Chinchorro Culture: Pioneers of the Coast of the Atacama Desert
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Chapter 3 Chinchorro Culture: Pioneers of the Coast of the Atacama Desert BERNARDO T. ARRIAZA, VIVIEN G. STANDEN, VICKI CASSMAN, AND CALOGERO M. SANTORO INTRODUCTION The Atacama Desert is an inhospitable region with few fresh water resources. Therefore it is remarkable that people settled in this area 10,000–11,000 years ago and quickly became highly skilled fisher folk. Reliance on marine resources allowed them not only to endure the harsh conditions of the desert, but also to adopt a sedentary way of life. It is even more intriguing that about 7,000 years ago some of these groups, those we call the Chinchorros, began to mummify their dead in a sophisticated and evocative manner — an intriguing mortuary practice that persisted for nearly four thousand years. The Chinchorros were the earliest preceramic fisher-hunter-gatherer people to inhabit the Atacama Desert shore. They are named after a beach in Arica, which yielded hundreds of mummies in the early 1900s with the discoveries of Max Uhle. Chinchorro archeology has come a long way since Uhle’s initial work. Early studies focused on chronology, but we are now focusing on evolutionary reconstruction, human diseases, population genetics, diet, and the social meaning of Chinchorro mortuary practices. In this chapter, we present the culture history of the circumstances and events that allowed for the early settlement of the Atacama coast and we explain the unique Chinchorro mummification practices. THE ECOLOGICAL TRIAD: DESERT, OCEAN, AND SMALL RIVERS The Atacama Desert coast, which receives no rainfall at all, is where the Chinchorros chose to live. This desert stretches for about 1,500 km along the shores from southern Peru (Ilo, ca. latitude 18°S) to Copiapó in northern Chile (ca. latitude 27° S). The Atacama Desert Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell. Springer, New York, 2008 45 46 B.T. Arriaza et al. varies gradually in width, from north to south, from a few kilometers to about 150 km. The extreme dryness of this environment is a product of the crosswinds from the Pacific Ocean pushing the coastal humidity up into the Andes Mountains. However, some unusual areas like the mining village of Paposo (ca. 25° S), south of the Atacama, with its tall coastal mountains, block the rise of the coastal humidity creating a humid microclimate, result- ing in a thick coastal fog. The fog or even light rain (locally called garua or camanchaca) can allow for the formation of relatively lush vegetation (lomas) with grasses and cactus, which attracts lizards, rodents, birds, and camelids. Isolated humid microclimates have been reported for prehispanic coastal environments, for instance in southern Peru as well, but these were rare and far between. Despite the aridity, the Atacama region has a diverse coastal geography, ranging from dry areas with steep cliffs to tiny swampy estuaries. How and why did Chinchorro people choose to settle in such a dramatic and harsh environment? There is growing evidence that ancient people settled by the coast early and rapidly. Many early sites have been discovered along the coast, from north to south: Quebradas Tacahuay and Jaguay, the Ring site, Quebrada Los Burros in Peru, dating to late Pleistocene and early Holocene epochs (ca. 11,000–9000 BC), and further south along the Chilean coast are the sites of Acha and Las Conchas, dating to the early Holocene (ca. 8000–6000 BC) (Arriaza 1995; Llagostera 1992; Sandweiss 2003; Sandweiss et al. 1998; Wise 1999). Paleo-environmental reconstructions indicate more water resources than today (DeFrance and Humire 2004; Latorre et al. 2003; Lavallée 2000; Lavallée et al. 1999; Núñez and Grosjean 1994; Sandweiss 2003; Sandweiss et al. 1998) which facilitated animal diversity and human survival to some extent, but it was not a striking difference compared to modern conditions. Settlement of the Atacama Desert coast was possible for two main reasons. First, small rivers carry run-off water from highland rain and snowmelt, and these cut through the desert at widespread intervals, forming narrow gorges and rivers, which drain to the Pacific Ocean. This creates patchy areas of plants and wildlife along the desert and particularly near the drainages. Such oases provided small hospitable and more varied environments for small groups of early humans to exploit. In addition, the geomorphology of the region provided occasional springs. Even today, local farmers tap aquifers along the valleys for agricultural purposes. Where fresh water accumulates cattails, totora reeds and grasses flourish, providing easy to collect terrestrial resources and raw materials (plants, birds, eggs, river shrimp, combustible materials, and even wood) (Arriaza 1995; Bird 1943; Llagostera 1992; Muñoz, Arriaza and Aufderheide 1993; Núñez 1983; Schiappacasse and Niemeyer 1984). The second variable that allowed for early occupation was the bounty of the Pacific Ocean. The rich and diverse biomass generated an ever-present set of marine resources with seaweed, fish, mollusks, marine birds, sea mammals, and even whales. Thus, it was the combination of small and patchy fresh water resources and the bounty of the Pacific Ocean that allowed early hunter-gatherers and fisher folk to survive and even flourish in this harsh region. However, movement along the coast was difficult. The shore was rocky and rugged with cliffs common. Instead, early fisher folk explored the area by walking along the top of the coastal cordillera. Occasional beaches and harvesting grounds provided haven to prehistoric explorers. Likely greater highland precipitation and de-glaciation allowed a more abundant and permanent water flow toward the Pacific slopes of the Andes, as compared to the present day chronic hyper-arid climate. In addition, coastal temperatures were, possibly, cooler Chinchorro Culture: Pioneers of the Coast of the Atacama Desert 47 than today. Unfortunately, as pointed out by Sandweiss (2003), there are no actual paleocli- matic sequential records for the Atacama coastal desert. Most data come from inland stud- ies where better paleo records are present. Fossil rodent middens (2,400–3,200 masl) and wetland deposits (2,500–2,700 masl) near the Salar de Atacama in the central Atacama (ca. latitude 22–24°S) showed there was a wet phase from 5000 to 1500 BC (Núñez, Grosjean, and Cartagena 2002; Sandweiss 2003). At mid-Holocene times when Chinchorro artificial mummification was present, there was a wet phase on the Pacific slope of the Andes. The cyclical El Niño phenomenon, still a factor today in worldwide weather patterns, also played a major role during the early Holocene that created variations in water tempera- tures that were generally warmer. However, after 3000 BC the water temperature became cooler again. Even today (2004–05), there are cyclical variations, with plagues of jellyfish and other warm water species along the northern Chilean coast, species that were uncom- mon only a year ago. In prehistoric times, such environmental variation may have created new resources to exploit, while others diminished. The presence of large shell middens and cemeteries suggests that harvesting was plentiful at many locations like Quiani, Playa Chinchorro-Las Machas, Caleta Vitor, Quebrada de Camarones, and Pisagua Viejo (Figures 3.1, 3.2). Their primary food was mollusks such as Concholepas concholepas (scallops) and Fissurella spp. (mussels), fish, and pelicans. Mollusks were so plentiful that the early inhabitants left many large shell mounds along the coast of modern Peru and Chile. In addition, there is evidence that they hunted wild camelids and marine mammals such as sea lions. The small rivers also provided totora reeds to make cords, basketry, clothes and twined mats. A SEDENTARY LIFE STYLE The traditional portrayal of early Chinchorro populations is that of highly mobile groups. However, there is growing bioarchaeological evidence that indicates they had a year-round occupation on the coast rather than seasonal occupation (see Arriaza 1995; Standen 1997). Their diet, reconstructed using bone chemistry analysis, indicates heavy exploitation of maritime resources and they suffered from maritime parasites and a common cold water- related ear pathology called auditory exostosis. Their tool kit was maritime. They generated extensive shell middens along the coast and their cemeteries had long occupations, which all point to a year-round maritime subsistence. Recent studies by Aufderheide et al. (2004) found that the Chinchorros suffered from Chagas disease. This disease was associated with endemic reduvid bugs that live alongside humans within their huts and shelters. If the Chinchorros were highly mobile, Chagas disease would not have affected them. Although they were sedentary, evidence shows that they did occasionally travel to inland oases, such as Pampa del Tamarugal basin, south of Arica, Tiliviche and Aragón (Núñez 1983; Núñez and Zlatar 1980), which are located between 2 and 40 km into the valley, to gather lithic raw materials and to collect river resources like crayfish. This early preceramic sedentary way of life based on a maritime subsistence rather than agriculture was relatively unique. Though this was their preferred mode of subsistence, there were health consequences for this choice. For example, the consumption of raw fish predis- posed the Chinchorros to acquisition of tapeworm that led to anemia. Parasite ova found in the gut of mummies, and porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia in their cranial bones testify to this. Also, continuous exposure to cold wind and water caused ear irritation and bony growth in the ear canal (external auditory exostosis). This mechanical blockage certainly decreased 48 B.T. Arriaza et al. Figure 3.1. Map for locating sites mentioned in text. (Alvaro Romero) their hearing capabilities. Men suffered from lower back problems (spondylolysis) likely caused by their hunting and maritime physical activities, while females had crushed vertebra, most certainly the consequences of increased fertility and osteoporosis or bone density loss. Domestic violence was common.