Interciencia ISSN: 0378-1844 [email protected] Asociación Interciencia Venezuela

Ogalde, Juan Pablo; Arriaza, Bernardo; Paipa, Carolina; Leyton, Patricio; Campos Vallette, Marcelo; Lara Henríquez, Nelson; Salas, Cristian; Tapia, Pedro Multi-instrumental characterization of two red pigments in funerary archaeological contexts from northern Interciencia, vol. 40, núm. 12, diciembre, 2015, pp. 875-880 Asociación Interciencia Caracas, Venezuela

Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=33943081011

How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative MULTI-INSTRUMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO RED PIGMENTS IN FUNERARY ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS FROM NORTHERN CHILE Juan Pablo Ogalde, Bernardo Arriaza, Carolina Paipa, Patricio Leyton, Marcelo Campos-Vallette, Nelson Lara, Cristian Salas and Pedro Tapia

SUMMARY

Analysis of two archaeological red pigments from two cities in was the main component of the red color in both pigments. These northern Chile, Calama (Calama sample) and Iquique (Iquique are the first results reported for both sampled areas, helping thus sample) are reported in the current work. Scanning electron mi- to clarify the Calama funeral rites and the raw materials used croscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX), for Chinchorro mummification in the Iquique region. The char- powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and vibrational spectroscopy (IR acterization of the raw materials provides information for future and Raman) were used for structural studies. Hematite (α-Fe2O3) studies focused on hematite mining processes.

Introduction archaeological collections of questions about the origin of The Iquique pigment sam- this area have shown the pres- the pigments. However, sys- ple (Figure 1c) comes from a Pigments from two archaeo- ence of shells and pigments on tematic studies concerning facial mask of a Chinchorro logical sites, in the Calama the offering tombs. This type chemical characterization have mummy from the Sermenia and Iquique regions, northern of offering is common in not been done yet on this type site, an archaeological ceme- Chile (Figure 1a), were chemi- the Calama area and raises of mineral. tery in the coastal desert cally identified. The pigment samples were obtained from different geographic areas and the sites correspond to a b different cultural periods. The Calama pigment sample (Figure 1b) was found inside a Concholepas concholepas shell during an excavation in the Chorrillos archaeological cem- etery, an early Formative site (2750-2150 B.P.), located in the c Atacama Desert. The popula- tion buried in this cemetery belonged to the early agricul- tural period, and exhibited a ‘circular-oblique’ cranial deformation trend (Depósito Arqueológico de Calama – DAC– register). Previous stud- Figure 1. a) Map of northern Chile showing the cities of Calama and Iquique, where the pigment samples ies in Calama (Ogalde et al., were found. b) Calama sample (NA-4 DAC, register) which was found in a Concholepas concholepas shell, 2014) and a review of and c) Iquique sample collected from the nasal area of a Chinchorro red mummy.

KEYWORDS / Calama / Chinchorro Mummification / Diatoms / Hematite / Iquique / Ochre / Received: 04/14/2015. Modified: 11/08/2015. Accepted: 11/10/2015.

Juan Pablo Ogalde. M.A. in Bernardo Arriaza. Ph.D. in Patricio Leyton. Ph.D. in Che- Complutense de Madrid, Anthropology, Universidad Physical Anthropology, Ari- mistry, Universidad de Chile. Spain. Instructor, Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile. zona State University, USA. Research Asociate, Pontificia de Tarapacá, Chile. Ph.D. student, Universidad de Researcher, Instituto de Alta Universidad Católica de Val- Cristian Salas. Ph.D. in Sciences, Tarapacá, Arica, Chile. Adress: Investigación, Universidad de paraiso, Chile. Pontificia Universidad Católica Departamento de Química, Tarapacá, Arica, Chile. Marcelo Campos Vallette. Ph.D. de Chile. Professor. Pontificia Facultad de Ciencias, Uni- Carolina Paipa. Ph.D. in in Chemistry, Université de Universidad Católica de Chile. versidad de Tarapacá, Avda. Chemistry, Universidad de Bordeaux, France. Professor, Pedro Tapia. Ph.D. in Geosciences, Gral. Velásquez 1775, Arica. Chile. Research Associate, Universidad de Chile. University of Nebraska, USA. Chile. email: jpabloogalde@ Pontificia Universidad Católica Nelson Lara Henríquez. Ph.D. Research Associate, Universidad yahoo.es de Valparaiso, Valparaiso, Chile. in Sciences, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Perú.

DECEMBER 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 12 0378-1844/14/07/468-08 $ 3.00/0 875 CARACTERIZACIÓN MULTI-INSTRUMENTAL DE DOS PIGMENTOS ROJOS DE CONTEXTOS ARQUELÓGICOS FUNERARIOS DEL NORTE DE CHILE Juan Pablo Ogalde, Bernardo Arriaza, Carolina Paipa, Patricio Leyton, Marcelo Campos-Vallette, Nelson Lara, Cristian Salas y Pedro Tapia RESUMEN En este trabajo se presentan análisis realizados para pig- componente del color rojo en los dos pigmentos fue la hemati- mentos rojos arqueológicos de dos ciudades en el norte de ta (α-Fe2O3). Estos son los primeros resultados conocidos para Chile: Calama (muestra Calama) e Iquique (muestra Iquique). ambas áreas, ayudando a aclarar las costumbres funerarias de Para la identificación estructural se utilizó microscopía elec- Calama y las materias primas utilizadas en la momificación trónica de barrido, espectrometría de energía dispersiva de ra- Chinchorro en la zona de Iquique. La caracterización de estas yos X (SEM-EDX), difracción de rayos X en polvo (XRD), y es- materias primas provee de información para futuros estudios pectroscopia vibracional (IR infrarroja y Raman). El principal focalizados en los procesos mineros de hematita.

CARACTERIZAÇÃO MULTI-INSTRUMENTAL DE DOIS PIGMENTOS VERMELHOS DE CONTEXTOS ARQUELÓGICOS FUNERÁRIOS DO NORTE DO CHILE Juan Pablo Ogalde, Bernardo Arriaza, Carolina Paipa, Patricio Leyton, Marcelo Campos-Vallette, Nelson Lara, Cristian Salas e Pedro Tapia RESUMO Neste trabalho são apresentadas análises realizadas para componente da cor vermelha nos dois pigmentos foi hematita pigmentos vermelhos arqueológicos de duas cidades do norte (α-Fe2O3). Estes são os primeiros resultados conhecidos para do Chile: Calama (mostra Calama) e Iquique (mostra Iquique). ambas as áreas, ajudando a esclarecer os costumes funerários Para a identificação estrutural se utilizou microscopia eletrôni- de Calama e as matérias primas utilizadas na mumificação ca de varredura, espectrometria de energia dispersiva de raios Chinchorro na zona de Iquique. A caracterização de estas ma- X (SEM-EDX), difração de raios X em pó (XRD), e espectros- térias primas provê informação para futuros estudos, focados copia vibracional (IR infravermelha e Raman). O principal nos processos mineiros de hematita.

area. The mask was severely chemical characterization of Methods Universidad Peruana Cayetano damaged and mainly made red Heredia, Lima, Perú. of red pigments. Considering pigments has not been re- Light microscopy and SEM- the archaeological context of ported thus far. EDX analysis Infrared analysis the Iquique sample it can be In the Andes, iron oxides relatively dated to around were probably the raw materi- About 1mg of the selected Infrared spectra were run 4800-3800 B.P., a period als mostly used as red pig- pigment was separated using a on a Fourier Transform associated with the red type ments, since they are com- stereomicroscope (Olympus Infrared (FT-IR) Perkin Elmer of Chinchorro mummies monly found in geological de- SZX-7) and then mounted on a Spectrum BX spectrometer (Arriaza, 1994, 1995, 2003, posits. The most common red stub for direct analysis in an equipped with a DTGS detec- 2005; Wise et al., 1994; chromophore compound is EVO LS scanning electron tor. The spectral resolution -1 Muñoz et al. 1993; Arriaza called hematite (α-Fe2O3), microscope (SEM). SEM im- was 2cm ; 32 scans were per- et al. 2001, 2008a, Standen which provides strong color, ages were recorded at 100× formed. A pellet was prepared et al., 2004; Arriaza and has tinting strength, good and 600× with secondary and from 1mg of the solid sample Standen, 2009). Red powder opacity and, besides, can be back scattered electron detec- dispersed in 200mg of KBr. was commonly used by ar- easily ground and finely pul- tors. The samples were also The samples were processed chaic Chinchorro people in verized (Bonavia, 1959, 1985; analyzed on an Oxford EDX at the Facultad de Ciencias, their coastal mortuary tradi- Petersen 1970, 2010; Berthelot, detector (8.5 WD and 450kV). Pontificia Universidad Católica tion, where skeletonized in- 1986; Harben and Kužvart, The topographic qualitative de Valparaíso, Chile. dividuals were reconstructed 1996; Kroeber and Collier, information, spectrometric data using wooden sticks and 1998; Harben, 1999; Orefici and semi-quantitative results Raman analysis clay. In addition, the and Drusini, 2003; Vaughn (detection sensitivity down to Chinchorro mummies were et al., 2007, 2013; Brooks 0.1% by weight) were observed About 50mg of solid sam- decorated using red and et al., 2008; Vaughn et al., and interpreted using the ple was placed on a micro- black pigments, mainly man- 2005, 2007, 2013; Eerkens INCA software. This analysis scope slide, and the Raman ganese (Mn) compounds et al., 2009, 2014; Petersen, was carried out at the Bio- spectrum recorded using a (Arriaza et al., 2006, 2008b, 2010). In this paper it is shown archaeology Laboratory, Renishaw Raman Microscope 2012; Sepulveda et al., 2013, that the hematite chromophore Instituto de Alta Investigación, System RM1000 equipped 2014), and occasionally is associated to different uses Universidad de Tarapacá, with a diode laser providing white and green materials, and that it was very important Chile. A morphological and the 785nm line, a Leica mi- not yet identified (Arriaza in social and mortuary rituals microscopic analysis of dia- croscope, an electrically and Standen, 2009). As far of pre-Columbian populations toms was performed at the cooled CCD detector and a as we know, an in-depth of northern Chile. Marine Science Laboratories, notch filter to eliminate

876 DECEMBER 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 12 elastic scattering. The spec- presents the average results of group, where the largest band bands assigned to bonds of trum was obtained using a the semi-quantitative EDX width at 3434cm-1 is probably inorganic compounds could be 50× objective. The laser analysis of the total area and due to interactions between reinterpreted. There are three power output was 2.0mW and sub-areas of several granules. the hydroxyl group and clay bands in the zone of nC-H the spectral resolution was The graph shows that iron is (nSi O-H: 3700-3200cm-1) or a bond with C sp3 hybridization; 2cm-1. This analysis was per- the main component in both hydroxyl associate group (sub- therefore, the presence of -1 formed at the Facultad de the Calama and Iquique sam- intervals ~3300-3100cm ). The methyl (-CH3) and methylene -1 Ciencias, Universidad de ples (56 and 58% respectively), band at 1634cm shows that a (-CH2-) groups is possible, giv- Chile, , Chile. while the second highest peak fraction of hydroxyl groups en the occurrence of a band at corresponds to silicon concen- belongs to water, while a band 1467cm-1. Indeed, the band at Powder X-ray diffraction tration (20 and 15%). The high at 898cm-1 from hydrated iron 1569cm-1 could correspond to analysis Si concentration, in addition to oxide compounds, such as the C=O bond, a signal possi- the presence of aluminum in goethite, is not observed. bly related to bending vibra- Powder X-ray diffraction pat- both samples, suggests phases However, the very weak bands tion at 1421cm-1 of activated -1 terns of the red pigments were of clay and/or aluminum-sili- at 2925 and 2956cm corre- methylene (-CH2-CO-). In this recorded on a Bruker D8 cate minerals. It is noteworthy sponding to aliphatic nC-H sense , the band at 1322cm-1 Advance diffractometer using that the lower Al concentration suggest the presence of organ- could correspond to -O-CO- -1 Cu Kα radiation obtained from in the Iquique sample as ic materials in the Calama CH3 (1380-1365cm ) or -CO- a source tube operated at 40kV compared to the Calama con- sample (Perez and Martin, CH3 (1360-1355cm-1) groups, and 40mA. All patterns were tent indicates differences in 1967a, 1967b; Rendon and in which case the band of CH3 recorded between 20 and 65º their geological origins. Serna, 1981; Schrader, 1995; vibration (usually appears at 2θ with a detector slit of Furthermore, the Iquique sam- Stuart, 2004; Toledano, 1988; 1380cm-1) moves to 1467cm-1 0.6mm and a scan speed of ple presents a high manganese Vargas-Rodriguez et al., 2008; as indicated above. In order to 0.01º/2sec. This analysis was content (10%), not detected in Zapatero et al., 2000). complement the information to accomplished at the Facultad de the Calama sample, which is In the Iquique sample be discussed below, it is nec- Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad more abundant than Al (4%). (Figure 3a) the IR bands at essary to keep in mind that Católica de Valparaíso, Chile. The greater concentration of 457 and 532cm-1 correspond to the S=O bond has several sig- calcium (5%) in the Iquique the hematite chromophore. nals at 1225-980cm-1 and a Results sample is also worth noting. Bands observed at 1085 and very intense band into the The IR spectrum of the 1034cm-1 are assigned to the 1420-1000cm-1 range (Perez The Calama sample was a Ruff standard of hematite is (n)n Si-O bond stretching or and Martin, 1967a, b; Rendon red pulverized material with included in Figure 3a, where Si-OH bond. The weak band and Serna, 1981; Toledano, amorphous conglomerations medium-strong bands at 463 at 878 and 795cm-1 may come 1988; Schrader, 1995; Coates, (Figure 1b), while the Iquique and 544cm-1, assigned to he- from hydrated iron oxide com- 2000; Zapatero et al., 2000; sample consisted of dark red matite, are observed. In the pounds such as goethite; the Stuart, 2004; Vargas- powder with consolidated Calama sample the bands at weak bands at 697, 779 and Rodriguez et al., 2008). granules (Figure 1c). These 470 and 560cm-1 are assigned 795cm-1 are ascribed to defor- The Raman spectra optical images evidenced that to the hematite chromophore mation modes (Si-O) of quartz. (Figure 3b) of the Ruff stan- homogeneity exists in the mor- (Figure 3a). Bands observed at The wide band appearing at dard hematite showed bands at phology and color distribution 1085 and 1037cm-1 are as- ca. 3430cm-1 points to the 610, 496, 408, 291 and 226cm-1. of both samples. Figures 2a signed to the (n)n Si-O bond presence of a highly associated These signals are also present and 2b are microphotographs stretching, while weak bands hydroxyl group; while the in both Calama and Iquique obtained with backscattered at 694 and 776cm-1 and the band at 1634cm-1 shows that a samples. No other signals are electrons on homogenous areas shoulder at about 797cm-1 are fraction of the hydroxyl group visible in the Raman spectra from Calama and Iquique sam- assigned to deformation modes belongs to water. However, the obtained from the samples. ples, respectively. SEM of the involving the Si-O moiety and strong bands at 2957, 2917 and This may be due to the intensi- -1 pigments allowed selecting the attributable to quartz (SiO2). 2849cm corresponding to ali- ty of the Fe-O bond signals, most representative areas for The band at 3434cm-1 indicates phatic nC-H, suggest the pres- which mask other less intense EDX analysis. Figure 2c the presence of a hydroxyl ence of organic materials in signals, such as those of man- the Iquique sample, which is ganese oxides (Schrader, 1995; of importance because some Smith and Dent, 2005).

Figure 2. Micrographs obtained with backscattered electron on granules from a) Calama and b) Iquique samples. c) Average results of EDX analysis of the archaeological pigments (carbon and oxygen are not Figure 3. a) Infrared and b) Raman spectra obtained from Calama and displayed in this chart). Iquique samples along with a hematite spectral reference.

DECEMBER 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 12 877 The XRD patterns of both Discussion red pigments were compared to reference data (JCPDS, The use of the presently 2004) and are shown in studied red pigment in the Figure 4. Both the Calama and mortuary Chinchorro tradition Iquique samples exhibit XRD is important because it was patterns similar to hematite associated to changes in the reference data (33-0664) and chromatic preparation of the quartz (46-1045). Besides, the body, with large social impli- Calama sample had peaks at- cations. The high presence of tributed to aluminum silicates manganese in the Iquique sam- such as albite (01-0739, ple (Figure 2) could be as- NaAlSi3O8) and cordierite (09- cribed to the use of Mn- 0473, Fe2Al4Si5O18), absent in containing materials during the the Iquique sample. On the preparation of the Chinchorro other hand, Iquique samples mummies. Over the surveyed evidenced the presence area, the use of black pigment Figure 5. Diatomes in Calama sample (1.97KX). of kuthnohorite (19-0234, has been reported for Archaic Ca(Ca,Mn)(CO3)2) and romerite Acha-3 site and in the (13-0530, Fe3(SO4)4·14H 2O). Camarones14 and 17, where 2014). In the Arica area, over 2005; Eerkens et al., 2014). Finally, Figure 5 shows the Chinchorro tradition start- 400km north of Iquique, mum- Thus, the mixture of Mn and SEM images from two kinds ed with the ‘black mummies’. mies with black/red dish face red pigments in the Iquique of diatoms found in the red In the middle Archaic period are found in many sites; how- Chinchorro mummy sample powder of th Calama sample. (7000-5000 BP), in Chinchorro ever few of them have been could be the result of the geo- Diatoms are unicellular photo- 1 and Maestranza 1 sites this thoroughly analyzed. Arriaza chemical origin of the hematite synthetic organisms consisting type of mummification was et al. (2006) study of the coat- deposit. In this regard, the of one (unique) silica cell wall already present and Mn ap- ing of eleven black mummies XRD patterns show quartz, which is composed of two pears in modeled artificial reported 36% of Mn oxide and kuthnohorite and romerite. The valves called thecae and sev- mummies. During the late 8.4% of Fe oxide. In six red greater concentrations of Ca eral girdle bands. The thecae Archaic period (5000-3500 BP) mummies they reported 60.7 and Mn found by the EDX have different sizes (20- black color was used on vege- % Mn oxide and 4.3 % Fe analysis of the Iquique sample 200μm diameter), and are tal mats and is part of the fill- oxide for the head (‘helmet’) are ascribed to these minerals slightly different from each ing of artificial mummies. On and facial mask, respectively. that are associated to mummi- other (Weiner, 2010). Based the other hand, during the late Both types of mummies con- fication techniques and/or geo- on these morphological char- Archaic period, the use of red tain Fe and Mn in different chemical origin. Romerite acteristics, the largest and was fully incorporated in the percentages, which can be as- might be responsible for the central diatom has been iden- Chinchorro mummification sociated to regional and intense signal of the nS=O tified as a Surirella (cf. S. techniques, characterized as chronological variations. mode detected in IR analysis. wetzelli Hustedt). There is a ‘red mummies’ (Arriaza, 1994, The identification of hema- Similarly, the water in romer- second unidentified diatom in 1995, Muñoz et al. 1993; tite in the present study con- ite could be related to the par- Figure 5: the smallest oval at Standen et al., 2004; Arriaza tributes with hard data to un- ticular signal in the 3600- the lower left corner of the et al., 2005; 2006, 2008a, b, derstand the process of chro- 2700cm-1 range of the hydroxyl picture. 2012; Sepúlveda et al., 2013, matic change and the manipu- group from water in the IR lation of the bodies. Also, in spectrum of the Iquique sam- the current Iquique case, the ple (Figure 3a). presence of Mn could be ex- Another important fact plained by either an intentional about red and black coastal mixture of raw materials pigments is that during the during body preparation or middle Archaic period (7000- natural composition of the red 5000 BP) they are found de- minerals. This mortuary prac- posited on sea shells as funer- tice could explain the presence al offerings (Sepulveda et al., of Mn in the mask of the 2014). This is precisely the Chinchorro mummy from ‘funeral situation’ of the hema- Iquique. In addition, several tite identified in the Calama bands observed in the IR spec- sample of Chorrillos archaeo- trum of the Iquique sample logical cemetery, located more suggest the presence of organ- than 279 km south of Iquique. ic materials. The intense In the Calama sample a dia- Chinchorro manipulation of tom (Surirella, cf. S. wetzelli the body could explain the Hustedt) was discovered, presence of this organic com- which is normally found pound. However, Mn is also in waters with a high salt con- present in large amounts in tent. Also, the XRD patterns Figure 4. XRD powder diffraction patterns from a) Calama and b) Iquique some red pigments in the show quartz and peaks samples. Nasca region (Vaughn et al., attributed to albite and

878 DECEMBER 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 12 cordierite, coherent with EDX pigments and afterlife has a en la momificación artificial de Eerkens JW, Barford G, Vaughn KJ, spectra. These minerals could long history in northern Chile la cultura Chinchorro, extremo Williams PR, Lesher CE, (2014) be related to the geochemical and the Andes. The funerary norte de Chile, medianteespec- Iron isotope analysis of red trometría de fluorescencia de and black pigments on pottery origin of the hematite deposits character, toxicity and antiqui- rayos-X de energía dispersiva in Nasca, Perú. Archaeol. in the Calama area, which ty of the pigments are import- (EDXRF). In Anales X Semi- Anthropol Sci. 6: 241-254. have silicates rich in Al and ant, since they allow investi- nario Latinoamericano de Harben PW (1999) The Industrial water, with high salt content. gating the acquisition, process- Análisis por Técnicas de Rayos Minerals Handbook. Industrial Previous studies in Calama ing and ritual aspect of these X. CIHDE. Universidad de Minerals Information Ltd. (Ogalde et al., 2014) have materials. Future studies could Tarapacá, Chile. pp. 1-7. London UK. 306 pp. shown the presence in grave focus on the processes neces- Arriaza BT, Standen VG, Cassman Harben PW, Kužvart M, (1996). goods of a yellow chromo- sary for mining these pigments V, Santoro CM (2008a) Industrial Minerals: A Global phore called orpiment (As S ), and the social implications. . Pioneers of Geology. Industrial Minerals 2 3 the coast of the Atacama Desert. which is potentially toxic. Information Ltd. London, UK. In Silverman H, Isbell WH 462 pp. Subsequently, red, black and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (Eds.) Handbook of South yellow pigments were deposit- American Archaeology. Springer. JCPDS (2004) Joint Committee on ed in valves of C. concholepas Nelson Lara acknowledges New York, USA. pp. 45-58. Powder Diffraction Standards. Mineral Powder Diffraction as funerary offerings at the the Proyecto Mayor UTA 4740- Arriaza BT, Cornejo L, Lienqueo H, File. International Center for archaic and formative cemeter- 15. Juan Pablo Ogalde acknowl- Standen VG, Santoro CM, Diffraction Data. Swarthmore, ies of the studied area. In an- edges the Proyecto Mayor UTA Acarapi J (2008b) Caracteri- PA, USA. cient times people handled 4740-15 and the Convenio de zación química de las arcillas utilizadas para la momificación Kroeber AL, Collier D (1998) The different types of minerals Desempeño and Programa de artificial en la cultura Archaeology and Pottery of with various degree of toxicity. Doctorado en Antropología, Chinchorro, extremo norte de Nazca, Peru: Alfred L. Kroeber’s For instance, in Huancavelica, Universidad de Tarapacá. The Chile. In Atoche P, Rodríguez 1926 Expedition. Alta Mira Lima, Peru, cinnabar (HgS) authors also thank the Depósito C, Ramírez MA (Eds.) Press. Walnut Creek, CA, USA. was used as red pigment to Arqueológico de Calama and Mummies and Science. World 283 pp. decorate pottery, for textile Museo Regional de Iquique for Mummies Research. Academia Muñoz I, Arriaza BT, Aufderheide dyes, etc. Consequently, the their support, Projects EQM- Canaria de la Historia. AC (1993) El poblamiento Tenerife, Esàña. pp. 515-520. Chinchorro: nuevos indicadores handling of toxic substances 130170/2013 and EQU-0003/ bio antropológicos y discusión could have been the conse- 2012 from Conicyt. Marcelo Arriaza BT, Cornejo L, Lienqueo H, Standen VG, Santoro CM, en torno a su organización social. quence of trial and error Campos acknowledges Fondecyt Guerra N, Van Hoesen J, In Muñoz I, Arriaza BT, during pre-Columbian era. project 1140524. Santos M (2012) Caracteriza- Aufderheide AC (Eds.) 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