1 “under my protection and name….” – Origins and Founding of the Institute Today there are entire disciplines that simply no longer fit within the bounds of the colleges and universities, either because they require such extensive machinery and instrumentation that no university department can afford them, or because they concern problems that are too advanced for students and can only be tackled by junior scholars.1 So wrote the Berlin theologian and director of the Royal Library, Adolf Har- nack, in a 1909 memorandum that would serve as the founding document for the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, KWG) and hence for the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry (Kaise r- Wilhelm-Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, KWI), one of the first institutes established by the society. The creation of these organizations was the culmination of interwoven chains of events stretching back well into the 19th century and closely tied to the rise of Germany, and Berlin in particular, as an international center for scholarly research. Three institutional innovations con- tributed substantially to this rise to academic prominence.2 The first was the founding in Berlin in 1810 of the Friedrich Wilhelm University (Friedrich-Wil- helms-Universität, Berlin University), one of the first establishments to promote the ideal of the unity of research and teaching, which would become a hallmark of the modern research university. Then in 1887, the Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology (Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, PTR) began operations in Berlin-Charlottenburg. The first large research institute to stand outside the uni- versity system, the Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology, resulted from a close collaboration between the state, industry and science, aimed at establishing an institute that could meet the demands of modern, large-scale scientific research. Finally, came the founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Promotion of the Sciences in 1911 – the last in this series of institutional innovations that, though initiated in Berlin, would affect the scientific landscape well beyond the borders of Germany. The Kaiser Wilhelm Society was established to supplement the efforts of the universities and technical colleges in the natural sciences and engineering, in part as a response to rising international competition, particularly from the United States, whose rapid scientific growth had already begun to call German leadership in these fields into question. 1Harnack,Denkschrift, p. 82. 2Laitko,Innovationen. 1 “under my protection and name….” Fig. 1.1. The Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology in Berlin-Charlottenburg. The founders of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society built upon the successes of the Imperial Institute of Physics and Technology. Researchers in other scientific dis- ciplines, chemistry in particular, sought to emulate the model it provided of an institute for “big science,” in the modern sense, dedicated exclusively to physics and metrology.3 The Berlin chemist, Emil Fischer, who had founded a laboratory for quantitative research in chemistry based on precision methods just before the turn of the century, became the spokesperson for the effort to create an Imperial Institute of Chemistry analogous to the Institute of Physics and Technology. Ini- tial attempts to establish such an institute through government means foundered on issues of state finances. In response, leading representatives of academic and industrial chemistry established in 1905 an independent planning committee to promote the prospective institute, which then developed into an Imperial Institute of Chemistry Association some three years later.4 The association aimed princi- pally to collect the funds necessary for the construction and maintenance of the proposed institute through donations and membership dues, and thereby circum- vent dependence upon state financing, although association members remained dedicated, on principle, to state support for the new institute. A memorandum on the need for an Imperial Institute of Chemistry composed by Emil Fischer in 3Cf.Cahan,Institute. 4Cf.Johnson,Chemists. 2 1 “under my protection and name….” collaboration with the renowned physical chemists Wilhelm Ostwald and Walther Nernst provided the immediate impetus and the occasion for the formation of the Association. In the memo, Fischer, Nernst and Ostwald laid particular weight upon the promotion of physical chemistry, arguing that it should constitute the “scientific backbone” and the central division of the new institute. All this occurred against the backdrop of a rapid boom in classical, organic syn- thetic chemistry during the last third of the 19th century in Germany, which formed the basis for the production of ever more complex synthetic dyes and supported the associated large chemical concerns, but which left behind such sub-disciplines as inorganic chemistry and the young and aspiring fields of biochemistry, physiolog- ical chemistry and physical chemistry. Institutional support for physical chemistry was particularly meager. The field initially crystallized around only a handful of organizational structures in Germany: Wilhelm Ostwald’s institute in Leipzig, the associated research school and the newly established Journal of Physical Chem- istry (Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie).5 The founding of Ostwald’s Institute at Leipzig University in 1887 was not part of a great wave of new institutes for phys- ical chemistry. At the beginning of the 20th century there remained only a few, relatively small institutes and some subaltern posts dedicated to the field, although these could provide excellent research facilities, as was the case for Walther Nernst in Göttingen and for Fritz Haber in Karlsruhe. The shortfall in Berlin was partic- ularly striking; only the extraordinarius professors Hans Landoldt and Hans Jahn represented the field, which hardly sufficed for the promotion of the capital city to a peak research position.6 This lack of institutional support appeared an ever more acute problem in that physical chemistry was no longer a liminal field, but was increasingly recog- nized as a fundamental discipline within chemistry. Physical chemists wanted to address basic concepts common to all of chemistry, such as chemical binding and chemical reactions, which touched upon the underlying physical bases of chem- ical structure. The resulting, increasingly multi-faceted new branch of chemistry could not be neatly inserted into the German ordinary professoriate, which was still marked by stubborn disciplinary boundaries and the almost overwhelming dominance of organic chemistry. Hence, there was an enormous demand for new institutes of physical chemistry, and not only for small, specialized institutes that could make up for the existing deficit but also for a central institute, preferably housed in Berlin, the imperial capital, that could help guide the development of the field. With respect to its size, facilities and modernity the Chemical Institute of the Berlin University erected in 1900 for Emil Fischer presented an excellent model for such a flagship institute7 – assuming, of course, one overlooked its focus on organic chemistry. 5Girnus,Grundzüge. 6Bartelt,Berlin. 7Reinhardt,Ze nt ra le . 3 1 “under my protection and name….” Although the chemical industry offered “substantial donations” to support the proposed institute, and representatives of the Prussian state expressed no doubts concerning the significance of such an undertaking, the lack of government funds continued to block progress, and the state set aside discussion of the matter early in 1909.8 But soon thereafter a new opportunity to promote the project arose in connection with the grand designs of the preeminent director of academic affairs in the Prussian Ministry of Culture, Friedrich Althoff. As the new cen- tury opened, Althoff had formulated a plan to develop the remaining crown lands in the former demesne of Dahlem into “a German Oxford.” In Althoff’s vision, the Berlin suburb would host not only annexes of the Berlin University but also new research institutes and extensive scientific collections.9 However, Althoff died in 1908, without having made significant progress toward realizing his plans. Nev- ertheless, shortly after Althoff’s death, Kaiser Wilhelm II commissioned Althoff’s long-time associate Friedrich Schmidt (after 1920 Schmidt-Ott) to compile a report on “Althoff’s plans for Dahlem.” Less than a year later, as the Prussian bureaucracy began to ponder an appropriate royal gift for the centennial of the Berlin Univer- sity, Schmidt-Ott sent Althoff’s plans to the Chief of the Civil Cabinet, Rudolf von Valentini, who then forwarded them to the theologian and Director of the Royal Library, Adolf von Harnack, along with his own request for a report on the plans. As part of his report, Harnack was supposed to evaluate the present scientific standing of Germany and to develop from his assessment a proposal for a fitting centenary gift from the Kaiser. Harnack completed his report, a “Memorandum concerning the founding of a Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for scientific research,” in the autumn of 1909. In his memorandum, Harnack relied not only upon Althoff’s plans but also upon the recommendations of scientists such as Emil Fischer, Walther Nernst and August Wassermann, weaving these together with a dire warning concerning the plight of German science and the concomitant dangers to state and business interests: …German scholarship