Fire Management notes Volume 59 • No. 1 • Winter 1999
THE FUTURE OF NATIONAL SHARED RESOURCES
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS Authors who are affiliated should submit a etc.). At the end of the manuscript, include Editorial Policy camera-ready logo for their agency, institu clear, thorough figure and photo captions Fire Management Notes (FMN) is an interna tion, or organization. labeled in the same way as the corresponding tional quarterly magazine for the wildland fire material (figure 1, 2, 3; photograph A, B, C; community. FMN welcomes unsolicited manu Style. Authors are responsible for using etc.). Captions should make photos and scripts from readers on any subject related to wildland fire terminology that conforms to illustrations understandable without reading fire management. (See the subject index of the the latest standards set by the National the text. For photos, indicate the “top” and first issue of each volume for a list of topics Wildfire Coordinating Group under the include the name and affiliation of the covered in the past.) National Interagency Incident Management photographer and the year the photo was System. FMN uses the spelling, capitaliza taken. Because space is a consideration, long manu tion, hyphenation, and other styles recom scripts are subject to publication delay and mended in the United States Government Electronic Files. Please label all disks editorial cutting; FMN does print short pieces of Printing Office Style Manual. Authors should carefully with name(s) of file(s) and system(s) interest to readers. use the U.S. system of weight and measure, used. If the manuscript is word-processed, with equivalent values in the metric system. please submit a 3-1/2 inch, IBM-compatible Try to keep titles concise and descriptive; disk together with the paper copy (see above) Submission Guidelines subheadings and bulleted material are useful as an electronic file in one of these formats: Submit manuscripts to either the general and help readability. As a general rule of clear WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS; WordPerfect 7.0 or manager or the editor at: writing, use the active voice (e.g., write, “Fire earlier for Windows 95; Microsoft Word 6.0 or managers know…” and not, “It is known…”). earlier for Windows 95; Rich Text format; or USDA Forest Service Provide spellouts for all abbreviations. ASCII. Digital photos may be submitted but Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff Consult recent issues (on the World Wide must be at least 300 dpi and accompanied by P.O. Box 96090 Web at
This issue of Fire Management Notes is Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. the second in a series of two focusing on The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of wildland fire aviation management. Many the public business required by law of this Department. thanks to all contributors for sharing their Subscriptions ($8.50 per year domestic, $10.65 per year foreign) may be obtained from New Orders, Superintendent experience and expertise with the wildland of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954. A subscription order form is available on the back cover. fire community. Fire Management Notes is available on the World Wide Web at
Dan Glickman, Secretary April J. Baily U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
Mike Dombeck, Chief Robert H. “Hutch” Brown, Ph.D. Forest Service Editor
Jose Cruz, Director Michael Dudley Fire and Aviation Management Submissions Coordinator
Donna M. Paananen Consulting Editor
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Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Notes. Fire notes Management Volume 59 • No. 1 • Winter 1999
On the Cover: CONTENTS Planning National Shared Forces for the 21st Century...... 4 Michael Dudley
THE FUTURE OF NATIONAL SHARED National Airtanker Study: An Overview ...... 6 RESOURCESESOURCES Donald W. Carlton and Michael Dudley Followup on the 1992 National Type 1 Helicopter Study ...... 10 Joseph F. Krish Airspace Coordination During Florida’s Counterclockwise from upper right to lower right: A Lockheed P3–A Orion 1998 Wildfires ...... 13 (Aero Union T–00) under national con Julie Stewart tract to the USDA Forest Service mak ing a retardant drop on a wildfire in News Helicopter Partnership Model ...... 16 Arizona in 1996. Recommendation 2 of the 1996 National Airtanker Study Robert W. Kuhn specifies that the P3’s, along with C– 130E models, should be part of the Minnesota’s New Mix of Fire Aviation Resources ...... 19 future large airtanker fleet (see related Sheldon Mack story by Don Carlton and Michael Dudley). Photo: Courtesy of Tom Story, Privatizing Aerial Wildfire Detection Tempe, AZ, ©1998. John Day Helitack, in South Carolina ...... 22 Malheur National Forest, Pacific Northwest Region, conducting rappel Ken Cabe training for new crewmembers, part of the national shared resources being Small-Format Aerial Photography ...... 25 examined under the National Aerial Gary E. Laudermilch Delivered Firefighter Study. Photo: Brad Gibbs, USDA Forest Service, Modular Airborne Fire Fighting Systems Malheur National Forest, John Day, OR, 1998. An Erickson S–64 type 1 Succeed in Indonesia ...... 27 helicopter making a drop on a fire in Joe Madar and Ginger Brudevold Malibu, CA, in 1996. This is one of the helicopter types evaluated under the Fire Management Partnership 1992 National Study of Type I and Type Leads the Way in Utah ...... 31 II Helicopters to Support Large Fire Suppression, updated in 1997 (see Gary Cornell related story by Joe Krish). Photo: Courtesy of Tom Story, Tempe, AZ, Seventeen Smokey Bear Awards ©1998. Presented for 1997 ...... 33 Judy Kissinger The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the cover) stands for the safe and effective use of wildland fire, now and in the 21st century. Author Index—Volume 58 ...... 37 Its shape represents the fire triangle (oxygen, heat, and fuel). The three outer red triangles Subject Index—Volume 58 ...... 38 represent the basic functions of wildland fire organizations (planning, operations, and aviation management), and the three critical aspects of wildland fire management SHORT FEATURES (prevention, suppression, and prescription). The black interior represents land affected by Guidelines for Contributors ...... 2 fire; the emerging green points symbolize the growth, restoration, and sustainability associated with fire-adapted ecosystems. The “October Fury”: Documentary on flame represents fire itself as an ever-present 1947 Maine Wildfires...... 5 force in nature. For more information on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and Jim Downie innovative thinking behind it, contact Mike Apicello, National Interagency Fire Center, NARTC Course Catalog 208-387-5460. for 1998–99 Available ...... 18 Hutch Brown Florida Modifies FEPP for Incident Command Communications ...... 24 George L. Cooper Firefighter and public safety is our first priority New Fire Safety Web Site for Children...... 30 Hutch Brown PLANNING NATIONAL SHARED FORCES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
Michael Dudley
ational shared resources— firefighting resources that are The results of these four studies will help guide N funded directly by the USDA the Forest Service and its interagency partners Forest Service’s Washington Office, into the year 2000 and beyond. such as airtankers, smokejumpers, and lead planes—are essential to successful wildland fire manage ment across the Nation. In 1991, National Helicopter regarding the mix, numbers, and the Forest Service began planning Study locations of smokejumper, heli the future of national shared The first study, completed in 1992, tack, and rappel crews in the resources with a report prepared was the National Study of Type I context of other initial-attack by a team led by Jim Mann, at the and Type II Helicopters to Support resources. time the regional fire and aviation Large Fire Suppression. The study director for the Forest Service’s recommended the most efficient National Airtanker Northern Region. quantity of, and staffing for, type 1 Study and type 2 helicopters to place The third study, the National Mann’s report on how to manage under national exclusive-use con Airtanker Study (NATS), was the analysis process for planning tract for supporting extended completed in two phases. Phase I, national shared resources led the attack and large wildland fire completed in 1995, recommended Forest Service to convene a group suppression. Since 1993, based a national fleet of 41 large air- of wildland fire managers to on recommendations from this tankers. Phase II, completed in develop a process and blueprint to report, national staffing for type 2 1996, gave 16 recommendations to guide the Forest Service into the helicopters has resulted in sub guide the airtanker program for 21st century through a series of stantial annual savings to the the next 20 years (see related studies on national shared re Federal Government. Currently, article by Don Carlton and Mike sources for large wildfire suppres staffing for the 1999 fire season Dudley). A key conclusion of NATS sion. The resulting National stands at seven national type 2 phase II—that airtanker base Shared Forces Task Force Report helicopters. The 1992 study was facilities are as important as the (NSFTFR), completed in 1991, recently reviewed and updated aircraft themselves—resulted in recommended a specific schedule with regard to type 1 helicopter the National Airtanker Support of interagency studies to deter needs (see related article by Joe Base Improvement project for mine the most efficient staffing Krish). fiscal year 1999. levels for national resources, including airtankers, helicopters, Airborne Firefighter Tactical Aerial smokejumpers, improvements to Study Resource their support facilities, and the most cost-effective methods for The second study chartered by the Management Study their procurement. NSFTFR Steering Committee, the The fourth study, the Tactical National Aerial Delivered Fire Aerial Resource Management fighter Study, is in progress. The Study (TARMS), was drafted in Mike Dudley is an aviation management study is designed to provide April 1998 and is scheduled for specialist for the USDA Forest Service’s managers with information, completion in fall 1998. The study Washington Office, Washington, DC. guidance, and decision support is designed to provide managers
4 Fire Management Notes with information, guidance, and support for national and geo graphic-area decisions affecting the National Leadplane, Air Tacti cal Group Supervisor, and Helicop ter Coordinator Programs.
The results of these four studies will help guide the Forest Service and its interagency partners into The aviation management triangle reflects the essential elements of the year 2000 and beyond. By sound, professional aviation management. Aviation management is a following the recommendations in service function. Our objective is to provide safe, cost-effective, and these studies, we will be better appropriate aviation services. prepared to meet the challenges ahead in 21st-century wildland fire • The foundation of aviation management is safety. If the mission management. For more informa cannot be accomplished without compromising safety, say “No!” tion on the national shared re Ensure that there is an acceptable level of risk through sound risk sources studies, contact Mike management. Dudley, Aviation Management Specialist, USDA Forest Service, • Strive for cost-effective aircraft use. Question requests that are not Fire and Aviation Management, cost-effective—explain why and recommend a better solution. P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20090-6090, tel. 202-205-0995, • Use the right aircraft tool for the job. Question inappropriate re fax 202-205-1272, e-mail: mdudley/ quests—explain why and recommend a better way. Do what’s right! [email protected]. ■
“OCTOBER FURY”: DOCUMENTARY ON 1947 MAINE WILDFIRES
Jim Downie
In October 1947, drought On the 50th anniversary of these of videotapes. Included on each conditions, high winds, and disastrous wildfires, the Maine VHS tape is old film footage from heavy fuel loads combined to Forest Service, along with WGME “Then It Happened,” an earlier drive dozens of wildfires across Television in Portland, ME, pro documentary. To purchase a copy, 220,000 acres in southern duced the documentary “October send a check or money order for Maine. The fires damaged more Fury.” Featured on the WGME and $26.15 (which includes tax) to than 36 communities, virtually Maine Public Broadcasting Tele Bronson Communications, Inc., wiping out 9 towns and leaving vision stations in October 1998, 141 North Maine Street, Brewer, more than 2,500 people home the documentary gives firsthand ME 04412. Sales proceeds go to less. During one week alone, accounts of what it was like to support the fire prevention pro 15 separate fires burned at least fight and escape the 1947 confla grams sponsored by the Maine 5,000 acres each. Property grations. State Federation of Firefighters damages exceeded $70 million, and the Maine Fire Chief’s Associa nearly $3 billion in today’s The Maine Forest Service is now tion. For more information, dollars. offering this 23-minute documen contact Jim Downie at tary for sale on a limited number 207-827-6191. ■ Jim Downie is the fire prevention specialist for the Maine Forest Service.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 5 NATIONAL AIRTANKER STUDY: AN OVERVIEW
Donald W. Carlton and Michael Dudley
arge airtankers play a vital role in supporting initial and ex- With the proposed fleet of airtankers, L tended attack on wildfires average aircraft speed and retardant capacity nationwide. The National Air- will increase, enhancing the Nation’s capability tanker Study (NATS) was char- tered in 1994 to provide informa for initial and extended attack. tion, guidance, and support to managers for national and regional decisionmaking that will affect the USDA Forest Service and the particularly on Federal large national airtanker program and its U.S. Department of the Interior airtanker contract solicitations for supporting components over the (USDI). 1996–98, whereas phase 2 focused next 10 to 20 years. In this context, on the long term and future “national” refers to the Federal • Phase 2, completed in November solicitations. airtanker fleet and base structure 1996, was designed to determine that together support wildland fire long-term agency needs for large Methods. Both phases examined suppression and use. airtankers to support wildland historic large-airtanker uses and firefighting. Accordingly, phase 2 trends on an interagency basis. Study Overview will form the basis for large Initial-attack data taken from the Purpose. The NATS had two airtanker contract solicitations National Fire Management Analy phases, each with a different by the Forest Service and USDI sis System (NFMAS) were added to purpose: from 1999 to 2015, or until the data on use of airtankers to sup study is revised. The goal for port large wildland fire suppres • Phase 1, completed in April phase 2 was to optimize all rea sion. Forces used for initial attack 1995, determined the most effi sonable airtanker base and fleet are analyzed and justified using the cient number of large airtankers possibilities for the national NFMAS and the Fire Management and their most effective initial airtanker program to guide its Activity Plan employed by the staffing locations for supporting modernization in a way that USDI Bureau of Land Management both initial attack and extended balances airtanker supply with (BLM) and Bureau of Indian Af suppression on large wildfires. agency demand. The phase 2 fairs. For this reason, the Inter- The goals were to optimize use study made recommendations agency Initial Attack Assessment of the existing available large regarding optimum airtanker (IIAA) model was applied to help airtanker fleet and to find the numbers, sizes, and performance analyze the impact that different best airtanker base locations. By criteria by location, specifically airtanker platforms and/or airtank providing a foundation for deter focusing on airtanker size and er base alternatives might have on mining short-term agency needs, performance in relation to eco expected acres burned, fire sup the phase 1 study laid the basis nomic efficiency and suppression pression costs, and net value for the 1996–98 large-airtanker effectiveness. change costs (that is, the costs contract solicitations by the used to describe the algebraic sum Both phases of NATS provided of the positive and negative effects Don Carlton, who served as the committee analytical support and model of a wildland fire). For study pur chairperson for the National Airtanker development for decisionmaking. poses, local initial-attack forces re Study, is a fire protection planning consultant and a retired fire protection Both displayed the interrelation mained constant as airtanker staff planning specialist for the USDA Forest ships and tradeoffs among different ing and locations changed. Where Service, Fire and Aviation Management, airtanker capabilities and locations the IIAA model was outdated or Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR; and Mike Dudley is an aviation manage in support of initial and extended unused for an area, an equivalent ment specialist for the Forest Service’s attack. The difference is that process was allowed, as long as Washington Office, Washington, DC. phase 1 focused on the short term, consistency was maintained.
6 Fire Management Notes Study calculation of the expected number rotor-wing aircraft platforms that, Recommendations— of airtanker plane-days needed to when tanked, would have a retar Phase 1 support suppression on large dant capacity of 1,000 gallons wildland fires from 1980 to 1993. (3,790 L) or more.* These aircraft Phase 1 used initial-attack effi were evaluated based on factors ciency analysis to recommend Based on this calculation, the such as aircraft cost per gallon of staffing for 38 large airtankers phase 1 report recommended retardant delivered. Some aircraft nationally. These 38 airtankers, as staffing for 3 additional large were highly rated when analyzed in staffed in the 1996–98 National airtankers—for a total fleet of 41 a particular situation, but did not Airtanker Contract, came from the large airtankers. The additional perform as well as others when existing fleet, which had retardant three airtankers will augment the viewed from a national perspective, tanks that range in capacity from Nation’s capability for large wild- where mobility and efficiency 2,000 to 3,000 gallons (7,570 to land fire suppression while freeing within a wide range of fuel and 11,360 L). Goals for phase 1 were aircraft for initial attack. topographic situations are critical. to optimize the existing available large airtanker fleet and to find Based on such considerations, the the best airtanker base locations. Study phase 2 report made several Accordingly, the optimum num Recommendations— recommendations pertaining to ber of 38 airtankers was deter Phase 2 aircraft procurement, including: mined based on an aggregate of The phase 2 study made 16 recom geographic-area analyses called mendations, some of which are • Recommendation 1: Procure “scenarios.” In each scenario, the shown here by number in the excess military aircraft, the most number of large airtankers was order they appear in the study. cost-effective way of acquiring increased and decreased from airtanker platforms. existing levels to determine the Airtanker Procurement. A goal of number within the geographic the phase 2 study was to optimize • Recommendation 2: Establish a area that minimized total airtanker all reasonable airtanker base and future fleet of 20 P3–A aircraft, program costs (fire suppression fleet possibilities for the national 10 C–130B aircraft, and 11 C– costs plus net value change costs). program. To do so, the study 130E aircraft (fig. 1). identified potential fixed- and In addition, the phase 1 report addressed the tradeoff between effective initial attack and efficient suppression support on large wild- land fires. The phase 1 study determined that, for all agencies from 1993 to 1994, the average quantity of retardant delivered per fire was 30,392 gallons (115,043 L) for fires ranging in size from 100 to 5,000 acres (40 to 2,000 ha), and 202,205 gallons (765,407 L) for fires 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) or larger in size. The study also ana lyzed and displayed, on a biweekly basis, Forest Service fire occur rence for wildland fires greater than 100 acres (40 ha) (size classes Figure 1—A C–130 dropping retardant on a 1994 wildfire in southern California. C–130’s D through G) from 1970 to 1993, are part of the new generation of large airtankers specified in recommendation 2 of the and the same type of data for the National Airtanker Study, phase 2. Photo: Cecil Stinson, Jr., USDA Forest Service, Shasta– BLM from 1980 to 1993. Taken Trinity National Forest, Redding, CA, 1994. together, this information allowed * The 1,000-gallon (3,790-L) lower limit was set by the study’s charter. Aircraft with lesser capacities should be considered as part of NFMAS analysis within local areas, such as national forests or BLM districts.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 7 For initial attack on wildland fires, The phase 2 study solicited infor • Recommendation 8: Develop a aircraft speed has a high value. The mation from each existing air- national initiative to fund average distance from an airtanker tanker base on its physical status improvements and investments base to a wildland fire will be 91 and on the capital improvements at airtanker bases. miles (146 km) for the airtanker needed to meet the standards set bases recommended for implemen forth in the 1995 Interagency In 1998, the Forest Service started tation in the phase 2 report. With Retardant Base Planning Guide, an Airtanker Base Support Initia the proposed fleet, average aircraft Fixed and Rotor Wing. For each tive to obtain funding for fiscal speed will increase, in terms of airtanker base, the study deter year 1999. The initiative has se true air speed, from 221 to 260 mined fire suppression and net cured $8 million in funds (from knots and retardant capacity will value change costs and considered the “Fire, Construction, and increase from about 2,450 gallons several alternatives, including Other” budget line item) for three (9,270 L) to about 3,300 gallons closing the base. The phase 2 new bases and improvements to (12,940 L). report then made two recommen airtanker bases in seven regions, dations: including new construction at six Peak-Period Demand. During peak bases and planning and design at periods of fire activity, airtankers • Recommendation 7: Restructure seven bases. The Forest Service needed to support initial attack airtanker base locations and will pursue the initiative in subse might already be engaged in sup numbers to support the future quent years to obtain the funding pression support on large wildland airtanker fleet and to provide for needed to complete all Forest fires. To address this concern, the the most efficient use of the Service priority 1 and priority 2 phase 2 report made the following capital investment and mainte bases. The BLM is also working on recommendation: nance dollars available for physi a capital improvement project for cal facilities. Close 11 airtanker fiscal year 1999. • Recommendation 5: Use Mobile bases, relocate 2 bases, and Airborne Fire Fighting Systems establish 2 new bases (fig. 2). (MAFFS) during peak periods when all available commercial aircraft are committed. Upgrade eight MAFFS units. Commit funds to designing, developing, and acquiring MAFFS units to meet established performance and effectiveness criteria.
Airtanker Bases. Efficient air- tanker use is predicated on fully functional airtanker bases. The airtanker base support facilities are therefore just as important as the aircraft themselves. However, as products and aircraft have changed over the years, airtanker bases have evolved in response to short-term needs rather than long-term plan ning. As a result, facilities and Figure 2—Airtankers in the pits, working a southern California fire out of Hemet equipment have sometimes failed Airtanker Base (ATB), Hemet, CA. Hemet ATB has been replaced by a new Forest Service ATB currently under construction at San Bernardino International Airport (the former to meet acceptable standards for Norton Air Force Base), where a temporary base is operating until the new base is safety, health, and sanitation. completed. These changes result from recommendations 7 and 8 of the National Airtanker Study, phase 2. Photo: Bob Will, USDA Forest Service, San Bernardino National Forest, San Bernardino, CA, 1996.
8 Fire Management Notes Airtankers are a unique resource To maximize airtanker mobility, that can be quickly mobilized to fly long distances the phase 2 report made these recommendations: in short periods of time to provide high fireline production rates on wildfires. • Recommendation 10: Fund, manage, and control airtankers in a manner consistent with Airtanker Mobility. Successful To meet the demand for aerial fire their status as national aerial initial attack depends on maintain fighting resources during episodic firefighting resources. ing mobile firefighting resources fire occurrences, airtankers must on days when many wildland fires be as wide ranging as possible. • Recommendation 14: Provide ignite. Fires tend to ignite in Airtankers are a unique resource funds on an interagency basis to clusters, mainly due to lightning that can be quickly mobilized to fly meet the costs of airtanker bases storms. These episodic ignitions long distances in short periods of and availability. are highly correlated to wildfires in time to provide high fireline pro size classes D through G. Figure 3 duction rates on wildland fires. To For additional information on all shows the correlation for one geo keep airtankers mobile, the flow of 16 recommendations in the phase graphic area in 1 year. The situa airtankers must be managed at the 2 study or for a copy of the NATS, tion is similar in other geographic highest practical level of coordina phase 2, contact Mike Dudley, areas and in most years. During tion. Effective strategic manage Aviation Management Specialist, such episodes, wildland firefight ment is best achieved at Geo Fire and Aviation Management, ing agencies require a ready staff graphic Area Coordination Centers USDA Forest Service, P.O. Box ing of airtankers, lead planes, and and the National Interagency 96090, Washington, DC 20090 air tactical group supervisor air Coordination Center in Boise, ID. 6090, tel. 202-205-0995, fax 202 craft. Any constraints that restrict Airtanker mobility is greatest when 205-1272, e-mail: mdudley/ ■ aircraft mobility hamper initial- costs for airtanker bases and avail [email protected]. attack efforts, especially during ability are met through inter- episodic wildland fire outbreaks. agency funding.
Figure 3—Correlation between the total number of wildfires per day and the number of class D through G wildfires per day on Federal lands in the northwestern geographic area in 1994. “EpiDays” are days with a large number of wildfires, usually due to episodic ignitions. Note the high correlation between EpiDays and days with a high number of class D through G wildfires. Sixty-eight percent of class D through G wildfires are from episodic ignitions.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 9 FOLLOWUP ON THE 1992 NATIONAL TYPE 1 HELICOPTER STUDY
Joseph F. Krish
elicopters for wildland fire aviation operations, though The demand for type 1 helicopters Hexpensive to buy and maintain, to support large wildfire suppression are invaluable in supporting large has more than tripled since 1992. wildfire suppression. Wildland firefighting agencies therefore contract each year for helicopter services. Although fire seasons no type 1 helicopters under a demobilization dates, vendor differ in severity, each year a cer standard exclusive-use contract.* information, “N” number of the tain quantity of helicopters will be assigned helicopter, information needed. Contract costs can be re In 1997, I followed up on the 1992 on whether the order was canceled duced if the quantity of helicopters study as a partial graduation re or filled, name and size of the fire, needed on a steady basis can be quirement for a course in technical and name of the requesting reliably estimated in advance. fire management. The goal of the agency. 1997 followup was to review the Purpose of the Study resource orders from 1993 to 1997 NATIONAL and use the same methods and Estimating the steady quantity of procedures as in the 1992 study to EXCLUSIVE-USE helicopters needed was the pur determine whether there had been pose behind the National Study of HELICOPTER an increase in the demand for type Type I and Type II Helicopters to ONTRACTS 1 helicopters. C Support Large Fire Suppression, completed in 1992. The study Methods Currently, there are no nation examined historical fire records ally funded type 1 helicopters and previous demand for type 1 The 1992 study and the 1997 fol under the exclusive-use con and type 2 call-when-needed lowup both had two parts: data tracts called for in the 1992 helicopters and recommended the collection and data evaluation. National Study of Type I and most cost-effective quantity of Type II Helicopters to Support these helicopters to place under Data Collection. All requests for Large Fire Suppression. How national exclusive-use contracts. type 1 helicopters go through the ever, there are seven type 2 The study concluded that up to National Interagency Coordination helicopters under national $4 million per year could be saved Center (NICC) in Boise, ID. The exclusive-use contracts that are by contracting 2 type 1 helicopters NICC records the resource orders funded under the guidelines set and 7 to 13 type 2 helicopters. for type 1 helicopters from all forth in the study. These heli Thanks to the 1992 study, there are agencies. From the NICC, I ob copters are located in: now 7 type 2 helicopters under tained copies of resource orders for national exclusive-use contracts type 1 helicopters from 1993 to • Region 1—Dillon, MT; and for the 1998 fire season (see 1997, along with mobilization and St. Regis, MT. sidebar). However, there are still • Region 2—Durango, CO. * During the 1997 fire season, an exclusive-use type 1 helicopter was contracted for the USDA Forest • Region 4—Challis, ID; and Joe Krish is the helicopter manager at the Service’s Pacific Southwest and Southwest Regions Prescott Fire Center and Henry Y.H. Kim through regional/local funding. However, unlike the Ogden, UT. national exclusive-use contracts for type 2 helicopters, Aviation Facility, USDA Forest Service, this contract awarded no daily availability to the • Region 6—Chelan, WA; and Prescott National Forest, Prescott, AZ. contractor and is therefore ignored here. John Day, OR.
10 Fire Management Notes In addition, the Southwest Re gion’s fire planner provided me with information on all fires, class C and above, in the National Inter- agency Fire Management Inte grated Database (NIFMID). By cross-referencing the NIFMID data with the resource orders, I was able to fill in some of the missing data. This allowed me to assign a fire name and size and even a cost to the resource order for every type 1 helicopter.
The figures for both the 1992 study and the 1997 followup were con servative. Even though all requests Helicopter N1168U with helitack crew, stationed at John Day, OR. The funding for this for type 1 helicopters must travel S–58T type 2 helicopter under national exclusive-use contract resulted directly from the through the NICC, after a type 1 1992 National Study of Type I and Type II Helicopters to Support Large Fire Suppression. helicopter is assigned to a Geo Photo: Brad Gibbs, Malheur National Forest, John Day, OR, 1998. graphic Area Coordination Center (GACC), it may be reassigned with in the GACC without transmittal of the new incident information back to the NICC. New requests for type Helicopter 68U filling its 1 helicopters can therefore go Bambi bucket from a unrecorded. This was the case, for 3,000 gallon (11,350-L) “pumpkin” to help example, during the severe 1994 suppress a 1997 wildfire fire season, when type 1 helicop on land managed by the ters were in unusually high USDI Bureau of Land Management in south demand. ern Nevada. This heli copter is one of the Data Evaluation. The second part seven type 2 helicopters of the study evaluated the data to funded nationally as a result of the 1992 Na determine the most cost-effective tional Study of Type I quantity of type 1 helicopters to and Type II Helicopters place under national exclusive-use to Support Large Fire Suppression. Photo: contracts. A computer modeling Tim Lynch, Malheur program was used to establish the National Forest, John total program cost of meeting the Day, OR, 1998. demand for type 1 helicopters under exclusive-use contracts. Models were devised for quantities of exclusive-use-contract helicop ters ranging from 0 to 20, with the remaining demand met through call-when-needed helicopters. One variable in calculating each model was length of the contract—the shorter the contract, the larger the quantity of type 1 helicopters needed to meet the demand.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 11 Results peak period of demand was from wildland fires unless a fire Data. From 1989 through 1991, about the third week in June management plan is in place. 102 requests were made for type 1 through the first week in October. helicopters, including: The original 1992 study recom Conclusion mended placing two type 1 heli • 88 percent by the USDA Forest Contracting for helicopters to copters under national exclusive- Service; support large wildfire suppression use contract. This recommenda • 8 percent by the other Federal is very expensive for the American tion was cautious because there wildland fire management taxpayer. Call-when-needed rates are no reliable data on actual agencies (the USDI Bureau of for type 1 helicopters range from availability costs. Beginning with Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land $12,000 per day to more than two type 1 helicopters under Management, National Park $30,000 per day. In 1996, the national exclusive-use contract Service, and U.S. Fish and Federal Government paid more would accomplish two things: Wildlife Service); and than $26 million to one helicopter • 4 percent by various State company alone. To save costs, 1. It would establish a baseline for agencies. these resources must be utilized in a cost analysis using actual the most effective and efficient versus estimated dollars. From 1993 through 1997, 518 manner. 2. It would reduce financial risk in requests were made for type 1 the event of a slow fire season. helicopters. Ninety percent of the The facts are these: requests came from the Forest The most critical time period Service. • The need for type 1 helicopters, (when large wildfires are most in terms of both demand and likely to occur) could be covered The 1992 study found that the duration, has risen substantially by staggering the start dates for number of requests for type 1 since 1992. Demand has more the helicopters. The helicopters helicopters averaged 34 per year. than tripled. could follow the normal pattern of The 1997 followup found that this • Relying solely on call-when fire seasons by beginning in the figure had more than tripled to needed helicopters costs the South, then moving to the South 104 per year for the 1993–97 Government considerably more west, then to the northern Rockies period. The average number of than placing an appropriate and Pacific Northwest, and finally days that a contractor could expect quantity of type 1 helicopters to the Pacific Southwest. to remain on an incident rose from under national exclusive-use 6.5 days during the 1989–91 period contracts. For more information on the to 8 days during the 1993–97 • Large wildfires are not going national helicopter studies, contact period. away. Until the problem of fuel Joe Krish, Prescott Fire Center/ buildups is solved, there will Henry Y.H. Kim Aviation Facility, Evaluation. The model that most continue to be large wildfires. 2400 Melville Dr., Prescott, AZ closely resembled the actual • The need for wildfire suppression 86305, tel. 520-771-6168, IBM: demand for the 5-year period from is not diminishing. Current jkrish/r3,prescott; e-mail: jkrish/ ■ 1993 to 1997 was 6 type 1 helicop policy is to extinguish all [email protected]. ters under 105-day contracts. The
12 Fire Management Notes AIRSPACE COORDINATION DURING FLORIDA’S 1998 WILDFIRES
Julie Stewart
he 1998 fire season was excep tionally severe in Florida due Through teamwork, the number of Tto unusual drought conditions. dangerous intrusions into airspace needed Thousands of wildfires burned for aerial support to fight Florida’s wildfires almost half a million acres (200,000 ha). Aircraft poured in was kept very low. from across the Nation to support firefighting efforts and disaster relief. commercial operations such as Special Airspace flight schools, skydiving schools, Coordination Challenging Airspace airports, banner towing, and the Area Command brought in an Conditions media. For example, many future airspace coordination specialist, The influx of aircraft put airspace airline pilots go to central Flori Julie Stewart, regional airspace coordination over Florida to the da to find various types of basic coordinator for the USDI Bureau of test in what many aviation person training offered by commercial Land Management in Portland, nel consider one of the most com enterprises (a large industry OR, to manage the TFR’s and plex cases ever. Several factors that, within the TFR’s, was all coordinate with the FAA and contributed to the complexity of but suspended during the wild Department of Defense (DOD). In Florida’s airspace: fires). The arrival of numerous addition, the airspace coordinator disaster relief aircraft in Florida had to plan the evacuation of • Local geography played a signifi enormously complicated an airports, establish temporary air cant role. Because the terrain is already difficult job of airspace traffic control towers, help arrange flat, Florida’s general aviation coordination. international approach and depar pilots are used to flying at rela • The many TFR’s established to ture routes, and deal with the tively low altitudes—usually at facilitate wildfire aerial suppres shutdown of many major flight 2,000 feet (610 m). As a result, sion and disaster relief over schools and skydiving facilities due the Federal Aviation Administra lapped and needed tracking and to the TFR’s. tion (FAA) was reluctant to issue coordination. any temporary flight restrictions (TFR’s) for airspace above 2,500 feet (760 m) (see sidebar at the end of the article). Many disaster relief aircraft were therefore initially forced to fly above the TFR. • Florida’s skies were already heavily trafficked. Large num bers of aircraft are routinely flown by military pilots, general aviation pilots, and pilots for
Julie Stewart is the regional interagency Tanker–63, a C–130 on standby at the Lake City temporary retardant base in Florida, one airspace coordinator, USDI Bureau of of four such bases set up across Florida to meet suppression needs during the 1998 Florida Land Management, Fire and Aviation wildfires. At the height of the wildfires, a total of 157 tactical aircraft were operating in Management, State Office/Regional Office, highly complex airspace. Photo: Dale Alter, USDA Forest Service, Winema National Forest, Portland, OR. Klamath Falls, OR, 1998.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 13 All the TFR’s affected numerous briefed on fire suppression flights, Coordination with the FAA was airports within their boundaries, the air operations liaison pre consistently outstanding. The FAA but TFR’s issued under Federal vented their disruption. professionals were proactive and Aviation Regulation (FAR) generous with their assistance and 91.137(a)(2) do not close airports. Lessons Learned advice. Area Command established General aviation is allowed to Several procedures worked ex good teamwork with staff in sever continue flying from one airport to tremely well in facilitating airspace al FAA facilities, including the FAA another within a TFR. Many pilots coordination: Washington Office, Regional Head took advantage of this but were quarters, Jacksonville Center, upset when they discovered that • A central point of contact Gainesville Flight Service Station, the TFR would not allow them to streamlined the process by and Flight Standards District practice flying traffic patterns at acting as focal point for all FAA Office. airports (an important part of pilot and TFR coordination for the training). entire State. A key player was the liaison officer • A national transponder code named by the FAA Washington The Area Command’s airspace (1255) for identifying airborne Office to assist in coordination coordinator consolidated numer suppression resources was put to efforts, Lacy Wright, from the ous small TFR’s into one large the ultimate test, and numerous FAA’s Southern Regional Head TFR reaching from St. Augustine FAA controllers raved about its quarters. The FAA has suggested to Melbourne, FL. Ongoing team success. continuing the liaison with Area work with the FAA built mutual • Morning pilot briefings, evening Command during future coordina trust, especially during President air operations conference calls, tion efforts on large wildfires. As Clinton’s visit, when FAA regional and daily TFR briefs were faxed the Florida wildfires were ending, headquarters personnel worked to the FAA, air operations wildland fire aviation personnel with the airspace coordinator in directors, DOD, and dispatch (including Julie Stewart, the air planning the President’s visit. centers. The reports firmly space coordinator for Area Com Coordination culminated in a established the locations of the mand; Tim Elder, an airspace “need-to-know” conference call TFR’s. coordinator trainee for the Florida involving Area Command, the FAA, • Air operations directors facili Division of Forestry; and Mike and affected air operations direc tated airspace coordination Dudley, an aviation management tors, who received careful instruc through their willingness to specialist for the Forest Service’s tion on the protocol associated reduce or modify TFR’s in size, Washington Office who was repre with Presidential movements. configuration, and altitude to senting Area Command) met with accommodate local commercial FAA personnel at the Jacksonville The White House was very sensi traffic for such activities as ban Center and Daytona Beach Tower tive to the need to continue ner towing, flight school, and to ease the way for future coordi wildland fire aviation operations media overflights. nation. Issues discussed included: over Florida without interference from the President’s visit. Unex Coordination with DOD was extra • The need for a national memo pectedly, the Presidential Protec ordinary. With few exceptions, randum of understanding tion Division did not invoke the DOD aircraft maintained altitudes between wildland fire aviation Presidential TFR, a moving TFR at 13,000 feet (4,000 m) or higher agencies and the FAA to ad that goes wherever the President and stayed away from wildfires. For dress— goes. Instead, Area Command general aviation traffic, the FAA – Activating temporary towers in placed an air operations liaison, issued press releases reminding all a way that standardizes their Dennis Brown, an air tactical pilots, before flying, to check their use nationally, and group supervisor for the USDA Notices to Airmen for information – Initiating and training air Forest Service on the Klamath on TFR’s. As a result, the number traffic controllers. National Forest in Yreka, CA, in of intrusions was very low (by mid- the Daytona Beach Tower. By July, less than 20 had been re keeping the Secret Service and FAA ported).
14 Fire Management Notes • Constraints in the regulations FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATION GOVERNING governing TFR’s. The intent of FAR 91.137(a)(2) is to provide a TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS FOR safe environment for disaster WILDLAND FIRE AVIATION relief aircraft. However, the FAR permits five exceptions for air Temporary flight restrictions (TFR’s) necessary for wildland fire craft operating inside the TFR aviation operations are governed by title 14, Code of Federal Regula (see sidebar), which can create tions (14 CFR), section 91.137(a)(2). Paragraph 91.137(c) describes safety problems. Future coordi the particular circumstances under section 91.137(a)(2) that allow nation with the FAA will include certain exceptions that could pose a risk to suppression aircraft unless discussions on improving imple managers are aware of the aircraft operating under these exceptions. mentation of FAR 91.137(a)(2). Text follows. For example, the FAA is scruti nizing the clause in the law that §91.137 Temporary flight restrictions. allows general aviation pilots to (a) The Administrator will issue a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) designat continue to fly from airport to ing an area within which temporary flight restrictions apply and airport within the TFR. specifying the hazard or condition requiring their imposition, whenever he determines it is necessary in order to— Airspace coordination is an essen … tial part of wildland fire aviation. (2) Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief The Florida wildfires challenged aircraft; our capabilities for safe and effi … cient airspace coordination, high (c) When a NOTAM has been issued under paragraph (a)(2) of this lighting our strengths and weak section, no person may operate an aircraft within the designated nesses. As we continue to build our area unless at least one of the following conditions are met: airspace program within our agen (1) The aircraft is participating in hazard relief activities and is cies, we can learn lessons from this being operated under the direction of the official in charge of on experience for future training and scene emergency response activities. in revising the current Interagency (2) The aircraft is carrying law enforcement officials. Airspace Coordination Guide. (3) The aircraft is operating under the ATC [air traffic control] approved IFR [Instrument Flight Rules] flight plan. For additional information on (4) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport airspace coordination, contact within the area, or is necessitated by the impracticability of VFR Julie Stewart, Regional Airspace [Visual Flight Rules] flight above or around the area due to Coordinator, Bureau of Land weather, or terrain; notification is given to the Flight Service Management, Fire and Aviation Station (FSS) or ATC facility specified in the NOTAM to receive Management, State Office/Regional advisories concerning disaster relief aircraft operations; and the Office, 333 Southwest 1st Street, operation does not hamper or endanger relief activities and is not P.O. Box 3623, Portland, OR 97208, conducted for the purpose of observing the disaster. tel. (503) 808-6728, e-mail: (5) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representa [email protected] ■ tives, and prior to entering the area, a flight plan is filed with the appropriate FAA [Federal Aviation Administration] or ATC facility specified in the Notice to Airmen and the operation is conducted above the altitude used by the disaster relief aircraft, unless otherwise authorized by the official in charge of on scene emer gency response activities.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 15 NEWS HELICOPTER PARTNERSHIP MODEL
Robert W. Kuhn
he advent of turbine airtankers in 1990 changed the world of The news helicopter partnership T wildland fire aviation. Air- provides a way for media pilots to get the news tanker base support systems, footage they need without risking lives. procedures for airtanker loading, airtanker use over a fire, and even airtanker tracking by dispatch offices all had to be modified to 2,500 feet (750 m) AGL—to avoid firefighting operations as he accommodate the new capabilities incursion into the restricted air supposed he was, he thought he and requirements of the Lockheed space. He then established a link to could position his helicopter in a P3–A Orion and C–130 Hercules his news station and began filming safe zone without violating Federal airtankers. Aerial firefighting the lumbering piston-powered Aviation Administration regula operations had to be overhauled to airtankers as they struggled over tions. What had changed, as the exploit this new aerial firefighting the hot desert floor far below. pilot so suddenly and dramatically resource. learned, was that a new type of Suddenly glancing up, he saw a airtanker was working the incident Near Collision vibrant orange streak followed by a using new operational procedures. in Midair flash of white, then the familiar Instead of lumbering far below like rust color of fire retardant that the piston-driven airtankers the The operational changes were dries in the slipstream on the belly pilot well knew, this turbine air- keenly felt when, in June 1990, a of an airtanker. In another instant, tanker swooped down from its news helicopter came a few rivet blue sky reappeared. Recalling cruising altitude high above, where heads away from colliding with a later that the colors in this se its turbine engines are most effici P3 airtanker that was entering an quence had completely filled his ent, at speeds reaching 250 knots incident. The helicopter pilot had range of vision, the pilot wondered directly into the TFR on the acquired seasonal experience in how his helicopter’s rotor system incident. wildland firefighting operations had missed hitting the turbine before working full-time for the airtanker that passed within feet of After his narrow escape, the news media. Having flown for his aircraft. helicopter pilot realized that he several different Federal agencies, would no longer be able to safely he was familiar with the type and News Footage and Aerial Risk obtain dramatic shots of aerial level of aviation activity over Media pilots are constantly driven firefighting. Moreover, his level of incidents. He was also familiar by the need to obtain better foot risk would skyrocket if his method with the standard temporary flight age than their competitors. If they of operating didn’t change. Con restriction (TFR) on flying below don’t, they are soon replaced. To cerned, the pilot contacted the 2,000 feet (610 m) above ground get what they need to win ratings local national forest, which ar level (AGL) within a 5-mile (8-km) for their news programs, they are ranged a meeting with five local radius of an incident. well funded—their annual budgets media pilots, their camera opera often exceed $1 million. With so tors and producers, and represen As he had done so often before, the much at stake, media pilots are tatives from the interagency fire pilot settled in at 500 feet (150 m) expected to take risks, although aviation community. The goal of above the TFR ceiling—that is, at this is rarely acknowledged by the the meeting was to find a way for Bob Kuhn is the national fixed-wing base industry. the media pilots to get the footage specialist for the USDA Forest Service, they needed to please their news National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, But in this particular case, the stations without risking lives. In ID; and the forest aviation operations specialist for the USDA Forest Service, helicopter pilot saw little risk. exchange, the news programs Tonto National Forest, Phoenix, AZ. Intimately familiar with aerial would agree to publicize the
16 Fire Management Notes Local news media pilots pose with Smokey Bear in the spirit of cooperation between the media and the wildland fire aviation community. With Smokey at the Forest Service ramp in Phoenix, AZ, are (from left) Bruce Haffner, KTVK TV 3; Scott Clifton, KPHO TV 5; Rick Crabbs, KSAZ TV 10; Mike McDonald, KPNX TV 12; and Fritz Holley, KNXV TV 15. Photo: Courtesy of Tom Story, Tempe, AZ, ©1998. wildland fire community’s preven at the meeting to the media pilots for approval of a media pilot’s tion message. in the form of an interagency entry request. directive. The package included: • Instructions on how to use inci Partnership for Safe dent radio frequencies and on Aerial News Coverage • A map showing local jurisdic procedures to follow in contact Meeting planners realized that tional boundaries. ing the ATGS or lead plane 10 open communication and flexible • Special phone numbers for the miles (16 km) from the incident. management would be key to news producers and pilots to use • For each station’s news desk, addressing the media pilots’ con in contacting dispatch centers to phone numbers (office and cerns. The planners asked local obtain radio frequencies used on pager) for fire information spe agencies to establish special phone an incident and to request entry cialists (with the caveat that if a numbers for the news media in into an incident area, whether or news desk called the dispatcher their dispatch centers and to pro not a TFR was in place. instead of the fire information vide the names of fire information • The types of requests by the news specialist to obtain fire informa specialists who would act as media stations (flying over the incident, tion, the dispatcher might ab contacts. Before the meeting, the landing on the incident, or both) ruptly terminate the call). organizers contacted air tactical that would be accepted for relay group supervisors (ATGS’s) to by the controlling agency for Media representatives at the review and modify initial aircraft approval by the ATGS or lead meeting welcomed these initiatives call-in procedures on incidents to plane. and agreed to abide by the airspace accommodate the needs of news • A description of the time typi restrictions outlined in the pack helicopters. After compiling the cally needed for the dispatcher to age, for the safety of all concerned. information, planners presented it contact the ATGS or lead plane In the spirit of cooperation and
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 17 collaboration, a news helicopter Partnership Benefits NARTC COURSE partnership was born. To cement Local agencies now operate with CATALOG FOR the partnership, the agency repre the media as part of the team over sentatives then met with the fire an incident. Through experience, 1998–99 incident dispatchers so that the the news helicopters now blend AVAILABLE agreed-upon operational proce easily into the traffic flow directed dures could be implemented at by the lead plane or ATGS, who Hutch Brown each fire management office. places them where they can swiftly obtain the footage they need for The following day, there was an their news editors without endan The 1998–99 course catalog incident that attracted media cov gering other aircraft. For its part, for the National Advanced erage because it was on the the local wildland fire community Resource Technology Center wildland–urban interface boundary now has a potent partner in com (NARTC) is now available. between the national forest and the municating the fire prevention The catalog describes 12 city of Phoenix. As agreed in the message by showing the State’s courses on topics including meeting, the media helicopter pi 4 million television viewers the fire effects, fire behavior, fire lots called the incident dispatcher, destruction caused by human- area growth, fire risk assess who initiated the procedures in the ignited fires. In addition, local ment, aerial retardant use, fire directive. The new system worked! news coverage of airtanker bases, in ecosystem management, helicopter rappelling, fire crew fire management leadership, The first partnership meeting, held movements in and out of State, advanced incident manage on June 26, 1990, established a and even campground openings ment, area command, the framework for continuing dialog has increased dramatically since National Fire Management between media pilots and the wild- the inception of the program, Analysis System, the Multi- land fire aviation community. enhancing the public’s under agency Coordination Group, Meetings are now held annually standing of the challenges facing and the Interagency Aviation during the first week of the air- wildland fire managers. Through Management and Safety tanker contract. Participation has flexible management and open system. Courses lasting expanded to include representa communication, the media, inci several days each will be held tives from the three local law en dent commanders, aerial supervi from October 1998 to April forcement agencies that operate sors, and dispatchers can all work 1999 at the NARTC facility in helicopters, municipal fire depart together to accomplish their goals the Sonoran Desert near ments, the Federal Aviation Flight in a safe flying environment over Tucson, AZ. Standards District Office, the U.S. wildfires. Air Force Air Space Coordinator, To obtain the catalog, Air National Guard units, local air For more information on the contact the National Advanced taxi vendors, and agency and con news helicopter partnership Resource Technology Center, tract rotor- and fixed-wing pilots. model, contact Robert W. Kuhn, Pinal Air Park, Marana, AZ The format of the meeting has USDA Forest Service, Tonto 85653, tel. 520-670-6414, changed little since that first en National Forest, 2324 E. McDowell fax 520-670-6413, e-mail: counter in 1990 between the P3 Road, Phoenix, AZ 85006, NARTC_R3_Coronado airtanker and the news helicopter. tel. 602-225-5356, e-mail: @fs.fed.us. ■ Only once in 8 years of cooperation rkuhn/[email protected]. ■ has a media pilot landed unan nounced on a large incident (due Hutch Brown is the editor of Fire to a communication error). Management Notes in Arlington, VA.
18 Fire Management Notes MINNESOTA’S NEW MIX OF FIRE AVIATION RESOURCES
Sheldon Mack
or years, wildland firefighting agencies in Minnesota relied Medium and large helicopters, Beavers, Fprimarily on light helicopters Twin Otters, SEAT’s, and CL–215’s and on large airtankers with a help fill the gap between light helicopters capacity of 2,000 gallons (7,600 L) or more to support ground person and large airtankers. nel during fire suppression. We used a conventional mix of aircraft segregated by altitude: helicopters wildland fires. Aviation assets are Minnesota joined to form the flew between ground level and 500 primarily to make life a little easier Minnesota Incident Command feet (150 m); lead planes prepared for these folks; that hasn’t System (MNICS) partnership, a big for their next runs at 1,000 feet changed. step toward combining wildland (300 m); large airtankers moved in firefighting assets. MNICS partners racetrack patterns at 1,500 feet What has changed are budgets. As include the Minnesota Department (450 m); and air attack orbited at agency budgets have shrunk, the of Natural Resources (DNR) and 2,000 feet (600 m). number of permanent agency Division of Emergency Manage employees has decreased. Vacan ment; the USDA Forest Service; Today, a new set of aircraft has cies are left unfilled, and the aver and the USDI Bureau of Indian joined the mix. DeHavilland age age of our firefighters has in Affairs (BIA), National Park Service Beavers on floats now drop water creased. We are often asked to do (NPS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife on fires, deliver cargo, and deploy more with less at a time when Service. MNICS working agree firefighters (fig. 1). Two Canadian costs are rising. In 1997, contracts ments have created a system CL–215’s, each with a water- for large airtankers exceeded the whereby Federal and State re scooping capability of 1,400 gal number of airtankers available. In sources can be easily borrowed, lons (5,300 L), work at up to 200 response, the cost of airtankers exchanged, and mixed. Today, it feet (60 m) above lake level (fig. 2). shot up, once again proving the doesn’t really matter whether Canadian “bird dogs,” various types law of supply and demand. you’re a BIA suppression crew of aircraft used in lead-plane and foreman, a DNR squad boss, a air-attack roles, share the airspace With leaner budgets and increas Forest Service SEAT coordinator, over Minnesota’s fires. A single- ing costs, what’s an agency to do? or an NPS airtanker base manager: engine airtanker (SEAT), with its Continuing our old mix of aircraft you’re first and foremost an reduced payload but dramatically was not the answer. In 1984, the MNICS resource available to all increased turnaround time, works wildland firefighting agencies in MNICS partners. the flanks of fires (fig. 3).
Creating the New Mix Figure 1—A USDA Forest Service DeHavilland Beaver The new mix does not alter the making a water drop. The role of wildland fire aviation. highly versatile Beaver can also Firefighting still happens primarily haul cargo and transport personnel. With its floats, it can on the ground—it’s still the folks turn a lake into an instant on the firelines who stop most landing zone. Photo: Minnesota Department of Natural Re sources, Grand Rapids, MN, Sheldon Mack is a helicopter operations 1997. specialist for the Minnesota Interagency Fire Center, Grand Rapids, MN.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 19 In addition, Minnesota participates Figure 2—A Canadian CL–215 scooping water from a lake. This in the Great Lakes Forest Fire aircraft, with its 1,400-gallon Compact (GLFFC), which also (5,300-L) water-scooping and includes the States of Wisconsin optional foam injection capabilities, is an excellent tool and Michigan and the Provinces of for firefighting support in the Manitoba and Ontario. Established Lake States. Photo: Minnesota in 1989, the GLFFC allows wild- Department of Natural Re sources, Grand Rapids, MN, land firefighting resources to be 1997. shared among participating States and Provinces.
The MNICS and GLFFC agree Formal courses are taught using supply. But before we could exploit ments added instant diversity to National Wildfire Coordinating this opportunity, we needed to our fire aviation toolbox. Type 1 Group (NWCG) standards. Al synchronize operations with our helicopters, OV–10’s, Beavers, though training to national Canadian partners. In discussions SEAT’s, and more are now readily standards can be difficult, it is with CL–215, bird-dog, and lead- available through our Federal essential for full integration of all plane pilots and with air-attack and partners; helicopters, CL–215’s, aviation assets across agencies. The other personnel, we talked about bird dogs, and more are now payoffs come when you can easily differences in operating procedure available through our Canadian and safely incorporate help from and terminology, and we conversed partners. The result has been other agencies into your fire about tactics and communication. increased sharing of a wide variety program. After everyone felt comfortable of aviation resources as well as together, we conducted a joint traditional caches and ground Refresher training for air tactical controlled training operation, forces. group supervisors (ATGS’s) headed followed by a detailed debriefing. the list of new training require The final product was a combined Training for ments. Water-scooping and float operating plan and written agree the New Mix aircraft create a unique challenge ment. The new water-scooping and other for airspace management. Aircraft aircraft now available added com such as the CL–215 and Beaver Other types of training included: plexity to the task of managing the operate at altitudes that commonly airspace over fires. A lot of training separate our more conventional • Specialized manager training to was needed to make aviation man aircraft. The usual vertical separa safely and efficiently integrate agers feel comfortable with the tion of fixed- and rotor-wing air SEAT’s into our fire aviation new mix. It didn’t happen over craft into upper and lower zones of operations. Minnesota is new to night. Canadian CL–215’s were operation doesn’t work for these the SEAT business, but so far the added to the training mix only in aircraft. Horizontal as well as verti SEAT has met with approval 1996, with SEAT’s following in cal separations are clearly impera from the folks on the ground, 1997. Agencies within MNICS took tive, and aviation managers had to who value its help in suppressing the lead by individually sponsoring learn how to apply them. To add to wildfires. particular courses. With assistance the depth of our ATGS’s, we made • Mixmaster and fixed-wing base from out-of-State instructors, sure that they met the national manager refresher training for most training was conducted at the requirements detailed by the all airtanker base personnel, Minnesota Interagency Fire Center NWCG in its Wildfire Qualification including general training on in Grand Rapids, MN. Since 1996 Guide, 310–1. SEAT operations and techniques alone, 194 students from various for filling a Canadian CL–215 States and Provinces have spent a Next, we invited our Canadian with water or foam. total of 3,712 hours improving partners to a controlled training • Training on operations for our their aviation skills. session. Minnesota shares a border upgraded mobile retardant plant with both Manitoba and Ontario, and for two newly developed making it easy to look north when SEAT support vehicles to make aviation resources are in short the SEAT even more versatile.
20 Fire Management Notes Figure 3—A single-engine creative solutions and taking airtanker (SEAT) working a fire. What the SEAT lacks in payload financial risks. it makes up in shortened turnaround time. Photo: What will the future hold? The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Grand answer may be as varied as aircraft Rapids, MN, 1997. makes and models. Whatever might be in store, stay tuned, stay informed, stay trained—and be prepared to “mix it up”!
For more information on MNICS • Training for air operations continues to release numerous and its wildland fire aviation branch directors and air support aircraft of various types, and the program, contact Sheldon Mack, group supervisors. It is impera Federal Excess Personal Property Minnesota Interagency Fire Center, tive that incident commanders program does an excellent job of 402 SE 11th Street, Grand Rapids, and incident management teams tracking the aircraft available to MN 55744, tel. 218-327-4573, fax understand their aviation op State firefighting agencies. Mean 218-327-4527, e-mail: sheldon. tions, risks, and opportunities. while, private enterprise continues [email protected], ■ to seek out new customers, trying DG: S.Mack:R09F09B. For agencies thinking about ex to fill market gaps by offering panding their training: Go for it. You must be prepared to help yourself, but once you get started, you’ll find a lot of assistance throughout the national system, Large airtankers including numerous instructors who love to help. New mix of aviation What’s Next? resources Safety, efficiency, and cost-effec tiveness remain essential ingredi Light helicopters ents for a successful aviation program. Large airtankers will continue to be an important and integral firefighting tool, but as Dozers they become bigger, faster, and costlier, the gap between light helicopters and large airtankers will continue to grow (fig. 4). In Bombardiers the “Land of 10,000 Lakes,” medium and large helicopters, Trucks Beavers, Twin Otters with tanked
floats, SEAT’s, and CL–215’s are all Levels of fire activity excellent tools to help fill this gap. Crews What about other kinds of mixes? They are certainly possible, par Handtools ticularly in view of the growing need for aviation assets to supple Figure 4—Although firefighting happens primarily on the ground, fire aviation support is ment ground forces. The military vital today, especially on large wildland fires. But as large airtankers become bigger, faster, and costlier, the gap in fire aviation between light helicopters and large airtankers will continue to grow, inviting the use of a new mix of aircraft.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 21 PRIVATIZING AERIAL WILDFIRE DETECTION IN SOUTH CAROLINA
Ken Cabe
ircraft used as high, mobile observation platforms offer Now in its fifth year, Amany advantages in detecting South Carolina’s system of contracting wildfires. However, aircraft are for aerial wildfire detection has reduced costs notoriously expensive to acquire, operate, and maintain. Today, and improved efficiency in fire detection wildland fire managers face the and suppression. challenge of utilizing the advan tages of aerial wildfire detection while keeping costs to a minimum. In 1993, when the SCFC finally assist ground forces on an active closed its tower system in favor of incident. Over the past 5 years, the South total reliance on aerial detection, Carolina Forestry Commission the agency faced some hard A Mix of Public and (SCFC) has met this challenge by choices. Should it add planes and Private Resources successfully applying the concept pilots and handle the job inter of privatization in its aerial wildfire The answer was to use a combina nally? Should it contract for planes tion of agency and contracted detection program. Our experience and pilots but have trained agency has shown that using private con private resources. “We decided to observers accompany them? Or train contractors to handle routine tractors for aerial wildfire detec should it contract the entire tion, if done prudently and judi detection work on their own,” said operation for aerial detection and Paul Watts, the aviation manager ciously, can promote efficiency firefighting support to the private and reduce costs. for the SCFC. “This approach sector? eliminated the need for ride-along Hard Choices observers and reserved our fire- In making its decision, the SCFC trained staff pilots for work on South Carolina’s wildfire detection considered these tradeoffs: active incidents.” system has evolved along the same lines as in many other Southern • Handling the entire job inter Quality Controls on Contractors. States: nally would provide highly According to Watts, contracting for skilled, fire-trained pilots for aerial detection involves a lot more • During the 1930’s, a network of both general wildfire detection than just hiring a plane and pilot. fire towers was established to and assistance to firefighters on Prospective bidders must submit support what was then a purely the ground during an incident. qualifications, including refer ground-based wildfire detection However, it would also be very ences, and must specify the num system. expensive in terms of personal ber of qualified pilots and planes • In the 1950’s, contract aircraft services and fleet maintenance. available and the home base and carrying fire-trained agency • Using agency observers in con ownership of those planes. observers began to supplement tracted aircraft would reduce fire tower detection. costs for fleet maintenance but “We’re looking for dependability, • In the 1980’s, fire-trained agency would keep personal-service availability, and quality,” said pilots flying Federal excess costs high. Watts. Each qualification item is aircraft were added to the mix. • Contracting the entire aerial evaluated on a point basis, and firefighting support effort would contractors who measure up are Ken Cabe is a fire information officer for reduce costs but eliminate fire- asked to submit bids. When bids the South Carolina Forestry Commission, trained observers needed to are received, the prices are factored Columbia, SC.
22 Fire Management Notes in radio procedure, dispatch operations, and basic fire sizeup. Field training and flight tests administered by staff pilots are required before a contract pilot is certified to perform detection service. Additionally, each plane must be equipped with an external antenna and a contractor-provided radio that operates on SCFC frequencies.
Are contractors interested in bidding on such a demanding contract, and can they offer the service at a reasonable price? Absolutely. Here’s the key: every A contract detection plane located and sized up this South Carolina wildfire. Photo: South Carolina Forestry Commission, Columbia, SC. annual contract guarantees a minimum number of paid flight hours. “We get lots of interest in our contracts,” observed Watts, “and hourly rates are essentially the same as they’ve always been.”
Ongoing Role for Agency Pilots. Operationally, SCFC staff pilots still handle aerial wildfire detec tion when fire danger is low. As danger increases, contractors are called into service and staff pilots are reserved for use in handling incident reconnaissance in support of firefighters on the ground. This combination of resources makes 20 planes available for dispatch on any given day.
South Carolina Forestry Commission planes continue to help ground forces suppress General detection routes are wildfires like this one. Photo: South Carolina Forestry Commission, Columbia, SC. predetermined for each plane but may be modified based on fire danger and occurrence. Routes are into the grading system, and each 365 days per year. To ensure circuits rather than point to point, contractor is evaluated once again. availability, providers must have allowing pilots to check suspicious “Cost is important, but it’s only one pilot and one backup for each smokes that lie off their immediate one part of the equation,” Watts plane under contract. Contract line of flight. The area of responsi noted. “This is not a low-bid flights must be totally dedicated to bility assigned to a single detection decision.” wildfire detection and may not be plane ranges from 1,400 square used for pilot training, passenger miles (3,600 km2) to about 4,000 Performance requirements under ferrying, or courier service. square miles (10,000 km2), depend the wildfire detection contract ing on the day’s wildfire condi specify that planes and pilots will Every pilot operating under a tions. be available on 1 day’s notice, detection contract must be trained
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 23 When a suspected wildfire is national forest lands in South appropriate aerial resources when located, the pilot uses a prepared Carolina. “We had already discon and where needed. That flexibility checklist to provide its specific tinued our towers and were using translates into significant cost location and sizeup information to contracted aerial detection,” said savings and improved efficiency in the dispatch center. Upon comple Charlie Kerr, the USDA Forest both fire detection and fire sup tion of the report, the detection Service’s fire management officer pression. plane immediately resumes flying for South Carolina. “Since the its assigned route. Decisions on SCFC was flying the entire State, it For more information on South dispatch of suppression forces are just made good sense for us to use Carolina’s aerial wildfire detection handled by the dispatch center. their system.” system, contact Ken Cabe at the South Carolina Forestry Commis Benefits of Now in its fifth year of operation, sion, P.O. Box 21707, Columbia, SC Privatization the system is working well for 29221, tel. 803-896-8820, fax 803 Since 1996, the SCFC has provided South Carolina. According to 798-8097, e-mail: kcabe@forestry. ■ contract detection service for Watts, it provides fire managers state.sc.us. with flexibility in assigning
FLORIDA MODIFIES FEPP FOR INCIDENT COMMAND COMMUNICATIONS
George L. Cooper
In 1997, the Fire Resource – A computer and printer; Section of Florida’s Division of – Mobile and base station an Forestry, Forest Protection tenna masts; and Bureau, received funding to – Two ergonomic chairs, a convert an 8-foot by 30-foot workstation, and storage (2.4-m by 9.1-m) Federal Excess facilities for forms. Personal Property (FEPP) office • Roof-mounted air conditioning trailer into a communications and wall-mounted thermostati center for an incident command cally controlled propane heat. post. The command post will be New incident command post following • A 75-foot (23-m) power cable ribbon-cutting ceremony officially used by interagency fire and inaugurating it into service. Photo: George with a commercial power emergency services command L. Cooper, Florida Division of Forestry, hookup as well as a self- teams for incidents statewide. Forest Protection Bureau, Fire Resource contained generator. Section, Tallahassee, FL, 1997. • All new paneling, floor tiles, and All modifications and improve carpeting. ments cost less than $50,000. • A state-of-the-art communica • Corkboards and whiteboards for Work was accomplished prima tions center, featuring: strategic planning sessions. rily at the Division of Forestry’s – A telescoping 75-foot (23-m) • A conference table and four White City Work Center and the antenna tower, mounted at the chairs in the command section. Fabrication Shop in Lake City, rear; • Interior and exterior storage FL. Modifications include: – Two remote radio kits, compartments. – UHF, VHF, 800-MHz, and FAA • An 8-foot by 20-foot (2.4-m by George Cooper is a fire resource radios; 6.1-m) rollup awning. manager for the Florida Division of – Telephone, cellular phone, and • Exterior flood lights and an Forestry, Forest Protection Bureau, fax and copy machines; incident command post strobe Fire Resource Section, Tallahassee, FL. light. ■
24 Fire Management Notes SMALL-FORMAT AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY *
Gary E. Laudermilch
he Bureau of Forestry in the Pennsylvania Department of Fire management personnel TConservation and Natural have found small-format aerial photography Resources has a huge need for useful in making wildland–urban interface plans. updated map data. The Bureau’s fire protection, insect suppression, recreation, and timber manage ment activities all demand exten Utica, NY. Based on global posi Digitizing the Data sive use of reliable, up-to-date tioning system (GPS) data, the However, acquiring the photo maps. This requires constant system is specifically designed for graphs is only part of the equation. updating of map data. small-format photography. A Although the photographs them complete system costing about selves hold a great deal of useful Primarily to support its insect $8,000 has a flight control unit information, they must be con suppression projects, the Bureau that houses a 12-channel GPS verted to digital format to realize sought a cost-effective and timely receiver and serves as an interface the full potential of the data they alternative to traditional map between a laptop computer and a contain. Eastman Kodak Company upgrade techniques. Traditional standard 35-mm SLR camera. developed a process for converting large-format mapping photogra Using raw GPS data, photo mission a traditional 35-mm film negative phy, though very precise, was plans created on the computer into digital data and installing prohibitively expensive, and satel permit a photo center to be tar them onto a compact disk, which lite imagery lacked sufficient de geted to within 300 feet (91 m). makes the data usable in a com tail. Early experiments with small- Significantly closer tolerances can puter environment. This service format aerial photographs indi be achieved with the addition of a bridges the gap between photogra cated that they are the most real-time differential correction phy and the digital world, where practical means of acquiring radio link. the options for handling and timely data and that they can manipulating data are almost provide reasonable precision when In flight, the system navigates the endless. The cost of digitizing a manipulated with software that pilot of a light aircraft equipped photograph is less than $1 per takes advantage of recent develop with a camera port to the target frame, and the turnaround time is ments in computer technology. location. At the planned photo cen approximately 1 week. The service ter coordinates, the system auto is available through most photo- Acquiring the Data matically fires the camera. A com processing vendors. puter file is generated that records, In 1992, the Bureau discovered for each camera firing, the actual and purchased ACCUPHOTOTM, a Now that photographic images can position of the antenna, which system manufactured by Genisys be viewed on a computer, several roughly equates to the photo Research and Development, Inc., of producers have created computer center on the ground. Additional software that allows photographic data recorded include date and images to be referenced to a loca Gary Laudermilch is a forest entomologist time, exposure number, flight line tion on a digital map, and thereby for the Pennsylvania Department of number, and photo index number Conservation and Natural Resources, to a position in the real world. In Bureau of Forestry, Division of Forest Pest along the flight line. These data effect, the computer is supplied Management, Wellsboro, PA. make it possible to catalog the with the information it needs to resulting photographs and relate calculate the geographic position *The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this them to a position on the Earth’s publication is for the information and convenience of of all points on the photograph the reader. Such use does not constitute an official surface. After cataloging, it is easy based on the position of a few endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. to retrieve the correct photo for a Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are known ground locations. responsible for the technical accuracy of the material point of interest within the photo presented in Fire Management Notes. coverage area.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 25 Called registration, this process use in a computer. That price in for use in insect suppression activi involves the correlation to a cludes costs for: ties, fire management personnel common geographic location of have found it useful in making features that can be seen on both • The camera film, wildland–urban interface plans the digital map and the digital • Mission planning, (fig. 1). In addition, wildlife man photo, such as road intersections. • Aircraft rental (including pilot agers are using the data to map Sounds complicated, and it is—but fee), wildlife habitat, and timber manag that is the beauty of today’s super- • Wages for the camera system ers have identified numerous uses fast computers. Thousands of com operator (a Bureau employee), besides forest cover mapping. The plex mathematical calculations are and list of potential applications is performed on the photograph dur • Digitizing services provided by almost endless. Although small- ing the registration process, which Kodak. format aerial photography will essentially projects or stretches the never replace large-format photog photograph onto the same plane as In addition, the photographs can raphy, it has definitely found a the base map. Once registered, a be acquired within a few days after niche in Pennsylvania resource photograph assumes the same establishing the need for them. No management. degree of precision that was other source of photography can inherent in the base map used for provide data in such a timely For more information on small- registration. manner. format aerial photography, contact Gary E. Laudermilch at the Penn A Cost-Effective As Bureau managers become sylvania Department of Conserva Technology acquainted with the capabilities of tion and Natural Resources, The Bureau now spends about $6 small-format aerial photography, Bureau of Forestry, 1 Nessmuck per image to acquire aerial photo more and more applications are Lane, Wellsboro, PA 16901, tel. graphs using contracted aircraft being discovered. Although this 717-724-2868, fax 717-724-6575, ■ and to digitize the photographs for technology was originally intended e-mail: [email protected].
Figure 1—One of many applications for small-format aerial photography is tracking the wildland–urban interface to improve plans for fire management. Left: A 35-mm aerial photograph shows new roads and housing not depicted on topographic maps. Right: Using these data, a 7.5-minute U.S. Geological Survey map can be marked to show the new roads and housing. Illustration: Gary E. Laudermilch, Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry, Wellsboro, PA, 1995.
26 Fire Management Notes MODULAR AIRBORNE FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS SUCCEED IN INDONESIA
Joe Madar and Ginger Brudevold
n 1997, wildfires covered large parts of Indonesia, producing In the absence of ground backup, I immense amounts of smoke and the only feasible application tactic was to make haze. The nations worst affected multiple drops until a fire was extinguished. were Malaysia and Indonesia. Both suffered unprecedented levels of air pollution, exacerbated by the low rainfall and unusual wind Mobilizing Firefighting facilities. The need for full coop patterns associated with El Niño. Support eration with the Indonesian mili Firefighting support came from tary influenced the decision to Faced with this challenge, the U.S. Modular Airborne Fire Fighting activate MAFFS. Specially trained Department of State coordinated System (MAFFS) units assembled and qualified contingents of the an interagency working group to from Forest Service and Air Na Wyoming Air National Guard’s prepare a technical assistance tional Guard resources and coordi 153rd Airlift Wing were selected to package, including: nated by the National Interagency operate the MAFFS airtankers. Two Fire Center (NIFC) in Boise, ID. Forest Service MAFFS units were • Humanitarian relief, MAFFS originated in a DOD pro installed in two of the 153rd Airlift • Firefighting support, ject to develop modular tank units Wing’s C–130H aircraft, and a • Air quality monitoring, capable of dispensing 3,000 gallons third military C–130 was used to • Analysis of the health effects of (11,000 L) of liquid fire retardant transport the portable airtanker the smoke and haze, and at rates of 0.5 to 3.0 gallons per base, equipment, and technical and • Weather forecasting. 100 square feet (20 to 120 L per military personnel. In addition to 100 m2). These modular units can the MAFFS units, the Forest Ser In addition to the State Depart be installed in C–130’s, instantly vice contributed a fire assessment ment, eight U.S. Government turning them into airtankers. team and a support team of lead entities were involved in providing pilots and MAFFS mechanics to this support: the Agency for In 1973, the Forest Service pur guide fire suppressant drops and to International Development; chased its first seven MAFFS units. keep the MAFFS units operational. Centers for Disease Control; U.S. The agency continues to maintain Altogether, about 60 personnel Department of Defense (DOD); U.S. an active MAFFS program, training were mobilized for the MAFFS Department of Agriculture, Forest and qualifying military crews to operation. Service; U.S. Department of the operate MAFFS airtankers. The Interior; Environmental Protection MAFFS Operations Plan, a memo Deploying MAFFS Agency; National Oceanic and randum of understanding between The fire assessment team traveled Atmospheric Administration; and the Forest Service and DOD, speci to Southeast Asia on October 15, National Aeronautics and Space fies when and how MAFFS may be 1997, and was joined by the rest of Administration. activated through NIFC. the MAFFS contingent on October 18. That same day, the U.S. Em Joe Madar is a retired aviation manage Successful aerial fire suppression bassy in Jakarta hosted a meeting ment specialist and Ginger Brudevold is the international fire specialist for the in Indonesia required rapid mobili attended by representatives of the USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation zation of aircraft capable of oper BPPT (the Indonesian Government Management, Washington Office, ating from Indonesian military agency in charge of forestry), the Washington, DC.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 27 Indonesian Armed Forces, the 153rd Airlift Wing, and the fire assessment team. Objectives were established, major concerns ad dressed, and partnerships formed to ensure close cooperation during MAFFS deployment (fig. 1).
Information from the BPPT and several United Nations scientific teams indicated that peat fires on Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo) were prima rily responsible for the smoke drift ing over Malaysia. A general situation report for southern Sumatra suggested that the largest fires were burning in almost the Figure 1—Standing in front of a MAFFS C–130 airtanker at Surabaya on the island of Java in Indonesia are representatives of parties to the MAFFS agreement, including (from same fuel types as on Kalimantan. left to right) an Indonesian Government representative; a member of the Forest Service Fire management recognized that fire assessment team; an Indonesian army major; a U.S. Air Force liaison officer; and MAFFS units would have limited another Indonesian Government representative. Close collaboration among the parties value in fighting this type of fire was key to their success. Photo: Joe Madar, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington Office, Washington, DC (retired). burning in the ground. However, surface fires in the mountainous areas of eastern Java could be 10 acres (2 to 4 ha), although some dropped nearly 100,000 gallons fought using MAFFS. Moreover, fires were larger. The fires were the (380,000 L) of water on numerous the Java fires were much smaller remnants of much larger fires fires in eastern Java, including and more isolated than the vast from agricultural land clearing and fires on Mt. Butak, Mt. Bromo, Mt. peat fires burning on Kalimantan burning. Argapuro, and Mt. Liman. The two and Sumatra, which covered tens planes flew together, dropping sup of thousands of acres along fire Most of the larger fires were burn pressant on the same area to fronts 20 to 50 miles (30 to 80 km) ing on Mt. Arjuna, which was multiply its effect. To provide tacti long—far too large an area for two chosen as an excellent starting cal direction, the lead-plane pilots aircraft alone to attack effectively. point due to its proximity to flew inside the cockpits of the It therefore made sense to begin in Surabaya, about 29 miles (47 km) C–130’s rather than in separate eastern Java. to the north. At Surabaya, the planes, as they normally do in the Indonesian military made a section United States. Their presence was Eastern Java. On October 18, of its naval aviation training base appreciated by the military flight reconnaissance flights began to available for use as a staging area. crews, who lacked knowledge evaluate potential staging areas A large irrigation canal adjacent to about fire behavior. After 9 days of and water sources and to deter a taxiway held enough water to operation, about 70 fires had been mine the best location for the op sustain continuous MAFFS opera extinguished in eastern Java, in eration. More than 70 fires were tions from the portable airtanker cluding most of those initially mapped in an area from Mt. Liman base (fig. 2). Turnaround time for counted in the target area south of to Mt. Argapuro, a distance of the C–130’s from Surabaya to the Surabaya. Rain and high humidity about 100 miles (160 km). The target area averaged about half an helped put out the last of the fires area lies about 20 miles (30 km) hour. in this area. south of Surabaya, a city in eastern Java. The fires were burning in The first sortie to drop fire sup Southern Sumatra. On October mixed hardwoods at 2,500 to 4,500 pressant (water) was flown on 30, the MAFFS operation moved to feet (760 to 1,400 m). The average October 21 over Mt. Arjuna. For Jakarta, again to military airbase fire size was estimated to be 5 to the next 4 days, the C–130’s facilities. A reconnaissance flight
28 Fire Management Notes ground backup, the only feasible application tactic was to make multiple drops until a fire was extinguished. From November 1 to 14, the C–130’s dropped about 300,000 gallons (1.1 million L) of water over southern Sumatra, beginning in the mountains of southwestern Sumatra. When weather conditions forced opera tions to move to the eastern side of the peninsula, the C–130’s focused on fires in a sensitive coastal area near the Way Kombos Nature Reserve. Results on both sides of the peninsula were surprisingly successful: large fires were 90 Figure 2—The MAFFS portable airbase operating at the Indonesian naval air station in percent contained, and smaller Surabaya. The depression in the ground on the right contains an irrigation ditch that supplied the suppressant (water) dropped by the C–130 MAFFS airtankers throughout fires were extinguished. The operations in eastern Java. Photo: Joe Madar, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation weather helped, providing periods Management, Washington Office, Washington, DC (retired). of rain and high humidity.
Chemical fire retardant (Phos- detected numerous large fires on Although an agreement to use Check D–75) finally became both the eastern and western sides long-term fire retardant was slowly available on November 15. Multiple of the southern Sumatra penin taking shape, MAFFS operations applications were needed on the sula. Turnaround time for the still had to rely on water for fire higher intensity fires, but only half C–130’s from Jakarta to the target suppression. In the absence of areas in southern Sumatra aver aged about 1 hour.
Primary target fires were located on the western side of the penin sula, where they were burning in mountains similar to those in eastern Java. These fires were at about the same elevations and of similar size and intensity as those in eastern Java.
Much larger fires were burning in southeastern Sumatra in predomi nately peat areas with islands of mixed hardwoods and tropical brush. The understory was a dense grass similar to saw grass, and ground litter was medium to heavy. These fires stretched north ward for miles along the south Figure 3—Fire approaching the Java Sea in southeastern Sumatra. Extensive fires in this area were burning predominately in peat and were difficult to fight effectively from the eastern coast, producing great air. Photo: Joe Madar, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington quantities of smoke that severely Office, Washington, DC (retired). limited visibility (fig. 3).
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 29 the quantities were needed as C–130’s carrying mostly water. Key expressed its profound apprecia when dropping water. By Decem to this success were high levels of tion for a job well done. ber, fire activity had greatly de cooperation throughout the opera creased due to continuous aerial tion among all participants at all For more information on the attack and, in the later stages of levels. The Indonesian Govern MAFFS operation in Indonesia, the effort, rain and humidity. ment was exceptionally coopera contact Ginger Brudevold, USDA tive, providing assistance whenever Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Evaluation and wherever required. Management, 201 14th Street, SW., The success of the MAFFS mission P.O. Box 96090, Rm. 2SW AUD, can be measured in terms of the MAFFS operations concluded on Washington, DC 20090-6090, tel. large number of fires suppressed in December 1, 1997, and all MAFFS 202-205-1500, fax 202-205-1272, both eastern Java and southern staff and equipment returned to IBM: gbrudevold/wo, Internet: ■ Sumatra—more than 140 in about the United States within 1 week. gbrudevold/[email protected]. 6 weeks, using only two MAFFS The Indonesian Government has
NEW FIRE SAFETY WEB SITE FOR CHILDREN
Hutch Brown
As part of its “Fire Stops With You” public education campaign, Each year, children set more than the Federal Emergency Manage 100,000 fires, including (historically) ment Agency’s United States Fire 6 to 7 percent of all wildland fires. Administration (USFA) has released the “Kids Page,” a new World Wide Web site dedicated to fire. Pre- and postquizzes show discussion points for talking about teaching children fire-safe children how much they have fire safety and prevention, and it behavior. Each year, children set learned by visiting the “Kids Page.” contains the pre- and postquiz more than 100,000 fires, includ After finishing the postquiz, a child answers as well as instructions on ing (historically) 6 to 7 percent receives a certificate of completion how to print the completion certi of all wildland fires; and children signed by the U.S. Fire Administra ficate. There is an additional area make up 20 to 25 percent of tor. for providing feedback to USFA. those killed in fires each year. Much of this problem is due to a A section for parents and teachers The USFA “Kids Page” can be lack of education, guidance, and explains how to walk children accessed at
Through the use of child-friendly graphics, games, and an interac tive cartoon fire extinguisher named Exty, children learn the importance of leaving fire use to adults. They also learn about home fire escape plans and smoke detector use and mainte nance—key to staying safe from
Hutch Brown is editor of Fire Manage Home page of the U.S. Fire Administration’s new fire safety Web site for children. Photo: ment Notes, Arlington, VA. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 1998.
30 Fire Management Notes FIRE MANAGEMENT PARTNERSHIP LEADS THE WAY IN UTAH
Gary Cornell
new partnership—the Utah • For physical fitness, the mini conjunction with the Utah Fire and Wildfire Training Associa mum standard is annual certifi Rescue Academy and the Forest Ation—is moving wildfire cation by a general practitioner Service. Funding for the grant management forward in the State of medicine, following a physical program comes from Rural Com of Utah. Established in 1996, the fitness examination, that the munity Fire Protection money and partnership is designed to ensure individual is fit and capable of from the Utah Fire and Rescue the safety of firefighters and the working on a fireline. Academy. To qualify for grant public while providing effective • For personal protective equip assistance, fire departments must response to wildfires. Partners ment, the standard is Protective provide documented proof of their include the Utah Division of Clothing and Equipment for efforts to meet the wildfire sup Forestry, Fire and State Lands Wildland Fire Fighting, NFPA pression standards. (DFF&SL), the USDA Forest 1977. Service Intermountain Region, the Equipment Placement. The USDI Bureau of Land Management Incentives DFF&SL acquires Federal Excess (BLM) Utah State Office, and Utah To meet these minimum stan Personal Property (FEPP) through Valley State College’s Utah Fire and dards, the partnership provides two agreement with the Forest Service Rescue Academy. Together, they kinds of incentives for local fire and places it with local fire ser have established a contract with services—grant assistance and vices. To qualify for FEPP, Utah funding assistance to provide equipment placement. requires that a local fire service wildland fire training, certification, must demonstrate that it trains and resources to career and volun Grant Assistance. The DFF&SL and equips its personnel to meet teer fire service personnel (see administers a cost-share grant in the wildfire suppression standards. sidebar). Voluntary Standards THE UTAH WILDFIRE TRAINING The DFF&SL worked with local fire services, the Forest Service, ASSOCIATION—BASIS FOR PARTNERSHIP and BLM to develop the following voluntary wildfire suppression The Utah Wildfire Training Association was formed in 1996 through a standards for local fire services: complex web of agreements:
• For training and experience, the • The Division of Forestry, Fire and State Lands (DFF&SL) signed a standard is National Fire Preven Memorandum of Understanding with the Great Basin Coordinating tion Association (NFPA) 1051, Group (GBCG). The GBCG is a regional interagency organization Wildland Fire Fighter I through created to improve communication, cooperation, and coordination IV. For a qualification higher among agencies working in Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, and than Wildland Fire Fighter IV, western Wyoming. local fire service members must • The DFF&SL signs a yearly contract with Utah Valley State College, meet the minimum standards of which operates the Utah Fire and Rescue Academy. National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) 310-1. • An annual operating plan for the partnership is determined in conjunction with the Utah Zone Wildfire Training Committee, an Gary Cornell is the fire management coordinator for the Utah Division of interagency group that identifies wildfire training needs and sets Forestry, Fire and State Lands, Salt Lake priorities for training. City, UT.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 31 FEPP equipment The partnership transformed in Utah provides incentives Fire and Rescue Academy shops. Photo: for local fire services Jim Springer, Utah to meet minimum Division of Forestry, Fire and State Lands, standards for training, Salt Lake City, UT, physical fitness, and 1997. protective equipment.
Diverse Instructors DFF&SL has acquired FEPP and Interagency The Utah Fire and Rescue Academy placed it with the Utah Fire and Cooperation trains local, State, and Federal Rescue Academy. Utilizing FEPP, Utah’s wildfire training partnership firefighting personnel in accor the Academy has built equipment is key to advancing the wildfire dance with wildfire suppression to meet specific needs at a rela management program on an standards. The Academy’s training tively low cost, including mobile interagency basis. This contractual cadre consists of personnel from training props that are unavailable partnership is founded on the basis local fire services, the DFF&SL, from any other source. Using the of the cooperative fire manage the Forest Service, BLM, and the mobile props, trainers are able to ment goals that all agencies share, USDI National Park Service and reach local fire services across the condensing them into a few critical Bureau of Indian Affairs. Each State. objectives. The end result is a well- agency developed and provided a trained, properly equipped fire list of qualified instructors. Per In return for FEPP, the Academy service that works as a team to sonnel from the DFF&SL who assists the DFF&SL in transport provide safe and effective fire assist with fire training are par ing acquired FEPP from its point protection. tially funded through the Rural of origin to its new destination, Fire Prevention and Control whether at the Academy’s own For additional information on the program. facility, the DFF&SL’s temporary partnership, contact Gary Cornell, holding yard, or a receiving Fire Management Coordinator, or Training needs are separately cooperator’s installation. The James Springer, Public Affairs established for different firefight Academy works with Utah Valley Officer, Utah Division of Forestry, ing organizations: the Utah Zone State College’s Professional Driv Fire and State Lands, 1594 West Wildfire Training Committee ing School to provide student North Temple, Suite 3520, P.O. Box identifies courses that State and drivers with hands-on experience 145703, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, Federal firefighting personnel loading and hauling FEPP for the telephone 801-538-5555, e-mail should take, and the DFF&SL DFF&SL. [email protected]. ■ works with local fire services to identify their training needs. Of Gary Cornell, fire management coordi course, to promote interaction at nator for the Utah all levels, we encourage all Division of Forestry, firefighting personnel, whether Fire and State Lands, descends from a from local fire services or from mobile training State and Federal agencies, to module for hazardous attend any of the training sessions. materials that was created from FEPP equipment. Photo: Jim Mobile Training Springer, Utah We must go to far-flung local fire Division of Forestry, Fire and State Lands, services to get local firefighters the Salt Lake City, UT, training they need. To this end, the 1997.
32 Fire Management Notes SEVENTEEN SMOKEY BEAR AWARDS PRESENTED FOR 1997
Judy Kissinger
he Cooperative Forest Fire catalogued the collection and built exhibits all over the country since Prevention (CFFP) program an exhibit trailer that they have 1993 to communicate the wildfire T presented 17 Smokey Bear taken to fairs, programs, and prevention message. In the first Awards to honor sustained, out standing contributions to wildfire prevention in 1997. The awards include 3 Golden Smokeys, the highest award; 3 Silver Smokeys; and 11 Bronze Smokeys. All the awards recognize sustained wild fire prevention activities over at least 2 years, the use of creative techniques for communicating the wildfire prevention message, and efforts beyond the scope of each nominee’s job. The awards, which consist of Smokey Bear statuettes, were presented by the USDA Forest Service, the National Association of State Foresters, and The Advertis ing Council at various ceremonies throughout the Nation. Francis Pandolfi (left), chief operating officer for the USDA Forest Service, presents the Golden Smokey Award to Sylvia and Alfred E. Grimes. Photo: Karl Perry, USDA Forest The Golden Smokey Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC, 1998. Awards The Golden Smokey Award is presented for a sustained commit ment to, and exemplary effort in, wildfire prevention on a national level for 2 years or more. The three winners for 1997 are Alfred E. and Sylvia Grimes, Michael Martin Murphey, and Nancy Lyn Porter.
Alfred E. and Sylvia Grimes of Madbury, NH, have been active in wildfire prevention for many years. They have one of the largest collec tions of Smokey Bear memorabilia in the United States. They have
Judy Kissinger is the fire account manager Francis Pandolfi, chief operating officer for the USDA Forest Service, presents the Golden for the USDA Forest Service, Office of Smokey Award to Nancy Lyn Porter, wildfire prevention specialist for the Forest Service’s Communication, Washington Office, Pacific Southwest Region. Photo: Karl Perry, USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC. Washington, DC, 1998.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 33 handbooks, and CFFP catalogs; worked with private entities, States and territories, and other agencies on wildfire prevention programs; helped develop consistent Smokey licensing guidelines; and served on the national planning committee for Smokey’s 50th anniversary celebration. The Silver Smokey Awards The Silver Smokey Award is pre sented for contributions to wildfire prevention in regional or multi- state areas for at least 2 years. For 1997, Silver Smokeys went to Timothy J. Banaszak, Malcolm Gramley, and Ann and David Lang.
Timothy J. Banaszak, a forestry technician with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Waupaca, WI, takes a Smokey Bear Michael Martin Murphey,”America’s number 1 cowboy singer” and winner of the Golden Smokey Award. Photo: Courtesy of Wildfire Productions, Taos, NM, ©1998. day pack, a Smokey doll, the comic book The True Story of Smokey Bear, and a diary to schools and 3 years of their traveling exhibit, to promote wildfire prevention. campgrounds to communicate the they visited 20 States and attracted Murphey has recorded public wildfire prevention message. One about 1.1 million viewers. They service announcements, appeared at a time, the kindergarten and have also assisted the Forest Ser on wildfire prevention posters, first-grade children take the items vice with its Smokey Bear poster been featured in Fire Management home overnight and involve par collection and provided informa Notes (Chambers 1997), and given ents in reading the comic book and tion to help update Ellen E. Mor the Forest Service the opportunity writing in the diary so that parents rison’s book Guardian of the to participate in the events he has also receive the message. The pro Forest: A History of Smokey Bear been involved in. ject has expanded to nine counties and the Cooperative Forest Fire in the area Resource Conservation Prevention Program. Alfred E. Nancy Lyn Porter, a wildfire pre and Development district, has been Grimes is a retired forest ranger vention specialist for the Forest adapted by the Minnesota Depart with the New Hampshire Division Service’s Pacific Southwest Region, ment of Natural Resources, and is of Forests and Lands and was ac Mather, CA, has been a national being considered by other States’ tive in wildfire prevention work wildfire prevention leader and natural resource agencies. during his career. communicator for several years. In addition to her many other activi Malcolm Gramley, a fire protection Michael Martin Murphey, a country ties over the years, she managed specialist with the Forest Service’s and western singer, has raised the the national “Keep It Country, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA, has “Keep It Country, Keep It Green” Keep It Green” campaign with been a key participant in pulling wildfire prevention campaign to a Michael Martin Murphey; served as together materials and providing national level. Murphey, assisted by an active member of the National assistance in producing items with his wife Mary, has been in partner Fire Prevention Group; developed wildfire prevention messages for ship with the Forest Service since national wildfire prevention train use in the Southern States. His 1994, donating his time and talent ing courses, signs, campaigns, work provided a cost-effective way
34 Fire Management Notes Smokey awards recognize sustained organized to convey an annual fire wildfire prevention activities beyond the scope prevention message to children. Members of the association include of each nominee’s job. the Forest Service, the USDI Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Navy’s China Lake Naval Air for States to share successful Prevention Association, Nancy Weapons Station, and the Kern materials on a regional basis, such Jemmett, Danny Jones, the County Fire Department. Through as Smokey calendars, fact sheets Kootenai County Fire Prevention skits, movies, and sing-alongs, for children’s notebooks, Christ Cooperative, Tom Ninneman, schoolchildren learn about fire mas tree tags, door hangers with Louis Norvell, Oregon State safety. The Association also spon fire prevention and safety mes University, the Shoshone County sors essay and poster contests, sages, and messages for grocery Fire Prevention Cooperative, and entries in parades, and displays and bags. He was also on the national Denise Tomlin. programs at annual county fairs. team for Smokey’s 50th anniver sary celebration and provided Patrick Costales, branch manager Nancy Jemmett of Grangeville, ID, leadership on the Southern Forest of the Hawaii Division of Forestry began her efforts to improve Interface Council and in the and Wildlife, Honolulu, HI, has community and agency coopera Southern CFFP Campaign. been involved in wildfire preven tion in the wildland–urban inter tion for more than 20 years. He face in Prescott, AZ. She invented a Ann and David Lang of George coordinated Smokey’s 50th anni realtor awareness program and town, CA, have been wildfire versary celebration in Hawaii, coordinated its development for prevention volunteers with the organized Scout troops to help two counties, heightening local Forest Service and the California spread the wildfire prevention awareness of the wildland–urban Department of Forestry and Fire message, worked with the Univer interface issue. She also spear Prevention for 11 years. They have sity of Hawaii and the Honolulu headed the establishment of an extensive collection of Smokey Fire Department, and has had a neighborhood action groups that Bear memorabilia, which they have statewide influence on wildfire implemented wildfire prevention built into a display that they take prevention programs by support projects in the community and has to town festivals and other events, ing activities on the islands of assisted groups and communities including Smokey’s 50th anniver Hawaii, Kauai, Maui, Molokai, and in other States with their preven sary celebration in 1994 on the Oahu. tion efforts in the wildland–urban Mall in Washington, DC. Since interface. 1987, they have averaged 14 shows David Filmon, a lawyer in Winni annually, reaching thousands of peg, Manitoba, has provided ongo Danny Jones, an assistant forest individuals with wildfire preven ing free legal advice to the Cana dispatcher on the Sierra National tion messages. They have also long dian Forestry Association on the Forest, Clovis, CA, has been in been involved in the multistate delivery of the Smokey Bear pre volved in wildfire prevention for Sierra Front Wildfire Cooperators vention education program in more than 20 years. He chaired the programs. Canada. His advice and expertise national Fire Prevention Effective have been crucial to ensuring that ness Evaluation Task Force, helped The Bronze Smokey the program’s implementation develop the Pacific Southwest Awards benefits the Canadian Forestry Region’s wildfire prevention planning process and associated The Bronze Smokey Award is Association (which holds the Smokey Bear trademark in workshops, and has been part of presented for outstanding contri the effort to develop and imple butions to local or statewide Canada) while preserving the program’s integrity. ment a national wildfire preven wildfire prevention efforts for tion analysis process. 2 years or more. The 1997 award The High Desert Fire Prevention winners are Patrick Costales, David The Kootenai County Fire Preven Filmon, the High Desert Fire Association, headquartered on the Sequoia National Forest, Kernville, tion Cooperative, comprising CA, is an interagency group members from the Forest Service,
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 35 Idaho Department of Lands, and project to test the concept of wildfire prevention training 13 fire departments, began its conducting a fire prevention session, has taught and facilitated wildfire prevention activities in program on college campuses. wildfire prevention courses, and 1987 in the area of Coeur d’Alene, Among the communication adopted the fire protection assess ID. The Cooperative created techniques used were distributing ment model for use over a five- “Captain Keep Safe” to convey fire football player trading cards with State area. Her work has promoted prevention messages to school fire prevention messages; having clear communication within the children and has worked with Smokey attend sports events to Forest Service as well as between several other fire cooperatives to participate in the coin toss, present the Forest Service and the public. sponsor fire prevention workshops awards, and interact with specta and develop fire safety skits tar tors; and using public address Nominations geted at children. The Kootenai systems, reader boards, and Nominations for Smokey Bear group also developed a fire educa billboards to convey fire preven Awards are due each year in the tion school curriculum and con tion messages. This concept has fall. Anyone wishing to submit a tributed to a publication on safe now extended to other campuses nomination should complete a guarding suburban homes from across the Nation, and Oregon nomination form and attach wildfire. State University continues to host supporting materials, such as news Smokey and fire prevention events. clippings and photographs. Nomi Tom Ninneman, a teacher for nees must have: Teton County Schools in Jackson, The Shoshone County Fire Preven WY, has for the past 7 years been tion Cooperative in Kingston, ID, • Demonstrated success in the dedicated to producing “Fire and another interagency group, is geographical area for which they Recreation Reports” for more than active in community awareness are being nominated. 20 radio and television stations in and education efforts. Each spring, • Completed activities reflecting at northwestern Wyoming and the Cooperative visits every el least 2 years of commitment to southeastern Idaho. These reports ementary school in the county and wildfire prevention (activities in have helped foster an awareness of sponsors a radio announcement the planning or development the need for wildfire prevention contest for children from kinder stages do not qualify). among local citizens as well as garten through the third grade, • A proven record of service among visitors bound for recre with the winning announcements beyond the normal scope of their ation in the popular Jackson Hole aired throughout the summer on a jobs. area. local station. The Shoshone group collaborates with other coopera Nomination forms and instruc Louis Norvell, a forestry technician tives, including the Kootenai tions, including the exact due date, on the Shawnee National Forest, group, with which it combined are available from Forest Service Murphysboro, IL, has supported forces to create a fire prevention regional coordinators. The com the Smokey Bear program for program using clowns. The Coop pleted forms and supporting more than 25 years. He conveys erative also contributed to a school documentation should be submit Smokey’s message through dis curriculum and publication on ted to those coordinators. For plays and presentations in parades, precautions for safeguarding more information, contact Nancy at State fairs and fire departments, suburban homes from wildfire. Lyn Porter, Prevention Specialist, and before school groups, special- USDA Forest Service, Fire and needs children, and Boy and Girl Denise Tomlin, the prevention Aviation Management, 3735 Neely Scouts. Every October, he spends coordinator for the Forest Service’s Way, Mather, CA 95655, tel. 916 an entire week on programs for Rocky Mountain Region in Denver, 364-2855. children and civic organizations CO, developed and implemented a during Illinois’ State fire preven process for informing the public Literature Cited tion week. and other agencies about fire Chambers, T. M. Campaign reminds us to restrictions, thereby reducing be responsible stewards of the land. Fire Oregon State University in Corval confusion among forest users. Management Notes. 57(1): 15–17. ■ lis, OR, participated in a pilot She also hosted the first regional
36 Fire Management Notes AUTHOR INDEX—VOLUME 58
Apicello, Michael G. Flying with the media Cole, Dana; Myers, Jeffrey; Mitchell, Miranda-Gleason, Karen. Wildfire academy over wildfires. 58(4): 31–34. Wayne. Real-time high-altitude fire modeled after fire camp. 58(2): 28–29. Baca, Sylvia V. A few words for present and mapping. 58(4): 26–30. Mohr, Francis; Curtiss, Karen. U.S. Army future land managers. 58(2): 23–24. Comanor, Joan M. Shaping our future role firefighters practice “no trace camping” Baily, April J.; Chambers, Tara Megan. with wildland fire. 58(2): 6–8. on wilderness fires. 58(1): 4–8. The NARTC shows you the future. 58(1): Cooper, George L. Florida modifies FEPP Morgan, Gary. One of our aircraft is down! 17–19. to support emergency fire responses. Handling an aircraft crash on a fire. Bennett, Billy. Safety alert: Watch out for 58(1): 31. 58(4): 13–14. aircraft turbulence! 58(4): 20–21. Currier, John B. Cooperative fire programs Olson, Steven D. The historical occurrence Beyers, Jan L.; Wohlgemuth, Peter M.; support FIRE 21. 58(2): 12–13. of fire in the central hardwoods. 58(3): Wakeman, Carla D.; Conard, Susan G. Dudley, Michael; Greenhoe, Gregory S. 4–7. Does ryegrass seeding control postfire Fifty years of helicopter firefighting. Palm, Sig. Spark arrester guide update. erosion in chaparral? 58(3): 30–34. 58(4): 6–7. 58(3): 18. Biddison, Lynn R. A historical view of our Ferguson, Joseph P. Florida’s governor Perrett, Laurie. A plan for success in the forest fire organization. 58(2): 17–22. declares prescribed fire awareness week. wildland–urban interface. 58(2): 9–11. Broadwell, William R. The Aerial 58(1): 28–29. Reinhardt, Elizabeth D.; Keane, Robert E.; Firefighting Industry Association: French, Tom. A new and efficient method Brown, James K. FOFEM: A First Order History and accomplishments. 58(4): to store fire records. 58(1): 26–27. Fire Effects Model. 58(2): 25–27. 8–9. Hulbert, Dennis. Lessons learned in Scott, Joe. Reduce fire hazards in ponde Buckler, Amy Susan. Byron Bonney named aviation safety. 58(4): 15–19. rosa pine by thinning. 58(1): 20–25. first “FFMO of the Year.” 58(1): 32. Hurd, Elmer; Kelly, Pat; Scott, Skip. Thorsen, Jim; Kirkbride, Earle. Prescribed Buckler, Amy Susan. “On the Fire Line” National-level interagency aviation fire and public education. 58(3): 27–29. wins 1997 international film award. coordination. 58(4): 4–5. Veillette, Patrick R. Crew Resource 58(1): 30. Jensen, Frank L., Jr. Helicopter Association Management enhances safety. 58(4): Buckler, Amy Susan. NVFC benefits International: A profile. 58(4): 10–12. 22–25. volunteer firefighters and the Nation. Lavin, Mary Jo. The challenge of the times. Vetter, Richard S.; Parker, Brandy T.; 58(2): 30. 58(2): 4–5. Visscher, P. Kirk. Can fire shelters Buckler, Amy Susan. Web site for Lewis, Kent. Firefighter crews need Unit protect firefighters from bee and firefighters offers HAZMAT safety SOP. 58(1): 9–12. yellowjacket stings? 58(3): 21–26. information. 58(2): 35. Livingston, Bequi. Interagency program Werth, John; Werth, Paul. Haines Index Butler, Bret W.; Cohen, Jack D. Firefighter addresses forest health and W–UI climatology for the Western United safety zones: How big is big enough? firefighting. 58(2): 31–34. States. 58(3): 8–17. 58(1): 13–16. Mangan, Dick. Bushfire ‘97. 58(3): 19–20. Williams, Jerry. Ecosystem management Clark, Bob. Congress funds Joint Fire Mangan, Dick. Mountain driving video now brings concepts into practice. 58(2): Science Program. 58(3): 29. available. 58(1): 25. 14–16.
CONTRIBUTORS WANTED
We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Notes! Feature articles should be about 1,500 to 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of about 100 to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Notes include:
Aviation Firefighting Experiences Communication Incident Management Cooperation Information Management (including Systems) Ecosystem Management Personnel Education Planning (including Budgeting) Equipment and Technology Preparedness Fire Behavior Prevention Fire Ecology Safety Fire Effects Suppression Fire History Training Fire Use (including Prescribed Fire) Weather Fuels Management Wildland–Urban Interface
To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 37 SUBJECT INDEX—VOLUME 58
Aviation NVFC benefits volunteer firefighters and Fire Behavior The Aerial Firefighting Industry Associa the Nation. Amy Susan Buckler. 58(2): A few words for present and future land tion: History and accomplishments. 30. managers. Sylvia V. Baca. 58(2): 23–24. William R. Broadwell. 58(4): 8–9. A plan for success in the wildland–urban Firefighter safety zones: How big is big Crew Resource Management enhances interface. Laurie Perrett. 58(2): 9–11. enough? Bret W.Butler; Jack D. Cohen. safety. Patrick R. Veillette. 58(4): 22–25. Shaping our future role with wildland fire. 58(1): 13-16. Fifty years of helicopter firefighting. Joan M. Comanor. 58(2): 6–8. Safety alert: Watch out for aircraft Michael Dudley; Gregory S. Greenhoe. Web site for firefighters offers HAZMAT turbulence! Billy Bennett. 58(4): 20–21. 58(4): 6–7. safety information. Amy Susan Buckler. 58(2): 35. Flying with the media over wildfires. Fire Ecology Michael G. Apicello. 58(4): 31–34. Ecosystem Management Does ryegrass seeding control postfire Helicopter Association International: A erosion in chaparral? Jan L. Beyers; profile. Frank L. Jensen, Jr. 58(4): Does ryegrass seeding control postfire Peter M. Wohlgemuth; Carla D. 10–12. erosion in chaparral? Jan L. Beyers; Wakeman; Susan G. Conard. 58(3): A historical view of our forest fire organi Peter M. Wohlgemuth; Carla D. 30–34. zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. Wakeman; Susan G. Conard. 58(3): A few words for present and future land Lessons learned in aviation safety. Dennis 30–34. managers. Sylvia V. Baca. 58(2): 23–24. Hulbert. 58(4): 15–19. Ecosystem management brings concepts The historical occurrence of fire in the National-level interagency aviation into practice. Jerry Williams. 58(2): central hardwoods. Steven D. Olson. coordination. Elmer Hurd; Pat Kelly; 14–16. 58(3): 4–7. Skip Scott. 58(4): 4–5. The historical occurrence of fire in the Reduce fire hazards in ponderosa pine by One of our aircraft is down! Handling an central hardwoods. Steven D. Olson. thinning. Joe Scott. 58(1): 20–25. aircraft crash on a fire. Gary Morgan. 58(3): 4–7. 58(4): 13–14. Reduce fire hazards in ponderosa pine by Real-time high-altitude fire mapping. Dana thinning. Joe Scott. 58(1): 20–25. Fire Effects Cole; Jeffrey Myers; Wayne Mitchell. Does ryegrass seeding control postfire 58(4): 26–30. Education erosion in chaparral? Jan L. Beyers; Peter M. Wohlgemuth; Carla D. Safety alert: Watch out for aircraft Florida’s governor declares prescribed fire turbulence! Billy Bennett. 58(4): 20–21. Wakeman; Susan G. Conard. 58(3): awareness week. Joseph P. Ferguson. 30–34. 58(1): 28–29. Communication FOFEM: A first order fire effects model. The NARTC shows you the future. April J. Elizabeth D. Reinhardt; Robert E. Byron Bonney named first “FFMO of the Baily; Tara Megan Chambers. 58(1): Keane; James K. Brown. 58(2): 25–27. Year.” Amy Susan Buckler. 58(1): 32. 17–19. Mountain driving video now available. Dick “On the Fire Line” wins 1997 international Mangan. 58(1): 25. film award. Amy Susan Buckler. 58(1): Fire Organization The NARTC shows you the future. April 30. Fifty years of helicopter firefighting. J. Baily; Tara Megan Chambers. 58(1): Prescribed fire and public education. Jim Michael Dudley; Gregory S. Greenhoe. 17–19. Thorsen; Earle Kirkbride. 58(3): 27–29. 58(4): 6–7. NVFC benefits volunteer firefighters and A historical view of our forest fire organi the Nation. Amy Susan Buckler. 58(2): Equipment and Engineering zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. 30. National-level interagency aviation The Aerial Firefighting Industry Associa coordination. Elmer Hurd; Pat Kelly; tion: History and accomplishments. Skip Scott. 58(4): 4–5. Cooperation William R. Broadwell. 58(4): 8–9. The Aerial Firefighting Industry Associa Can fire shelters protect firefighters from tion: History and accomplishments. bee and yellowjacket stings? Richard S. Fire Research William R. Broadwell. 58(4): 8–9. Vetter; Brandy T. Parker; P. Kirk Congress funds Joint Fire Science Cooperative fire programs support FIRE Visscher. 58(3): 21–26. Program. Bob Clark. 58(3): 29. 21. John B. Currier. 58(2): 12–13. Fifty years of helicopter firefighting. Florida modifies FEPP to support emer Michael Dudley; Gregory S. Greenhoe. Fuels Management gency fire responses. George L. Cooper. 58(4): 6–7. Bushfire ‘97. Dick Mangan. 58(3): 19–20. 58(1): 31. Helicopter Association International: A The challenge of the times. Mary Jo Lavin. Flying with the media over wildfires. profile. Frank L. Jensen, Jr. 58(4): 58(2): 4–5. Michael G. Apicello. 58(4): 31–34. 10–12. Congress funds Joint Fire Science Helicopter Association International: A A historical view of our forest fire organi Program. Bob Clark. 58(3): 29. profile. Frank L. Jensen, Jr. 58(4): zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. Ecosystem management brings concepts 10–12. Real-time high-altitude fire mapping. Dana into practice. Jerry Williams. 58(2): 14– Interagency program addresses forest Cole; Jeffrey Myers; Wayne Mitchell. 16. health and W–UI firefighting. Bequi 58(4): 26–30. A few words for present and future land Livingston. 58(2): 31–34. Spark arrester guide update. Sig Palm. managers. Sylvia V. Baca. 58(2): 23–24. National-level interagency aviation 58(3): 18. Florida’s governor declares prescribed fire coordination. Elmer Hurd; Pat Kelly; awareness week. Joseph P. Ferguson. Skip Scott. 58(4): 4–5. 58(1): 28–29.
38 Fire Management Notes The historical occurrence of fire in the Preparedness Suppression central hardwoods. Steven D. Olson. The challenge of the times. Mary Jo Lavin. Fifty years of helicopter firefighting. 58(3): 4–7. 58(2): 4–5. Michael Dudley; Gregory S. Greenhoe. “On the Fire Line” wins 1997 international Haines Index climatology for the Western 58(4): 6–7. film award. Amy Susan Buckler. 58(1): United States. John Werth; Paul Werth. A historical view of our forest fire organi 30. 58(3): 8–17. zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. Reduce fire hazards in ponderosa pine by thinning. Joe Scott. 58(1): 20–25. Shaping our future role with wildland fire. Prescribed Fire Telecommunications Joan M. Comanor. 58(2): 6–8. Bushfire ‘97. Dick Mangan. 58(3): 19–20. Real-time high-altitude fire mapping. Dana Florida’s governor declares prescribed fire Cole; Jeffrey Myers; Wayne Mitchell. Incident Management awareness week. Joseph P. Ferguson. 58(4): 26–30. 58(1): 28–29. Wildfire academy modeled after fire camp. Fifty years of helicopter firefighting. FOFEM: A first order fire effects model. Karen Miranda-Gleason. 58(2): 28–29. Michael Dudley; Gregory S. Greenhoe. Elizabeth D. Reinhardt; Robert E. 58(4): 6–7. Keane; James K. Brown. 58(2): 25–27. Firefighter crews need Unit SOP. Kent Training The historical occurrence of fire in the Can fire shelters protect firefighters from Lewis. 58(1): 9–12. central hardwoods. Steven D. Olson. Interagency program addresses forest bee and yellowjacket stings? Richard S. 58(3): 4–7. Vetter; Brandy T. Parker; P. Kirk health and W–UI firefighting. Bequi Interagency program addresses forest Livingston. 58(2): 31–34. Visscher. 58(3): 21–26. health and W–UI firefighting. Bequi Crew Resource Management enhances A new and efficient method to store fire Livingston. 58(2): 31–34. records. Tom French. 58(1): 26–27. safety. Patrick R. Veillette. 58(4): 22–25. Prescribed fire and public education. Jim Firefighter crews need Unit SOP. Kent One of our aircraft is down! Handling an Thorsen; Earle Kirkbride. 58(3): 27–29. aircraft crash on a fire. Gary Morgan. Lewis. 58(1): 9–12. Reduce fire hazards in ponderosa pine by Firefighter safety zones: How big is big 58(4): 13–14. thinning. Joe Scott. 58(1): 20–25. U.S. Army firefighters practice “no trace enough? Bret W. Butler; Jack D. Cohen. camping” on wilderness fires. Francis 58(1): 13–16. Mohr; Karen Curtiss. 58(1): 4–8. Prevention A historical view of our forest fire organi A historical view of our forest fire organi zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. Information Management zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. Interagency program addresses forest “On the Fire Line” wins 1997 international health and W–UI firefighting. Bequi FOFEM: A first order fire effects model. film award. Amy Susan Buckler. 58(1): Livingston. 58(2): 31–34. Elizabeth D. Reinhardt; Robert E. 30. Lessons learned in aviation safety. Dennis Keane; James K. Brown. 58(2): 25–27. Spark arrester guide update. Sig Palm. Hulbert. 58(4): 15–19. A new and efficient method to store fire 58(3): 18. Mountain driving video now available. Dick records. Tom French. 58(1): 26–27. Mangan. 58(1): 25. Real-time high-altitude fire mapping. Dana The NARTC shows you the future. April J. Cole; Jeffrey Myers; Wayne Mitchell. Safety Can fire shelters protect firefighters from Baily; Tara Megan Chambers. 58(1): 58(4): 26–30. 17–19. Web site for firefighters offers HAZMAT bee and yellowjacket stings? Richard S. Vetter; Brandy T. Parker; P. Kirk Safety alert: Watch out for aircraft safety information. Amy Susan Buckler. turbulence! Billy Bennett. 58(4): 20–21. 58(2): 35. Visscher. 58(3): 21–26. Crew Resource Management enhances Wildfire academy modeled after fire camp. Karen Miranda-Gleason. 58(2): 28–29. Personnel safety. Patrick R. Veillette. 58(4): 22–25. Firefighter safety zones: How big is big Byron Bonney named first “FFMO of the enough? Bret W. Butler; Jack D. Cohen. Weather Year.” Amy Susan Buckler. 58(1): 32. 58(1): 13–16. Haines Index climatology for the Western Flying high with the media over wildfires. United States. John Werth; Paul Werth. Planning Michael G. Apicello. 58(4): 31–34. 58(3): 8–17. The challenge of the times. Mary Jo Lavin. A historical view of our forest fire organi 58(2): 4–5. zation. Lynn R. Biddison. 58(2): 17–22. Wildland–Urban Interface Cooperative fire programs support FIRE Lessons learned in aviation safety. Dennis The challenge of the times. Mary Jo Lavin. 21. John B. Currier. 58(2): 12–13. Hulbert. 58(4): 15–19. 58(2): 4–5. Ecosystem management brings concepts Mountain driving video now available. Dick Interagency program addresses forest into practice. Jerry Williams. 58(2): Mangan. 58(1): 25. health and W–UI firefighting. Bequi 14–16. One of our aircraft is down! Handling an Livingston. 58(2): 31–34. A few words for present and future land aircraft crash on a fire. Gary Morgan. A plan for success in the wildland–urban managers. Sylvia V. Baca. 58(2): 23–24. 58(4): 13–14. interface. Laurie Perrett. 58(2): 9–11. FOFEM: A first order fire effects model. Safety alert: Watch out for aircraft Elizabeth D. Reinhardt; Robert E. turbulence! Billy Bennett. 58(4): Keane; James K. Brown. 58(2): 25–27. Spark arrester guide update. Sig Palm. A plan for success in the wildland–urban 58(3): 18. interface. Laurie Perrett. 58(2): 9–11. Web site for firefighters offers HAZMAT Shaping our future role with wildland fire. safety information. Amy Susan Buckler. Joan M. Comanor. 58(2): 6–8. 58(2): 35.
Volume 59 • No 1 • Winter 1999 39 5614
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