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Access to Electronic Thesis Access to Electronic Thesis Author: Jon Fyne Thesis title: The Dialect of New mills: Linguistic Change in a North-West Derbyshire Community Qualification: PhD Date awarded: 16 November 2005 This electronic thesis is protected by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. No reproduction is permitted without consent of the author. It is also protected by the Creative Commons Licence allowing Attributions-Non-commercial-No derivatives. If this electronic thesis has been edited by the author it will be indicated as such on the title page and in the text. The Dialect of New Mills Linguistic Change in a North-West Derbyshire Community Part 1 Methodology Grammar Lexis Jon Fyne Submitted for the degree of PhD NATCECT, University of Sheffield July, 2005 Abbreviations V Vowel vb. Verb A Adjunct VP Verbal Phrase Adj. Adjective WGer West Germanic Adv. Adverb WM West Midlands ALE Atlas Linguarum Europae WMerc West Mercian C Consonant WSax West Saxon C[x] Cardinal Vowel, x = vowel Yks Yorkshire Ch(s) Cheshire (n,e,s,w = north, east, south, west) (n,e,s,w = north, east, south, west) CG Cheshire Glossary CED Collins’ English Dictionary Der(bys) Derbyshire (n,e,s,w = north, east, south, west) EDD English Dialect Dictionary IPA International PhoneticAlphabet La(ncs) Lancashire (n,e,s,w = north, east, south, west) ME Middle English eME early Middle English lME late Middle English Merc Mercian eModE early Modern English ModE Modern English n. Noun NP Nominal Phrase neCh north-east Cheshire nwDer north-west Derbyshire OA Old Anglian OE Old English lOE late Old English OED Oxford English Dictionary ODa Old Danish OF Old French OIc Old Icelandic OM Old Mercian ON Old Norse ONor Old Norwegian ONmFr Old Norman French Obj. Object OS Open Syllables PrW Primitive Welsh PD Pegge’s Derbicisms p. p. past participle pa. t. past tense Pred. Predicate pr. p. present participle p. t. present tense RP Received Pronunciation S Subject SE Standard English SED Survey of English Dialects SVow Short Vowel St(fs) Staffordshire (n,e,s,w = north, east, south, west) CONTENTS Part 1 CHAPTER 1 Methodology: Theoretical Considerations 1 Aims and Purpose 1 Dialectology and Variationist Linguistics : development and general theory 2 Linguistic Geography and Historical Studies 3 Synchronic Studies 8 Sociolinguistic approaches 10 Approaches to dialect description and analysis 19 Dialect 19 Traditional Dialect 20 Research and the Traditional Dialect of New Mills: theoretical considerations 29 Linguistic Change 39 Change in Real Time 41 Change in Apparent Time 45 Theoretical Considerations 49 Theoretical Considerations – Phonological Change 50 Graph: Linguistic Change Model 58. 1 Phonological Change: past and present 61 Historical Sound Change and Traditional Dialects 69 Contemporary Sound Change 71 CHAPTER 2 Methodology: Method and Fieldwork 88 The Investigation in New Mills: research and analytical format 88 Qualitative Research 90 Method 92 Questionnaires 94 Construction of Questionnaire 96 - Wording, Format 98 Revision 101 Word-Lists 103 Free Speech 104 Data from other sources 106 Fieldwork 109 Selection of Informants 109 Securing Potential Informants 113 Attitudes to Dialect and the Research in General 115 Interview Situation 117 The Recording Equipment 119 Interview Technique 119 Interview Technique and the Questionnaire 121 Introduction: The Dialect of New Mills - an overview Historical Basis and Linguistic classification 122 The Dialect of New Mills: historical factors 124 Map: Dialect Areas defined by A. J. Ellis (1887) 124. 1 Issues of identity and linguistic classification 126 The urban varieties of the Manchester conurbation 131 CHAPTER 3 Grammar – Morphology and Syntax 132 Introduction and Methodology 132 Determiners 135 The Indefinite Article 135 The Definite Article 136 - Allomorphic Realisations 136 - Definite Article + Vowel 137 - Definite Article + Consonant 140 - Historical Development 143 - Contemporary Change 144 Possessive Determiners 145 Demonstrative Determiners 146 Interrogatives 148 Adjectives 148 Comparatives / Superlatives 149 Comparison 149 Intensifiers 150 Nouns 151 Irregular Plurals 151 Zero Plurals 152 Deverbal nouns 153 Pronouns 153 Personal Pronouns 153 - First Person 153 - Second Person 154 - Cliticised forms 155 - Third Person 156 Possessive Pronouns 157 Reflexive Pronouns 158 Syntactic Variation 159 Relative Pronouns 162 Verbs 169 Non-Past (Present) Tense 169 Historic Present 172 Past Tense 172 - Weak Verbs 173 - Strong Verbs 175 Principal Auxiliaries 179 - Be 179 - Do 184 - Have 185 Modals 187 - Can 188 - Could 189 - Dare 190 - May / Might 190 - Must 192 - Need 195 - Ought 195 - Shall 197 - Should 199 Used to 200 - Will 201 - Would 202 Verbal Morphology 203 - Present Participle 203 - Suffixed Negative Particle 205 Syntax 206 - Infinitive Particle 206 - For to 206 - To 207 - Zero 208 - Negation 209 - Multiple Negation 211 Adverbs 212 Prepositions / Conjunctions 213 Syntax 217 CHAPTER 3 Lexis 218 Introduction 218 Traditional Dialect Lexis 222 Lexical Change in apparent time 238 Lexical Erosion 239 Lexical Continuity 254 Bibliography 265 Part 2 - Phonology, Addenda (Questionnaire Responses, Biographical Information) Appendix - New Mills: The Historical and Social Background 1 CHAPTER 1 METHODOLOGY: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Aims and Purpose The primary aim of this study is to gauge linguistic change in a north-west Derbyshire community over approximately the last fifty years. This will be achieved by the analysis of data which entails the synchronic comparison of several age-based groups. From this it will be possible to build a diachronic picture of the linguistic characteristics of the area, spanning a chronological period between that of the oldest and youngest informants, thus demonstrating any linguistic change in „apparent time‟ during this period. This study, however, differs in some respects from a considerable amount of contemporary variationist research. In accordance with the aims of the research, the present investigation does not utilise the random sampling methodology typical of many quantitative sociolinguistic studies. Rather, the informants in New Mills will be selected from a single social class,1 i.e. a „judgement sample‟. Moreover, the study does not attempt to provide a comprehensive synchronic description of social variation, nor does it intend to gauge linguistic change throughout the community. However, even though this study is not a sociolinguistic profile of the community, variables portraying sociolinguistic patterning necessarily form part of any relevant analysis, as these inevitably play a significant part in contemporary linguistic change. The aim is to focus on changes in the „traditional dialect‟ (working class vernacular). In order to achieve such a description, the selected informants are all working class males between the ages of thirteen and ninety. Such a methodology - i.e. the selection of informants, according to restricted extra-linguistic variables - as is used in this study is open to criticism, especially from a sociolinguistic point of view. However, the adopted methodology is part of a framework that is constructed upon the aims and purpose of the study as a whole; this includes extra-linguistic considerations as well as ideas relating to theory.2 Both methodology and theory are discussed at length below. 1 However, it should be noted that the linguistic characteristics of a potential informant were paramount in determining suitability for selection, rather than allowing social classification to solely determine selection – see also below, pp. 110-112. 1 Shorrocks, G., A Grammar of the Dialect of Farnworth and District, unpublished* PhD thesis, University of Sheffield, 1980, pp. 31, 32, 33 - * however, see Shorrocks, G., A Grammar of the Dialect of the Bolton Area, Frankfurt, Peter Lang, 1998, which is basically a reworked, revised and updated version of the PhD thesis. 2 Even though this study consists of analyses and descriptions on the linguistic levels of syntax, grammar and lexis, there is a considerable emphasis on the level of phonology; this is applicable to both the synchronic and diachronic analyses. Similarly, this investigation does not focus on only a few variables, but adopts a far more extensive and comprehensive „systematic‟ approach (especially with respect to phonology). Consequently, the synchronic descriptions and, particularly, the comparative analyses are undertaken on a qualitative and not a quantitative level. To attempt such an extensive quantitative analysis based upon the evident number of variables, and the considerable amount of data, would be beyond the scope of this study, and, indeed, any work of a similarly restricted length; such a proposal would require many more volumes and years of research! However, the intention remains to provide a relatively extensive age-based synchronic comparison (rather than the intensive, narrow focus description inherent in quantitative studies), as well as a similarly comprehensive description of linguistic change. As phonology lends itself readily to systematic description, it will be this level which is described thus (below, Part 2), while the focus at the levels of lexis, grammar and syntax will be primarily on those non-standard items of the traditional dialect which display a local or regional distribution. Furthermore, the traditional dialect of the older members of the community (hitherto unrecorded) will be recorded in an era when significant change is apparent in the traditional vernacular. Dialectology and Variationist
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