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Otto Stern Annalen 22.9.11
September 22, 2011 Otto Stern (1888-1969): The founding father of experimental atomic physics J. Peter Toennies,1 Horst Schmidt-Böcking,2 Bretislav Friedrich,3 Julian C.A. Lower2 1Max-Planck-Institut für Dynamik und Selbstorganisation Bunsenstrasse 10, 37073 Göttingen 2Institut für Kernphysik, Goethe Universität Frankfurt Max-von-Laue-Strasse 1, 60438 Frankfurt 3Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin Keywords History of Science, Atomic Physics, Quantum Physics, Stern- Gerlach experiment, molecular beams, space quantization, magnetic dipole moments of nucleons, diffraction of matter waves, Nobel Prizes, University of Zurich, University of Frankfurt, University of Rostock, University of Hamburg, Carnegie Institute. We review the work and life of Otto Stern who developed the molecular beam technique and with its aid laid the foundations of experimental atomic physics. Among the key results of his research are: the experimental determination of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular velocities (1920), experimental demonstration of space quantization of angular momentum (1922), diffraction of matter waves comprised of atoms and molecules by crystals (1931) and the determination of the magnetic dipole moments of the proton and deuteron (1933). 1 Introduction Short lists of the pioneers of quantum mechanics featured in textbooks and historical accounts alike typically include the names of Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Arnold Sommerfeld, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac, Max Born, and Wolfgang Pauli on the theory side, and of Konrad Röntgen, Ernest Rutherford, Max von Laue, Arthur Compton, and James Franck on the experimental side. However, the records in the Archive of the Nobel Foundation as well as scientific correspondence, oral-history accounts and scientometric evidence suggest that at least one more name should be added to the list: that of the “experimenting theorist” Otto Stern. -
One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research
Bretislav Friedrich · Dieter Hoffmann Jürgen Renn · Florian Schmaltz · Martin Wolf Editors One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences Bretislav Friedrich • Dieter Hoffmann Jürgen Renn • Florian Schmaltz Martin Wolf Editors One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences Editors Bretislav Friedrich Florian Schmaltz Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Max Planck Institute for the History of Society Science Berlin Berlin Germany Germany Dieter Hoffmann Martin Wolf Max Planck Institute for the History of Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Science Society Berlin Berlin Germany Germany Jürgen Renn Max Planck Institute for the History of Science Berlin Germany ISBN 978-3-319-51663-9 ISBN 978-3-319-51664-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017941064 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.5/), which permits any noncom- mercial use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. -
The Gibbs Paradox: Early History and Solutions
entropy Article The Gibbs Paradox: Early History and Solutions Olivier Darrigol UMR SPHere, CNRS, Université Denis Diderot, 75013 Paris, France; [email protected] Received: 9 April 2018; Accepted: 28 May 2018; Published: 6 June 2018 Abstract: This article is a detailed history of the Gibbs paradox, with philosophical morals. It purports to explain the origins of the paradox, to describe and criticize solutions of the paradox from the early times to the present, to use the history of statistical mechanics as a reservoir of ideas for clarifying foundations and removing prejudices, and to relate the paradox to broad misunderstandings of the nature of physical theory. Keywords: Gibbs paradox; mixing; entropy; irreversibility; thermochemistry 1. Introduction The history of thermodynamics has three famous “paradoxes”: Josiah Willard Gibbs’s mixing paradox of 1876, Josef Loschmidt reversibility paradox of the same year, and Ernst Zermelo’s recurrence paradox of 1896. The second and third revealed contradictions between the law of entropy increase and the properties of the underlying molecular dynamics. They prompted Ludwig Boltzmann to deepen the statistical understanding of thermodynamic irreversibility. The Gibbs paradox—first called a paradox by Pierre Duhem in 1892—denounced a violation of the continuity principle: the mixing entropy of two gases (to be defined in a moment) has the same finite value no matter how small the difference between the two gases, even though common sense requires the mixing entropy to vanish for identical gases (you do not really mix two identical substances). Although this paradox originally belonged to purely macroscopic thermodynamics, Gibbs perceived kinetic-molecular implications and James Clerk Maxwell promptly followed him in this direction. -
James, Steinhauser, Hoffmann, Friedrich One Hundred Years at The
James, Steinhauser, Hoffmann, Friedrich One Hundred Years at the Intersection of Chemistry and Physics Published under the auspices of the Board of Directors of the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society: Hans-Joachim Freund Gerard Meijer Matthias Scheffler Robert Schlögl Martin Wolf Jeremiah James · Thomas Steinhauser · Dieter Hoffmann · Bretislav Friedrich One Hundred Years at the Intersection of Chemistry and Physics The Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society 1911–2011 De Gruyter An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libra- ries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative initiative designed to make high quality books Open Access. More information about the initiative can be found at www.knowledgeunlatched.org Aut ho rs: Dr. Jeremiah James Prof. Dr. Dieter Hoffmann Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Institute for the Max Planck Society History of Science Faradayweg 4–6 Boltzmannstr. 22 14195 Berlin 14195 Berlin [email protected] [email protected] Dr. Thomas Steinhauser Prof. Dr. Bretislav Friedrich Fritz Haber Institute of the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society Max Planck Society Faradayweg 4–6 Faradayweg 4–6 14195 Berlin 14195 Berlin [email protected] [email protected] Cover images: Front cover: Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, 1913. From left to right, “factory” building, main building, director’s villa, known today as Haber Villa. Back cover: Campus of the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, 2011. The Institute’s his- toric buildings, contiguous with the “Röntgenbau” on their right, house the Departments of Physical Chemistry and Molecular Physics. -
Història De La Física Quàntica a Través Dels Experiments
Història de la Física Quàntica a través dels experiments semestre de tardor, curs 2017-2018 Apunts provisionals Enric Pérez Canals Apunts en procés de redacció. S’agrairan comentaris, crítiques, suggeriments, etc. Índex 1 La Física de l’electró 1 1.1 Introducció a la Història de la Física Moderna . 1 1.1.1 Algunes precaucions historiogràfiques . 3 1.2 L’experiment de J.J. Thomson . 4 1.2.1 Física del segle XX . 4 1.2.2 Èter i electromagnetisme de Maxwell . 5 1.2.3 Raigs catòdics . 7 1.2.3.1 Cathode Rays, de J.J. Thomson . 7 1.2.4 Descobriments i Positivisme . 10 1.2.4.1 L’experiment de Thomson i l’atomisme . 11 1.2.5 Anàlisi . 11 1.3 L’experiment de Millikan . 12 1.3.1 De corpuscles a electrons ......................... 12 1.3.2 L’atomisme químic . 13 1.3.2.1 Mesures (relatives) de la massa. Pesos atòmics . 13 1.3.2.2 Mesures (relatives) de la càrrega. Electròlisi . 15 1.3.3 Les mesures absolutes . 16 1.3.4 L’experiment de la gota d’oli . 17 1.3.5 Anàlisi . 19 Apèndixs 20 1.A L’aparició de la quantització . 20 1.B L’aïllament de l’electró (i de l’àtom) . 20 1.C Metàfores . 21 Bibliografia . 21 2 Els quanta de llum 25 2.1 La llei de radiació de Planck . 25 2.1.1 Calor radiant: la radiació del Sol . 25 2.1.2 La llei de radiació . 28 2.1.2.1 La llei de Planck i els elements d’energia de Planck, 1900 . -
Putting the Quantum to Work: Otto Sackur's Pioneering Exploits in The
Putting the quantum to work: Otto Sackur’s pioneering exploits in the quantum theory of gases Massimiliano Badino and Bretislav Friedrich FHI Abstract: In the wake of the First Solvay Conference (1911), many leading physicists had begun embracing the quantum hypothesis as a key to solving outstanding problems in the theory of matter. The quantum approach proved successful in tackling the solid state, resulting in the nearly definitive theories of Debye (1912) and of Born & von Karman (1912-13). However, the application of the old quantum theory to gases was hindered by serious difficulties, which were due to a lack of a straightforward way of reconciling the frequency-dependent quantum hypothesis with the aperiodic behavior of gas molecules. A breakthrough came from unlikely quarters. Otto Sackur (1880-1914) had been trained as a physical chemist and had almost no experience in the research fields traditionally associated with quantum theory (heat radiation, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics). However, in 1911, he discovered an expression for the absolute entropy of a monoatomic gas. A Dutch high-school student, Hugo Martin Tetrode, reached the same result at about the same time independently. The Sackur-Tetrode equation rendered entropy as an extensive variable (in contrast to the classical expression, cf. the Gibbs paradox) and expressed the thermodynamically undetermined constant in terms of molecular parameters and Boltzmann’s and Planck’s constants. This result was of great heuristic value because it suggested the possibility of deriving the thermodynamic variables of a gas quantum mechanically. At the same time, the Sackur-Tetrode equation offered a conventient means to evaluate the parameters of molecular gases, thus promising a grand unification of quantum theory, thermodynamics, and physical chemistry. -
The Stern-Gerlach Experiment Revisited
The Stern-Gerlach Experiment Revisited Horst Schmidt-Böcking∗1, Lothar Schmidt1, Hans Jürgen Lüdde2, Wolfgang Trageser1, Alan Templeton3, and Tilman Sauer4 1Institute for Nuclear Physics, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany. 2Institute for Theoretical Physics, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany. 3Oakland, CA, USA. 4Institute of Mathematics, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany. Version of September 30, 2016 Abstract The Stern-Gerlach-Experiment (SGE) performed in 1922 is a seminal benchmark experiment of quantum physics providing evidence for several fundamental properties of quantum systems. Based on the knowledge of today we illustrate the different benchmark results of the SGE for the development of modern quantum physics and chemistry. The SGE provided the first direct experimental evidence for angu- lar momentum quantization in the quantum world and therefore also for the existence of directional quantization of all angular momenta in the process of measurement. Furthermore, it measured for the first time a ground state property of an atom, it produced for the first time a fully “spin-polarized” atomic beam, and it also revealed the electron spin, even though this was not realized at the time. The SGE was the first fully suc- cessful molecular beam experiment where the kinematics of particles can be determined with high momentum-resolution by beam measurements in vacuum. This technique provided a kind of new kinematic microscope with which inner atomic or nuclear properties could be investigated. Historical facts of the original SGE are described together with early attempts by Einstein, Ehrenfest, Heisenberg, and others to reveal the physical processes creating directional quantization in the SGE. Heisen- berg’s and Einstein’s proposals of an improved multi-stage SGE are pre- sented. -
Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics and Thermodynamics
Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... © 1996-2006 HyperJeff Network Sketching the History of History | Philo | Physics | Blog Statistical Mechanics [ Sources, Links, Notes ] and Thermodynamics (From about 1575 to 1980) Ideas of atomism, that heat is a mode Anti- of motion within bodies and that quity pressure is the result of such motion, are all floating around. Hero of Alexandria (see also here) writes Pneumatics, an investigation 1st on atmospheric air, summarizing a cent great deal of what was known at the AD time on syphons, pumps, the effects of heat on liquids, and engine designs. Al-Baqilani (d 1013) said to have 9th introduced atomism to the Muslim cent Kalam (perhaps influencing Leibniz). The loss of permanent magnetism 11th when materials are subjected to high The aeolipile of cent temperatures known in China. Hero F Commandine translates Hero of Alexandria's Pneumatics into Latin 1575 (translated earlier in 1547 into Italian by Aleotti). Santorre Santorio (see here also) (1561-1636) is known to have been using an early thermoscope and also writes Commentariar in artem medicinalem Galeni. Santorre writes 1612 to Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) including sketches of his device, to which Galileo replies that it was an invention of his. The priority remains unclear. 1 of 43 2018年03月27日 18:01 Sketching the History of Statistical Mechanics a... http://grdelin.phy.hr/~ivo/Nastava/StatistickaFiz... Thermoscopes of Santorio are 1615 sensitive enough to detect near-by body heat and candles. Johannes van Helmont defines "gas" 1620 (the Flemish word for chaos) for air-like substances. -
Otto Sackur's Groping for a Quantum Theory of Gases
View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by MPG.PuRe Much Polyphony but Little Harmony: Otto Sackur's Groping for a Quantum Theory of Gases Massimiliano Badino1 and Bretislav Friedrich2 The endeavor of Otto Sackur (1880-1914) was driven, on the one hand, by his interest in Nernst's theorem, statistical mechanics, and the problem of chemical equilibrium, and, on the other, his goal to shed light on classical mechanics from the quantum vantage point. Inspired by the interplay between classical physics and quantum theory, Sackur chanced to expound his personal take on the role of the quantum in the changing landscape of physics in the turbulent 1910s. In this paper, we tell the story of this enthusiastic practitioner of the old quantum theory and early contributor to quantum statistical mechanics, whose scientific ontogenesis provides a telling clue about the phylogenesis of his contemporaries. Key words: Otto Sackur, Richard Abegg, Fritz Haber, Max Planck, Ludwig Boltzmann, Max Born, Peter Debye, Walther Nernst, Otto Stern, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Arnold Eucken, Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff, Cato Maximillian Guldberg, Peter Waage, Hugo Tetrode, affin- ity, heat theorem/third law of thermodynamics, quantization, phase space, entropy, quan- tum theory of gases, quantum statistical mechanics, black body radiation, heat capacity, Sackur-Tetrode equation, law of mass action, chemical constant, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, University of Breslau, First Solvay Conference. 1Max-Planck-Institut f¨urWissenschaftsgeschichte, Boltzmannstraße 24, D-14195 Berlin, Germany. Cur- rent address: Centre d’Hist`oriade la Ci`encia,Facultat de Ci`encies,Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain 2Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany 1 Introduction Upon its inception within the context of radiation theory, the quantum hypothesis rapidly diffused into other fields. -
Veröffentlichungen Aus Dem Archiv Der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Begründet Von Eckart Henning Herausgegeben Von Lorenz Friedrich Beck Und Marion Kazemi
Veröffentlichungen aus dem Archiv der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Begründet von Eckart Henning Herausgegeben von Lorenz Friedrich Beck und Marion Kazemi Band 16/II 1. Cover page of a Prussian St[ate] M[inistry] file for “Dr. Althoff’s Project for the Use of Domain Dahlem for Purposes of the State (founding of an exclusive community, predestined by scientific research institutes, a German Oxford)”, 1909 Dahlem – Domain of Science A walking tour of the Berlin institutes of the Kaiser Wilhelm / Max Planck Society in the “German Oxford” by Eckart Henning and Marion Kazemi 4th , expanded and updated edition Berlin 2009 REDAKTION : Dr. rer. nat. Marion Kazemi (Anschrift s. Auslieferung) Translation of the 4 th version of the German “Dahlem – Domäne der Wissenschaft” (2009) by Commercial Communication Consulting GmbH, Berlin, Germany 1st ed. München 1993 2nd , updated ed. English München 1998 3rd , updated and expanded ed. German/English Berlin 2002 Gedruckt auf säurefreiem Papier (alterungsbeständig – ph 7, neutral) ISBN: 978-3-927579-16-5 ISSN: 0935-7459 Herstellung: mhv, Zerpenschleuser Ring 30, 13439 Berlin Tel.: (030) 53 33 44 43 Satz: dmp digital- & offsetdruck gmbh, Zerpenschleuser Ring 30, 13439 Berlin Tel.: (030) 530 0 8-100 Druck: dmp digital- & offsetdruck gmbh, Zerpenschleuser Ring 30, 13439 Berlin Tel.: (030) 530 0 8-100 Auslieferung: Archiv der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Boltzmannstraße 14, 14195 Berlin-Dahlem Tel.: (030) 84 13-37 01; Fax: (030) 84 13-37 00; e-mail: [email protected] www.archiv-berlin.mpg.de Table of contents Preface ...................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 11 1. Kaiser Wilhelm / Max Planck Institute for Cell Physiology / Archives of the Max Planck Society ........................................................................................... -
Origins and Founding of the Institute
1 “under my protection and name….” – Origins and Founding of the Institute Today there are entire disciplines that simply no longer fit within the bounds of the colleges and universities, either because they require such extensive machinery and instrumentation that no university department can afford them, or because they concern problems that are too advanced for students and can only be tackled by junior scholars.1 So wrote the Berlin theologian and director of the Royal Library, Adolf Har- nack, in a 1909 memorandum that would serve as the founding document for the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, KWG) and hence for the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry (Kaise r- Wilhelm-Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, KWI), one of the first institutes established by the society. The creation of these organizations was the culmination of interwoven chains of events stretching back well into the 19th century and closely tied to the rise of Germany, and Berlin in particular, as an international center for scholarly research. Three institutional innovations con- tributed substantially to this rise to academic prominence.2 The first was the founding in Berlin in 1810 of the Friedrich Wilhelm University (Friedrich-Wil- helms-Universität, Berlin University), one of the first establishments to promote the ideal of the unity of research and teaching, which would become a hallmark of the modern research university. Then in 1887, the Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology (Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, PTR) began operations in Berlin-Charlottenburg. The first large research institute to stand outside the uni- versity system, the Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology, resulted from a close collaboration between the state, industry and science, aimed at establishing an institute that could meet the demands of modern, large-scale scientific research. -
Lise Meitner Page 1 of 443
Lise Meitner Page 1 of 443 Preferred Citation: Sime, Ruth Lewin. Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1996 1996. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6x0nb4fk/ Lise Meitner A Life in Physics Ruth Lewin Sime UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley · Los Angeles · Oxford © 1997 The Regents of the University of California Preferred Citation: Sime, Ruth Lewin. Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1996 1996. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6x0nb4fk/ vii Preface and Acknowledgments It seems to me that I have always known of Lise Meitner. As a child I must have seen her picture in Life , or in The New York Times , or perhaps in the Aufbau , the German refugees' newspaper that my parents and grandmother often read. In America just after World War II, Lise Meitner was a celebrity: the tiny woman who barely escaped the Nazis, the physicist responsible for nuclear fission, "the Jewish mother of the atomic bomb" although she was a Jew by birth, not affiliation, and she had refused to work on the bomb. When I was six, the details didn't matter. To me, she was a hero, like Eleanor Roosevelt. I came back to Meitner thirty years later, in the 1970s, by way of a class I taught at California State University, Sacramento. Then, as now, I was on the chemistry faculty at Sacramento City College, a community college. At the university, I was known as the woman the all-male chemistry department did not want to hire; under such circumstances one becomes, and remains, a file://F:\download\hyotyohjelmat\meitner\Lise Meitner.htm 20.7.2006 Lise Meitner Page 2 of 443 feminist.