains at the wreckage sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden is connected to the fluvial transport along the horizontal and vertical axis, in combination with the disarticulation of separate body parts during different stages of decomposition.

8. DISCUSSION

The results presented in the previous chapter will here be discussed in an attempt to answer and problematise the following work questions: 1. How do the collected data differ between a physical, 2D, and a 3D osteological analysis? 2. How should the skeletal remains preferably be documented at the site in order to retrieve as much information as possible? 3. How are bodies and skeletal remains affected by the marine environment? And how may this explain the lack of located skeletal remains at the sites?

The problematization of the three forms of source materials The identification based on the physical osteological analysis of the animal skeletal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka contained information concerning the general information retrievable through the use of an osteological analysis. Information such as species, bone element, age, sex, withers height, fragmentation, trauma, and taphonomy. The 2D documentation of the skeletal remains at the sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden allowed the osteologist to retrieve information concerning species, bone element, age, taphonomy, and trauma. Previous studies (Fredriksson, 2015) also show that information such as age is possible to retrieve through the use of digital methods, it would, therefore, most likely be possible to also retrieve information concerning sex and some pathologies through the use of digital methods. As previously discussed in the chapter on source criticism, the degree to positive identifications may be made depending on the quality of the photographs, the documentation angles etc. The 3D reconstructions of the skeletal remains of the sites Catalhöyük and Sandby borg did allow the osteologist to rotate, zoom in, and alter the light of the remains, but there were some limitations to the 3D reconstruction that unfortunately limited the amount of retrievable information. Since several images are connected to each other in order to create a three dimensional image, it comes to a price. Edges that would look sharp in a photography is smoothed out by the software in order to create an alignment between the images. This is something that unfortunately means that some of the osteological characters become hard to read. It is, however, important to underline that the 3D reconstructions were created for illustrative purposes, and not for the sole purpose of being used as a source material during a digital osteological analysis. Further information concerning the estimation of age of the individual at the Çatalhöyük site could possibly have been assessed through a higher rendering of the 3D reconstruction and through shadowing the cranium during the documentation process in order to increase the visibility of the cranial suture fusion. Similarly at the Sandby borg site where it would have been possible to retrieve information concerning the epiphyseal closure of the long bones through removal of soil around these areas, as well as, around the pelvis region where it would have been possible to retrieve information of the individuals sex through some soil removal. But as previously stated, these 3D reconstructions were created for illustrative purposes, and not for an osteological analysis. It is, however, of great importance to underline the possibilities that these 3D reconstructions show at this stage. Through the use of the illustrative 3D reconstructions it was possible to retrieve information such as species, bone element, age, sex, taphonomy, and trauma. This shows the potential of the use of 3D reconstructions as source data for an osteological analysis and in the right conditions it should be possible to create suitable 3D reconstructions of skeletal remains at 67

marine archaeological, or other hard to reach sites. The results from the osteology students exercise shows that there exists an underlining issue concerning the individual osteologists' assessment of osteological data even during an analysis of physical skeletal remains. It is, however, clear that most of the students were consequent in their assessments concerning bone element, and in several cases species, side, age, and trauma. What is interesting in this context is not the actual assessment of species or bone element, but that the osteology students who participated in the study came to the same conclusion for each bone element regardless if it was based on a digital or a physical form of source material. Some of the bone elements were harder to analyse due to the documentation angle, this in order to further problematise the importance of proper documentation of different bone elements. It was also clear, that some of the students disregarded the presence of a measuring stick in the images. The students assumed that the bone element belonged to an individual of a species either larger or smaller than the measuring stick may have revealed. One clear issue with the analysis of in-situ digital documentation of 2D and 3D format is that only the part of the bone element that is exposed is available for digital documentation, something that limits the amount of osteological data available to the osteologist. It is, however, important to underline that not all skeletal remains are to be retrieved from their original context, and that the available osteological data may contain enough information in order to identify species, present bone elements, sex, age, stature/withers height, trauma, and exposure to the surrounding environment. In some cases it may also be possible to retrieve information concerning different forms of pathologies, depending on the present bone elements and their exposed surfaces. In some cases it may also be of importance to determine if a bone element belonged to a human or non-human individual, in order to assess if the site should be examined further for either archaeological or forensic reasons. Another issue concerning the use of digital documentation as source material is, as previously stated, the limitation of the use of 3D reconstructions of skeletal remains. The rendering of a 3D reconstruction is both timely and require a powerful computer in order to successfully complete the full rendering process. This allows the osteologist to rotate and zoom in to different areas in the reconstruction, enabling a closer look at specific osteological characters. It is, however, troublesome that the rendering lead to a smoothing of the surfaces, that create either false surfaces, or softened edges of characters that would appear sharp in a regular photography. What is, however, positive with the use of digital documentation as a source material, is that the use of non-destructive in-situ documentation methods may leave the skeletal remains intact for future generations of scientists. The method may allow the osteologist to perform an osteological analysis without collecting the skeletal remains from the site, and through this avoid the ethical conundrum of what to do with the skeletal remains after the retrieval. It may also allow the funding that normally would have been spent on conservation, and storage, to be spent on other things, such as development of new osteological or archaeological methods, or in an increased amount of field hours. It is also important to underline that there may be several different factors why it may not be possible to retrieve skeletal remains from marine archaeological, or other hard to reach sites. Examples are an extreme depth beyond that does not allow excavation through the use of the diving equipment available today. Another example is when skeletal remains are too fragile to be removed from their original position at the site. It is possible to use ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) in order to examine and document a marine archaeological site, and to use the collected image material for an osteological analysis. It may also be of importance to apply the digital documentation method and osteological analysis of digital documentation in order to perform a preliminary analysis of skeletal remains at hard to reach sites, before planning a hypothetical retrieval of the skeletal remains. It is, therefore, important to further develop digital methods in order to successfully document skeletal remains in marine archaeological and other hard to reach sites, so that a successful digital osteological analysis may be performed. 68

The non-invasive in-situ documentation method Based on the information collected through the osteological analysis of the three forms of identification of osteological source materials (physical and 2D or 3D imaging), it is evident that there exists an information gap between the three formats. The information gap between the two dimensional source material and the physical bone elements, became very clear while comparing the results from the osteological student exercise. The majority of the students remained fairly consequent in their species and bone element assessments, in the case where the bone elements had been documented from angles where the most characteristic osteological characters were present. In the case where an alternative documentation angle had been applied, the results differed more both concerning species and bone element, such as in the case of bone 6 where none of the students recognized the occipital condyle due to the used documentation angle (6.1). Similar issues could also be noted through the comparison between the analysis results from the 2D documented skeletal remains of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains from Çatalhöyük and Sandby borg, and the physical skeletal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka. It is, however, important to underline the different contexts of the 2D documentation and the 3D reconstructions. The 2D documentation (Çatalhöyük & Sandby borg) is from a marine archaeological context where no clearing of the surrounding area had been made in order to ease the documentation process, and several of the bone elements had been documented by chance while documenting other things on the site. The 3D reconstructions are all from terrestrial archaeological sites where the skeletal remains have been actively exposed for the purpose of documentation and retrieval. It is also important to underline that different documentation angles are suitable for different bone elements, this since the most characteristic osteological characters are placed in different regions of different bone elements. Meaning that documenting a bone element from one angle regardless of the bone element, may not provide the osteologist with sufficient information in order to perform a proper osteological analysis. It is also of importance to underline that an osteologist, an archaeologist without osteological training, and a trained diver with no osteological or archaeological training, may see bone elements differently. This needs to be considered when designing an osteological documentation method. An osteologist may recognise the specific bone element in-situ and, therefore, be able to document the most vital osteological characters' needed in order to perform a proper osteological analysis. However, if it is not possible to determine which bone element that is being documented at the site, it creates an issue concerning the documentation angles and close-ups. It would, therefore, be of importance to place a measuring stick near the bone element, and document the bone element and its immediate surroundings before documenting the bone element from specific angles. The bone element should preferably be documented from all visible angles with a straight on perspective, and always be documented with a measuring stick for size reference. This meaning that the bone element should be documented from the immediate sides, the immediate top (proximal end), immediate bottom (distal end), and any articular surfaces. It would be preferable if the bone elements may also be documented with close ups from above focused on the proximal and distal ends, this since the fusion of these areas in general is the basis for estimating the age of an individual. It is also important to strive to create the best light conditions possible at the site. This is something that was highlighted during the osteological analysis of the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains of the individual in grave 40 at Çatalhöyük. There was a slight over exposure of the cranium, due to sun exposure. Similar problems may also arise in marine archaeological contexts due to the cameras flash or divers flashlights during the documentation process. Overexposure may also lead to a general blurriness of the image. It is, therefore, be preferable to adapt the cameras exposure time for each individual bone element, and the position of the used light source so that the light does not hit the object directly. Despite the noted problems with connected to the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains, it

is still a highly useful format that may provide both archaeologist and osteologists with a highly valuable work tool. The main issues were connected to the softwares alignment of the 2D images that make up the 3D reconstruction and creating false surfaces and smoothened areas that originally was made up by sharp edges. The used 3D reconstructions of the skeletal remains of the Çatalhöyük and Sandby borg sites used in this thesis were, however, created for illustrative purposes, and not for the purpose of being used as a source material for a digital osteological analysis. The underlying motivation of the documentation process is here of importance since the collection of images at the site is highly connected to the end result, and its usage as a digital osteological source material. It is also important to note that a digital osteological analysis may be performed on both a 3D reconstruction, as well as 2 dimensional documentation. It is highly likely that these two formats may be used together successfully in order to retrieve as much information as possible from the documented bone elements. It may, therefore, not only be suitable to document the bone elements or individuals from only specific angles, but also all around in order to create a good basis for a 3D reconstruction. In order to retrieve as much information as possible it would be preferable if the area around the bone element could be cleared of any loose floating sedimentation in order to create as clear documentation of the bone element as possible. A measuring stick or an object of a know standardised size should be placed next to the bone element in order to create a size reference that may be used both in a two dimensional image and in a three dimensional reconstruction in order to create a measurable pdf-document. All located separate bone elements and complete individuals should be documented with an overview image in order to illustrate the position in-situ. Any complete individuals should be documented both as a unit, and as separate bone elements in order to ensure the amount of information available to the osteologist during the analysis process. In the case where the bone element is unknown it is recommended to document the bone element from as many angles as possible, and with close-ups of any articular surfaces and epiphyseal closures. This in order to ensure that as many osteological characters as possible may be documented and available to the osteologist during the analysis. The recommended documentation angles differ between different bone elements and species, this due to the different osteological characters present at different regions of the body and the different anatomy of different species. This description will, therefore, mainly focus on the human skeletal remains, however, the documentation angles would also to a large extent be suitable for the documentation of animal skeletal remains. The long bones, such as humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula, should preferably be documented from above, from both sides of the corpus, from the proximal and distal ends of the long bones focused on the articulation surfaces, and with close ups from above of the epiphyseal closures at the proximal and distal ends of the epiphysis. This in order to allow for an age assessment (White & Folkens, 2005:372-373). The cranium should preferably be documented from above, all available sides and with close ups on the suture fusions of the cranial vaults 1-7 in order to allow for an age estimation to be made (White and Folkens, 2005:370). The documentation of the exposed sides should if possible also highlight the nuchal crest, the mastoid process, the supbraorbital margin, the supbraorbital ridge/glabella, and the mental eminence of the mandible according to White and Folkens (White & Folkens, 2005:390-391), and the mandibular angulus (Petrén, 1984). This in order to allow for a sex assessment. If the dental regions of the maxilla or mandibula are exposed, these should be documented both from above, and all available sides, as well as closely from both the occusal, lingual and labial surfaces, in order to present the dental status of the individual (White & Folkens, 2005:328-332), and also allow for an age estimation to be made (White & Folkens, 2005:364-365). The vertebraes and sacrum should preferably be documented from above, and all available sides, with close-ups of the epiphyseal closures of the corpus of the sacral vertebraes in order to allow for an age assessment (White & Folkens, 2005:372-373). The sternum, ribs (costae) and clavicle, should preferably be documented from above, 70

all available sides, with additional close-ups of the epiphyseal closures and/or articulation surfaces. The documentation of the sternum may be used in order to assess an approximate age group for an individual, due to the fusion between the five sternal segments at different stages in an individual's life (White & Folkens, 2005:184).The documentation of the ribs may be used in order to assess an individual's approximate age based on the four ossification centres of ribs 1-10 (White and Folkens, 2005:187). The documentation of the clavicle may be used in order to collect information concerning the physical movements of an individual due to the size of the muscle attachments and the degree of ossification, since it is both one of the first bone elements, and the last bone elements to fuse in an individual's lifespan (White & Folkens, 2005:195). The scapula should be documented from all available sides, with additional close-ups of the acromion process, and the scapular spine. The documentation of the acromion process may in adulthood show traces of certain activities that leave the acromion unfused. The coxae should preferably be documented from above, all available sides, and with additional close-ups of the greater sciatic notch, in order to perform a sex assessment, as well as close-ups of the acetabular fossa, that auricular surface of the ilium, and the pubic symphysis, that may be used in order to assess an approximate age of a human individual (White & Folkens, 2005:376). If possible, it is highly recommended to document the skeletal remains in such a way that the collected documentation may be used to create a three dimensional reconstruction. The three dimensional reconstruction may be used in combination with the two dimensional documentation in order to retrieve as much information as possible. The reconstruction may also be used for illustrative purposes in museums, articles, websites, or as a basis for 3D printed physical reconstructions of sites or individuals.

The problematization of bodies and bones in marine environments What is generally stated about disintegration of bodies in terrestrial environments are not representative for bodies placed in marine environments. Partly because any unburied bodies in terrestrial environments are placed in a position where they are mainly exposed to transport along the horizontal axis, through any present scavengers at the site (Magnell, 2008:135). Bodies placed in marine environments, on the other hand, are exposed to transport along both the horizontal and the vertical axis. The transport along the vertical axis is dictated by the build up, and escaping, of decompositional gases within the intestines during the decomposing process (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; Nawrocki et al..2006:531-533; Boyle, et al. 2006:606). As discussed already in previous chapters, disintegration is of great importance in the cases of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. Factors such as temperature drop of a recently diseased body is of great importance in marine contexts since studies have shown that the decrease in temperature occur about twice as fast in marine environments due to the waters thermal conductivity. The lower temperature slow down processes such as rigor mortis (Phillipe & Modell, 2005:45) that normally occur in the face region within 2-3 hours after death, and spread to the rest of the body within 4-6 hours. Rigor mortis is a chemical process that occurs within the musculature, and creates a stiffness of the muscles that generally last for 24-48 hours. The stiffness wears off once the chemical process has reached a certain degree of muscular decay (Magnell, 2008:134). The onset and duration of rigor mortis may, however, be altered by the surrounding environment and the clothing, as well as any cramping of the muscles that may have occurred if the individual drowned (Phillipe & Modell, 2005:45). Since the blood circulation stop once an individual die, the diseased body start to assume the temperature of the surrounding environment, a process referred to as algor mortis. Something that also would result in livor mortis, the positioning of the blood in the lowest positioned body parts (Magnell, 2008:134), that is harder to note in a maritime environment due to the floating of the diseased body 71

(Lange, 2006:139). Whether a body sink or float during the initial phase in the water is dictated by several different factors. If the diseased body still contain air in its lungs, or is attached to a highly buoyant object, the body may remain floating at the surface through the majority of the decomposition process (Nawrocki et al. 2006:530-534). A body placed at the surface would be exposed to several forms of outer force such as scavengers, insects (Boyle, et al. 2006:606), weather and wind, the heat from the sun, as well as currents and waves (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; O'Brien, 2006:559-560). The majority of the scavengers are likely made up by marine scavengers, may also include avian scavengers, birds, while exposed at the surface (Boyle, et al. 2006:606). Factors such as currents and waves may transport the diseased body far from the site along the horizontal axis, either further out to sea or to any nearby shores (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; O'Brien, 2006:559-560). The vertical transport may also result in post-mortem trauma from any static or non-static objects placed in or near the water (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531). As in the case with the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, where the fate of the diseased bodies to a large extent are dictated by any internal or external buoyancy connected to the diseased bodies. Any buoyant diseased bodies at the wreckage of the naval ship Gribshunden are likely to have been limited in their vertical transport along the surface, due to the placement of the wreckage in the Ronneby archipelago. This position makes it more likely that the bodies drifted ashore at any of the small islands in this area. If discovered it is quite likely that the bodies may have been buried. However, any bodies that were not buried may have been placed in such a position that part of the body remained on land, whereas, the remainder of the body was placed in the water and pulled further out in the water as the decompositional process continued. This would release separate body parts from the proximal ends of the hands and feet, the legs and arms, and eventually from the torso. Any remaining diseased bodies would lie at the surface exposed to any insects in the area, and lead to an increased rate of decay due to their break down of the bodies soft tissue. Any diseased bodies at the wreckage of the naval ship Mars would, on the other hand, be highly exposed to the forces of waves and currents, due to its position north east of the island of Öland in the Baltic Sea. Since the naval ship Mars sank during a battle, it is likely that any diseased bodies that remained at the surface received post-mortem trauma through collision with any ships, boats or debris still present during the battle. It is also more likely that any diseased bodies at the surface at the naval ship Mars, may have undergone a partial mummification, due to the geographical position of the wreckage. The long distance from land would likely limit the amount of terrestrial insects present after the end of the battle. Any bodies lacking internal or external buoyancy would sink down to the seabed where they are exposed to other force such as undercurrents, and marine scavengers. The force from the undercurrent may drag the diseased body along the seabed and, thereby, expose them to the risk of contracting post-mortem trauma through collision with any static or non-static objects placed in their way. The force of the undercurrents may also carry the diseased body far away from its initial geographical position (Haglund & Sorg. 2002:202-203; Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531). Any bodies dragged along the seabed would at this stage mainly be exposed in the outer limbs and the head, due to the main buoyancy being placed in the appendix (Boyle, et al. 2006:606). The horizontal transport of the diseased bodies at the Mars and Gribshunden site would be exposed to several different forms of outer force at their positions at the seabed. Divers at the wreck site at the naval ship Mars have stated that there is either a limited amount, or a total absence of undercurrents at the site. It is, however, possible that some form of fluvial movement along the seabed may have occurred since the bone elements documented in 2014 did not appear in the documentation from the examinations performed in 2015 (see 2.1 Digitally documented 2D and 3D remains). The naval ship Mars is placed at the depth of 65- 75 meters (Eriksson, et al. 2011:5), something that is likely to affect the movement of the water. The naval ship Gribshunden on the other hand is placed at an approximate depth of 10 72

meters (Warming, 2015) and is, therefore, more likely to be indirectly affected by any movement occurring at the surface. Bodies positioned in marine environments generally show traces of cutis anserina, a whitish pale rugged surface on the epidermis. In the initial stage it tend to occur mainly on the hands and feet. Depending on the surrounding temperatures the process may vary from a couple of day to several weeks, and results in a loosening of the epidermis that also disarticulate the nails from their original positions (Lange, 2006:139; Boyle, 2006:606). It is also likely that adipocere may develop on the body within the first couple of days (Magnell, 2008:134-135). The presence of adipocere is regulated by the presence of water (Lange, 2006:139; Magnell, 2008:134-135), the amount of body fat on the diseased individual, and the surrounding temperature. Adipocere helps to protect the body from bacterial activities due to a lowered ph-value through fatty acids, and may, therefore, slow down the bacterial decompositional process (Magnell, 2008:134-135), and eventually result in the shedding on the epidermis and nails (Lange, 2006:139; Boyle, 2006:606). Both these processes are likely to have occurred during the decomposition process of the diseased bodies at the wreck sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, due their long time exposure to water in a fluvial system, and may have vastly affected the rate of decomposition. The general descriptions state that the next stage of decay, Diagenesis, occurs once the body has been covered by sedimentation. A form of decay that is described to break down the body tissue on a chemical, biological, and a physical level (Magnell, 2008:133). This is, however, not the general case in marine contexts. Diseased bodies placed in marine environments may undergo both horizontal and vertical transport throughout the different stages of decay (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531), and is, therefore, unlikely to be covered by marine sedimentation in any of the initial stages of decay. As described in previous chapters, the anaerobic putrefaction occur in environments with no, or a limited amount of oxygen, and lead to the build up of intestinal gases in the abdominal cavity (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531; Magnell, 2008:134), process that will occur regardless if the diseased body is placed at the seabed or the surface. It is, however, important to underline that the surrounding temperature is an important factor for the rate of decay (Magnell, 2008:134), making it problematic to present a general time frame for the initiation and duration of the decompositional process. A body placed at the seabed will at this stage slowly start its vertical transport up to the surface, and will as it ascends increase its speed due to the expansion of gases as dictated by Boyle's law (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531). Once at the surface it would be exposed to scavengers, insects (Boyle, et al. 2006:606), weather and wind, the heat from the sun, and currents and waves. These bodies would, just like any bodies kept by the surface through inner or outer buoyancy be at risk of being transported along the horizontal axis far away from the site (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; O'Brien, 2006:559-560). Any diseased bodies that initially sank down to the seabed at the Mars or Gribshunden sites would at this stage ascend to the surface, where they would be exposed to the forces previously stated concerning the diseased bodies that remained at the surface (see above) due to internal or external buoyancy. The build up of decompositional gases generally occur within a few hours in terrestrial environments, but the process is likely to be slowed down due to the thermal conductivity of the water (Phillipe & Modell. 2005:45), meaning that the ascent of the diseased bodies at the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden are likely to have been haltered. The rate of intestinal gas build up is highly dictated by the temperature of the surrounding environment (Sorg et al. 2006:568; Magnell, 2008:134; Evans, 2014:118), and may last for a minimum of two to four weeks depending on the rate of decay (Magnell, 2008:134). This means that the diseased bodies at the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden may have been placed exposed at the surface for several weeks before descending down to the seabed. Once the decomposition of a diseased body has reached the degree of decay where the decompositional gases and/or trapped air in the lungs may escape the body through the breakdown of soft tissue, it will start its vertical transport down to the seabed where it will be 73

exposed to currents and scavengers as previously described for sunken bodies (see above). The rate of decay is highly affected by the temperature of the surrounding environment, and is more likely to be slowed down in a marine environment. A low water temperature is also something that may affect the rate of the autolysis process, that occur due to changed ph- levels in the body due the lack of blood circulation. The autolysis results in a breakdown of soft tissue through enzymes that break down protein and carbohydrates in the body. The process starts in the intestinal organs and then slowly spread to the brain, nerve tissue, and the connective tissues of the body (Magnell, 2008:134). The breakdown of the body's connective tissue play an important role in the distribution pattern of skeletal remains in marine environments since a diseased body may be transported both along both the horizontal and vertical axis. The disarticulation of specific body parts generally occur in a specific order, meaning that body parts are disarticulated from the diseased body at different stages of decay. In the case of marine contexts, and specifically at the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, it means that some body parts may have be disarticulated from the diseased body during its transport along either the horizontal or vertical axis, leaving the disarticulated limb in one area while the remainder of the diseased body is transported to another. The disarticulation of limbs generally follow a specific pattern where the disarticulation start at the proximal ends and continue further up towards the torso. The first body parts to be disarticulated are generally the mandible, the hands, and the feet. The second body parts to be disarticulated are generally the radius and ulna, and the tibia and fibula. The third body parts to be disarticulated are the cranium, the top three vertebraes, and the humerus. At the fourth stage the scapula disarticulates from the torso, and the torso disarticulates from the lower part of the spine and coxae (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531). Some body parts are, however, more exposed to disarticulation due to their exposure to compact trauma while being dragged along the seabed, such as the hand and feet. Different body parts are, however, connected through different forms of joints, where the synovial joints, that allow for great movement, break down easier than fibrous joints, that are more fixed (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531-532). There are also, two types of limbs, where the hollow limbs are more likely to assess a higher degree of buoyancy, whereas solid limbs are less likely to assess any relevant degree of buoyancy. The hollow limbs are , therefore, more likely to resurface and move along with undercurrents, currents and waves, whereas solid limbs are more likely to remain in a limited area (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:532). The transport of both bodies, limbs, and bone elements are also dependant on the energy level of the fluvial system, meaning that the flow rate of currents and undercurrents may leave all in a relatively fixed position on the seabed, or pull all rapidly from one end of a river to another (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:533-34). Once the limbs reached the stage of full skeletonization, their receptivity to the undercurrents change once again. Different bone elements move in different ways due to their shape and density, resulting in them either rolling or sliding along the seabed, or staying fixed in their original position. It is, however, assumed that rounder bone elements, or bone elements abbreviated through impact with static or non-static objects, are more likely to be carried around in the marine environment than those with sharper or flatter edges. Bones such as sternum, vertebraes, sacrum and ribs, are most likely to be carried by currents in the water, whereas bones such as scapula, coxae, metapodalia, and metacarpalia, and long bones, are more likely to gradually move along with the currents and undercurrents. Bones such as crania and mandible are more likely to stay in a fixed position on the seabed, unless they have been exposed to some form of trauma that has altered their original form (Nawrocki, et al.. 2006:533-534). Which in the case of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden mean that the distribution pattern related to an individual's remains is related both to the horizontal and vertical movements of a diseased body, but also to the disarticulation phases of specific limbs, and the movement of specific bone elements in the fluvial system. It is, therefore, highly likely that a large number of individuals may have been horizontally transported from the Mars site through either waves, currents, or undercurrents, and that these individuals may have been brought either further in land to one of the nearby islands, Öland and Gotland, or 74

the mainland. It is also possible that any of these individuals may have been brought further out into or even across the Baltic Sea. It is also possible that a large amount of diseased individuals remained on the site due to their positions aboard the ship during the descent, or due to specific weather conditions that may have left the individuals in a close proximity to where the naval ship Mars went down. It is, however, likely that any present bodies of the diseased individuals are highly scattered due to the gradual disarticulation of body parts at the site. It seems highly unlikely that an individual would remain completely fixed along the horizontal axis, especially since the diseased body would also be transported at least once along the vertical axis, unless trapped within the hull. It is also unclear at which depth the individual body parts may have been disarticulated. It is possible that the increased rates of ascent and descent, dictated by Boyles law, may have been a contributing factor to the disarticulations of body parts only connected through a highly decomposed joint. The degree of horizontal transport may be rather limited around the Gribshunden site, but it is still highly likely that the remains are scattered in the near proximity of where the ship went down. It is highly unlikely that a diseased body remain fully fixed along the horizontal axis during the whole decay process, and it is, therefore, more likely that the diseased individuals were bobbing around within the archipelago area and while successively losing the disarticulating limbs along the way. Due to the depth it is also more likely that the vertical transport generated less of a trauma during the ascent and descent at the site, than it may have done at the Mars site. The absorption of foreign substances by skeletal remains may be underlined by observations made mainly based on the skeletal remains from the naval ship Mary Rose and the Viking Age harbour of Birka. The analysis showed several similar taphonomic patterns, even though they looked very different from each other. The skeletal remains from the naval ship Mary Rose was in very good condition and had a light yellow colour. The site where the Mary Rose was relocated was covered with fine grey silt (Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29), something that most likely resulted in the light colour of the exterior bone tissue (fig 22). As silt built up within the ship, so would the dark brown weeds, both that may be contributing factors to any discolouration's of the skeletal remains (Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017-05-29). Bones are sensitive to foreign substances in the surrounding environment and are, therefore, likely to absorb them (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:534- 535). This is referred to as soil staining (Dupraz & Schultz, 2014:323). Some of the bone elements were, however, partially discoloured through the contact with other forms of foreign substances at the site. Some of these bone elements were partially coloured brightly orange, something that is generally connected to absorption of metal, specifically iron (Dupraz & Schultz, 2014:323-325) (fig 23-29). In three of the areas at the Mary Rose site there were high density of cast iron shot, where the human remains often showed traces of staining according to researchers at the Mary Rose museum. Some of the human skeletal remains were described to have been trapped under large bronze guns and may, therefore, also have been exposed to some levels of copper staining (Conversation via email with Alex Hildred, 2017- 05-29). Several of the bone elements from the site also showed traces of absorption of minerals from something that appear to be a darker clay present at the site, in several cases resulting in a discolouration of the bone tissue (fig 23), but were in some cases so severe that the bone itself had become partially petrified (fig 24-25). Several of the bone elements showed traces of combinations of these taphonomic alterations, and in one case it became evident that a thin layer of algae placed on the bone tissue had been petrified through the absorption of both metal and minerals from the clay at the site (fig 26). In the case of the skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka, on the other hand, it became evident that all bone elements had been more of less affected by soil staining. Some bone element had been burnt before ending up in the water and was, therefore, to a large extent unaffected by the foreign substances in the soil. The remaining bone elements were, however, varying in colour from light brown to dark brown, to multi-colourations. All bone elements that had not been burned, also showed traces of coal absorption through small black patches on the bones 75

that in some cases could be directly connected to small pieces of coals attached to the bone element. Several bone elements also showed orange discolouration's that, just like in the case of the skeletal remains at the Mary Rose, could be connected to absorption of iron. There were also some noted cases of algae growth on the skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka, something that in these cases showed trace of the actual algae still remaining on the bone, instead of just traces of it. Algae may grow on almost any solid object in a marine environment (Higgs & Pokines, 2014:153), and it is therefore almost curious that no more than six noted algal growths could be observed. It is, however, possible that the patchy colourations of some of the bone elements may be due to sun bleaching on partially overgrown bone elements (Nawrocki. et al. 2006:534). The amount of vegetation at the Gribshunden site is quite different compared to the one at Mars. This due to the different depths. Gribshunden is placed at a depth or 10 metres (Warming, 2015) which allows for higher temperatures, and for some light to shine through, allowing marine vegetation such as algae and kelp to grow vigorously (Higgs & Pokines, 2014:153). Something that may be noted on the documented femur (fig 11) at the Gribshunden site. The bone element was partially overgrown by marine vegetation. It is also likely that some of the skeletal remains at the site are more or less hidden under new sedimentation and large amounts of vegetation. The sedimentation rates and marine vegetation are, however, not the focus in this thesis. All marine environments are unique in their own right. Factors such as geographical position, seasonal changes, the surrounding environment, the energy level of the fluvial system, different scavengers at the site, the distance to the land, inflows and outflows into the marine system, air temperature, water temperature, the debris, rocks, and vegetation at the site, are all important factors that affect the decompositional rate, fluvial transport, and distribution pattern of remains at the site. Other factors such as the individual's physique, stature, clothing, anti- or peri-mortem injuries etc affect the movement patterns of the diseased body, and its rate of decay. It is also of importance where, when, and at what state the individual entered the marine environment (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:530-535). Besides from the general taphonomic factors affecting the bodies, body parts, and bone elements, it is also important to underline the distinct variations between different marine environments. All factors such as the geographical position, the temperature, the environment surrounding the marine environment, the seasonal changes, the inflows and outflows of the marine environment (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531; O'Brien, 2006:559-560; Sorg et al. 2006:569), and the energy level of the specific area (Brooks & Brooks, 2006:557). The different energy levels of marine environments is one factor that is important to consider in all cases, this because the horizontal transport of diseased bodies is mainly affected by the flow rates at the fluvial system. High flow rates may also result in maceration of both soft tissue and .bone tissue, and may through this speed up the disintegration process (Brooks & Brooks, 2006:557). All these factors may vary to some degree and it is, therefore, important to not only study the general processes of decay, but to also study the specific marine environment in order to fully be able to understand the taphonomic processes and the remains that are found in them. This knowledge is of great importance in both forensic sciences, and in osteology, in order to relocate mainly human, but also animal remains.

9. CONCLUSIONS

The conclusion one may draw from the comparison between the results from the three forms of osteological source data is that it is possible to collect osteological data through all three formats. The amount of information did, however, differ between the different formats, but appeared to be highly connected to the amount of bone elements, and the bone element representation. The 2D documentation and the 3D reconstructions allowed the osteologist to collect data concerning both species, bone element, age, sex, trauma, and taphonomy. There were, however, some limitations to the amount of data that could be collected due to either soil coverage, overexposure specific bone elements during the documentation process, and the softening of edges during the rendering of the 3D reconstructions. The results from the osteology students exercise underlined that there exists an underlying problematization concerning the individual interpretations made by different osteologist on the same source material. It was, however, clear that most of the students were fairly consequent in their analysis results regardless if the analysis was performed on a two dimensional source data or on physical skeletal remains. The conclusion one may draw based on the osteological data collected through the use of 2D documentation and 3D reconstructions of skeletal remains is that skeletal remains at marine archaeological, and other hard to reach sites, should be documented according to a specific work method. The work method dictates that all bone elements initially should be documented after the immediate area has been cleared of any loose floating sedimentation. The bone element should then be documented from above with a measuring stick placed as closely as possible. If the specific bone element can be determined at the site it should be documented according to the specific description in this thesis. If the bone element is unknown it should be documented from all available sides from the immediate angle. The bone element should also be documented with close ups of any epiphyseal closures, and articulate surfaces. If possible, each bone element should be documented with as many pictures as possible from all angles in order to form a 3D reconstruction, and allow for a combined 2D and 3D osteological analysis. The conclusion one may draw based on the discussion concerning bodies, body parts, and bone elements in marine environments is that the aspects of fluvial transport and the specific marine conditions greatly affect both the process of decomposition and the distribution pattern of skeletal remains at a site. Diseased bodies may move along both the horizontal and vertical axis, and through the force of waves, currents, and undercurrents be carried far away from the site where they initially entered the water. The discussion also shed light on one of the contributing factors to why only a limited amount of skeletal remains have been located at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ship Mars and Gribshunden. There are several other factors that need to be discussed in the future in order to fully understand the sites, and relocate any remains in the areas in near relation to the wreckages.

10. SUMMARY

This master's thesis is a continuation of the bachelor's thesis The skeletal remains at the naval ship Mars - An osteological pre-study for analysing digitally documented skeletal remains in a marine context. This thesis focus on the development of an osteological work method for documentation and analysis of skeletal remains at marine archaeological sites; and on how bodies, body parts, and bone elements are affected by the marine environment. The main focus of these two aspects are connected to the two marine archaeological projects Skeppet Mars (1564) and Skeppet Gribshunden (1495), where the aim is to relocate, document, and analyse physical objects through the use of digital methods. The osteological materials used in this thesis consists examination of different materials documented in three different ways. the analysis is based on examination of the physical skeletal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka (provided by the National Maritime Museums in Sweden: Sjöhistoriska), and the naval ship Mary Rose (provided by the Mary Rose museum). The two dimensional photographic documentation of the skeletal remains at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden (Provided by the research projects via MARIS, Södertörn University). The three dimensional reconstructions of skeletal remains at the sites Çatalhöyük (Provided by the Çatalhöyük Research Project) and Sandby borg (Provided by the Sandby borg project). A comparative analysis was performed through compiling and comparing the results from the three types of source materials from the physical skeletal remains of the Viking Age harbour of Birka, the 2D documented skeletal remains from the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden, the 3D reconstructed skeletal remains at the Çatalhöyük site, and the Sandby borg site, and through an osteology students exercise where eight osteology students analysed 10 bone elements in both a two dimensional and a physicical form. The comparison of the results was then used in order to contrast the amount of information available to the osteologist through the use of the different formats, as well as form a recommended documentation method for undetermined and determined bone elements at marine archaeological, and other hard to reach, sites. A thematic literature review was performed and compiled into a reference material used in the discussion in an attempt to answer the theoretical work questions concerning the effects of the marine environment on bodies, body parts, and bone elements. The theoretical literature review was also used in order to discuss how the effects of the marine environment on human and animal remains may be used in order to explain one of the contributing factors to the limited amount of skeletal remains located at the marine archaeological sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden. The results implied that the horizontal and vertical transport and the specific marine conditions may have resulted in a vastly spread out distribution pattern at both sites, where the Gribshunden remains most likely remain within the archipelago, whereas the Mars remains may be spread far out in the Baltic sea or along the shores of the islands Öland, Gotland, or the mainland of Sweden. Further taphonomic effects were discussed based on the thematic literature review in combination with the taphonomic alterations noted on the skeletal remains of the crew of the Mary Rose, and the skeletal remains from the Viking Age harbour of Birka.

11. FUTURE RESEARCH

There are several different aspects that may be researched further in the future, where the main focus would be to further develop the method for digital documentation and analysis of skeletal remains at marine archaeological, and other hard to reach, sites. It would be of interest to apply the method at several marine archaeological sites, as well as create an artificial marine environment in a water tank with different sediments covers and water conditions, in order to further develop the method and aim to solve any issues related to the documentation process. Further studies concerning the use of digital methods will be conducted at the sites of the naval ships Mars and Gribshunden in the upcoming field seasons. It would here be of interest to explore several different ways to document the remains through the use of digital methods, such as through the use of sonar, ROV, or 3D reconstructions of skeletal remains in- situ. The method may also be applicable for other forms of physical objects at hard to reach marine archaeological sites, such as deep seas or inside wreckages. Further discussions may also be performed concerning the use of digital methods. How do we relate to 3D reconstructions of human skeletal remains from an ethical perspective? Is the stigmatization connected to the physical bones or also to the intimate details of an individual skeleton? Discussions concerning a future co-operation between the digital projects of MARIS, Södertörn University, and the Mary Rose Museum, has been initiated. The discussions focus on digital approaches to digital osteology, and skeletal remains at marine archaeological sites. The Mary Rose Museum is currently digitalising their collections and sending out their data to several other institutions where the different osteologists perform an osteological analysis on the digitally documented remains before sending the collected data back to the Mary Rose Museum. The data is then compiled in data base in order to evaluate the amount of retrievable information through the use of digital documentation. The digital osteology project through MARIS, on the other hand, focus on how to use digital documentation to analyse skeletal remains that remain in-situ. Discussions concerning a future co-operation has also been initiated between Uppsala University, MARIS at Södertörn University, the police education program at Södertörn University, the Swedish Maritime Museum, and the Marine Police department in Stockholm. Several discussion were had, and one related to the topic of this thesis concern the use of digital documentation that may be sent to an osteologist in order to assess whether an encountered bone element is from a human or an animal. This in order to determine if a marine forensic investigation need to be performed at the site. Other related questions that may be asked are: How can we trace bodies in water? How can we read the taphonomic evidence in the bone tissue? Which additional information can be retrieved through an increased knowledge of what happens to bodies and bones in water? It may also be of interests to focus further on digital documentation and analysis regarding digital taphonomy based on the following questions: Can we use digital methods to study the taphonomic effects on bone tissue? And why should we strive to develop a way to do so? This may perhaps be used as a tool in order to determine when remains or artefacts at a site are in dire need to be salvaged in order to avoid complete disintegration. Another important aspect to discuss further is the effects of climate changes on preservation of skeletal remains at marine archaeological sites. How are the preservation conditions altered when the temperatures and water levels rise or even out? How are the

preservation conditions affected when the seasonal lengths start to shift, or when extreme weather conditions start to occur more often? How may these factors affect other hard to reach sites? Very few marine osteological projects have been performed in Sweden up to this point and it is, therefore, important to underline that further research within this field will contribute not only to the field of osteoarchaeology, but also to the field of forensic science. The fields of osteoarchaeology and forensics are conjoined both in the aim to shed light on the fates of diseased individuals, but also to the taphonomic processes that occur from the time of death until discovery.

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Ekön, Ronneby, Blekinge. Marinarkeologisk undersökning 2013-2015. Maris Södertörns högskola/Blekinge museum Rapport 2015:21. Sejlitz, I. 1987. Explosivämneskunskap. Karlskoga: Nobel industrier Serjeantson, D. 2009. Birds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schmid, E. 1972. Atlas of animal bones: for prehistorians, archaeologists and quaternary geologists = Knochenatlas : für Prähistoriker, Archäologen und Quartärgeologen. Amsterdam: Elsevier Smirnov, A. 2009. Det första stora kriget. Stockholm: Medström Silver, I A. 1969. The aging of domestic animals. In: Brothwell DR, Higgs, E (ed). Science in archaeology. New York: Thames and Hudson. 1969: 283–302. Sorg, M H. Dearborn, J H. Monahan, E I. Ryan, H F. Sweeney, K G. David, E. 2006. Forensic Taphonomy in Marine Contexts. In: Haglund, W D. M H, Sorg (ed). 2006. Forensic taphonomy. The Postmortem Faith of Human Remains. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 2006: 567-604. Stirland, A J. 2013. The men of the Mary Rose: Raising the dead. The history press. United Kingdom Teichert, M. 1969 Osteometrishe Untersuchungen zur Berechnung der Widerristhöhe bei vor- und früh. I: Ethnographisch-archäologische Zeitschrift vol. 10. 1969:157-525. Berlin. Viberg, A. Victor, H. Fischer, S. Lidén, K. Andrén, A. 2014. The Ring fort by the Sea: Archaeological Geophysical Prospection and Excavations at Sandby borg (Öland). Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 44:3. 2014:413-428. Warming, R. 2015. Gribshunden: Significance and Preliminary investigations [read: 2015-10- 15]. http://combatarchaeology.org/gribshunden-significance-and-preliminary-investigations/ Wheeler, A. A K G, Jones. 2009 [1989]. Fishes. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Videos Video1.Caged Pig Forensic Experiment in the Ocean [watched: 2015-08-20]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZz0UdytqjM Video2.Ocean Forensic Pig Experiment. 24 hrs After Deployment [watched: 2015-09-03]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0aIaQ1-zTww

Unpublished Fredriksson, M. In. Prep. Djur och djurhållning på Birka: En osteologisk analys av de animala skeletala kvarlevorna från de marinarkeologiska undersökningarna i Björkösundet 2014. Statens Maritima Museer. Olsson, A. In. Prep. Marinarkeologiska rapporter från åren 2004 till 2014. Statens Maritima Museer. Sjöblom, I. in prep. Tusen tunnor öl och maten på Mars.

WebPages Çatalhöyük Research Project site. History of the Excavations. [read: 2017-03-01] http://www.catalhoyuk.com/project/history Haddow, S D. 2012. Blog entry. Catalhöyük 2012: Bioarchaeology in 3D. [read: 2015-12-09] https://scotthaddow.wordpress.com/2012/07/27/catalhoyuk-2012-week-5/ The University of Tennessee. College of art and sciences. University webpage for general information concerning the forensic anthropology centre. [read: 2017-05-11]

http://fac.utk.edu/ The Digital Tudors project. The Mary Rose Museum webpage [2017-04-20] http://www.maryrose.org/virtual-tudors-project/

APPENDIX 1: Bone list

The following bone list is written in swedish since it was created in order to compile all the information collected during the osteological analysis of the animal skeletal remains at the Viking Age harbour of Birka, Uppland, Sweden. The bone list is a part of an osteological report written on behalf of the National Maritime Museums in Sweden. The main aspects relevant in this bone list is the degree of decomposition, and colour changes. This since information concerning the representation of varying degrees of decomposition may be used in order to underline the specific conditions at the site. The representation of colour variations and algae growth, on the other hand, is of importance since different environments leave different traces on the bone tissue, and may be of use both concerning the specific site of the Viking age harbour of Birka, but may also be of use as a comparative material for future studies of skeletal remains in marine archaeological contexts. The cases of light (lätt) disintegration showed very little or no noticeable break down of the surface, whereas the cases with hard (hårt) disintegration mainly consisted of the spongious bone tissue of the inner core of the bone elements.

The Viking Age harbour of Birka Fragm Fynd La Ben Ålde Kö Mankh entera Box nr. Ruta ger nr. Art Benslag Antal r n öjd Tafonomi d Övrigt

fragme 13 100 2 2A 1 aves coracoid 2 lätt. Ljusbrun nterad

lätt. Ljusbrun till fragme 13 100 2 2A 2 bos phlnx r1 1 mellanbrun nterad

lätt. Ljusbrun till fragme 13 100 2 2A 3 bos phlnx r2 1 mellanbrun nterad

humerus. fragme 13 100 2 2A 4 aves Proximalt 1 lätt. Ljusbrun nterad

cervi dentes:p 13 100 2 2A 5 d m 1

cervi dentes:p 13 100 2 2A 6 d m 1

ljusbrun med mörkare stort partier, dägg medel fragme 13 100 2 2A 7 djur mt/mc 1 påverkan nterad huggspår

ljusbrun med mörkare partier, medel 13 100 2 2A 8 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan

ljusbrun med mörkare partier, medel 13 100 2 2A 9 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan

ljusbrun med mörkare stort partier, dägg medel fragme 13 100 2 2A 10 djur vertebrae 1 påverkan nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare stort mt/mc partier, dägg distal medel fragme 13 100 2 2A 11 djur epifys 1 påverkan nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare stort partier, dägg medel 13 100 2 2A 12 djur phlnx r2 1 påverkan

ljusbrun med mörkare partier, medel fragme 13 100 2 2A 13 Bos talus 1 påverkan nterad

GL:27 mm. Mankh öjd: ljusbrun. fragme 13 100 2 2A 14 ovis talus 1 61,2cm Medel nterad trol dentes:ca ig fragme 13 100 2 2A 15 sus nini 1 galt nterad

9 år gam mal medel till enligt hårt. Pisce årsrin Ljusbrun till fragme 13 100 2 2A 16 s vertebrae 1 gar. mörkbrun nterad stort dägg ljusbrun. fragme 13 100 2 2A 17 djur talus 1 Medel nterad

ljusbrun. fragme 13 100 2 2A 18 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad mede l dägg ljusbrun. fragme 13 100 2 2A 19 djur talus 1 Medel nterad

ljusbrun. fragme 13 100 2 2A 20 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad mede l dägg ljusbrun. 13 100 2 2A 21 djur talus 1 Hårt mede l dägg 13 100 2 2A 22 djur talus 1 ljusbrun. Lätt mede l dägg 13 100 2 2A 23 djur phlnx r_ 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

ljusbrun. Lätt 13 100 2 2A 24 bos ci 1 till medel stort dägg 13 100 2 2A 25 djur phlnx r_ 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

stort dägg ljusbrun. Lätt 13 100 2 2A 26 djur phlnx r2 1 till medel

ljusbrun med mörkare fragme 13 101 3 2 1 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare fragme 13 101 3 2 2 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun och svart. 13 101 3 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt

ljus med mörkare 13 101 3 2 4 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörkare 13 101 3 2 5 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörkare fragme 13 101 3 2 6 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljus med mörkare 13 101 3 2 7 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörkare 13 101 3 2 8 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörkare 13 101 3 2 9 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörkare 13 101 3 2 10 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörkare partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 11 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

ljus med mörkare partier. 13 101 3 2 12 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel

ljus med mörkare partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 13 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

ljus med mörkare partier. 13 101 3 2 14 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel

ljus med stort mörkare dägg partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 15 djur phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun med mörka partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 16 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun med mörka partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 17 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun med mörka partier. 13 101 3 2 18 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel

mellanbrun med mörka 13 101 3 2 19 bos phlnx r1 1 partier. Lätt

mellanbrun med mörka fragme 13 101 3 2 20 bos phlnx r1 1 partier. Lätt nterad

svart med ljusare partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 21 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

svart med ljusare partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 22 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

svart med ljusare partier. fragme 13 101 3 2 23 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

stort ljus med dägg mörkare fragme 13 101 3 2 24 djur phlnx r1 1 partier. lätt nterad

stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 25 djur phlnx r1 1 Medium nterad stort dägg mörkbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 26 djur phlnx r1 1 Hårt nterad

stort ljus till dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 27 djur phlnx r1 1 Hårt nterad

stort ljus till dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 28 djur phlnx r1 1 Hårt nterad stort dägg pas mörk. fragme 13 101 3 2 29 djur patrosa 1 Medium nterad

bovid ofusi /cervi pas onera mellan brun. fragme 13 101 3 2 30 d patrosa 1 d Medium nterad

mellanbrun till mörk. fragme 13 101 3 2 31 bos radius 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun till mörk. fragme 13 101 3 2 32 bos talus 1 Lätt nterad

13 101 3 2 33 bos phlnx r3 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

GL: 27mm. Mankh öjd: 13 101 3 2 34 ovis talus 1 61,2cm ljusbrun. Lätt

GL: 24mm. Mankh öjd: 13 101 3 2 35 ovis talus 1 54,4cm ljusbrun. Lätt

bos/a 13 101 3 2 36 lces phlnx r3 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

13 101 3 2 37 sus dentes:m 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

mt/mc bos/a distal fragme 13 101 3 2 38 lces ledrulle 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

fragme 13 101 3 2 39 bos sacrum 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

fragme 13 101 3 2 40 bos cr 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

coxae acetabelu fragme 13 101 3 2 41 x m 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

cervi fragme 13 101 3 2 42 d phlnx r3 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

fragme 13 101 3 2 43 x phlnx r3 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

fragme 13 101 3 2 44 bos ci 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

fragme 13 101 3 2 45 bos cr 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

svart med ljusare fragme 13 101 3 2 46 bos ci 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 47 bos ci 1 Hårt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 48 bos cr 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 101 3 2 49 bos ci 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. cervi dentes:p Ljusbrun till 13 101 3 2 50 d m 1 mörkbrun

mörk med grå cervi pålagring. fragme 13 101 3 2 51 d dentes 1 Medium nterad

ljus med mörka 13 101 3 2 52 sus dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt

ljus med mörka 13 101 3 2 53 sus dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt

cervi dentes:p mörk. 13 101 3 2 54 d m 1 Medium

cervi dentes:p mörk. 13 101 3 2 55 d m 1 Medium

dentes:in ljus till svart. fragme 13 101 3 2 56 sus cisivi 1 Medium nterad

dentes:in ljus till svart. fragme 13 101 3 2 57 sus cisivi 1 Medium nterad

ljus till svart. 13 101 3 2 58 sus dentes 1 Medium

dentes:p ljusbrun till 13 101 3 2 59 bos m 1 grå. Medium cervi 13 101 3 2 60 d dentes 1 svart 13 101 3 2 61 bos dentes 1 grå

vit med dentes:ca svarta fragme 13 102 2 2B 1 sus nini 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun till cervi mörkbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 2 d phlnx r1 1 Lätt nterad

ljusbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 3 sus phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare fragme 13 102 2 2B 5 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare fragme 13 102 2 2B 6 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare fragme 13 102 2 2B 7 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare fragme 13 102 2 2B 8 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad stort klövd mellanbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 9 jur phlnx r3 2 Lätt nterad stort klövd mellanbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 10 jur phlnx r3 1 Lätt nterad

stort klövd mellanbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 11 jur phlnx r3 1 Medium nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 12 bos phlnx r3 1 Medium nterad

skrovlig kompakta. Gråbrun till mörkbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 13 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium nterad

ljus gråbrun med svarta fragme 13 102 2 2B 14 ovis talus 1 partier nterad

ljusbrun med ljusare partier. fragme 13 102 2 2B 15 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium nterad

ljusbrun med cervi ljusare fragme 13 102 2 2B 16 d talus 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med ljusare partier. Lätt fragme 13 102 2 2B 17 bos ci 1 svedd. Lätt nterad mede l mt/mc dägg distal ljusbrun. fragme 13 102 2 2B 18 djur epifys 1 Hårt nterad

ljusbrun till medelbrun med mörkare fragme 13 102 2 2B 19 equus capitatum 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun till medelbrun femur. med mörkare fragme 13 102 2 2B 20 bos Distal 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun stort med ljusare dägg tibia. partier. fragme 13 102 2 2B 21 djur Distal 1 Medium nterad

cervi svart/grå. fragme 13 103 2 2 1 d dentes 2 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med svarta fragme 13 103 2 2 2 bos phlnx r2 1 partier nterad

ljus med svarta och vita partier. 13 103 2 2 3 bos ci 1 Lätt

ljus gråbrun med ljusare och mörkare fragme 13 103 2 2 4 bos talus 1 partier. Lätt nterad

medel till hårt. fragme 13 103 2 2 5 x cr 1 Ljusbrun nterad

medel till hårt. 13 103 2 2 6 bos phlnx r2 1 Ljusbrun

stort dägg ljusbrun till fragme 13 103 2 2 7 djur phlnx r2 1 grå. Lätt nterad

Tafonom iskt viktig. ljus gråbrun Bild: stort med svarta 103- dägg och gulvita fragme 6007 till 13 103 2 2 8 djur calcaneus 1 partier nterad 6008

ljus med mörka partier. Lätt dentes:ca påverkad. fragme 13 104 1 2A 1 sus nini 1 Flagar nterad

mörk med dentes:ca ljusare fragme 13 104 1 2A 2 sus nini 1 partier. Lätt nterad

dentes:ca ljus med fragme 13 104 1 2A 3 sus nini 1 mörk rot nterad

dentes:p ljus med 13 104 1 2A 4 sus m 1 svarta partier

ljus gulbeige till bild: mellanbrun 103- och svart. 5995 till 13 104 1 2A 5 bos talus 1 Medium 5997

ljusbrun med mörkare partier. Lätt metallpåverk fragme 13 104 1 2A 6 bos talus 1 an nterad

mellanbrun med svarta och ljusbruna fragme 13 104 1 2A 7 bos phlnx r1 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med svarta och ljusbruna fragme 13 104 1 2A 8 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare fragme 13 104 1 2A 9 bos ci 1 partier. Lätt nterad

stort ljusbrun med dägg mörkare fragme 13 104 1 2A 10 djur phlnx r1 1 partier. Lätt nterad

stort ljusbrun med dägg mörkare fragme 13 104 1 2A 11 djur phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

stort dägg vertebrae mellanbrun. fragme 13 105 4 2 1 djur : atlas 1 Medium nterad 96

svart med cervi ljusare 13 105 4 2 2 d dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt

svart med ljusare 13 105 4 2 3 sus dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 105 4 2 4 djur femur 1 Hårt nterad

mt/mc distal mellanbrun. fragme 13 105 4 2 5 equus epifys 1 Medium nterad

mt/mc bos/a distal mellanbrun. fragme 13 105 4 2 6 lces epifys 1 Medium nterad

stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 105 4 2 7 djur vertebrae 1 Medium nterad

tibia. ljus till fragme 13 105 4 2 8 x Prox 1 mörkt. Hårt nterad

mt/mc mellanbrun bos/a distal till mörkt. fragme 13 105 4 2 9 lces epifys 1 Medium nterad

mellanbrun bos/a till mörkt. fragme 13 105 4 2 10 lces phlnx r2 1 Medium nterad

medium till hårt. Mellanbrun fragme 13 105 4 2 11 x phlnx r1 1 till mörkbrun nterad

medium till stort hårt. klövd Mellanbrun fragme 13 105 4 2 12 jur phlnx r3 1 till mörkbrun nterad

ljusbrun till mörk. Gråvit fragme 13 106 2 2 1 bos ci 1 pålagring nterad

medelbrun med mörka fragme 13 106 2 2 2 aves vertebrae 1 fläckar. Lätt nterad

medelbrun med mörka fragme 13 106 2 2 3 bos phlnx r1 1 fläckar. Lätt nterad

mörkbrun med ljusare fläckar. fragme 13 106 2 2 4 bos phlnx r1 1 Flagar. Lätt nterad

mörkbrun med ljusare fläckar. fragme 13 106 2 2 5 bos phlnx r1 1 Flagar. Lätt nterad

cervi mellanbrun. fragme 13 106 2 2 6 d phlnx r3 1 Medium nterad

ljusbrun till cervi mörk/svart. 13 106 2 2 7 d dentes:m 1 Medium

ljusbrun till cervi dentes:p mörk/svart. 13 106 2 2 8 d m 1 Medium

ljusbrun till cervi dentes:p mörk/svart. 13 106 2 2 9 d m 1 Medium

ljusbrun till cervi mörk/svart. 13 106 2 2 10 d dentes 1 Medium

ljusbrun till stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 13 106 2 2 11 djur phlnx r2 1 medium nterad

ljusbrun till stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 13 106 2 2 12 djur phlnx r2 1 medium nterad

ljusbrun till stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 13 106 2 2 13 djur phlnx r2 1 medium nterad

mellanbrun stort till mörkt. dägg Medel till fragme 13 106 2 2 14 djur phlnx r2 1 hårt nterad

ljus med mörka partier. fragme 13 106 2 2 15 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

ljus med mörka partier. fragme 13 106 2 2 16 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

ljus med mörkare partier. Medel till 13 106 2 2 17 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt

ljus med mörkare partier. Medel till 13 106 2 2 18 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt 99

ljus med mörkare partier. Medel till fragme 13 106 2 2 19 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt nterad

ljus med mörkare partier. Medel till fragme 13 106 2 2 20 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt nterad

GL: 23mm. Mankh öjd: 52,1cm ljus med enligt mörka Teicher partier. fragme 13 106 2 2 21 ovis talus 1 t. Medel. nterad

småc dentes:p 13 107 3 4 1 ervid m 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

Tafonom iskt intressan ljus med t: Bild: stor orange och 103- cervi svarta fragme 6009 till 13 107 3 4 2 d dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt nterad 6014

mede ljus med l mt/mc svarta dägg distal partier. fragme 13 107 3 4 3 djur epifys 1 Medium nterad

ljus med stort svarta klövd partier. Lätt fragme 13 107 3 4 4 jur phlnx r3 1 till medium nterad småb ovid/ cervi fragme 13 107 3 4 5 d ci 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

mede ljusbrun med l svarta dägg partier. fragme 13 107 3 4 6 djur vertebrae 1 Medium nterad

100

ljusbrun med svarta stort fläckar. dägg Medium till fragme 13 107 3 4 7 djur phlnx r1 1 hårt nterad

ljusbrun med svarta fläckar. Medium till fragme 13 107 3 4 8 bos ci 1 hårt nterad

stort ljusbrun med dägg svarta fragme 13 107 3 4 9 djur phlnx r3 1 fläckar. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med svarta fragme 13 107 3 4 10 bos phlnx r1 1 fläckar. Lätt nterad

dentes + del av ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 13 107 3 4 11 sus käke 1 till medel nterad

stort ljusbrun till dägg svart. Medel fragme 13 108 2 2 1 djur vertebrae 1 till hårt nterad

stort ljusbrun till dägg svart. Medel fragme 13 108 2 2 2 djur vertebrae 1 till hårt nterad

mede mellanbrun l mt/mc till dägg distal mörkbrun. fragme 13 108 2 2 3 djur epifys 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun till mörkbrun. fragme 13 108 2 2 4 bos ci 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun till radius. mörkbrun. fragme 13 108 2 2 5 x Proximal 1 Lätt nterad

101

stort dägg ljusbrun till fragme 13 108 2 2 6 djur vertebrae 1 svart. M. lätt nterad

femur mellanbrun. proximal Medel till fragme 13 108 2 2 7 sus epifys 1 hårt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 108 2 2 8 bos ci 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun till mörkbrun med vitbeige Bild:103 pålagring. fragme -5918 till 13 108 2 2 9 bos talus 1 Medel nterad 5926

ljusbrun till stort mellanbrun. dägg Medium till fragme 13 108 2 2 10 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad

flagar. Ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Bild:103 "glittrig i fragme -5927 till 13 108 2 2 11 bos phlnx r1 1 porerna" nterad 5932

mellanbrun. fragme 13 108 2 2 12 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

klövd mellanbrun. fragme 13 108 2 2 13 jur phlnx r3 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun till mörkbrun. 13 108 2 2 14 x phlnx r2 1 lätt

mellanbrun till mörk. fragme 13 108 2 2 15 x phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad

102

mellanbrun till mörk. 13 108 2 2 16 x phlnx r2 1 Medel

mellanbrun till mörk. 13 108 2 2 17 x phlnx r2 1 Medel

mellanbrun till mörk. 13 108 2 2 18 x radius 1 Medel

ljusbrun till mörkbrun. 13 108 2 2 19 x dentes 1 Medel

ljusbrun till svart. Fläckvis cervi lerbeläggnin 13 108 2 2 20 d dentes 1 g. Medel

ljusbrun till medelbrun. Vit pålagring. 13 108 2 2 21 sus dentes:m 1 Medel

ljusbrun till dentes:p medelbrun. 13 108 2 2 22 sus m 1 Medel

ljusbrun till medelbrun. 13 108 2 2 23 sus dentes:m 1 Medel

103

ljusbrun med orange metall absorbering samt svarta Bild: partier. fragme 103- 13 109 2 2 1 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad 6018

ljusbrun med orange metall absorbering stort samt svarta Bild: dägg partier. fragme 103- 13 109 2 2 2 djur phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad 6019

ljusbrun med orange metall absorbering samt svarta Bild: partier. fragme 6020 till 13 109 2 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel nterad 6021

mellanbrun med ljusare Bild: stort och svartare 103- dägg pas partier. fragme 6022 till 13 109 2 2 4 djur patrosa 1 Medel nterad 6024

mellanbrun. Medium till fragme 13 109 2 2 5 bos phlnx r1 1 hårt nterad

mellanbrun stort med ljusare dägg och svarta fragme 13 109 2 2 6 djur vertebrae 1 partier nterad

104

flagar. femur. Ljusbrun till Proximal mellanbrun. fragme 13 109 2 2 7 bos epifys 1 Medium nterad

ljusbrun med orange metall absorbering samt svarta partier. Ljusbrun till mellanbrun. fragme 13 109 2 2 8 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun med ljusgulvita Bild: stort och orangea 103- dägg partier. fragme 6025 till 13 109 2 2 9 djur phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad 6026

ljusbrun till stort mörkbrun dägg med svarta fragme 13 109 2 2 10 djur humerus 1 partier. Hårt nterad

mellanbrun ofusi med svarta alces onera och gulgråa fragme 13 109 2 2 11 alces radius 1 d partier. Lätt nterad

stort ljusbrun med dägg tibia. fusio svarta fragme 13 109 2 2 12 djur Proximal 1 nerad partier. Hårt nterad

105

stort ljusbrun med dägg tibia. fusio svarta fragme 13 109 2 2 13 djur Proximal 1 nerad partier. Hårt nterad

transvers stort ofusi ljusbrun med alt Snitt dägg onera mörkare fragme genom 13 109 2 2 14 djur vertebrae 1 d partier. lätt nterad corpus

interkrani stort alt vid mellanbrun dägg temporal med mörkare fragme 13 110 4 3 1 djur e 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med mörkare partier. Grålera i 13 110 4 3 2 bos phlnx r2 1 porerna. Lätt

ljusbrun med klövd svarta fragme 13 110 4 3 3 jur phlnx r3 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med svarta 13 110 4 3 4 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

GL: 29mm. Mankh ljusbrun med öjd:65c svarta 13 110 4 3 5 ovis talus 1 m partier. Lätt

ljusbrun med mörkare partier. fragme 13 111 2 3 1 x kranium 1 Medel nterad

106

ljusbrun med mörkare partier. fragme 13 111 2 3 2 x kranium 1 Medel nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare cervi partier. Snedslite 13 111 2 3 3 d dentes 1 Medel n

ljusbrun. 13 112 4 2 1 bos talus 1 Hårt

ljusbrun med svarta partier. Lätt 13 112 4 2 2 bos talus 1 till medel

ljusbrun til mellanbrun. Lätt till fragme 13 112 4 2 3 bos phlnx r1 1 medel nterad

vit med dentes:p svarta 13 112 4 2 4 sus m 1 partier. Lätt

vit med svarta 13 112 4 2 5 sus dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt

stort klövd ljusbrun. Lätt 13 112 4 2 6 jur phlnx r3 1 till medel stort dägg pas mellanbrun. 13 112 4 2 7 djur patrosa 1 Lätt

ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 13 112 4 2 8 bos talus 1 till medel nterad

ljusbrun till mörkbrun. 13 112 4 2 9 bos humerus 1 Hårt

107

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. 13 112 4 2 10 sus humerus 1 Medel

ljusbrun med mörka partier. fragme 13 112 4 2 11 bos ci 1 Medel nterad

ljus gulbrun till mörkbrun stort mt/mc med svarta dägg distal partier. fragme 13 113 2 2A 1 djur epifys 1 Medel nterad ofusi onera d proxi malt. Fusio nerad distal t. = 0-1 1/4 år. Enlig t bränt. Vit till Silve gråsvart med r orangea fragme 13 113 2 2A 2 bos phlnx r2 1 1969 fläckar. nterad

Pisce fragme 13 113 2 2A 3 s vertebrae 1 bränt nterad

rot relativt fragme 13 113 2 2A 4 sus dentes:m 1 intakt. Lätt nterad

rot relativt fragme 13 113 2 2A 5 sus dentes:m 1 intakt. Lätt nterad stort dägg pas mörkbrun. fragme 13 113 2 2A 6 djur patrosa 1 Lätt nterad

108

ljusbrun med mörkare partier. Medel till fragme 13 113 2 2A 7 bos phlnx r1 1 hårt nterad stort dägg ljusbrun. fragme 13 113 2 2A 8 djur phlnx r2 1 Hårt nterad

ljusbrunt till svart. Porig. fragme 13 113 2 2A 9 sus phlnx r2 1 Kompaktan nterad

ljusbrun med svarta partier. cervi Medel till fragme 13 113 2 2A 10 d talus 1 hårt nterad

ljusbeige med svarta partier. fragme 13 113 2 2A 11 bos talus 1 Medel nterad

ljusgulaktig till mellanbrun småb med svarta Bild: ovid/ partier. 103- cervi humerus. Flagar. fragme 6000 till 13 113 2 2A 12 d Corpus 1 Medel nterad 6001

stort gråbrun. dägg ulna. Medel till fragme 13 113 2 2A 13 djur Distal 1 hårt nterad

stort dägg humerus. mellanbrun. fragme 13 114 3 4 1 djur Corpus 1 Medel nterad

stort mellanbrun dägg till mörkt. fragme 13 114 3 4 2 djur kranial 1 Medel nterad

109

stort ljusbrun till dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 114 3 4 3 djur vertebrae 1 Medel nterad inga identi fierad e frag 13 115 2 4B ment

stort ljusbrun till dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 116 1 4B 1 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

stort ljusbrun till dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 116 1 4B 2 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

stort ljusbrun till dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 116 1 4B 3 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 116 1 4B 4 djur costae 1 Lätt nterad mede l dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 116 1 4B 5 djur costae 1 Lätt nterad

tibiotarsu mellanbrun. fragme 13 116 1 4B 6 aves s 1 Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare partier. 13 116 1 4B 7 sus dentes 1 Medel mede l ljusbrun. dägg Medel till 13 116 1 4B 8 djur vertebrae 1 hårt

stort mörkbrun. dägg Medel till 13 116 1 4B 9 djur femur 1 hårt

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. fragme 13 117 1 1 1 bos talus 1 Lätt nterad

110

inga identi fierad e frag 13 118 5, 7 3 ment

ljusbrun med mörka partier. Lätt tibia. pålagring av fragme 13 119 1 2B 1 x Proximal 1 lera. Lätt nterad

svart med ljusare cervi partier. fragme 13 119 1 2B 2 d dentes 1 Medel nterad litet dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 3 djur mt/mc 1 Lätt nterad

mt/mc ofusi bos/a distal onera mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 4 lces epifys 1 d Lätt nterad

mt/mc ofusi bos/a distal onera mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 5 lces epifys 1 d Lätt nterad ofusi onera mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 6 bos phlnx r2 1 d Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 7 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt nterad stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 8 djur phlnx r1 1 Lätt nterad stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 9 djur phlnx r2 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 10 bos phlnx r1 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 11 bos phlnx r1 1 Lätt nterad

ljusbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 12 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad stort dägg fusio ljusbrun. fragme 13 119 1 2B 13 djur vertebrae 1 nerad Medel nterad

cervi ljusbrun. 13 119 1 2B 14 d femur 1 Medel

ljusbrun. 13 119 1 2B 15 bos talus 1 Medel 111

ljusbrun. 13 119 1 2B 16 bos talus 1 Medel

mellanbrun med ljusare och mörkare partier. Medel fragme 14 160 1 2,4 1 bos phlnx r1 1 påverkad nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare och mörkare partier. cervi Medel fragme 14 160 1 2,4 2 d phlnx r1 1 påverkad nterad

ljus med mörkare partier. Medel fragme 14 160 1 2,4 3 bos phlnx r1 1 påverkad. nterad

medel påverkad. bovid Mellanbrun /cervi med mörka fragme 14 160 1 2,4 4 d phlnx r1 1 partier nterad

delvis lerabsorberin g. Medel påverkad. Mellanbrun cervi med mörka fragme 14 160 1 2,4 5 d phlnx r3 1 partier. nterad

medium cervi påverkad. fragme 14 160 1 2,4 6 d phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad 112

klövd lätt påverkad. fragme 14 160 1 2,4 7 jur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad

ljus med svarta klövd fläckar. fragme 14 160 1 2,4 8 jur phlnx r3 1 Medel nterad

mellanbrun. Medel med mörka fragme 14 160 1 2,4 9 bos phlnx r2 1 fläckar nterad

mellanbrun. Medel med mörka fragme 14 160 1 2,4 10 bos phlnx r2 1 fläckar nterad

medel påverkad. 14 160 1 2,4 11 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun.

medel påverkad. 14 160 1 2,4 12 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun. ofusi onera d proxi malt. Yngr huggspår e än . Bild: 3½ medel 101- humerus. till påverkad. 5902 till 14 160 1 2,4 13 bos Prox 1 4år Mellanbrun. 5903

medel påverkad. bovid mt/mc Mellanbrun /cervi dist med mörka 14 160 1 2,4 14 d epifys 1 partier

113

medel påverkad. bovid mt/mc Mellanbrun /cervi dist med mörka 14 160 1 2,4 15 d epifys 1 partier

medel påverkad. bovid mt/mc Mellanbrun /cervi dist med mörka 14 160 1 2,4 16 d epifys 1 partier

medel påverkad. bovid mt/mc Mellanbrun /cervi dist med mörka 14 160 1 2,4 17 d epifys 1 partier

medium till hårt. Mellanbrun med mörkare femoral och ljusare 14 160 1 2,4 18 bos head 1 partier

lätt. Ljus med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 19 aves coracoid 1 partier.

stort lätt. Ljus dägg med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 20 djur vertebrae 1 partier.

stort dägg lätt. 14 160 1 2,4 21 djur vertebrae 1 Medelbrun

stort dägg lätt. 14 160 1 2,4 22 djur vertebrae 1 Medelbrun

stort dägg lätt. 14 160 1 2,4 23 djur vertebrae 1 Medelbrun 114

bos/c lätt. 14 160 1 2,4 24 ervid scapula 1 Medelbrun

lätt. 14 160 1 2,4 25 bos cr 1 Medelbrun

lätt. Medelbrun med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 26 bos ci 1 partier

lätt. Medelbrun med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 27 bos ci 1 partier

lätt. Medelbrun med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 28 bos ci 1 partier

lätt. coxae. Medelbrun Acetabel med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 29 x um 1 partier

lätt. Medelbrun med mörkare 14 160 1 2,4 30 bos cr 1 partier

för hårt påverk hårt. fragme 14 160 1 2,4 31 ovis talus 1 ad Medelbrun nterad

GL:33 mm. Mankh öjd: 59,07c m. enligt Teicher Medel. 14 160 1 2,4 32 sus talus 1 t Medelbrun

115

GL: 21. Mankh öjd: 47,6cm . Enligt Teicher Medel. 14 160 1 2,4 33 ovis talus 1 t Medelbrun

Medel. Ljus med mörka 14 160 1 2,4 34 bos talus 1 partier

mörkbrun. 14 161 3 3 1 sus dentes 1 Lätt. stort dägg 14 161 3 3 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt

lätt till medel. Mellanbrun till 14 161 3 3 3 bos ci 1 mörkbrun.

lätt till medel. Mellanbrun femur. till 14 161 3 3 4 aves dist 1 mörkbrun.

mörkbrun med svarta partier. Lätt fragme 14 162 2 3 1 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan nterad

mörkbrun med svarta partier. Lätt fragme 14 162 2 3 2 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan nterad

ljusbrun med svarta fragme 14 162 2 3 3 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

116

ljusbrun med svarta fragme 14 162 2 3 4 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt nterad

stor ljus med bovid mt/mc mörkare /cervi proximal partier. fragme 14 162 2 3 5 d epifys 1 Medel nterad

medelbrun. fragme 14 162 2 3 6 ovis radius 1 Mellan nterad litet dägg bränt. Vit - 14 162 2 3 7 djur vertebrae 1 grå 14 162 2 3 8 bos Axis 1 bränt

lätt. fragme 14 163 6 4A 1 aves femur 1 Mellanbrun nterad

maxilla. Dentes:p medium. fragme 14 163 6 4A 2 bos m 1 Ljusbrun nterad

fragme 14 164 2 3 1 sus dentes:c 3 nterad

fragme 14 164 2 3 2 aves vertebrae 1 lätt. Ljusbrun nterad

stort mt/mc mörk med dägg dist ljusa partier. 14 164 2 3 3 djur epifys 1 Lätt. slaktspår

ljusbrun. Medium 14 164 2 3 4 ovis talus 1 påverkan. 14 164 2 3 5 ovis phlnx r2 1 svart

dentes:p ingen 14 164 2 3 6 sus m 1 rot 14 164 2 3 7 x x 1

lätt. Ljusbrun med mörka kantstö 14 165 2 3 1 bos phlnx r2 1 fläckar tt

117

lätt. Ljusbrun cervi med mörka 14 165 2 3 2 d phlnx r2 1 fläckar

hårt. stort Ljusbrun dägg med mörka fragme 14 165 2 3 3 djur vertebrae 1 fläckar nterad

ljus med svarta partier. 14 165 2 3 4 sus dentes 1 Medel.

GL: 22mm. Mankh öjd: ljus med 49,8cm mörkare . Enligt partier. Lätt Teicher till medel 14 166 1 3 1 ovis talus 1 t 1969 påverkan.

flerfärgad. Frågrön, ljusbeige, Bild: rödbrun. 103- Medel 5769 till 14 166 1 3 2 sus dentes:m 1 påverkad. 5768

medelbrun med mörka partier. Medel 14 166 1 3 3 bos ci 1 påverkan.

medelbrun med mörka partier. Medel 14 166 1 3 4 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan.

118

medium påverkan. Bild: mt/mc Ljust med 103- epifys mörkare 5750 till 14 166 1 3 5 ovis distal 1 partier. 5756 Inga identi fierad e frag 14 167 6 3 ment

fragme 14 168 6 3 1 sus dentes 3 mörkfärgad nterad

cervi fragme 14 168 6 3 2 d dentes 1 lätt påverkad nterad småb ovid/ mt/mc cervi distal 14 168 6 3 3 d epifys 1 bränt (vit)

Bild: lätt påverkad. 103- Ljus med 5735 till 14 169 2 2B 1 Bos Phlnx r2 1 mörka partier 5743 Bild: 103- Pisce 5044 till 14 170 1 2B 1 s vertebrae 1 Bränt 5052

medium. Ljus till 14 170 1 2B 2 bos phlnx r2 1 mörkbrun

medium. Ljus till 14 170 1 2B 3 bos phlnx r2 1 mörkbrun

medium. Ljus till 14 170 1 2B 4 bos phlnx r2 1 mörkbrun

medium. Mörk med ljusare 14 170 1 2B 5 bos phlnx r1 1 partier

119

medium. Mörk med bos/c ljusare 14 170 1 2B 6 ervid phlnx r1 1 partier

medium. Mörk med cervi ljusare 14 170 1 2B 7 d phlnx r1 1 partier

temporal lätt påverkad. e, pas Medel till 14 170 1 2B 8 x patrosa 1 mörkbrun.

lätt påverkad. Medel till 14 170 1 2B 9 x carpal 1 mörkbrun.

coxae lätt påverkad. acetabelu Medel till 14 170 1 2B 10 x m 1 mörkbrun.

ljus till medelbrun. Medel 14 170 1 2B 11 x carpi 1 påverkad.

ljus till stort medelbrun. dägg Medel krosskad 14 170 1 2B 12 djur vertebrae 1 påverkad. ad

hugg ljus till genom medelbrun. distala Medel delen av 14 170 1 2B 13 x tibia 1 påverkad. corpus 120

småb ljus med ovid/ mt/mc mörkare cervi distal partier. fragme 14 171 3 2B 1 d epifys 1 Flerfärgad nterad

medel. Mellanbrun till svart med rödaktiga fragme 14 172 2 2B 1 bos phlnx r1 1 partier. nterad

ljusbrun till svart. Krakylerad yta. Lätt fragme 14 172 2 2B 2 bos phlnx r1 1 påverkad. nterad

lätt. Ljus till 14 172 2 2B 3 bos phlnx r1 1 svart

medel. Ljus 14 172 2 2B 4 bos phlnx r1 1 till svart

medel. Ljus fragme 14 172 2 2B 5 bos phlnx r1 1 till svart nterad

medel. Ljus fragme 14 172 2 2B 6 bos phlnx r1 1 till svart nterad

bovid medel. Ljud /cervi till fragme 14 172 2 2B 7 d phlnx r1 1 mellanbrun nterad

bovid /cervi ljus till svart. fragme 14 172 2 2B 8 d phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

medelljus. fragme 14 172 2 2B 9 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt nterad

lätt. Mellanbrun med mörka fragme 14 172 2 2B 10 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. nterad

121

medel. Ljus fragme 14 172 2 2B 11 bos phlnx r2 1 till svart nterad

bovid /cervi medel. Ljus fragme 14 172 2 2B 12 d phlnx r2 1 till svart nterad

stort dägg medel. Ljus fragme 14 172 2 2B 13 djur vertebrae 1 till svart nterad

stort dägg Hårt. fragme 14 172 2 2B 14 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

medium till hårt. fragme 14 172 2 2B 15 x vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

tibia svart till distal ljusbrun. 14 172 2 2B 16 x epifys 1 Mellanbrun

svart till cervi ljusbrun. 14 172 2 2B 17 d dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

svart till cervi dentes:p ljusbrun. 14 172 2 2B 18 d m 1 Mellanbrun

14 172 2 2B 19 sus dentes:m 1

lätt till hårt. Ljus till gråbrun och 14 172 2 2B 20 bos talus 1 svart.

lätt till Bild: femur medium. 103- proximal Ljus till fragme 5870 till 14 172 2 2B 21 bos epifys 1 mörkbrun nterad 5876

stort lätt till dägg medium. fragme 14 172 2 2B 22 djur tibia 1 Ljus till svart nterad

122

mede l dägg hårt. fragme 14 172 2 2B 23 djur femur 1 Ljusbrun nterad

hårt till stort medel. dägg Ljusbrun till fragme 14 172 2 2B 24 djur radius 1 svart. nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 14 172 2 2B 25 Aves humerus 1 Lätt. nterad

bovid medel till /cervi hårt. Ljus till 14 172 2 2B 26 d femur 1 mörkbrun. Mele s Mele s (gräv 14 173 5 2 1 ling) phlnx r3 1 lätt. Ljusbrun

cervi 14 173 5 2 2 d dentes 1 lätt. Ljusbrun

14 173 5 2 3 ovis phlnx r2 1 lätt. Ljusbrun

lätt. 14 173 5 2 4 x dentes 1 Mellanbrun.

lätt. 14 173 5 2 5 sus phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun.

lätt. 14 173 5 2 6 sus dentes 1 Mörkbrun

11 år enligt Pisce årsrin lätt. 14 173 5 2 7 s vertebrae 1 gar. Mörkbrun

medel. 14 173 5 2 8 sus phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

medel. Mellanbrun med mörkare krossad i 14 173 5 2 9 ovis phlnx r1 1 partier corpus

lätt medel. krosskad 14 173 5 2 10 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun ad 123

medel. 14 173 5 2 11 x humerus 1 Mellanbrun mede l dägg medel. 14 173 5 2 12 djur phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

14 173 5 2 13 x cr 1 bränt (vit)

medium. 14 173 5 2 14 bos ci 1 Ljusbrun

medium. 14 173 5 2 15 bos ci 1 Ljusbrun

medium. 14 173 5 2 16 x ci 1 Ljusbrun

medium. 14 173 5 2 17 x carpi 1 Ljusbrun

medium. 14 173 5 2 18 x humerus 1 Ljusbrun

medium. 14 173 5 2 19 x ? 1 Ljusbrun

stort radius dägg distal medium. 14 173 5 2 20 djur epifys 1 Ljusbrun

medium. fragme 14 173 5 2 21 bos cr 1 Ljusbrun nterad

medium. fragme 14 173 5 2 22 Aves coracoid 1 Ljusbrun nterad

medium. fragme 14 173 5 2 23 Aves coracoid 1 Ljusbrun nterad

mörkbrun. fragme 14 173 5 2 24 Aves osa.longa 1 Medium nterad stor fågel

stort dägg ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 14 173 5 2 25 djur vertebrae 1 påverkad. nterad

ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 14 173 5 2 26 aves vertebrae 1 påverkad. nterad

dentes:p ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 14 173 5 2 27 sus m 1 påverkad. nterad

124

ovis/ dentes:p ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 14 173 5 2 28 capra m 1 påverkad. nterad

ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 14 173 5 2 29 sus dentes:m 1 påverkad. nterad

cervi ljusbrun. Lätt fragme 14 173 5 2 30 d dentes 1 påverkad. nterad

cervi ljusbrun. Lätt 14 173 5 2 31 d dentes 1 påverkad.

cervi ljusbrun. Lätt 14 173 5 2 32 d dentes 1 påverkad.

stor bovid /cervi ljusbrun. Lätt 14 173 5 2 33 d phlnx r1 1 påverkad.

medium. Ljus med mörkare 14 173 5 2 34 bos phlnx r1 1 partier

medium. Ljus med mörkare 14 173 5 2 35 bos phlnx r1 1 partier

medium. Ljus med mörkare 14 173 5 2 36 bos phlnx r1 1 partier

medium. Ljus med cervi mörkare 14 173 5 2 37 d phlnx r1 1 partier

medium. Ljus med mörkare 14 173 5 2 38 bos phlnx r1 1 partier

quadratu 14 174 3 3 1 aves m 1 lätt. Ljusbrun 125

stort hugg dägg ljusbrun. Lätt fragme genom 14 175 4 3 1 djur vertebrae 1 påverkad. nterad corpus

ljus till bos/c mörkbrun. fragme 14 175 4 3 2 ervid phlnx r1 1 Lätt nterad

mellan till cervi mörkbrun. fragme 14 175 4 3 3 d humerus 1 Medel. nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. fragme 14 175 4 3 4 sus femur 1 Medel. nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. fragme 14 175 4 3 5 x phlnx r3 1 Medel. nterad

ljus med mörka partier. vertebrae Medel 14 176 1 2B 1 bos :axis 1 påverkad.

ljus med mörka partier. Medel 14 176 1 2B 2 sus dentes:m 1 påverkad.

ljus med mörka stort partier. dägg Medel 14 176 1 2B 3 djur vertebrae 1 påverkad.

ljus med mörka coxae. partier. Acetabel Medel fragme 14 176 1 2B 4 x um 1 påverkad. nterad 126

bovid /cervi 14 176 1 2B 5 d mt/mc 1 ljus. Lätt. bovid /cervi 14 176 1 2B 6 d mt/mc 1 ljus. Lätt. 14 176 1 2B 7 bos mc 1 ljus. Lätt.

ljus med mörka partier. Medel 14 176 1 2B 8 bos ci 1 påverkad.

GL: 23mm. Mankh öjd: 52,1cm . Enligt Teichte medel. 14 176 1 2B 9 ovis talus 1 rt Mellanbrun.

medel. Mellanbrun med mörka 14 176 1 2B 10 bos phlnx r2 1 partier.

medel. Mellanbrun med mörka fragme 14 176 1 2B 11 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. nterad

medel. Mellanbrun med mörka fragme 14 176 1 2B 12 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. nterad

medel. Mellanbrun med mörka fragme 14 176 1 2B 13 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. nterad

medel. Mellanbrun med mörka 14 176 1 2B 14 bos phlnx r1 1 partier.

127

hårt. Ljusbrun till 14 176 1 2B 15 bos phlnx r1 1 mellanbrun.

hårt. bos/c Ljusbrun till 14 176 1 2B 16 ervid phlnx r2 1 mellanbrun.

stort hårt. klövd Ljusbrun till 14 176 1 2B 17 jur phlnx r3 1 mellanbrun.

medel till hårt. Mörk femur. med ljusare 14 177 3 2B 1 bos Distal 1 partier.

medel till hårt. Mörk femur. med ljusare 14 177 3 2B 2 bos Distal 1 partier.

dentes:p 14 177 3 2B 3 sus m 1 lätt. Ljusbrun

kompres sionsska da ledrulle. mellan till Bild: mörkbrun. 103- Lätt 5675 till 14 177 3 2B 4 bos phlnx r1 1 påverkad 5680

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 5 bos phlnx r1 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. bos/c Lätt 14 177 3 2B 6 ervid phlnx r1 1 påverkad 128

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 7 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 8 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 9 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 10 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 11 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 12 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 13 bos phlnx r2 1 påverkad nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 14 bos phlnx r3 1 påverkad nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 15 x phlnx r1 1 påverkad nterad

129

mellan till mörkbrun. epifysplat Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 16 x ta 1 påverkad nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt fragme 14 177 3 2B 17 x phlnx r2 1 påverkad nterad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 18 bos cr 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 19 bos cr 1 påverkad

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 20 bos ci 1 påverkad

mellan till mt/mc mörkbrun. ovis/ distal Lätt 14 177 3 2B 21 capra epifys 1 påverkad

mellan till mt/mc mörkbrun. ovis/ distal Lätt 14 177 3 2B 22 capra epifys 1 påverkad

mellan till bovid mt/mc mörkbrun. /cervi distal Lätt 14 177 3 2B 23 d epifys 1 påverkad

mellan till bovid mt/mc mörkbrun. /cervi distal Lätt 14 177 3 2B 24 d epifys 1 påverkad

130

mellan till mörkbrun. Lätt 14 177 3 2B 25 ovis humerus 1 påverkad

mellan till stort mörkbrun. klövd Lätt 14 177 3 2B 26 jur calcaneus 3 påverkad

GL: 33mm. Mankh öjd: 59cm. mellan till Bild: Enligt mörkbrun. 103- Teicher Lätt 5540 till 14 177 3 2B 27 sus talus 1 t 1969 påverkad 5545

GL: 26mm. Mankh öjd: 59cm. mellan till Bild: Enligt mörkbrun. 103- Teicher Lätt 5534 till 14 177 3 2B 28 ovis talus 1 t 1969 påverkad 5539

Pisce fragme 14 178 2 2B 1 s vertebrae 1 bränt (vit) nterad

mellanbrun. Bild:103 cervi dentes:p Lätt. -5526 till 14 178 2 2B 2 d m 1 Beläggning. 5531

Bild: 103- 5520 till 5525. cervi dentes:p ljusbrun. Hack i 14 178 2 2B 3 d m 1 Lätt. emaljen.

röd missfärg ning på emaljen. Bild: 103- cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 5514 till 14 178 2 2B 4 d m 1 Lätt. 5519

mellanbrun. fragme 14 178 2 2B 5 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt. nterad

131

krossad i lätt påverkad. corpus. Mellanbrun Bild:103 med mörkare fragme -5502 till 14 178 2 2B 6 bos phlnx r2 1 partier nterad 5507

lätt påverkad. Mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 14 178 2 2B 7 bos phlnx r2 1 partier nterad

lätt påverkad. stort Mellanbrun dägg med mörkare fragme 14 178 2 2B 8 djur phlnx r2 1 partier nterad

lätt påverkad. stort Mellanbrun dägg med mörkare fragme 14 178 2 2B 9 djur phlnx r2 1 partier nterad

lätt påverkad. stort Mellanbrun dägg med mörkare fragme 14 178 2 2B 10 djur phlnx r2 1 partier nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. stort Medium till klövd hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 11 jur phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

132

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. stort Medium till klövd hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 12 jur phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. stort Medium till klövd hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 13 jur phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. stort Medium till klövd hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 14 jur phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. stort Medium till klövd hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 15 jur phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 16 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

133

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 17 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 18 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 19 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 20 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 21 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

134

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 22 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 23 bos cr 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 24 bos cr 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 25 x carpi 1 påverkan. nterad

Hugg genom ljusbrun till corpus. mellanbrun. Bild: Medium till 103- hård fragme 5390 till 14 178 2 2B 26 x carpi 1 påverkan. nterad 5403

135

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 27 x carpi 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 28 x talus 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. Medium till hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 29 x scapula 1 påverkan. nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. coxae. Medium till Acetabel hård fragme 14 178 2 2B 30 x um 1 påverkan. nterad

medel till mt/mc hårt. Mörk proximal med ljusa fragme 14 178 2 2B 31 x epifys 1 partier nterad

stort medel till dägg hårt. fragme 14 178 2 2B 32 djur coxae 1 Mellanbrun. nterad

medel till klövd hårt. fragme 14 178 2 2B 33 jur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun. nterad 136

stort medel till dägg hårt. Ljus till 14 179 3 4B 1 djur vertebrae 1 mörkbrun. vulpe s vertebrae vulpe : lätt. 14 179 3 4B 2 s cervicale 1 Mellanbrun.

mellanbrun med mörkare partier. fragme 15 200 1 2B 1 bos patella 1 Medium nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare partier. 15 200 1 2B 2 bos phlnx r3 1 Medium fusio nerad distal t. Äldre än 3½ till 4år. Enlig t mellanbrun Silve med ljusare r partier. fragme 15 200 1 2B 3 sus radius 1 1969 Medium nterad

mellanbrun med ljusare fragme 15 200 1 2B 4 bos dentes:m 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. 15 200 1 2B 5 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt

dentes:p mellanbrun. fragme 15 200 1 2B 6 bos m 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med mörkare cervi dentes:p partier. 15 200 1 2B 7 d m 1 Medium

stort mellanbrun dägg med ljusare 15 200 1 2B 8 djur vertebrae 1 partier. 137

stort mellanbrun dägg med ljusare 15 200 1 2B 9 djur vertebrae 1 partier. Hårt

mellanbrun med ljusare fragme 15 200 1 2B 10 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Hårt nterad

mt/mc distal mörkbrun. 15 200 1 2B 11 x epifys 1 Lätt

mt/mc distal mellanbrun. 15 200 1 2B 12 x epifys 1 Lätt

mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 15 200 1 2B 13 aves osa.longa 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mt/mc mellanbrun distal med mörkare 15 200 1 2B 14 x epifys 1 partier. Lätt

mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 15 200 1 2B 15 bos ci 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 15 200 1 2B 16 bos ci 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 15 200 1 2B 17 bos ci 1 partier. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 15 200 1 2B 18 bos cr 1 partier. Lätt nterad 138

mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 15 200 1 2B 19 bos ci 1 partier. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare och ljusare fragme 15 200 1 2B 20 x vertebrae 1 partier. Hårt nterad

mellanbrun med mörka fläckar. 15 200 1 2B 21 bos phlnx r2 1 Medel

ljusbrun med mörkare och ljusare phlnx partier. Lätt 15 200 1 2B 22 bos r1/2 1 till medel

ljusbrun med mörkare och ljusare partier. Lätt 15 200 1 2B 23 x phlnx r1 1 till medel

mellanbrun. 15 201 3 3 1 x tarsal 1 Medel

zygomati ljusbrun. tunn och 15 201 3 3 2 x cum 1 Medel skör

cervi dentes:p fragme 15 202 1 4 1 d m 1 x nterad

stort dägg mellanbrun. 15 202 1 4 2 djur vertebrae 1 Medel stort dägg mellanbrun. 15 202 1 4 3 djur phlnx r3 1 Lätt

139

mellanbrun. 15 202 1 4 4 x tarsal 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 15 202 1 4 5 x phlnx r2 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 15 202 1 4 6 x atlas 1 medel

dentes + mellanbrun. del av Lätt till fragme 15 203 4 4A 1 sus käke 1 medel nterad

litet mellanbrun. dägg Medel till fragme 15 203 4 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad

mellanbrun vertebrae till epifysplat mörkbrun. fragme 15 203 4 4A 3 x ta 1 Lätt nterad

flerfärgad. Mellanbrun stort till dägg mörkbrun. fragme 15 203 4 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

flerfärgad. Mellanbrun stort till dägg mörkbrun. fragme 15 203 4 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

flerfärgad. Mellanbrun stort till dägg mörkbrun. fragme 15 203 4 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

flerfärgad. Mellanbrun stort till dägg mörkbrun. fragme 15 203 4 4A 7 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

mörk cervi missfärgning 15 204 1 2B 1 d dentes:m 1 . 140

mörk dentes:p missfärgning 15 204 1 2B 2 sus m 1 .

mellanbrun med ljusare och mörkare partier. fragme 15 204 1 2B 3 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

dentes:in fragme 15 204 1 2B 4 sus cisivi 1 nterad

dentes:in fragme 15 204 1 2B 5 sus cisivi 1 nterad

dentes:in fragme 15 204 1 2B 6 sus cisivi 1 nterad

stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 15 204 1 2B 7 djur vertebrae 1 Medel nterad

transvers alt hugg genom corpus. Bild: 103- fragme 4925 till 15 204 1 2B 8 x tibia 1 nterad 4931

mellanbrun. fragme 15 205 5 4A 1 x kranium 1 Lätt nterad

phlnx mellanbrun. fragme 15 205 5 4A 2 x r1/2 206 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. 15 205 5 4A 3 x phlnx r1 1 Lätt

litet mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 15 206 3 4 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel nterad

litet mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 15 206 3 4 2 djur vertebrae 1 medel nterad

mellanbrun. Lätt till 15 206 3 4 3 bos phlnx r2 1 medel

141

mellanbrun. Lätt till 15 206 3 4 4 bos phlnx r2 1 medel

mellanbrun. vertebrae Lätt till 15 206 3 4 5 x sacral 1 medel

stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till 15 206 3 4 6 djur vertebrae 1 medel

mellanbrun. Lätt till fragme 15 206 3 4 7 x talus 1 medel nterad

mellanbrun. Lätt till fragme 15 206 3 4 8 x vertebrae 1 medel nterad

klövd mellanbrun. fragme 15 206 3 4 9 jur phlnx r3 1 Hårt nterad

mt/mc distal ljusbrun. fragme 15 207 5 3 1 x epifys 1 Hårt nterad

cervi fragme 15 207 5 3 2 d dentes 1 nterad

pro stort mellanbrun. filr dägg Lätt till fragme 15 208 5 ens 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel nterad

pro mellanbrun. filr Lätt till fragme 15 208 5 ens 2 x phlnx r1 1 medel nterad

pro mellanbrun. filr pas Lätt till 15 208 5 ens 3 x patrosa 1 medel

mellanbrun. fragme 15 209 3 4A 1 ovis mt/mc 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun till canis mörkbrun. famil Medel till fragme krosskad 15 209 3 4A 2 iaris humerus 1 hårt nterad ad 142

mellanbrun till stort mörkbrun. dägg vertebrae Medel till fragme 15 209 3 4A 3 djur :axis 1 hårt nterad

mellanbrun till mörkbrun. Medel till 15 209 3 4A 4 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt

mellanbrun till mörkbrun. Medel till 15 209 3 4A 5 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt inga identi fierad e benfr agme 15 210 5 3 nt

ljusbrun med mörka 15 211 2 2B 1 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljusbrun med mörka 15 211 2 2B 2 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

ljusbrun med mörka 15 211 2 2B 3 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

mt/mc ljusbrun med distal mörka 15 211 2 2B 4 x epifys 1 partier. Lätt

mt/mc distal ljusbrun. 15 211 2 2B 5 x epifys 1 Medel

mt/mc distal ljusbrun. 15 211 2 2B 6 x epifys 1 Medel 143

klövd 15 211 2 2B 7 jur phlnx r3 1 ljusbrun. Lätt

cervi svart 15 211 2 2B 8 d dentale:m 1 missfärgning

dentes:p fragme 15 211 2 2B 9 sus m 1 nterad

cervi fragme 15 211 2 2B 11 d dentes 1 nterad

cervi fragme 15 211 2 2B 12 d dentes 1 nterad

dentes:p fragme 15 211 2 2B 13 sus m 1 nterad

fragme 15 211 2 2B 14 sus dentes 1 nterad

bos/c fragme 15 211 2 2B 15 ervid dentes 1 nterad

mellanbrun. Medel till fragme 15 211 2 2B 16 x x 1 hårt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 15 211 2 2B 17 x x 1 Hårt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 15 211 2 2B 18 x x 1 Hårt nterad inga identi fierad e frag 15 212 3 4 ment inga identi fierad e frag 15 213 6 3 ment

ljusbrun till stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till 15 214 2 3 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel.

ljusbrun med mörka humerus. partier. fragme 15 215 3 4 1 x Distal 1 Medel nterad

144

ljusbrun med mörka dentes:p partier. fragme 15 215 3 4 2 sus m 1 Medel nterad inga identi fierad e frag 15 216 1 4B ment

fragme 15 217 5 3 1 bos phlnx r2 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

fragme 15 217 5 3 2 sus phlnx r2 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 15 217 5 3 3 x x 1 Lätt nterad

fragme 15 217 5 3 4 x mt/mc 1 nterad

mellanbrun med mörka 1,2, dentes:p fläckar. fragme 15 218 7 3 1 bos m 2 Medel nterad

mellanbrun med mörka 1,2, dentes:p fläckar. fragme 15 218 7 3 2 sus m 1 Medel nterad

Bild:103 1,2, röda partier. -4907 15 218 7 3 3 sus dentes:m 1 algpåväxt till4912

mellanbrun. 1,2, Lätt till 15 218 7 3 4 bos phlnx r1 1 medel

ljusbrun med mörka 1,2, partier. Lätt 15 218 7 3 5 bos phlnx r1 1 till medel

145

occipitale , temporal e, pas mellanbrun. fragme 15 219 6 4A 1 bos patrosa 1 Lätt nterad

stort mellanbrun. dägg Medel till fragme 15 219 6 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad

stort mellanbrun. dägg Medel till fragme 15 219 6 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad

mellanbrun. metatarsa Medel till fragme 15 219 6 4A 4 x l 1 hårt nterad

ovis/ dentale:p 15 220 5 4A 1 capra m 1

ovis/ fragme 15 220 5 4A 2 capra 1 nterad

mellanbrun. Lätt till fragme 15 220 5 4A 3 x kranial 1 medel nterad

stort dägg mellanbrun. 15 220 5 4A 4 djur kranial 1 Medel

ljusbrun. 15 220 5 4A 5 x coxae 1 Medel

osa. ljusbrun. 15 220 5 4A 6 aves Longa 1 Medel mede l dägg mörkbrun. 15 220 5 4A 7 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt stort dägg mörkbrun. 15 220 5 4A 8 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt

stort mörkbrun dägg med ljusare 15 220 5 4A 9 djur vertebrae 1 partier. Lätt

stort ljusbrun. dägg Medel till 15 220 5 4A 10 djur vertebrae 1 hårt

146

stort dägg mellanbrun. 15 220 5 4A 11 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt ofusi onera d distal t. Yngr e än mellanbrun radius. 3½ med ljusare Distal till partier. Lätt 15 221 3 4A 1 bos epifys 1 4år till medel

mellanbrun pas med mörkare 15 221 3 4A 2 x patrosa 1 partier. Lätt

transvers alt hugg genom corpus. Bild: stort 103- dägg mellanbrun. 5104 till 15 221 3 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 Porig. Medel 5110

mede ljusbrun till l mellanbrun. dägg Flagnande. 15 221 3 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 Medel

cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 15 221 3 4A 5 d m 1 Lätt

cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 15 221 3 4A 6 d m 1 Lätt ofusi onera d distal t. Yngr e än 3½ till mellanbrun. 15 222 7 4B 1 bos radius 1 4år Lätt

mörk med ljusare partier. Medel. Skrovlig 15 222 7 4B 2 bos phlnx r1 1 kompakta 147

stort mellanbrun dägg med ljusare fragme 15 223 6 4B 1 djur phlnx r1 1 partier. Lätt nterad stort dägg mörkbrun. fragme 15 223 6 4B 2 djur phlnx r1 1 Lätt nterad stort dägg mörkbrun. fragme 15 223 6 4B 3 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt nterad

pas mellanbrun. fragme 15 223 6 4B 4 bos patrosa 1 Lätt nterad

stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 15 223 6 4B 5 djur phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

stort mellanbrun. dägg Skrovlig. fragme 15 223 6 4B 6 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt nterad

mellanbrun med mörka stort fläckar. dägg Medel till fragme 15 224 4 4A 1 djur 1 hårt nterad

stort mellanbrun dägg med mörka fragme 15 224 4 4A 2 djur 1 fläckar. Hårt nterad stort dägg ljusbrun. fragme 15 224 4 4A 3 djur 1 Hårt nterad inga identi fierad e frag 15 225 6 3 ment stort dägg fragme 15 226 3 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

flerfärgad. dentes:ca Vit, orange, fragme 15 227 5 4A 1 sus nini 1 mörkbrun nterad

148

mede mörkbrun l med mörka dägg partier. fragme 15 227 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 Medel nterad

ljusbrun till mellanbrun. fragme 15 227 5 4A 3 bos phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad

mörkbrun med ljusare 15 228 1 3 1 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

stort mörkbrun dägg med ljusare 15 228 1 3 2 djur phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt

mörkbrun med ljusare och mörkare partier. 15 228 1 3 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

dentes:p 15 228 1 3 4 bos m 1

mellanbrun med mörkare partier. 15 228 1 3 5 sus phlnx r2 1 Medel

mellanbrun stort med mörkare dägg partier. fragme 15 228 1 3 6 djur phlnx r1 1 Medel nterad ofusi onera d mede cauda mellanbrun l lt och med mörkare dägg crani partier. 15 228 1 3 7 djur sacrum 1 alt Medel

149

GL:25, 5mm. Mankh ljusbrun med öjd:57, svarta 15 229 5 3 1 ovis talus 1 8cm partier.hårt

Bild: ljus vitgul 103- med svarta 6027 till 15 229 5 3 2 bos talus 1 partier. Hårt 6028

fragme 15 230 5 2 1 bos phlnx r2 1 ljusbrun. Lätt nterad

ljusbrun. fragme 15 231 5 3 1 x coxae 1 Lätt. Flagar nterad inga identi fierad e frag 16 232 6 4A ment Bild: stort 103- dägg lätt. fragme 3907 till 16 233 5 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterade 3914 Bild: stort 103- dägg hårt. fragme 3915 till 16 233 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterade 3921 Bild: 103- medel. fragme 3922 till 16 233 5 4A 3 x coxae? 1 Mellanbrun nterade 3928

medium. Mellanbrun. Flerfärgad. fragme 16 234 3 4A 1 x costae 1 Skrovlig yta nterad

medium. Mellanbrun. Flerfärgad. fragme 16 234 3 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 Skrovlig yta nterad

150

medium till hårt. fragme 16 234 3 4A 3 x vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

flagnande kompakta. Flerfärgad. fragme 16 234 3 4A 4 x vertebrae 1 Medium nterad

medium. occipital Mellanbrun. fragme 16 234 3 4A 5 bos kondyl 1 Skrovlig nterad

stort medium till dägg hårt. fragme 16 234 3 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

stort medium till dägg hårt. fragme 16 234 3 4A 7 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

stort medium till dägg hårt. fragme 16 234 3 4A 8 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

stort medium till dägg hårt. fragme 16 234 3 4A 9 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

stort medium till dägg hårt. fragme 16 234 3 4A 10 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

GL: 24mm. Mankh öjd: 54,4cm . Enligt Teicher medium. fragme 16 235 4 2 1 ovis talus 1 t 1969 Mellanbrun. nterad

151

lätt. Ljusbrun med mörka 16 235 4 2 2 ovis phlnx r2 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. Medium med humerus. mörka fragme 16 235 4 2 3 x Distalt 1 fläckar nterad

litet klövd hårt. fragme 16 235 4 2 4 jur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad mede l klövd medium. fragme 16 235 4 2 5 jur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun. nterad

mede l medium till klövd hårt. fragme 16 235 4 2 6 jur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad

medium till hårt. fragme 16 235 4 2 7 x tibia 1 Mellanbrun nterad bovid /cervi fragme 16 235 4 2 8 d dentes 1 nterad

fragme 16 235 4 2 9 sus dentes 1 nterad

lätt. Fragm 16 235 4 2 10 bos phlnx R_ 1 Mellanbrun enterad

mt/mc distal medel. Fragm 16 235 4 2 11 x epifys 1 Mellanbrun enterad

bränd Fragm 16 235 4 2 12 x fragment 1 bränt enterad

pas medel. 16 235 4 2 13 x patrosa 1 Mellanbrun

medel. 16 235 4 2 14 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

152

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 15 bos phlnx r2 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 16 bos phlnx r2 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. stort Medium med dägg mörka 16 235 4 2 17 djur phlnx r2 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 18 bos ci 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 19 bos ci 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 20 bos cr 1 fläckar

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 21 bos ci 1 fläckar

153

lätt till medium. Medium med mörka 16 235 4 2 22 bos ci 1 fläckar

pas lätt. fragme 16 236 5 2 1 x patrosa 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt. fragme 16 236 5 2 2 x vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt. fragme 16 236 5 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt. fragme 16 236 5 2 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun nterad

hårt. 16 236 5 2 5 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

dentes: lätt. 16 236 5 2 6 sus Inicisiv 1 Mellanbrun

cervi dentes:p lätt. 16 236 5 2 7 d m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 16 236 5 2 8 sus dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 16 236 5 2 9 sus dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

cervi lätt. fragme 16 236 5 2 10 d dentes 1 Mellanbrun nterad

cervi lätt. 16 236 5 2 11 d dentes 1 Mellanbrun

cervi lätt. 16 236 5 2 12 d dentes 1 Mellanbrun

mellanbrun. 16 236 5 2 13 x calcaneus 1 Medium

154

mellanbrun. 16 236 5 2 14 bos cr 1 Medium

ljus med mörkare 16 237 1 2A 1 sus dentes 1 partier. Lätt.

ljus med cervi mörkare 16 237 1 2A 2 d dentes 1 partier. Lätt.

ljus med mörkare 16 237 1 2A 3 sus dentes 1 partier. Lätt.

ljus med mörkare 16 237 1 2A 4 x sacrum 1 partier. Lätt.

medium till hårt. 16 237 1 2A 5 aves osa.longa 1 Mellanbrun

medium till hårt. 16 237 1 2A 6 x phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

medium till hårt. Ljus med mörka 16 237 1 2A 7 bos phlnx r2 1 partier

medium till stort hårt. Ljus dägg med mörka 16 237 1 2A 8 djur phlnx r2 1 partier

medium till hårt. Ljus med mörka 16 237 1 2A 9 bos phlnx r1 1 partier

ljus med mörkare 16 237 1 2A 10 bos phlnx r1 1 partier. Lätt. 155

ljus kompakta. Mörkare blottad 16 237 1 2A 11 x tibia 1 spongiosa

mellanbrun med mörkare 16 237 1 2A 12 x ulna 1 partier.

tibia. mellanbrun. fragme 16 238 profil alla 1 x proximal 1 Medium. nterad

lätt till medium. fragme 16 238 profil alla 2 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt till medium. fragme 16 238 profil alla 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun nterad

slaktspår. Bild: litet medel till 103- dägg hårt. fragme 3837 till 16 238 profil alla 4 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad 3842

pro lätt till filr medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 1 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro filr dentes:p lätt. fragme 16 239 7 ens 2 sus m 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro stort hårt. filr dägg femur. Mellanbrun. fragme 16 239 7 ens 3 djur Distal 1 Fläckig nterad

pro lätt till filr medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 4 x phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro lätt till filr carpomet medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 5 aves acarpus 1 Mellanbrun nterad

156

pro lätt till filr tarsumeta medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 6 aves tarsus 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro stort lätt till filr dägg medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 7 djur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro lätt till filr cervi dentes:p medium. 16 239 7 ens 8 d m 1 Mellanbrun

pro lätt till filr kraniefra medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 9 x gment 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro stort lätt till filr dägg medium. fragme 16 239 7 ens 10 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun nterad

pro stort hårt. filr dägg Mellanbrun. fragme 16 239 7 ens 11 djur vertebrae 1 Fläckig nterad

pro stort hårt. filr dägg Mellanbrun. fragme 16 239 7 ens 12 djur vertebrae 1 Fläckig nterad

pro stort hårt. filr dägg Mellanbrun. fragme 16 239 7 ens 13 djur vertebrae 1 Fläckig nterad

pro litet hårt. filr dägg Mellanbrun. fragme 16 239 7 ens 14 djur vertebrae 1 Fläckig nterad

humerus. mellanbrun. fragme 16 240 5 4 1 x Distalt 1 Lätt nterad

slaktspår. Bild: 103- mellanbrun. fragme 3873 till 16 240 5 4 2 sus femur 2 Lätt nterad 3888

stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 16 240 5 4 3 djur vertebrae 1 Medium nterad

157

stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 16 240 5 4 4 djur vertebrae 1 Medium nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare fragme 16 241 4 2 1 aves humerus 2 partier. Lätt. nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare fragme 16 241 4 2 2 bos phlnx r2 1 partier. Lätt. nterad

lätt till medium. fragme 16 241 4 2 3 x x 1 Ljus nterad

lätt till medium. fragme 16 241 4 2 4 x talus 1 Ljus nterad

ljusbrun med cervi dentes:p mörkare fragme 16 241 4 2 5 d m 1 partier. Lätt. nterad

ljusbrun med mörkare fragme 16 241 4 2 6 bovid dentes 1 partier. Lätt. nterad

mt/mc distal mellanbrun. fragme 16 242 3 2 1 x epifys 1 Lätt nterad

hack i emaljen. Bild: 103- cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 3757 till 16 242 3 2 2 d m 1 Lätt 3756

mellanbrun. 16 242 3 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 16 242 3 2 4 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

158

slaktspår genom corpus. Bild: stort 103- dägg mellanbrun. fragme 3769 till 16 242 3 2 5 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt nterad 3774

stort mellanbrun. dägg Medel till fragme 16 242 3 2 6 djur vertebrae 1 hårt. nterad inga identi fierad e frag 16 243 6 4A ment

lätt till medel. Mellanbrun med mörkare fragme 16 244 5 4A 1 aves ulna 1 partier nterad

hugg genom lätt till corpus. medel. Bild: Mellanbrun 103- med mörkare 4506 till 16 244 5 4A 2 x axis 1 partier 4512

lätt till medel. stort Mellanbrun dägg med mörkare 16 244 5 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 partier inga identi fierad pro e filr frag 16 245 1 ens ment

mandibul mellanbrun. fragme 16 246 5 4A 1 x a? 1 Lätt nterad stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 16 246 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

2-5år. Enlig mandibul t a. Dentes Vrete p4,m1,m mark mellanbrun. fragme 16 246 5 4A 3 sus 4 1 1982 Medium nterad

159

dentes:m mellanbrun. fragme 16 246 5 4A 4 sus 3 1 Medium nterad

slaktspår genom kronan. Bild: 103- mellanbrun. fragme 3806 till 16 246 5 4A 5 x dentes 1 lätt nterad 3811

dentes:m mellanbrun. fragme 16 246 5 4A 6 sus 1 1 lätt nterad

occipitale , pas patrosa mot temporal mellanbrun, fragme 16 247 4 4A 1 bos e) 1 lätt. nterad

occipitale , temportal e, pas mellanbrun, framen 16 247 4 4A 2 bos patrosa 1 lätt. terad stort dägg mellanbrun, framen 16 247 4 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 lätt. terad

stort dägg mellanbrun, framen 16 247 4 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 lätt. Påväxt terad Bild: 103- mellanbrun, framen 4046 till 16 247 4 4A 5 sus dentes:m 1 lätt. terad 4053

pas mellanbrun, 16 248 4 4A 1 x patrosa 1 lätt.

mellanbrun. 16 249 3 2B 1 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt

Bild: mellanbrun 103- cervi dentes:p med mörka 3855 till 16 249 3 2B 2 d m 1 ringar. Lätt 3860

160

GL: 22mm. Mankhl jd:49,8 cm. Enligt Teicher mellanbrun. 16 249 3 2B 3 ovis talus 1 t 1969 Medel

mellanbrun. fragme 16 250 3 4A 1 x atlas 1 Lätt nterad aves. Sädg ås: Bild: anser 103- fabali mellanbrun. fragme 3849 till 16 250 3 4A 2 s) coracoid 1 Lätt nterad 3850

medel till hårt. 17 260 6 4B 1 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 17 260 6 4B 2 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

slaktspår. stort Bild:101 dägg medium. fragme -2592 till 17 261 2 2B 1 djur humerus 1 Mellanbrun nterad 2597 Bild: 101- pas lätt. 2598 till 17 261 2 2B 2 bos patrosa 1 Mellanbrun 2603 inga identi fierad e frag 17 262 6 4B ment

vulpe Bild: s 101- vulpe lätt påverkad. fragme 2722 till 17 263 3 4B 1 s Coxae 1 mellanbrun nterad 2731

Bild: 101- ovis/ dentes:p lätt påverkad. 2732 till 17 263 3 4B 2 capra m 1 mellanbrun 2737

161

Bild: stort 101- dägg lätt påverkad. fragme 2738 till 17 263 3 4B 3 djur vertebrae 1 mellanbrun nterad 2743

Bild: 101- vertebrae lätt påverkad. fragme 2744 till 17 263 3 4B 4 x : caudal 1 mellanbrun nterad 2750

mede medium till Bild: l hårt 101- dägg påverkad. fragme 2751 till 17 263 3 4B 5 djur vertebrae 1 mellanbrun nterad 2756 ofusi onera d distal t. medium till Bild: Yngr hårt 101- femur. e än påverkad. fragme 2757 till 17 263 3 4B 6 sus Distal 1 3½år. mellanbrun nterad 2762 inga identi fierad e frag 17 264 3 4A ment ofusi onera d distal t. Yngr e än Bild: mt/mc 20- 103- distal 28må lätt. Klibbig 3397 till 17 265 2 4A 1 ovis epifys 1 nader vid "sand" 3402 Bild: lätt. 103- Mörkerfärga 3527 till 17 266 6 4A 1 sus dentes 1 d 3532

3,4 pro mellanbrun. filr vertebrae Lätt till fragme 17 267 3 ens 1 bos : caudal 1 medel. nterad

3,4 pro stort mellanbrun. filr dägg Lätt till fragme 17 267 3 ens 2 djur vertebrae 1 medel. nterad

162

lätt till cervi dentes:p medel. 17 268 6 3 1 d m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till cervi dentes:p medel. fragme 17 268 6 3 2 d m 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt till cervi medel. fragme 17 268 6 3 3 d dentes 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt till cervi medel. fragme 17 268 6 3 4 d dentes 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt till medel. 17 268 6 3 5 sus dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medel. mörkerfä 17 268 6 3 6 sus dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun rgad

pro filr humerus. mellanbrun. fragme 17 269 3 ens 1 x proximal 1 Hårt nterad

pro stort mellan till filr dägg mörkbrun. fragme 17 269 3 ens 2 djur costae 1 Medium nterad

pro mellan till filr mörkbrun. 17 269 3 ens 3 bos phlnx r1 1 Medium

pro mellan till filr mörkbrun. 17 269 3 ens 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

pro mt/mc filr distal 17 269 3 ens 5 x epifys 1 medium 17 269 3 pro 6 bos talus 1 medium 163

filr ens

slaktspår. Bild: pro stort 101- filr dägg 2668 till 17 269 3 ens 7 djur vertebrae 1 medium 2673 pro filr 17 269 3 ens 8 x carpal 1 medium pro filr medium. 17 269 3 ens 9 x carpal 1 Fläckig

ofusi onera mellanbrun. 17 270 3 4A 1 x vertebrae 1 d Medium

ofusi onera mellanbrun. 17 270 3 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 d Medium

troliga slaktspår. stort Bild: 10- dägg fusio mellanbrun. 3627 till 17 270 3 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 nerad Medium 3534

stort ofusi dägg onera mellanbrun. 17 270 3 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 d Medium

mellanbrun. Lätt till fragme 17 271 5 4A 1 x vertebrae 1 medium nterad

stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 17 271 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad

mellanbrun. occipital Lätt till fragme 17 271 5 4A 3 bos kondyl 1 medium nterad

stort mellanbrun. dägg Lätt till fragme 17 271 5 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad Bild: stort ofusi 103- dägg onera mellanbrun. fragme 3665 till 17 272 3 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 t Lätt nterad 3670 Bild: ofusi 103- cranial onera mellanbrun. fragme 3671 till 17 272 3 4A 2 x fragment 1 t Lätt nterad 3677 164

mede Bild: l 103- dägg mellanbrun. fragme 3678 till 17 272 3 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt nterad 3679 Bild: 103- mellanbrun. fragme 3680 till 17 272 3 4A 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium nterad 3685

mellanbrun. Medium till 17 273 6 2 1 bos radius 1 hårt

mellanbrun. cervi Medium till 17 273 6 2 2 d ulna 1 hårt

fusio nerad mellanbrun. distal Medium till 17 273 6 2 3 bos talus 1 t hårt

dentes:p m + del mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 4 sus av käke 1 Lätt

dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 5 sus m 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 6 sus phlnx r3 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 7 x phlnx r3 1 Lätt

pas mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 8 equus patrosa 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 9 x phlnx r3 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 10 x femur 1 Medium

cervi mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 11 d phlnx r1 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 12 bos phlnx r1 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 13 bos phlnx r1 1 Medium

165

mellanbrun. 17 273 6 2 14 bos phlnx r1 1 Medium

cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 274 1 4A 1 d m 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. fragme 17 274 1 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 17 274 1 4A 3 x vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. slaktspår Lätt till fragme genom 17 274 1 4A 4 x vertebrae 1 medium nterad corpus

mellanbrun. slaktspår Lätt till fragme genom 17 274 1 4A 5 x cranial 1 medium nterad corpus

bos/c mellanbrun. 17 275 1 2 1 ervid talus 1 Hårt

dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 276 4 4A 1 sus m 1 Lätt

dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 276 4 4A 2 sus m 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 17 276 4 4A 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Lätt

ovis/ mellanbrun. 17 276 4 4A 4 capra talus 1 Lätt stort dägg mellanbrun. 17 276 4 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt

17 277 4 4 1 x vertebrae 2 bränt (svart)

slaktspår. Bild: 103- lätt. fragme 3431 till 17 277 4 4 2 sus humerus 1 mellanbrun nterad 3436

lätt. 17 277 4 4 3 bos phlnx r2 1 mellanbrun

cervi lätt. fragme 17 277 4 4 4 d dentes:m 1 mellanbrun nterad

cervi dentes:p lätt. 17 277 4 4 5 d m 1 mellanbrun

166

Bild: litet 101- dägg dentes: fragme 3451 till 17 277 4 4 6 djur pm 1 bränt (svart) nterad 3456

stort dägg lätt. 17 277 4 4 7 djur vertebrae 1 mellanbrun

lätt. 17 278 1 2 1 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 17 278 1 2 2 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 17 278 1 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 17 278 1 2 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt-medium. 17 278 1 2 5 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

lätt-medium. 17 278 1 2 6 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

lätt-medium. 17 278 1 2 7 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

stort dägg lätt-medium. 17 278 1 2 8 djur phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt-medium. 17 278 1 2 9 x carpal 1 Mellanbrun

hårt. 17 278 1 2 12 x humerus 1 Mellanbrun

stort lätt till dägg medium. 17 278 1 2 13 djur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun

167

lätt till radius. medium. 17 278 1 2 14 x Dist 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till radius. medium. 17 278 1 2 15 x Dist 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 278 1 2 16 x ulna. Dist 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 278 1 2 17 bos ci 1 Mellanbrun

stort lätt till dägg medium. 17 278 1 2 18 djur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun

stort lätt till dägg medium. 17 278 1 2 19 djur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till cervi dentes:p medium. 17 278 1 2 20 d m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till dentes:p medium. fragme 17 278 1 2 21 sus m 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt till dentes:p medium. 17 278 1 2 22 sus m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till dentes:p medium. 17 278 1 2 23 sus m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till cervi dentes:p medium. 17 278 1 2 24 d m 1 Mellanbrun

168

lätt till medium. 17 278 1 2 25 bos talus 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 278 1 2 26 bos talus 1 Mellanbrun

hårt. 17 278 1 2 27 bos talus 1 Mellanbrun

medium. 17 278 1 2 28 x humerus 1 Mellanbrun

medium till hårt. 17 278 1 2 29 x x 1 Mellanbrun

femur medium till proximal hårt. 17 278 1 2 30 x epifys 1 Mellanbrun

femur medium till proximal hårt. 17 278 1 2 31 x epifys 1 Mellanbrun

Bild: påläggning 101- cervi dentes:p med vita 2604 till 17 279 1 2 1 d m 1 prickar 2609 Bild: 101- cervi dentes:p 2610 till 17 279 1 2 2 d m 1 2611

dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 280 5 2 1 sus m 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. fragme 17 280 5 2 2 bos ci 1 Lätt nterad

cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 280 5 2 3 d m 1 Lätt

stort dägg mellanbrun. 17 280 5 2 4 djur phlnx r2 1 Medel

lätt. 17 281 3 2 1 sus dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

169

dentes:p lätt. 17 281 3 2 2 sus m 1 Mellanbrun

medium till hårt. Mellan fragme 17 281 3 2 3 x humerus 1 brun nterad

cervi dentes:p lätt. 17 281 3 2 4 d m 1 mellanbrun

stort dägg lätt. fragme 17 281 3 2 5 djur vertebrae 1 mellanbrun nterad

stort dägg lätt. fragme 17 281 3 2 6 djur vertebrae 1 mellanbrun nterad

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 7 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 8 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 9 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 10 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 11 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 12 x tarsal 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 281 3 2 13 x tarsal 1 Mellanbrun

170

lätt till pas medium. fragme 17 281 3 2 14 x patrosa 1 Mellanbrun nterad

stort lätt till dägg medium. fragme 17 281 3 2 15 djur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad

lätt till medium. fragme 17 281 3 2 16 x ulna 1 Mellanbrun nterad

stort lätt till dägg medium. fragme 17 281 3 2 17 djur phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 17 282 5 4A 1 x cranial 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 17 282 5 4A 2 sus parietale 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. 17 282 5 4A 3 bos phlnx r1 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. fragme 17 282 5 4A 4 x tibia. Dist 1 Lätt nterad

pas mellanbrun. fragme 17 282 5 4A 5 x patrosa 1 Lätt nterad

cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 282 5 4A 6 d m 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. fragme 17 282 5 4A 7 x vertebrae 1 Hårt nterad stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 17 282 5 4A 8 djur vertebrae 1 Hårt nterad

stort mellanbrun. dägg Medel till fragme 17 282 5 4A 9 djur vertebrae 1 hårt. nterad

mellanbrun. 17 283 3 1 1 x phlnx r3 1 Hårt

dentes:p 17 283 3 1 2 sus m 1

mellanbrun. 17 283 3 1 3 x tibia 1 Hårt

capra mt/mc hircu distal mellanbrun. 17 284 2 1 1 s epifys 1 Lätt

171

carpomet mellanbrun. 17 284 2 1 2 aves acarpus 1 Lätt

17 284 2 1 3 sus dentes:m 1 cervi 17 284 2 1 4 d dentes 1

17 284 2 1 5 sus dentes:m 1 cervi 17 284 2 1 6 d dentes 1

mellanbrun. 17 284 2 1 7 bos talus 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. 17 284 2 1 8 x coxae 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. Lätt till 17 284 2 1 9 bos femur 1 medium

cervi dentes:p 17 285 4 1 1 d m 1 kritvit

cervi dentes:p 17 285 4 1 2 d m 1 lätt

lätt till medium. 17 285 4 1 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellangul

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 1 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 2 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 3 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 5 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 6 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

Bild:101 mellanbrun. -2476 till 17 286 6 2A 7 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium 2481 172

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 8 bos phlnx r2 1 Medium

tibiotarsu mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 9 aves s. Distal 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 10 sus dentes 1 Medium

mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 11 bos phlnx r1 1 Medium

mellanbrun. Medium till 17 286 6 2A 12 bos phlnx r1 1 hårt

mellanbrun. Medium till 17 286 6 2A 13 bos phlnx r1 1 hårt

medium till cervi hårt. 17 286 6 2A 14 d talus 1 Mellanbrun

stort dägg hårt, 17 286 6 2A 15 djur phlnx r1 1 mellanbrun

ung medium till bos/c hårt. 17 286 6 2A 16 erv radius 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. fragme 17 286 6 2A 17 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun nterad

cervi hårt. 17 286 6 2A 18 d talus 1 Mellanbrun

dentes:p 17 286 6 2A 19 sus m 1 17 286 6 2A 20 sus dentes 1 17 286 6 2A 21 bos dentes 1

cervi dentes:p mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 22 d m 1 Lätt

173

stort dägg mellanbrun. 17 286 6 2A 23 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt

mellanbrun. fragme 17 287 1 4B 1 bos vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

mellanbrun. fragme 17 287 1 4B 2 x vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad stort dägg mellanbrun. fragme 17 287 1 4B 3 djur vertebrae 1 Lätt nterad

stort lätt till dägg medium. 17 288 2 2B 1 djur phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

medium. 17 288 2 2B 2 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

pas lätt. 17 288 2 2B 3 x patrosa 1 Mellanbrun

pas lätt. 17 288 2 2B 4 x patrosa 1 Mellanbrun

lätt. 17 288 2 2B 5 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 6 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

mt/mc lätt till distal medium. 17 288 2 2B 7 x epifys 2 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 8 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 9 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 10 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

174

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 11 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 12 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 13 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 14 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 15 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till cervi dentes:p medium. 17 288 2 2B 16 d m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 17 sus dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 18 aves coracoid 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 19 aves ulna 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till cervi medium. 17 288 2 2B 20 d dentes:m 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 21 x phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun

175

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 22 bos phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 23 x phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 24 x phlnx r3 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 25 bos ci 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 26 bos cr 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 27 bos ci 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 28 bos ci 1 Mellanbrun

lätt till medium. 17 288 2 2B 29 bos ci 1 Mellanbrun

stort lätt till dägg medium. 17 288 2 2B 30 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun

slaktspår. stort Bild:103 dägg hårt. -3204 till 17 288 2 2B 31 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun 3211

stort dägg medium. 17 288 2 2B 32 djur vertebrae 1 Mellanbrun

176

GL: 25mm. Mankh öjd: 56,7cm Bild: . Enligt 103- Teicher mellanbrun. 3481 till 17 289 1 2 1 ovis talus 1 t 1969 Lätt 3487

mellanbrun. 17 289 1 2 2 sus dentes:m 2 Lätt

Ev. slaktspår. Bild: stort mellanbrun. 103- dägg Medel till 3495 till 17 289 1 2 3 djur talus 1 hårt 3500

lätt. 17 289 1 2 4 bos phlnx r2 1 Mellanbrun

cervi medel. 17 289 1 2 5 d phlnx r1 1 Mellanbrun

hårt. 17 289 1 2 6 x tibia 1 Mellanbrun

cervi dentes:p lätt. 17 289 1 2 7 d m 1 Mellanbrun

pas lätt. 17 289 1 2 8 x patrosa 1 Mellanbrun oiden tifier ade bränd a 18 290 2 2B ben.

Lätt 18 291 1 4A 1 Aves Ulna 1 påverkan.

Medium 18 291 1 4A 2 Bos Phlnx R1 1 påverkan. ofusi onera d ledrulle distal Medium 18 291 1 4A 3 X MT/MC 1 t påverkan.

177

Stort dägg Hårt 18 291 1 4A 4 djur Vertebrae 1 påverkan.

Stort dägg Lätt Fragm 18 292 2 4B 1 djur vertebrae 1 o.o påverkan. enterad

Epifys Lätt 18 292 2 4B 2 X Vertebrae 1 o påverkan. småb ovid/ Lätt cervi Lätt fragme 18 292 2 4B 3 d vertebrae 1 o.o påverkan. nterad

Litet dägg Lätt Fragm 18 292 2 4B 4 djur vertebrae 1 påverkan. enterad

Lätt Fragm 18 292 2 4B 5 X Tibia 1 påverkan. ent mede l dägg Lätt 18 292 2 4B 6 djur vertebrae 1 påverkan.

temporal Lätt Fragm 18 292 2 4B 7 X e 1 påverkan. ent

temporal Lätt 18 292 2 4B 8 X e 1 påverkan.

Cervi dentes:p Lätt 18 292 2 4B 9 d m 1 påverkan. mede l sprucken dägg Lätt vid 18 292 2 4B 10 djur vertebrae 2 fragm påverkan. torkning mede l dägg Lätt del av 18 292 2 4B 11 djur vertebrae 1 påverkan. corpus mede l dägg Lätt 18 292 2 4B 12 djur vertebrae 1 påverkan. slaktspår

Lätt Fragm 18 293 6 4A 1 X scapula 1 påverkan ent Stort dägg Lätt Fragm 18 293 6 4A 2 djur costae 1 påverkan ent Stort dägg Medel Fragm 18 293 6 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 o påverkan ent

178

Lätt 18 293 6 4A 4 Bos phlnx r2 1 påverkan

GL: 25mm. Mankh öjd: 56,7cm . Enligt Lätt till Teicher medium Teichert 18 294 1 4A 1 Ovis Talus 1 t 1969 påverkan 1975

Lätt till medium Fragm 18 294 1 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 påverkan enterad mede l Lätt till dägg medium Fragm 18 294 1 4A 3 djur phlnx R2 1 påverkan ent

krossad vid lätt till Fragm upptagni 18 295 5 2 1 Bos Radius 3 medium enterad ng

Cervi hårt 18 295 5 2 2 d Talus 1 påverkad

ej uträkna d på grund av nedbryt hårt 18 295 5 2 3 Ovis Talus 1 ning påverkad

krossk lätt till ada i 18 295 5 2 4 Bos Phlnx r1 1 medium corpus

medium till Fragm nätig 18 295 5 2 5 Aves Humerus 1 hårt enterad insida Stort klövd medium till 18 295 5 2 6 jur Phlnx r3 1 hårt

medium till 18 295 5 2 7 Bos Phlnx r2 1 hårt

Cervi Dentes:p 18 295 5 2 8 d m 1 lätt

Temporal e: pas Fragm 18 295 5 2 9 Bos patrosa 1 lätt enterad

Ovis/ hårt Fragm 18 295 5 2 10 capra femur 1 påverkad enterad

179

Fragm enterad proxim 18 295 5 2 11 Bos Phlnx r1 1 medium alt mede l dägg fragme 18 295 5 2 12 djur vertebrae 1 lätt nterad stort dägg medium till fragme 18 295 5 2 13 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad Ovis/ Capr Humerus lätt till Fragm 18 296 2 4A 1 a distal 1 medium enterad

lätt till Fragm 18 296 2 4A 2 Bos Radius 1 medium enterad

Snittspår. Krossad i corpus. Sprickor vid Fragm upptagni 18 296 2 4A 3 Bos Phlng r2 1 medium enterad ng.

bovid Krossad /cervi Humerus Fragm vid 18 296 2 4A 4 d prox 1 medium enterad upptagen

Fragm 18 296 2 4A 5 Bos Phlng r2 1 medium enterad

Fragm 18 296 2 4A 6 Bos Phlng r3 1 medium enterad

Fragm 18 296 2 4A 7 Sus Talus 1 medium enterad

Dentes:m 18 296 2 4A 8 Sus olar 1 medium

Dentes:in 18 296 2 4A 9 Sus cisivi 1 lätt Ovis/ Capr medium till 18 296 2 4A 10 a Ci 1 hårt Ovis/ Capr medium till 18 296 2 4A 11 a Cr 1 hårt

Cervi Dentes: medium till 18 296 2 4A 12 d pm 1 hårt

Cervi Dentes: medium till 18 296 2 4A 13 d pm 1 hårt

Cervi Dentes: medium till 18 296 2 4A 14 d pm 1 hårt

180

oid. Brän da frag 18 297 3 2 ment 18 298 3 2 1 Sus Dentes 1 Lätt 18 298 3 2 2 Bos Phlnx r2 1 hårt

medium till 18 298 3 2 3 Bos Phlnx r2 1 hårt

medium till krossad i 18 298 3 2 4 Bos Phlnx r2 1 hårt corpus

medium till 18 298 3 2 5 Bos Phlnx r2 1 hårt 18 298 3 2 6 X Phlnx r3 1 medium Stort dägg 18 298 3 2 7 djur Talus 1 hårt 18 298 3 2 8 Bos Talus 1 hårt 18 298 3 2 9 Bos Phlnx r1 1 hårt

lätt till 18 298 3 2 10 Bos Phlnx r2 1 medium

exempel 18 298 3 2 11 x 1 ben

exempel 18 298 3 2 12 x 1 ben

medium till 18 298 3 2 13 Bos Phlnx r1 1 hårt

Cervi Dentes: 18 299 1 2B 1 d pm 1 lätt 18 299 1 2B 2 Bos Phlnx r2 1 lätt 18 299 1 2B 3 X Phlnx r2 1 lätt

fragme 18 299 1 2B 4 x tibia 1 hårt nterad Cervi 18 299 1 2B 5 d Phlnx r3 1 medel Tibia 18 299 1 2B 6 Bos Dex 1 medel Cervi 18 299 1 2B 7 d Talus 1 hårt ofusi onera d distal t. Yngr e än mt/mc 20- ovis/ distal 28må 18 299 1 2B 8 capra epifys 1 nader hårt 18 299 1 2B 9 sus talus 1 hårt

18 299 1 2B 10 x vertebrae 1 hårt

181

18 299 1 2B 11 Bos phlngx r2 1 hårt stort dägg 18 299 1 2B 12 djur phlngx r2 1 hårt stort dägg 18 299 1 2B 13 djur phlngx r2 1 hårt stort dägg 18 299 1 2B 14 djur phlngx r2 1 hårt 18 299 1 2B 15 x cr 1 hårt

Dentes:p 18 300 5 4A 1 sus m 1 lätt

stort slaktspår dägg fragme genom 18 300 5 4A 2 djur Atlas 1 lätt nterad corpus

18 301 6 1 1 x vertebrae 1 bränd

18 301 6 1 2 sus dentes:m 1 lätt

18 301 6 1 3 sus dentes:m 1 lätt

Pisce 18 301 6 1 4 s vertebrae 1 bränd

18 301 6 1 5 sus dentes:m 1 lätt småb ovid/ cervi 18 301 6 1 6 d dentes 1 ung lätt Cervi 18 301 6 1 7 d dentes 1 lätt 18 301 6 1 8 sus dentes 1 lätt 18 301 6 1 9 sus dentes 1 lätt

18 301 6 1 10 sus dentes 1 lätt/medium 18 301 6 1 11 X ledrulle 1 bränd bovid /cervi Fragm 18 301 6 1 12 d dentes 1 lätt enterad

18 301 6 1 13 bos phlnx r2 1 medium/hårt

18 301 6 1 14 bos phlnx r2 1 medium/hårt

18 301 6 1 15 bos phlnx r2 1 medium/hårt

18 301 6 1 16 bos phlnx r1 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 17 bos phlnx r1 1 lätt/medium

182

18 301 6 1 18 bos phlnx r1 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 19 bos phlnx r1 1 lätt/medium

cervi 18 301 6 1 20 d dentes 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 21 sus dentes:m 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 22 sus dentes:m 1 lätt/medium

cervi 18 301 6 1 23 d dentes 1 lätt/medium

cervi dentes:p 18 301 6 1 24 d m 1 lätt/medium

pas patrosa 18 301 6 1 25 bos temp 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 26 X ? 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 27 X ? 1 lätt/medium stort dägg 18 301 6 1 28 djur x 1 lätt/medium

18 301 6 1 29 x tibia 1 lätt/medium stort dägg temporal Fragm 19 320 5 4A 1 djur e 1 medium enterad stort dägg temporal Fragm 19 320 5 4A 2 djur e 1 lätt enterad cervi 19 321 1 2B 1 d dentes 1 lätt

cervi dentes: 19 321 1 2B 2 d pm 1 lätt

ovis/ 19 321 1 2B 3 capra dentes 1 lätt småb ovid/ cervi femur 19 321 1 2B 4 d (dist) 1 medium

femur Fragm 19 321 1 2B 5 sus? (dist) 1 hårt enterad

ovis/ Fragm 19 321 1 2B 6 capra talus 1 hårt enterad cervi 19 321 1 2B 7 d phlnx r1 1 medium

Fragm 19 321 1 2B 8 x Tibia 1 hårt enterad

183

Fragm 19 321 1 2B 9 sus vertebrae 1 hårt enterad cervi 19 321 1 2B 10 d phlnx r1 1 medium 19 321 1 2B 11 bos phlnx r1 1 medium 19 321 1 2B 12 bos phlnx r1 1 medium stort dägg medium - 19 321 1 2B 13 djur phlnx r1 1 hårt stort dägg medium - 19 321 1 2B 14 djur phlnx r1 1 hårt

ovis/ medium - 19 321 1 2B 15 capra phlnx r1 1 hårt Bild: canis 101- famil 1461 till 19 321 1 2B 16 iaris humerus 1 medium 1467 19 321 1 2B 17 sus talus 1 medium småb ovid/ cervi 19 321 1 2B 18 d phlnx r3 1 medium 19 321 1 2B 19 bos carpal: ci 1 medium 19 321 1 2B 20 bos carpal: ct 1 medium

medium - 19 321 1 2B 21 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt

medium - 19 321 1 2B 22 bos phlnx r2 1 hårt

medium - 19 321 1 2B 23 sus phlnx r2 2 hårt

medium - 19 321 1 2B 24 sus phlnx r2 1 hårt 19 321 1 2B 25 x humerus 1 hårt

mt/mc 19 321 1 2B 26 x ledrullar 1 hårt

Fragm 19 322 1 2 1 x tibia 1 medium enterad

cervi medium - Fragm 19 322 1 2 2 d dentes 1 hårt enterad

Fragm 19 322 1 2 3 bos radius 1 medium enterad ofusi onera d distal t. Yngr Bild: e än 101- 1- Fragm 0808 till 19 322 1 2 4 bos humerus 2 1½år medium enterad 0811

cervi Fragm 19 322 1 2 5 d phlnx r1 1 medium enterad 184

stort dägg Fragm 19 322 1 2 6 djur calcaneus 1 medium enterad ofusi onera d Alces Femur distal medium - Fragm 19 323 1 2 1 Alces Dist 1 t hårt enterad

medium - Fragm 19 323 1 2 2 X Femur 1 hårt enterad

Fragm 19 323 1 2 3 Bos phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 19 323 1 2 4 Bos phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad

Cervi Fragm 19 323 1 2 5 d phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad

pas Fragm 19 323 1 2 6 Bos patrosa 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 19 323 1 2 7 X phlnx r2 1 medium enterad

Fragm 19 323 1 2 8 sus phlnx r3 1 medium enterad cervi d elaph anus Bild: eller 101- alces Fragm 1104 till 19 323 1 2 9 alces calcaneus 1 medium enterad 1111

Fragm 19 323 1 2 10 Bos phlnx r1 1 medium enterad

Fragm 19 324 1 1 1 bos calcaneus 1 medium enterad

Svart missfärg ning genom lätt bränning. Bild: 101- Fragm 0735 till 19 324 1 1 2 sus dentes 1 medium enterad 0740 Bild: 101- cervi medium. Fragm 0741 till 19 324 1 1 3 d dentes 1 påväxt? enterad 0747

Cervi Fragm 19 324 1 1 4 d dentes 1 medium enterad

Fragm 19 324 1 1 5 bos phlnx r2 1 medium enterad

185

mede l dägg Fragm 19 325 1 4A 1 djur costae 1 medium enterad

cervi 19 326 2 1 1 d dentes 1 flerfärgad

cervi 19 326 2 1 2 d dentes 1 flerfärgad Cervi 19 326 2 1 3 d dentes 1

Cervi 19 326 2 1 4 d dentes 1 flerfärgad

ofusi onera d radius proxi 19 326 2 1 5 bos prox 1 malt medium

medium till 19 326 2 1 6 x epifys 1 hårt

medium till 19 326 2 1 7 x epifys 1 hårt stort dägg mt/mc medium till Fragm 19 326 2 1 8 djur dist 1 hårt enterad stort dägg mt/mc medium till Fragm 19 326 2 1 9 djur dist 1 hårt enterad

19 326 2 1 10 sus dentes 1 flerfärgad

19 326 2 1 11 sus dentes 1 flerfärgad

19 326 2 1 12 sus dentes 1 flerfärgad

19 326 2 1 13 sus dentes 1 flerfärgad 19 326 2 1 14 Aves tibia 1 medium

Fragm 19 326 2 1 15 x femur? 1 bränt enterad bränt

Alces dentes: lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 16 Alces pm1 1 Flerfärgad

Alces dentes: lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 17 Alces pm2 1 Flerfärgad

186

Alces Dentes: lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 18 Alces PM 1 Flerfärgad

mandibul lätt påverkad. Fragm 19 326 2 1 19 x a/maxilla 1 Flerfärgad enterad

lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 20 sus dentes 1 Flerfärgad

småc lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 21 ervid Dentes 1 Flerfärgad

småc lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 22 ervid dentes 1 Flerfärgad

småc lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 23 ervid dentes 1 Flerfärgad

lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 24 bovid phlnx r2 1 Flerfärgad

stort dägg lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 25 djur talus 1 Flerfärgad

lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 26 sus dentes 1 Flerfärgad

187

lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 27 sus dentes 1 Flerfärgad

lätt påverkad. 19 326 2 1 28 sus dentes 1 Flerfärgad cervi 19 327 3 1 1 d Dentes 1 lätt 19 327 3 1 2 sus Dentes 1 lätt 19 327 3 1 3 bos talus 1 hårt stort dägg 19 327 3 1 4 djur vertebrae 1 medium

kluven 50%. Bild 101- 1190 till 19 327 3 1 5 bos phlnx r1 1 medium 1195 19 327 3 1 6 bos phlnx r2 1 medium

kluven 50%. Bild 101- 1202 till 19 327 3 1 7 bos phlnx r2 1 medium 1213 19 327 3 1 8 sus Dentes 1 lätt 19 327 3 1 9 sus dentes 1 lätt

paspatros 19 327 3 1 10 bos a 1 lätt

paspatros 19 327 3 1 11 bos a 1 lätt stort klövd 19 327 3 1 12 jur phlnx r3 1 lätt

cervi dentes:p 19 327 3 1 13 d m 1 lätt 11 år enligt pisce årsrin 19 327 3 1 14 s vertebrae 1 gar lätt

cervi dentes: 19 327 3 1 15 d pm 1 lätt

19 327 3 1 16 sus dentes: m 1 lätt

19 327 3 1 17 sus dentes: m 1 lätt

19 327 3 1 18 sus dentes: m 1 lätt 188

19 327 3 1 19 sus dentes: m 1 lätt 19 327 3 1 20 sus dentes 1 lätt 19 327 3 1 21 sus dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 22 d dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 23 d dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 24 d dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 25 d dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 26 d dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 27 d dentes 1 lätt cervi 19 327 3 1 28 d dentes 1 lätt 19 328 3 2 1 sus 1 lätt 19 328 3 2 2 sus 1 lätt

hårt bränt. 19 328 3 2 3 X X 1 Vitt

lätt bränt. 19 328 3 2 4 x x 1 Svart

stort mt/mc dägg dist 19 328 3 2 5 djur epifyser 1 hårt 19 328 3 2 6 bos phlnx r1 1 medium stort dägg 19 328 3 2 7 djur talus 1 hårt

lätt. 19 328 3 2 8 sus dentes 1 flerfärgad

lätt. 19 328 3 2 9 sus dentes 1 flerfärgad

medium till hårt 19 328 3 2 10 sus dentes 1 hårt nedsliten

krossska dad corpus. stort Bild 101- dägg 0591 till 19 328 3 2 11 djur phlnx r1 1 lätt 0596 stort dägg 19 328 3 2 12 djur femur 1 lätt

189

19 328 3 2 13 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt 19 328 3 2 14 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt

Fragm 19 329 3 2 1 bos phlnx r2 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 2 bos phlnx r2 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 4 bos phlnx r2 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 5 x phlnx r2 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 6 bos phlnx r2 1 medel enterad cervi 19 329 3 2 7 d dentes 1 medel cervi 19 329 3 2 8 d dentes 1 medel

Fragm 19 329 3 2 9 x tarsi 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 10 bos ci 1 medel enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 11 equus magnum? 1 medel enterad 19 329 3 2 12 bos ci 1 medel

Fragm 19 329 3 2 13 equus magnum? 1 medel enterad 19 329 3 2 14 bos c4 1 medel

ovis/ Fragm 19 329 3 2 15 capra c4 1 medel enterad

ovis/ pas Fragm 19 329 3 2 16 capra patrosa 1 medel enterad ej mät t för ma nkh öjd pg av kry mp ovis/ nin Fragm 19 329 3 2 17 capra talus 1 g bränt. enterad

ovis/ Fragm 19 329 3 2 18 capra talus 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 19 x phlnx r1 1 lätt enterad

190

litet dägg Fragm 19 329 3 2 20 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 19 329 3 2 21 sus phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad

medel. Fragm 19 330 2 3 1 bos coxae 2 flerfärgad enterad ofusi onera d proxi malt. Yngr e än Fragm 19 330 2 3 2 bos femur 2 3½år hårt enterad

Fragm 19 330 2 3 3 bos phlnx r1 1 hårt enterad

Fragm 19 330 2 3 4 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad Bild: canis 101- famil humerus. Fragm 0568 till 19 330 2 3 5 iaris distal 1 medium enterad 0572 Bild: 101- humerus. Fragm 1533 till 19 330 2 3 6 aves corpus 1 medium enterad 1538

Fragm 19 330 2 3 7 bos ci 1 medium enterad

Fragm 19 330 2 3 8 bos ci 1 medium enterad

möjligt slaktspår genom corpus vertikalt. Bild: 101- Fragm 1560 till 19 330 2 3 9 bos phlnx r2 1 medium enterad 1565

Fragm 19 330 2 3 10 bos phlnx r3 1 hårt enterad

möjligt slaktspår genom corpus. stort Bild: dägg Fragm 101- 19 330 2 3 11 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad 1566 stort dägg fragme 19 331 3 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 lätt nterad

191

aves (andf humerus. fragme 19 331 3 4A 2 ågel) Prox 1 lätt nterad Bild: 101- Tibiotars fragme 1268 till 19 332 4 4A 1 aves us 1 medium nterad 1273

Bild: fragme 1274 till 19 332 4 4A 2 aves Humerus 1 lätt nterad 1279 stort dägg fragme 19 332 4 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad stort dägg fragme 19 332 4 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad stort dägg fragme 19 332 4 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad stort dägg fragme 19 332 4 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad stort dägg fragme 19 332 4 4A 7 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad stort dägg medium till fragme 19 332 4 4A 8 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad stort dägg fragme 19 332 4 4A 9 djur vertebrae 1 lätt nterad Bild: 101- fragme 0644 till 19 333 4 1 1 Aves osa.longa 1 medium nterad 0646

101- cervi medium. fragme 0647 till 19 333 4 1 2 d phlnx r1 1 Flerfärgad nterad 0652

pas medium. fragme 19 333 4 1 3 x patrosa 1 Flerfärgad nterad

fragme 19 333 4 1 4 sus phlnx r2 1 medium. nterad

fragme 19 333 4 1 5 x phlnx r2 1 medium. nterad

fragme 19 333 4 1 6 sus dentes 1 medium. nterad

fragme 19 333 4 1 7 bos phlnx r2 1 medium. nterad

cervi fragme 19 333 4 1 8 d dentes 1 medium. nterad

bos/c fragme 19 333 4 1 9 ervid dentes 1 medium. nterad

192

bos/c fragme 19 333 4 1 10 ervid dentes 1 medium. nterad

bos/c fragme 19 333 4 1 11 ervid dentes 1 medium. nterad

ovis/ fragme 19 334 5 4A 1 capra scapula 1 medium nterad

Alces pas fragme 19 334 5 4A 2 alces patrosa 1 medium nterad

slaktspår genom corpus. Bild: stort 101- dägg fragme 0697 till 19 334 5 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad 0703

slaktspår genom corpus. Bild: stort 101- dägg fragme 0704 till 19 334 5 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad 0708 stort dägg fragme 19 334 5 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad

cervi fragme 19 334 5 4A 6 d dentes 1 medium nterad

cervi fragme 19 334 5 4A 7 d dentes 1 medium nterad

cervi fragme 19 334 5 4A 8 d dentes 1 medium nterad

fragme 19 335 5 4A 1 sus dentes 3 lätt nterad småb ovid/ hårt cervi fragme bränt 19 336 5 1 1 d scapula 1 lätt nterad (vit)

fragme lätt bränt 19 336 5 1 2 x coxae 1 lätt nterad (svart) stort dägg femur. fragme 19 336 5 1 3 djur Dist 1 lätt nterad

cervi fragme 19 336 5 1 4 d dentes:m 1 lätt nterad

cervi 19 336 5 1 5 d dentes:m 1 lätt

19 336 5 1 6 sus dentes:m 1 lätt

19 336 5 1 7 sus dentes:m 1 lätt

193

19 336 5 1 8 sus dentes:m 1 lätt

dentes:p 19 336 5 1 9 sus m 1 lätt

dentes:p 19 336 5 1 10 sus m 1 lätt

dentes:p 19 336 5 1 11 sus m 1 lätt 19 336 5 1 12 sus dentes 1 lätt

fragme 19 336 5 1 13 sus dentes 1 lätt nterad 19 336 5 1 14 sus dentes 1 lätt

cervi fragme 19 336 5 1 15 d dentes 1 lätt nterad

Tibia fragme 19 336 5 1 16 x (prox) 1 lätt nterad

cervi Dentes:p 19 336 5 1 17 d m 1 lätt 19 336 5 1 18 bos phlnx r1 1 lätt

cervi medium till 19 336 5 1 19 d phlnx r1 1 hårt

cervi medium till fragme 19 336 5 1 20 d dentes 1 hårt nterad

occipital 19 336 5 1 21 bos kondyl 1 lätt

fragme 19 337 6 2 1 x femur 1 hårt nterad

fragme 19 337 6 2 2 x radius 1 hårt nterad

krosskad ad. Bild: 101- 0622 till 19 337 6 2 3 sus phlnx r2 1 hårt 0626 stor cervi 19 337 6 2 4 d dentes 1 hårt

fragme 19 337 6 2 5 sus phlnx r1 1 hårt nterad stort klövd 19 337 6 2 6 jur phlnx r2 1 hårt

cervi fragme 19 337 6 2 7 d phlnx r3 1 hårt nterad 19 337 6 2 8 x radius 1 hårt cervi 19 337 6 2 9 d dentes 1 lätt 19 337 6 2 10 bos phlnx r1 1 medium 19 337 6 2 11 bos phlnx r1 1 medium 194

19 337 6 2 12 bos phlnx r1 1 medium

phlnx 19 337 6 2 13 x r1/2 1 hårt 19 337 6 2 14 sus phlnx r2 1 medium 19 337 6 2 15 x phlnx r3 1 hårt 19 337 6 2 16 x phlnx r3 1 hårt

fragme 19 337 6 2 17 bos humerus 1 hårt nterad cervi 19 337 6 2 18 d dentes 1 lätt Bild: 101- pas fragme 1256 till 19 337 6 2 19 equus patrosa 1 lätt nterad 1261 19 337 6 2 20 bos phlnx r2 1 medium 19 337 6 2 21 bos phlnx r2 1 medium stort dägg medium till fragme 19 338 6 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 hårt nterad mede l dägg fragme 19 338 6 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 medium nterad

fragme 19 339 5 4A 1 x dentes 1 medium nterad stort dägg fus.ca fragme 19 340 6 2 1 djur vertebrae 1 udalt nterad

radius. fragme 19 340 6 2 2 bos Prox 1 nterad

ovis/ fragme 19 341 6 2 1 capra phlnx r3 1 hårt nterad

ovis/ fragme 19 341 6 2 2 capra phlnx r3 1 hårt nterad

pas fragme 19 341 6 2 3 x patrosa 1 lätt nterad 19 341 6 2 4 bos phlnx r2 1 medium cervi 19 341 6 2 5 d phlnx r2 1 medium 19 341 6 2 6 x tarsi 1 medium 19 341 6 2 7 x tarsi 1 medium

medium till 19 341 6 2 8 x vertebrae 1 hårt stort dägg 18 343 5 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medium 18 343 5 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 medium/hårt ovis/ 18 344 4 4A 1 capra phlnx r1 1 lätt 18 344 4 4A 2 x humerus 1 lätt 18 344 4 4A 3 aves ulna 1 lätt

195

stort dägg 18 344 4 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg fusio 18 344 4 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 nerad medium mede l dägg fusio 18 344 4 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 nerad medium

18 345 5 4A 1 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt/medium stort dägg Fragm 18 345 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 lätt/medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 345 5 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 lätt/medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 345 5 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 lätt/medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 345 5 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 345 5 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 lätt/medium enterad mede l dägg Fragm 18 346 4 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 347 2 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel/hårt enterad 18 347 2 4A 2 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt yngre än 18 347 2 4A 3 sus femur 1 3½år lätt SIN

mandibul a med dentes:p Fragm 18 348 6 4A 1 sus m 2 medel enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 348 6 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 349 1 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad Fragm 18 349 1 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

pas Fragm 18 350 4 4A 1 X partosa 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 18 350 4 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 lätt/medel enterad

slaktspår corpus. 101- fus. Fragm 0150 till 20 400 3 4A 1 bos tibia 1 dist lätt enterad 0154

196

ovis/ coxae Fragm 20 400 3 4A 2 capra ilium 1 lätt enterad

slaktspår corpus. stort 101- dägg Fragm 0160 till 20 400 3 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad 0165 stort dägg Fragm 20 401 4 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad stort dägg 20 402 1 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medel stort dägg 20 402 1 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 medel

krossad i corpus. 101- cervi algpåväxt. Fragm 0249 till 20 403 1 2 1 d phlnx r1 1 hårt. enterad 0254

cervi Fragm 20 403 1 2 2 d phlnx r2 1 medel enterad kluven

Fragm 20 403 1 2 3 bos phlnx r2 1 medel enterad kluven

cervi Fragm 20 403 1 2 4 d talus 1 hårt enterad

cervi dentes:p 20 403 1 2 5 d m 1 hårt

dentes + del av Fragm 20 404 6 4B 1 sus käkben 2 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 20 405 6 4 1 djur femur 1 lätt enterad

Fragm hugg/spri 20 405 6 4 2 sus dentes 1 lätt enterad ckor stort dägg Fragm 20 406 5 4A 1 djur vertebrae 2 hårt enterad slaktspår

hårt Cervi Dentes: nedsliten 20 407 5 4A 1 d PM 1 lätt .

Cervi Dentes: lätt 20 407 5 4A 2 d Incisivi 1 Ung lätt nedsliten

krossad stort vid dägg hårt. skrovlig Fragm upptagni 20 407 5 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 i corpus enterad ng

197

kluven Vertebrae Fragm genom 20 407 5 4A 4 X : atlas 1 medel enterad corpus Medi um/st ort dägg Vertebrae Fragm 20 407 5 4A 5 djur : atlas 1 hårt enterad

stort påväxt. dägg medium till Fragm 20 408 1 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad

ovis/ Fragm 20 408 1 4A 2 capra coxae 1 medium enterad småb ovid/ cervi Fragm 20 408 1 4A 3 d scapula 1 hårt enterad stort dägg Fragm 20 408 1 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad 20 408 1 4A 5 Bos Phlnx r2 1 medium X

Dentes: Fragm 20 408 1 4A 6 Sus Pm 1 enterad

GL: 34mm. Mankh öjd 60cm. Enligt påväxt. Teicher medium till Fragm 20 409 5 4A 1 sus talus 1 t 1969 hårt enterad stort dägg 20 409 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt

Fragm 20 410 6 4A 1 X cranium 1 lätt enterad mede l dägg Fragm 20 410 6 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad mede l dägg Fragm 20 410 6 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad

slaktspår. Bild: 101- Fragm 0328 till 20 410 6 4A 4 X vertebrae 1 hårt enterad 0327

ovis/ Fragm 20 410 6 4A 5 capra Phlnx r1 1 medium enterad 20 411 3 4A 1 Bos Phlnx r1 1 lätt

Pas 20 411 3 4A 2 X patrosa 1 medium

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stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 7 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 8 djur vertebrae 1 medium 20 411 3 4A 9 sus dentes 1 medium mede l dägg 20 411 3 4A 10 djur vertebrae 1 medium Bild: canis 101- famil 0439 till 20 411 3 4A 11 iaris dentes 1 medium 0440

20 411 3 4A 12 bos occipitale 1 medium

canis famil 20 411 3 4A 13 iaris vertebrae 1 medium mede l dägg 20 411 3 4A 14 djur vertebrae 1 medium stort dägg 20 411 3 4A 15 djur humerus 1 medium

slaktspår. Bild: stort 101- dägg Fragm 0363 till 20 412 5 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad 0365

Huggspå mede r? Bild: l 101- dägg Fragm 0366 till 20 412 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad 0371

slaktspår. Bild:101 Fragm -0203 till 20 413 1 4A 1 x sacrum 1 medium enterad 0207

Fragm 20 413 1 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 medium enterad

Fragm 20 414 2 4A 1 x vertebrae 1 medium enterad

199

Fragm 20 414 2 4A 2 x vertebrae 1 medium enterad oiden tifier ade frag 20 415 5 4A ment

Snittspår proximal t. Bild: 101- Fragm 0233 till 20 416 5 4A 1 aves humerus 1 lätt enterad 0234

ovis/ Fragm 20 416 5 4A 2 capra scapula 1 hårt enterad

Fragm 20 416 5 4A 3 X femur 1 lätt enterad mede l dägg medium till Fragm 20 416 5 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad

vertebrae hårt. skrovlig Fragm 20 416 5 4A 5 x :atlas 1 yta enterad oiden tifier ade frag 20 417 5 4A ment ev. Snitt i ledhuvud : bild: 101- Fragm 0227 till 20 418 4 4A 1 aves femur 1 medium enterad 0228

Fragm 20 418 4 4A 2 aves tibia 1 medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 20 418 4 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad mede l dägg Fragm 20 419 2 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 20 419 2 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad stort dägg Fragm 20 419 2 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad

stort dägg medium. Fragm 20 419 2 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 skrovlig yta enterad

200

stort medium till dägg hårt. skrovlig Fragm 20 419 2 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 yta. enterad fusio nerad distal t. Äldre hugg. än 10 100- måna Fragm 9717till9 21 420 3 5 1 ovis humerus 1 der lätt enterad 718 21 420 3 5 2 equus c3 1 lätt 21 420 3 5 3 bos ca 1 lätt

mandibiu la + Fragm 21 420 3 5 4 sus premolar 2 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 420 3 5 5 x femur 1 lätt enterad

21 420 3 5 6 x vertebrae 1 hårt 21 420 3 5 7 equus cu 1 lätt 21 420 3 5 8 equus mc prox 1 lätt

Fragm 21 421 1 4A 1 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 421 1 4A 2 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 421 1 4A 3 sus vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

cranial: temporal stort e, dägg sphenoid Fragm 21 421 1 4A 4 djur ale 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 421 1 4A 5 x tibia 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 422 2 5 1 djur costae 1 lätt enterad inga identi fierad 21 423 4 5 e ben 21 424 4 5 1 bos talus 1 lätt

Fragm 21 424 4 5 2 bos mc 1 lätt enterad kluven stort dägg Fragm 21 424 4 5 3 djur costae 1 lätt enterad kluven

201

dentes:ca galt Fragm 21 424 4 5 4 sus nini 2 . lätt enterad sprucken stort dägg Fragm 21 424 4 5 5 djur coxae 1 lätt enterad 21 424 4 5 6 x cranial 1 lätt

post- mortem Fragm krossska 21 425 6 4A 1 sus phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad dad.

ovis/ Fragm 25mm 21 426 5 4A 1 capra talus 1 lätt/medel enterad GL

post- mortem Fragm krossska 21 426 5 4A 2 x coxae 1 lätt enterad dad.

Fragm 21 426 5 4A 3 sus phlnx r3 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 426 5 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

vertebrae Fragm 21 426 5 4A 5 x epifys 1 medel enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 426 5 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad oid. fragme 21 427 5 4A nt

ovis/ Fragm 21 428 4 4A 1 capra coxae 1 lätt enterad

Fragm distal 21 428 4 4A 2 x femur 1 lätt enterad epifys stort dägg Fragm 21 428 4 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

cervi Fragm 21 428 4 4A 4 d phlnx r3 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 428 4 4A 5 bos vertebrae 1 lätt enterad stort dägg vertebrae Fragm 21 429 5 4A 1 djur th 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 429 5 4A 2 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad

slaktspår. stort 100- dägg Fragm 9982 till 21 429 5 4A 3 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad 9984 stort dägg Fragm 21 429 5 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad 202

stort dägg Fragm 21 429 5 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad stor bovid /cervi dentes:p 21 429 5 4A 6 d m 1 lätt stort dägg Fragm 21 429 5 4A 7 djur costae 1 lätt enterad inga identi fierad e frag 21 430 5 4A ment inga identi fierad e frag 21 431 5 4A ment yngre än Fragm ofus 21 432 2 4A 1 bos phlnx r2 2 1½år lätt enterad prox.

slaktspår genom corpus. stort 101- dägg vertebrae Fragm 0005 till 21 432 2 4A 2 djur th 1 lätt enterad 0008

delvis bränd. stort 101- dägg vertebrae Fragm 0009 till 21 432 2 4A 3 djur th 1 lätt enterad 0012

Fragm 21 433 1 4A 1 bos coccygis 1 fus lätt enterad

Fragm 21 433 1 4A 2 bos coxae 1 ofus lätt enterad 21 433 1 4A 3 bos x 1 ofus lätt

stort dägg epifys 21 433 1 4A 4 djur vertebrae 2 ofus lätt

stort dägg epifys 21 433 1 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 ofus lätt

vertebrae 21 433 1 4A 6 ovis th 1 ofus hårt stort dägg Fragm 21 433 1 4A 7 djur sacrum 1 hårt enterad stort dägg vertebrae Fragm 21 433 1 4A 8 djur th 1 lätt enterad stort dägg vertebrae Fragm 21 433 1 4A 9 djur th 1 lätt enterad 203

stort dägg vertebrae Fragm 21 433 1 4A 10 djur th 1 lätt enterad stort dägg vertebrae Fragm 21 433 1 4A 11 djur th 2 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 433 1 4A 12 aves costae 1 lätt enterad stort dägg vertebrae Fragm 21 433 1 4A 13 djur th 1 lätt enterad

stort dägg epifys Fragm 21 433 1 4A 14 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad 21 434 2 4A 1 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt 21 434 2 4A 2 aves humerus 1 lätt

ovis/ Fragm 21 434 2 4A 3 capra vertebrae 1 lätt enterad stort dägg 21 434 2 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 lätt stort dägg 21 434 2 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 lätt stort dägg Fragm 21 434 2 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 434 2 4A 7 x cranial 1 lätt enterad

temporal Fragm 21 434 2 4A 8 x e 1 lätt enterad

pas 21 434 2 4A 9 x patrosa 1 lätt

Fragm 21 434 2 4A 10 x osa.longa 1 lätt enterad

ovis/ Fragm 21 435 3 4A 1 capra mc/mt 1 lätt enterad

canis famil Fragm 21 435 3 4A 2 iaris vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 435 3 4A 3 sus phlnx r2 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 435 3 4A 4 djur femur 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 436 2 4A 1 bos atlas 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 436 2 4A 2 bos sacrum 1 hårt enterad

dentes:p Fragm 21 436 2 4A 3 bos m 1 lätt enterad

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litet dägg ofus. Fragm 21 436 2 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 ung medel enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 436 2 4A 5 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad mede l dägg Fragm 21 436 2 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 436 2 4A 7 djur vertebrae 1 medel enterad

21 437 4 3 1 aves osa.longa 1 lätt

occipital Fragm 21 437 4 3 2 X condyl 1 lätt enterad 21 437 4 3 3 bos phlnx r2 1 lätt

ovis/ Fragm 21 437 4 3 4 capra phlnx r1 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 437 4 3 5 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 437 4 3 6 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad stort dägg 21 437 4 3 7 djur condyl 1 hårt 21 438 1 4A 1 aves femur 1 lätt

occipital Fragm 21 438 1 4A 2 bos condyl 3 lätt enterad

distal. yngre slaktspår. än Fragm 100-98 21 438 1 4A 3 sus femur 1 3½år lätt enterad till 9846 stort dägg Fragm 21 438 1 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad exem pel på tafon bild omis 100- k 9850 påver till Fragm 21 438 1 4A 5 kan 9851 enterad

cranial Fragm 21 438 1 4A 6 X fragment 1 lätt enterad sutur x2

mandibul Fragm 21 438 1 4A 7 bos a 6 lätt enterad

Fragm 21 438 1 4A 8 bos femur 1 hårt enterad stort dägg Fragm 21 439 5 4A 1 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad

205

temporal Fragm 22 440 2 4A 1 Bos e 1 lätt enterad ofusi onera d distal t och proxi malt. Yngr e än Snittspår. 3½ Bild 101- till Fragm 0051 till 22 440 2 4A 2 Bos humerus 1 4år. medium enterad 0052

krosskad ad. Bild 101- Fragm 0053 till 22 440 2 4A 3 Bos phlnx r1 1 medium enterad 0054

Ofusi onera d Eventuel distal lt t. inflamm Yngr ation i e än ledskål. 12-18 Bild 101- måna Fragm 0055 till 22 441 5 5 1 bos humerus 2 der. medel enterad 0061 Bild: coxae 101- (acetabel medel. Fragm 0062 till 22 441 5 5 2 Bos um) 1 knögglig yta. enterad 0064

litet hårt dägg Fragm brända 22 441 5 5 3 djur 2 enterad ben

Fragm 22 441 5 5 4 sus patella 1 enterad

53,5mm diam. Bild: 100- Fragm 9899 till 22 442 2 4A 1 bos cornu 1 lätt enterad 9891

möjligen läkt skada. Bild: 101- Fragm 9892 till 22 442 2 4A 2 bos tibia 4 hårt enterad 9897 ofusi onera d Juvenil. Yngr Bild: e än 100- metacarp 2- Fragm 9890 till 22 442 2 4A 3 bos al 2 2½år hårt enterad 9902 206

stort dägg Fragm 22 442 2 4A 4 djur vertebrae 1 lätt enterad stort dägg Fragm 22 442 2 4A 5 djur x 1 lätt enterad

slaktspår. mede Bild: l 100- dägg Fragm 9907 till 22 442 2 4A 6 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad 9909 stort dägg mandibul Fragm 22 442 2 4A 7 djur a 1 medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 22 442 2 4A 8 djur vertebrae 1 medium enterad stort dägg sphenoid Fragm 22 442 2 4A 9 djur ale 1 medium enterad

huggspår . Bild: stort 100- dägg Fragm 9918 till 22 442 2 4A 10 djur sacrum 1 medium enterad 9920

Fragm 22 442 2 4A 11 sus vertebrae 1 medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 22 442 2 4A 12 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad

Snittspår, eventuell t hugg. Gräslikn ande form på missfärg ning av kompakt an. Bild: stort 101- 4-6 dägg Fragm 0079 till 22 443 profil 1 djur costae 1 medium enterad 0078

4-6 Fragm 22 443 profil 2 x vertebrae 1 medium enterad

4-6 Fragm 22 443 profil 3 x vertebrae 1 medium enterad

Pro pas pas fil patrosa + delvis patrosa L inre eroderad. lätt Fragm bäst 22 444 3-6. 4A 1 bos cranium 1 till medel enterad bevarad

207

2 färgad. Fragm 22 445 2 5 1 bos phlngx r2 1 medel påv enterad

3 färgad. Fragm 22 445 2 5 2 bos phlngx r1 1 medel påv enterad

Fragm 22 445 2 5 3 bos phlngx r2 1 medium enterad

Fragm 22 445 2 5 4 bos phlngx r3 2 medium enterad stort dägg metacarpi 22 445 2 5 5 djur /tarsi 1 medium

metacarpi 22 445 2 5 6 X /tarsi 1 hårt

Fragm 22 445 2 5 7 Bos phlngx r1 1 hårt enterad

Ovis/ Fragm 22 445 2 5 8 capra ulna 2 hårt enterad

Fragm 22 445 2 5 9 X vertebrae 1 hårt enterad

delvis eroderad. lätt Fragm 22 446 6 5 1 sus 1 till medel enterad

erroderad rot. missfärgad 22 446 6 5 2 bos 1 emalj. 22 446 6 5 3 equus carpal 1 lätt 22 446 6 5 4 bos phlngx r3 1 lätt litet dägg 22 446 6 5 5 djur vertebrae 1 lätt

Fragm 22 447 4 4A 1 aves sternum 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 22 447 4 4A 2 bos sacrum 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 22 447 4 4A 3 bos dentes 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 22 447 4 4A 4 bos sacrum 1 lätt enterad litet dägg Fragm 22 448 4 5 1 djur vertebrae 1 hårt enterad mede l dägg 22 448 4 5 2 djur vertebrae 1 medium

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Ovis/ 22 449 1 5 1 capra phlnx r1 1 medium

ovis/ Fragm 22 449 1 5 2 capra scapula 1 lätt enterad

Fragm 22 449 1 5 3 bos phlnx r1 1 medium enterad

Fragm 22 449 1 5 4 bos phlnx r1 1 medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 22 449 1 5 5 djur phlnx r1 1 medium enterad

ovis/ Fragm 22 449 1 5 6 capra phlnx r3 1 medium enterad stort dägg Fragm 22 450 1 4A 1 djur costae 1 medium enterad

ovis/ Fragm 22 450 1 4A 2 capra dentes 1 lätt enterad

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APPENDIX 2: The osteology students exercise

Seminarium 29/2-2016 Instruktioner: Digital dokumentation i Marinosteologi

Under dagens seminarium kommer ni att utföra två osteologiska analyser av samma skeletala kvarlevor i form av bilddokumentation samt i fysiska kvarlevor. Analysen av bilddokumentationen kommer att utföras innan den fysiska analysen, detta för att resultatet av bilddokumentationen inte skall påverkas av resultatet från den fysiska analysen. Resultatet från dessa två analyser kommer sedermera att sammanställas och ligga som grund i diskussionen gällande effektiviteten och kvaliteten av en digital osteologisk analys.

Målet med dagens analyser är att få fram så mycket information som möjligt från både bildmaterialet och det fysiska materialet. Notera därför all information som ni finner möjlig att få fram för det enskilda benelementet (art, benslag, sida, ålder, kroppslängd, kön, patologier, tafonomisk påverkan, slaktspår osv.) och notera vilka metoder som tillämpats för att beräkna/uppskatta t.ex. ålder/kön/kroppslängd (ex. kroppslängdsberäkning enligt Sjøvold 1990).

Observera att vissa benelement innehåller en mindre mängd tillgänglig data på grund av de representerade karaktärerna samt att denna mängd kan skilja mellan bilddokumentationen och de fysiska kvarlevorna.

Lycka till !

(för bildanalysen: skriv på baksidan av bilden det gäller).

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Bild 1

Bild 2

Bild 3

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Bild 4

Bild 5

Bild 6

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Bild 7

Bild 8

Bild 9

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Bild 10

214

Ben 1:

Ben 2:

Ben 3:

Ben 4:

Ben 5:

Ben 6:

Ben 7:

Ben 8:

Ben 9:

Ben 10:

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Compilation: Analysis results from the osteology students exercise 29/2- 2016

Image 1

Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Bos cervical < 5 years vertebrae (silver 1969) 2 Bos cervical < 5 years vertebrae (silver 1969) 3 Bos cervical < 5 years vertebrae Unfused.

4 Bos cervical < 7-9 years Butchering vertebrae (During pattern 2003) 5 Bos Cervical < 9 years vertebrae Unfused. (During 2003) 6 Bos Cervical < 5 years Processus vertebrae (silver transversus 1969:252) is missing. Unfused corpus & anterior processus. Fully fusioned arch. 7 Bos Cervical unfused vertebrae 8 Bos ? Cervival Unfused. vertebrae young. (silver 1969)

Bone 1 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Bos Cervical fused vertebrae 2 Bos Cervical unfused Caudal vertebrae butchering pattern 3 Bos Cervical < 5 years. Butchering vertebrae unfused pattern 4 Bos Cervical < 7-9 years Butchering vertebrae (During pattern both 2003) sides 5 Bos Cervical Butchering 216

vertebrae pattern on the side that was not in the picture 6 Bos Cervical < 5 years Processus vertebrae (silver transversus 1969:252) is missing. Unfused corpus & anterior processus. Fully fusioned arch. 7 Bos Cervical < 5 years Butchering vertebrae (silver) pattern Unfused epiphyseal closure. 8 Bos Cervical < 5 years ? vertebrae (silver 1969)

Image 2

Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Ovis femur SIN (left) 2 Sus Femur (dist) 3½ years < (silver) 3 Sus femur SIN (left) 3½ years < 4 Sus femur SIN (left) 3½ years < (Vretemark 1982) 5 Sus femur SIN (left) 3½ years < 6 Ovis/Capra Femur (dist) SIN (left) 3½ years < Big muscle (Silver) attachment 7 Sus Femur SIN (left) 3½ years < (Vretemark 1982) 8 Ovis/Capra Femur (dist) Adultus (Silver)

Bone 2 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Ovis/Capra Femur 2 Sus Femur (dist) 3½ years < 3 Sus Femur SIN (left) 3½ years < 4 Sus Femur SIN (left) 5 Sus Femur SIN (left) Recently fusioned 6 Ovis/Capra Femur (dist) SIN (left) 3-3.5 years. Big muscle Not fully attachment fusioned. 7 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) 3 years < 217

(silver) 8 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) 3 years < (silver)

Image 3 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Humerus SIN (left) 2 Sus Humerus Dexter 1-3½ years (right) (silver) Distal fusion. 3 Sus Humerus Dexter 1 year < or Proximal (right) 1-3½ years. fragmentation? 4 Sus Humerus Dexter 1 year < (right) (Vretemark) 5 Sus Humerus Dexter 1 year < (right) (Vretemark) 6 Sus Humerus Dexter 10 months < (right) (perhaps 10 months to 3 years) 7 Sus Humerus 1 year < (silver) 8 Sus Humerus Adult (dist)

Bone 3

Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Humerus Dexter (Right) 2 Sus Humerus Dexter (right) 3 Sus Humerus Dexter 1 year (right) 4 Sus Humerus Dexter fusioned (right) 5 Sus Humerus Dexter fusioned (right) 6 Sus Humerus Dexter 10 months < (right) (perhaps 10 months to 3 years) 7 Sus Humerus Dexter 1 year < (right) 8 Sus Humerus Dexter 1 year < (right) (silver 1989)

Image 4

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Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Pisces Dentale / Dexter Mandibula (right) 2 Pisces Dentale 3 Pisces Mandibula Dexter (right) 4 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 5 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 6 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 7 Pisces Dentale 8 Pisces Mandibula Dexter (Dentale) (right)

Bone 4

Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Pisces Dentale 2 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 3 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 4 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 5 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 6 Pisces Dentale Dexter (right) 7 Dentale Dexter (right) 8 Pisces Mandibula Dexter (Dentale) (right)

Image 5 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Ovis/Capra Maxilla SIN (left) 2 Ovis/Capra Mandibula Adult Worn down teeth 3 Bos Mandibula / 2½ years < Maxilla 4 Ovis/Capra Maxilla SIN (left) Worn down teeth 5 Ovis/Capra Mandibula 6 Ovis/Capra Mandibula SIN (left) 7 Ovis/Capra Maxilla Worn down 8 Ovis Mandibula Dexter young (right)

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Bone 5 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Bos Mandibula Dexter (right) 2 Bos Mandibula 3 Bos Mandibula SIN (left) 2½ years old < 4 Bos Mandibula SIN (left) M3 worn down 5 Bos Mandibula SIN (left) Adult M3 worn down 6 Bos Mandibula Dexter (right) 7 Bos Mandibula Dexter (right) 8 Bos Mandibula Dexter (right)

Image 6 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 - - - 2 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) fusioned (proximal) 3 Bos Mandibula Dexter (right) 4 - - - 5 Ovis/Capra Mandibula Butchering pattern 6 Ovis Coxae? Temporale? Craniale? 7 - - - 8 - - -

Bone 6 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Occipital condyle 2 Ovis/Capra Occipital condyle 3 Sus Occipital condyle 4 Sus Occipital SIN (left) Butchering condyle pattern on condyle 5 Sus Occipital SIN (left) Butchering condyle pattern 6 Ovis/Capra Occipital SIN (left) fusioned

220

condyle and processus styloideus 7 Ovis Occipital SIN (left) condyle 8 Ovis Occipital SIN (left) condyle

Image 7 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Scapula Dexter (right) 2 Sus Scapula SIN (left) 1 year < Fusioned (silver)

3 Sus Scapula SIN (left) 4 Sus Scapula SIN (left) Pathology: worn down 5 Sus Scapula SIN (left) Pathology: worn down 6 Sus Scapula SIN (left) 7 Sus Scapula SIN (left) 1 year < (silver) fusioned 8 - Scapula -

Bone 7 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Scapula SIN (left) 2 Sus Scapula Dexter 1 year < (right) Fusioned (silver) 3 Sus Scapula Dexter Butchering (right) pattern 4 Sus Scapula Dexter Butchering (right) pattern 5 Sus Scapula Dexter Butchering (right) pattern 6 Sus Scapula SIN (left) 1 year < Butchering pattern 7 Ovis/Capra Scapula Dexter 8 months < (right) 8 Ovis/Capra Scapula Dexter 8 months < (right)

Image 8 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 221

1 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) 2½-3½ years (distal (Vretemark epiphysis) 1982) 2 Ovis/Capra Femur Dexter (distal) (right) 3 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years. unfused 4 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years (Vretemark 1982) 5 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years 6 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years. (distal unfused epiphysis) epiphyseal closure 7 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years. unfused distal epiphyseal closure 8 Sus Femur Young (epiphysis) (silver 1969)

Bone 8 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Femur (distal epiphysis) 2 Sus Femur < 3½ years (distal epiphysis) 3 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years. unfused 4 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years (Epiphysis) (silver 1969) 5 Sus Femur SIN (left= < 3½ years (distal (silver 1969) epiphysis) 6 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years. (distal unfused epiphysis) epiphyseal closure 7 Sus Femur SIN (left) < 3½ years. unfused 8 Sus Femur SIN (left) 3 < years (distal (silver 1969) epiphysis)

Image 9 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Sus Coxae Dexter (right) 2 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter 222

(right) 3 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter (acetabelum) (right) 4 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter Butchering (right) pattern 5 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter Butchering (right) pattern at pubis and ischii, as well as acetabelum towards Ilium 6 Ovis/Capra Coxae 6 < years. (Ilium, Fully acetabelum) fusioned acetabelum, Ilium, ischium, pubis 7 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter Fusioned (right) 8 Ovis Coxae (acetabelum)

Bone 9 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter (right) 2 Ovis Coxae SIN (left) 3 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter (right) 4 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter (right) 5 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter Butchering (right) patterns 6 Ovis/Capra Coxae 6 < years. (Ilium, Fully acetabelum) fusioned acetabelum, Ilium, ischium, pubis 7 Ovis/Capra Coxae Dexter 3½ < years. (right) Fusioned 8 Ovis/Capra Dexter 3 < years (right)

Image 10 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Equus Femur SIN (left) Trauma? 2 Equus Femur SIN (left) 3½ < years (distal) (fusioned) 3 Bos Femur SIN (left) 3-4 < years

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4 Bos Femur SIN (left) 3-5 < years 5 Bos Femur SIN (left) 3-4 < years (Vretemark 1982) 6 Ovis/Capra Femur SIN (left) 3½ < years Possibly burned on corpus 7 Ovis 1 year (Vretemark 1982) 8 Equus Femur (dist)

Bone 10 Student Species Bone Bone age Withers sex Other element element side height 1 Equus Femur SIN (left) 2 Equus Femur (dist) 3-3½ < years (silver) 3 Bos Femur SIN (left) 3-4 < years 4 Bos Femur SIN (left) fusioned 5 Bos Femur (dist) SIN (left) 6 Equus Femur SIN (left) 3½ < years. Fully fusioned. 7 Equus Femur SIN (left) 3½ < years. 8 Equus Femur SIN (left) 3 < years (silver 1969)

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APPENDIX 3: General taphonomy, and bodies and bones in water.

The following text is a compilation concerning general taphonomy, and the taphonomic factors affecting bodies and bones in marine environment. The text is compiled in order to work as a basis for the discussion for the two part research questions How are bodies and skeletal remains affected by the marine environment? And how may this explain the lack of located skeletal remains at the sites? After the event of death several different environmental factors start to affect the body of the diseased individual. The body is first affected by different taphonomic factors that consist of specific environmental conditions and/or outside forces that affects the preservation of the body. The taphonomic factors trigger so called taphonomic processes in the body that affects how and at what rate the body will decay. The body will go through several different stages of taphonomic processes triggered by the different taphonomic factors and creating a form of taphonomic history. The taphonomic history consists of a chronology of taphonomic processes and their effects on bodies and skeletons (Magnell, 2008:122). This means that an increased knowledge of how bodies are affected by different external factors and internal processes, makes it possible to read the history of decay through the remains of a body. The purpose of forensic studies is, therefore, to reconstruct the time from the event of death until the discovery of the diseased (Magnell, 2008:122). General taphonomy during the initial stages after death Death is not as instant as we at often times would like to imagine. This since different cells in different organs dies at different stages after the event of the official death. When an individual dies, the lungs stop inhaling air, the heart stops beating and, therefore, stops pumping out oxygen throughout the body. The lack of oxygen is what kills the cells in the different organs. The first change that occurs after death is connected to the skin that goes pale due to the lack of blood circulation. The lack of blood circulation also leads to the occurrence of both algor- and livor mortis. Algor mortis occurs when the metabolism of the body stops and the body assume the temperature of the surrounding environment. Livor mortis occurs when the blood is drawn down by gravity to the lower positioned parts of the body. In a close proximity to these events, another internal process referred to as rigor mortis occurs. Rigor mortis is a chemical process that occurs in the musculature, and creates a stiffness of the muscles in the body for up to 24 to 48 hours when the chemical process has reached a certain degree of muscular decay. Rigor mortis occurs approximately 2-3 hours after death and starts in the face region and spread throughout the body within 4-6 hours after death (Magnell, 2008:134). There are, however, two forms of decay. The first form, Biostrationomy, is the kind of decay that occurs before the body is buried or covered by sedimentation, and include the active processes performed by humans through cremation, secondary burials, or embalming (Magnell, 2008:133). The second form, Diagenesis, is the kind of decay that occurs after the body has been buried or in other ways covered by sedimentation. This include biological decay, chemical decay, and physical decay (Magnell, 2008:133). This means that different substances in the body are broken down on a chemical, biological, and a physical level. The breakdown of soft tissue can occur in two different ways, putrefactation and autolysis. Putrefactation may occur in an aerobic form and anaerobic form. Both forms start in the

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intestinal system a couple of hours after death and then slowly spread through the body.. Aerobic putrefactation occurs in an environment with access to oxygen that allow micro-organisms and the internal bacteria in the stomach and intestinal system to break down soft tissues. Anaerobic putrefactation, on the other hand, occurs in an environment with no or very limited amount of oxygen. This form of decay leads to a build up of intestinal gases in the abdominal cavity resulting in an intestinal swelling that in marine environments lead to the floatation of a body. The gradual build up of intestinal gases may occur within a few days in bodies outdoors in the summer, and may last for two to four weeks before the intestinal swelling is reduced due to soft tissue decay (Magnell, 2008:134). The autolysis decay is accelerated by high temperatures and based on soft tissue decay through enzymes that break down protein and carbohydrates in the body. A change that occurs due to the changed Ph- levels due to the lack of oxygen in the body after the event of death. The autolysis decay start in the internal organs and then spread to the brain, nerve tissue, muscles, and connective tissues (Magnell, 2008:134). Putrefactation, is initiated in the stomach and intestines a couple of hours after death, where two forms of putrefactation may occur if the body is exposed so some form of water. If the diseased body has access to oxygen, aerobic, the body will undergo general decay, if the body, does not have access to oxygen, anaerobic, it will lead to the build up of decompositional gases within the abdominal cavity. This is something that generally occur in diseased bodies in warm climates, and may in marine environments result in the floatation of the diseased body. The process generally start within a couple of days and may last between two to four weeks (Magnell, 2008:134).

Marine taphonomy: Fluvial transport, decay, and absorption The process of decomposition of the body will start shortly after death (Boyle, et al. 2006:606), and any diseased individual with air trapped in their lungs, or connected to any outer force increasing the buoyancy, will remain floating near the water surface, while other individuals may sink down to the bottom of the sea bed (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; Nawrocki et al. 2006:531-533; Boyle, et al. 2006:606). Inner taphonomic changes such as rigor mortis would occur within two to three hours after death in terrestrial environments. The process would initially occur in the face region and spread throughout the body within the following four to six hours (Magnell, 2008:134). Rigor mortis may, however, occur in a slightly altered form in marine environments, this due to the thermal conductivity of water, that result in an increased cooling of a diseased body. An increase cooling process may slow down the onset of rigor mortis, unless the individual drowned. This since the cramping of muscles in the body during the drowning process may lead to an earlier onset of rigor mortis. If the individual died from other causes than drowning is it, however, more likely that the onset of rigor mortis may be haltered. Some outer factors may, however, alter the onset of rigor mortis further, such as the temperature of the body and the water, the energy level of the fluvial system, or the clothing worn by the diseased individual (Phillipe &Modell. 2005:45). The surrounding environment is of great importance when it comes to the process of decomposition (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; O'Brien, 2006:563; Sorg, et al. 2006:568; Evans, 2014:117) The different energy levels of different fluvial system may alter the process of decomposition greatly. Diseased bodies in fast flowing rivers are not only exposed to the forces of the flowing water, but also to collision with static and non-static surfaces and objects, resulting in an increased disarticulation rate of the body (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202- 203; O'Brien, 2006:563; Sorg, et al. 2006:568). Any decay products may be carried along with the water and further downstream or out to sea, and the body will, as previously stated, be disarticulating at a rapid pace while being vertically transported along the sea bed or the shore. It is also important to underline, that a full body will move through the fluvial system differently from separate limbs or bone elements. It is generally stated that the process of decay is slower in water than on land due to the lower temperature of the water, and the limited amount of oxygen available to micro- organisms and bacteria underneath the water surface (Boyle, et al. 2006:606; Evans, 226

2014:117). Even if this is the general case it is important to note that the conditions for decomposition and fluvial transport may vary greatly depending on several different factors such as the geographical positions, and any present seasonal changes (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; Sorg, et al. 2006:568; Boyle, et al. 2006:606; O'Brien, 2006:563; Evans, 2014:117). Floating bodies may also be exposed to two forms of decomposition, a marine and terrestrial, since any body parts not covered by water will be exposed to many of the same outer forces as any diseased bodies on land. The uncovered parts of the body is, likely the back of the torso, therefore, exposed to both the sun, weather and wind, and any present insects and scavengers at the site. These terrestrial decompositional factors are highly likely to hasten the decay of the diseased body (Brooks & Brooks, 2006:553; Boyle, et al. 2006:606; Evans, 2014:117). Even if a body is exposed above the water surface it may, however, not be exposed to all of these factors. Terrestrial insects for example, are generally not present during cold winters, or around water regions far from land. In these cases it is, highly likely that any exposed skin may be mummified, while the rest of the body is continuously decomposed underneath the surface (Brooks & Brooks, 2006:553; Evans, 2014:117). The presence of marine scavengers is also of great interest since the decay of a diseased body may be highly altered by any scavengers feeding of the body (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:203; Sorg, et al. 2006:569-572; Boyle, et al. 2006:606; Andersson & Bell, 2016:6) Some of the most common scavengers are fish, arthropod scavengers, amphibiotic scavengers and isopods (Sorg, et al. 2006:570-571). The diseased body may, however, also be altered by the presence of birds as scavengers while the diseased body remain floating at the surface (Boyle, et al. 2006:606). Scavengers may come in a varied size from anything between a shark to a shrimp, or bacteria, depending on the geographical region, and may occupy the diseased body for varied of time depending on the seasonal changes in and around the marine environment (Andersson & Bell, 2016:6; Video1; Video2).

Fig 30 The floating position of a recently diseased individual. The illustration made by the author was based on an illustration in the article 'Human remains in water environments' by Haglund & Sorg 2002:205. The disarticulation of limbs of diseased individuals placed in marine environments generally occur in a specific order (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:208-214; Boyle, et al. 2006:606) where the cranium, mandible, hands, feet and the lower part of the tibia, fibula, radius and ulna are the first to be affected. The order of which the different limbs are affected is partly dependent on the floating position of the diseased body in the marine environments (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:208-214). It is as previously stated, generally described that diseased bodies that still contain air in their lungs will remain floating at the surface. The body's buoyancy is dictated by the ratio proportions between the individuals weight and the amount of air in its lungs. 227

Since the buoyancy is placed in the lungs it means that the appendices is placed near or at the surface, whereas, the outer limbs and the head will sink down underneath the surface due o their own weight (fig 30). The body will at this stage, as previously stated be exposed to scavengers, insects (Boyle, et al. 2006:606), weather and wind, and the currents and waves (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; O'Brien, 2006:559-560). Any diseased individual lacking buoyancy would, on the other hand, sink down to the sea bed where the outer limbs, the cranium, and the mandible would be exposed to post-mortem trauma through collision with any static, or non-static object or surface (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-203; Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531). The mandible is one of the most loosely fitted body parts and is, therefore, most likely to be the first to be disarticulated at the initial stage. The disarticulation process is likely to occur according to the following: The first disarticulations occur between the mandible from the cranium (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:202-207), the hands from the radius and ulna, and the feet from the tibia and fibula. The affected regions in the second stage are the cranium, the lower part of the humerus, radius and ulna, the lower region of the femurs, and the tibia and fibula. At this stage a separation occur between the humerus and the radius and ulna, as well as the tibia and fibula from the femur. At the third stage the affected regions include the cranium, the top three vertebrae's, the humerus, and the lower to mid region of the femur. A separation occurs between the cranium, the top three vertebrae´s and the torso, as well as the humerus from the scapula. At the fourth stage the affected elements include the scapula, and the majority of the femur. A separation occur between the scapula and the torso, the torso from the lower part of the spine and coxae (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:207-210). For clarification see table 32.

Table 32 Stage of disarticulation including taphonomically affected area, and the disarticulation of limbs

Stage of disarticulation Taphonomically affected area Disarticulation 1 Cranium, mandible, hands, lower regions of The mandibula from the cranium. radius and ulna, feet, lower regions of tibia The hands from the radius and and fibula. ulna. The feet from tibia and fibula. 2 Cranium, the lower part of the humerus, The radius and ulna from the radius and ulna, the lower region of the humerus. femurs, and the tibia and fibula. The tibia and fibula from the femur. 3 Cranium, the top three vertebrae's, the The cranium and top three humerus, and the lower to mid region of the vertebrae´s from the torso. femur. The humerus from the scapula. 4 Scapula, the majority of the femur. The scapula from the torso. The torso from the lower part of the spine and coxae.

There are three different phases of fluvial transport where the first phase concern the transport of full bodies; the second fluvial transport of disarticulated body parts; and the third concerns the fluvial transport of individual bone elements.

Phase 1: fluvial transport of full bodies

The transport of full bodies in fluvial systems undergo four different stages, unless any form of inner or outer buoyancy is connected to the diseased body:

1. Sinking to the bottom of the sea bed. 2. Motion along the bottom. 3. Ascent to the surface. 4. Drift along the surface. 228

The four stages of fluvial transport for full bodies are affected by several different factors, such as buoyancy, gravity, and Boyle's law. If the diseased body contain some form of inner or outer buoyancy, through air trapped in the lungs or clothing, or attachment to a buoyant object, it may stay afloat at the surface during the full decomposition process for full bodies. Boyle's law dictates how bodies sink and float during different stages of decay due to the compression and expansion of gases at different depths in correlation with the different stages of decay. Boyle's law state that a body that has started to sink and still contain some degree of air or decompositional gases within the body, will sink more rapidly as the body reaches a certain depth, this since there will occur a compression of the air and gases, decreasing the body buoyancy. Any bodies placed at the sea bed may undergo a horizontal transport were it may be affected by several different forms or outer force such as friction, gravity, lift, and drag. The exposure to these outer forces may combined with the specific conditions in a marine environment affect how and if the diseased body will be transported along the bottom. As decompositional gases builds up within the intestinal system during the process of decomposition, the buoyancy of the body increase, leading to the ascent of the diseased body. Since the volume of the gas will expand as the body rises to the surface and, thereby, increasing the buoyancy of the body, it will also increase the rate of which the body reaches the surface (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531). If the diseased body is placed in an marine environment with high water temperatures it is likely that there will be an increase in the rate of decomposition (Sorg et al. 2006:568; Evans, 2014:118). An increased decomposition rate may result in an earlier build up of intestinal gases and, thereby, decrease the amount of time the diseased body spend during a vertical transport at the sea bed (Sorg et al. 2006:569; Boyle, 2006:606; Evans, 2014:118). Any bodies placed near the surface are exposed to the water force from currents, wind, primary currents, secondary currents, eddies and pools, and the surrounding and underlying environment. All these factors may affect how, and if, the body is transported through surface drifting through the fluvial system (Nawrocki et al. 2006:531. Brooks & Brooks, 2006:553). There are, however, several other factors that may affect these processes; such as inflows, outflows (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531, O'Brien, 2006:559-560), and temperature temperatures (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531; O'Brien, 2006:559-560; Sorg et al. 2006:568). Meaning that each fluvial system is more or less unique, and need to be examined as such since different parameters may create different fluvial patterns that may create specific conditions for individuals bodies (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:531; O'Brien, 2006:559-560; Sorg et al. 2006:569). In high energy fluvial systems with fine silt there is also the risk of macerating and erosion around wounded areas of the body, something that may lead to an increased rate of decay or disarticulation in a particular area (Brooks & Brooks, 2006:557). It is also, highly likely that there will occur a more or less complete adipocere formation of the body's soft tissue (O'Brien, 2006:560-561; Boyle, et al. 2006:606; Magnell, 2008:134-135). Some researchers mean that this process may occur within a couple of days (Magnell, 2008:134-135), while others mean that it may occur within a period of as little as three weeks after death, or as long as five years after death (O´Brien, 2006:560-561). The development of adipocere is mainly dependent on the presence of water, body fat, and the surrounding temperature. The adipocere lower the ph-levels of the body and may, therefore, slow down the decompositional process (Magnell, 2008:134-135). Another common part of the decompositional process in marine environments is Cutis anserina that appear as a whitish pale rugged surface on the epidermis, that in the initial stage mainly occur on hands and skin, and eventually result in the shedding of the epidermis and nails (Lange, 2006:139; Boyle, 2006:606).

Phase 2: Fluvial transport of disarticulated body parts There are two different types of body parts, the solid limbs that create very small amount of bacterial decompositional gases during the putrefaction process, and the hollow limbs that create large amount of decompositional gases during the putrefaction process. The limited 229

amount of gas build up within the solid limbs, limit their capacity to build up a large buoyancy, whereas the opposite is true for the hollow limbs. Hollow limbs such as the torso, are highly likely to resurface, but will lose most of its buoyancy once the disarticulation of limbs occur (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:532). There are also two types of joints: fibrous joints, meaning that the joint is more of less fixed, and synovial joints, such as the shoulders, that generally is one of the first body parts to dislocate during the decomposition process. It is also important to note that the disarticulation generally occur from the distal to the proximal end of a joint. Meaning that the top of a toe would generally be dislocated before the femur would separate from the coxae. This may, however, differ due to outer factors or pre-existing trauma (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:532). Due to the disarticulation of limbs it is possible that the body of the diseased individual may be spread over a vast area in both a terrestrial and marine environment. This since a body that may originally have been placed in the sea, a lake, or a river, may repeatedly be washed ashore during the decay process, leaving some limbs or bone elements in the close proximity of the shore, while other limbs or bones may be carried out further by currents. It is also possible that a body that was originally placed within a close proximity of the shore on land, may be entirely or partially swept out in the marine environment through raised water levels, such as spring floods or sweeping tides. Both scenarios rendering the remains exposed to both terrestrial and marine decay processes (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:532).

Phase 3: Fluvial transport of separate bone elements The third phase of fluvial transport focus on how separate bone elements are transported in the fluvial system. There is a large variation in both size, density, and shape of the different bone elements. Factors that regulate how, and how far a bone element may be transported within a fluvial system. Depending on its shape a bone element may, for example, be rolling, sliding, or remain suspended to its original position at the seabed. Something that is also regulated by the energy level of the fluvial system itself. This since a high energy fluvial system, such as a fast flowing river creates a rougher environment where even bone elements with low transportability may be transported at a great speed through the marine environment. It is generally stated that bone elements of a rounder character, or bone elements that have been abbreviated through impact with static or non-static objects in the marine environment, are carried along easier than bone elements with sharper or flatter characters. Some experiments concerning how different bone elements are transported through fluvial systems have been performed by Voorhies in the late 1960's through the use of skeletal remains from sheep, coyotes, badgers, rabbits, and humans. These bone elements were used in a form of artificial water tunnel, flume, where individual bone elements were placed in the flume in order to analyse the individual movement patterns. The experiment resulted in three loosely defined groups consisting of a: transport group; intermediate group; lag group. The transport group consisted of bone elements that were immediately carried along with the currents and consisted of bone elements such as sternum, vertebrae, sacrum, and ribs. Whereas the intermediate group consisted of bones that partially followed the currents in a gradual movement, and consisted of bone elements such as scapula, pelvis, metapodalia (foot bones) and metacarpalia (hand bones), and long bones. The lag group, on the other hand, consisted of bone elements that immediately sank and more or less remained stabile as the currents passed through the tunnel. These bone elements consisted of crania and mandible. It is, however, important to underline that these fluvial patterns of individual bone elements can be altered through pre-existing, or recently received trauma (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:533-34).

Absorption and other factors There are several different forms of bone staining such as algal, circumferential, and silt painting (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:213; Nawrocki. et al. 2006:534). Algae may grow on almost any hard surface, and is commonly found o skeletal remains in marine environments (Higgs & Pokines, 2014:153), both fully exposed at the surface or in fairly shallow waters. The algal 230

staining may occur in two forms, one where the growth of algae covers the exterior bone tissue in such a way that only a part of the bone tissue may be exposed to the sun , resulting in bleaching of part of the bone element, leaving the exterior bone tissue with a patchy colour pattern (Nawrocki. et al. 2006:534). Algal staining is, however, most commonly dark green and may occur both in marine and terrestrial environments (Higgs & Pokines, 2014:153). The algae itself may vary in colour from pale green to black/dark brown, and may result in black staining of the bone tissue (Nawrocki. et al. 2006:534). The circumferential staining occurs when a bone element is placed on the sea bed for a long period of time, where a partial sediment cover of the bone element occurs and creates staining lines, making it possible to note the most recent or original resting orientation of the bone element at the site (Nawrocki, et al. 2006:534-535). One very common form of discolouration is soil staining, where the bone element absorb foreign substances such as minerals, and organic substances. Brown and dark colourations are often due to direct contact with organic matter, and magnetite. Whereas bones with red or orange discolouration's have been exposed to either iron in the soil (Dupraz & Schultz, 2014:323) or iron artifacts (Dupraz & Schultz, 2014:325). Different oxidized metals do, however, result in different colours. Iron is for example orange, whereas copper is turquoise (Dupraz & Schultz, 2014:326-327). The colour of the bone element is mainly connected to the colour of the soil where it is relocated (Dupraz & Schultz, 2014:323). Silt painting on the other hand occurs when a fine silt layer is placed on the bone tissue and creates a thin crust of silt and/or minerals on the bone element (Haglund & Sorg, 2002:213; Nawrocki, et al. 2006:535).

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