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(T,D) Deletion, (T) Glottaling, and Their Intersection in East Anglian English

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(T,D) Deletion, (T) Glottaling, and Their Intersection in East Anglian English A Sociolinguistic Survey of (t,d) deletion, (t) glottaling, and their intersection in East Anglian English Carmen Ciancia A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Language and Linguistics University of Essex November 2020 To my beloved grandmother, Angelina, to whom I promised to dedicate this thesis before she left this world. You will always be in my heart, in my mind. Table of Contents List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………vii List of Figures………………………………………………………………………...ix Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….xi Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………xiii Structure of the thesis……………………………………………………...…………xv Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………...17 1.1 Motivations to examine (t,d) and (t) in East Anglian English ......................17 1.2 East Anglian history and borders ..................................................................18 1.3 Urban areas and speech communities ...........................................................22 Colchester ..............................................................................................23 Ipswich ...................................................................................................25 Norwich .................................................................................................28 1.4 Broad research questions ..............................................................................29 1.5 Summary .......................................................................................................32 Chapter 2 - FIELDWORK AND METHODS .......................................................33 2.1 The sample ....................................................................................................33 2.2 The Fieldworker “away from home” ............................................................36 2.3 Entering the communities .............................................................................37 2.4 The sociolinguistic interview ........................................................................42 2.5 Early field techniques ....................................................................................45 2.6 Data analysis instruments..............................................................................47 2.7 Dependent variables ......................................................................................49 (t,d) Deletion ..........................................................................................50 (t) Glottaling ..........................................................................................51 2.8 Independent variables ...................................................................................52 2.9 Summary .......................................................................................................61 Chapter 3 - (t,d) DELETION: LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................62 3.1 Articulatory description of the plosives /t, d/ .....................................................62 3.2 A brief note on terminology ...............................................................................63 3.3 Description of the (t,d) variable ........................................................................63 iii 3.4 Neutral contexts .................................................................................................65 3.5 (t,d) in Sociolinguistic theory.............................................................................67 3.6 A brief diachronic development of (t,d) ............................................................68 3.7 Empirical findings from North American studies ..............................................70 3.7.1 (t,d) in AAVE ........................................................................................71 3.7.2 (t,d) in US English dialects..........................................................................74 3.7.3 (t,d) in varieties influenced by Spanish: Chicano English and Tejano English…………....................................................................................................78 3.7.4 (t,d) in Creole varieties: mesolectal Jamaican Creole and Standard Jamaican Creole...................................................................................................79 3.7.5 (t,d) explored on theoretical grounds .....................................................82 3.8 (t,d) in British English dialects .....................................................................90 3.8.3 York .......................................................................................................90 3.8.4 Manchester .............................................................................................92 3.8.5 Northeast of England .............................................................................94 3.8.6 Mersea Island .........................................................................................95 3.9 (t,d) in Standard British English ...................................................................96 3.10 Summary .......................................................................................................97 Chapter 4 - (t,d) DELETION: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..............................100 4.1 Analytical procedure - linguistic constraints ..............................................100 4.2 Analytical procedures – Rbrul ....................................................................104 4.3 Overall Results – model with glottal variants included in the (t,d) dataset 106 4.4 Overall Results – model with no glottal variants included in the (t,d) dataset….................................................................................................................109 4.4.1 Following environment ........................................................................113 4.4.2 Voicing agreement ...............................................................................117 4.4.3 Style-shifting........................................................................................119 4.4.4 Morphological Class ............................................................................121 4.4.5 Preceding segment ...............................................................................129 4.4.6 Non-significant predictors – Overall Results ......................................133 4.5 Treating Colchester, Ipswich and Norwich separately ...............................135 4.5.1 Results from Colchester .......................................................................135 4.5.2 Results from Ipswich ...........................................................................140 4.5.3 Results from Norwich ..........................................................................143 iv 4.5.4 Interaction between locality and other predictors ................................147 4.6 Summary .....................................................................................................149 Chapter 5 - (t) GLOTTALING: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................151 5.1 Articulatory description of the plosive /t/ and its variant [Ɂ] ......................151 5.2 T-Glottalisation in Phonological Theory ....................................................155 5.3 T-Glottalisation in Variationist Sociolinguistic Theory ..............................159 5.4 Diachronic development of [Ɂ] ...................................................................162 5.5 T-Glottalisation in Southern England .........................................................166 5.5.1 East Anglia (1889 - 2007)....................................................................167 5.5.2 London vernacular (1938 - 2013) ........................................................172 5.6 T-Glottaling in Cardiff ................................................................................175 5.7 T-Glottaling in Northern England ...............................................................176 5.8 T-Glottaling in Scotland..............................................................................179 5.9 T-Glottaling beyond the British Isles. .........................................................181 5.10 Summary .....................................................................................................182 Chapter 6 - (t) GLOTTALING: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................185 6.1 Analytical procedure – linguistic constraints ...................................................185 6.2 Analytical procedure – Rbrul ......................................................................188 6.3 Overall Results and Individual Variation for word-final /t/ ........................189 6.3.1 Preceding environment - word-final /t/ ................................................191 6.3.2 Style-shifting in word-final /t/ .............................................................195 6.3.3 Following environment in word-final /t/ .............................................198 6.3.4 Non-significant factors – overall findings for word-final /t/ ...............201 6.4 Treating the three localities separately ........................................................204 6.4.1 Results from Colchester – word-final /t/ .............................................205 6.4.2 Results from Ipswich – word-final /t/ ..................................................207 6.4.3 Results from Norwich – word-final /t/.................................................209 6.5 Overall results and individual variation for word-medial
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