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Kirkenes: a Case for Borderland Norwegians? an Analysis of the Discourses and Practices Towards Russia Following the Storskog and Frode Berg Cases

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Kirkenes: a Case for Borderland Norwegians? an Analysis of the Discourses and Practices Towards Russia Following the Storskog and Frode Berg Cases Kirkenes: a case for borderland Norwegians? An analysis of the discourses and practices towards Russia following the Storskog and Frode Berg cases Leonor Oliveira de Almeida Toscano Master’s Thesis in Peace and Conflict Studies Department of Political Science UNIVERSITY OF OSLO Autumn 2019 II Kirkenes: a case for borderland Norwegians? An analysis of the discourses and practices towards Russia following the Storskog and Frode Berg cases III © Leonor Oliveira de Almeida Toscano 2019 Kirkenes: A case for borderland Norwegians? Leonor Oliveira de Almeida Toscano http://www.duo.uio.no Print: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo Word Count: 25.361 IV Abstract The Storskog and Frode Berg cases are arguably the most relevant cases in Norwegian- Russian relationships since the advent of Crimea in 2014. Both cases have prompted a wide variety of discourses, both across different regions in Norway and across different political actors. Besides their implications for Norway’s domestic policy, these cases also impacted the bilateral relationship through a series of mismatching interpretations on legal procedures, application of different protocols, the presence of espionage, and other factors. Both these cases have also a directly implication in the border area, either by its de facto occurrence in the border (Storskog) or by the involvement of local people (Frode Berg). Given their regional implications, it is of both academic and political relevance to explore how Norwegians living by the border interpreted Russia through these incidents. Therefore, this thesis conducts an analysis on the discourses and practices on Russian in the border town of Kirkenes around these two political incidents and examines the extent to which these discourses can be grounded in the existence of a community region. The thesis is theoretically informed by the practice turn and poststructuralist epistemologies. The analysis of the textual data is able to identity three main discourses and practices: the ‘cultural competence’ discourse and the practice of ‘normalisation’, the ‘cooperation’ discourse and the practice of ‘dialogue’, and the ‘high politics’ discourse and the practice of ‘accountability’. The interaction between practice and discourses suggests that Russia is framed as ‘neighbour’, but this denominator acquires different meanings. Thus, this thesis concludes that Kirkenes’ position towards Russia is multisided. Furthermore, multisided positions towards Russia can be grounded on the concept of security community as an intersubjective construction that embeds narratives with meaning. V VI Acknowledgments First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Svein Vigeland Rottem for all the good insights and interesting discussions. Thank you for believing in the project from day one and for your support throughout the thesis. Likewise, I would like to thank all the research and administrative staff at Fridtjof Nansen Institute, the institute that welcomed me as a master’s student for one year. Thank you for the feedback and insightful discussions - and not least for all the lunch breaks by the fireplace. Next, I would like to thank all my informants in Kirkenes for their time and valuable contributions to this thesis. I would particularly like to thank The Barents Institute for being so kind as to offer me an office seat while in Kirkenes. To all the people at the ‘Barents House’, thank you for making my field-work a memorable experience. I also owe a big thanks to my fellow PECOS students and dear friends for this two-year journey. You made my time at Blindern unforgettable. A special thanks to Ingeborg and Fride for their valuable feedback and proof-reading. Thank you to my family, especially my mother, for the immeasurable support despite the many kilometres between us. Lastly, thank you, Mohamed. You reassured me when I felt like giving up and patiently cheered me up every time. Thank you for your endless love and support. All the mistakes and misconceptions in this thesis are my own. VII Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Kirkenes: Between Norway and Russia --------------------------------------------------------1 1.1.2 The Border and Its Meanings ---------------------------------------------------------------------2 1.1.3 The BEAR and Norwegian Duality --------------------------------------------------------------3 1.2 Research Question and Objectives --------------------------------------------------------------3 1.2.1 Context and Relevance ----------------------------------------------------------------------------4 1.2.2 Scope and Clarifications --------------------------------------------------------------------------5 1.3 Analytical Tools and Selection of Empirical Material ---------------------------------------7 1.4 Structure of the Thesis -----------------------------------------------------------------------------7 Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework ------------------------------------------------------------------9 2.1 Social Constructivism and Interpretivism -----------------------------------------------------9 2.2 The Practice Turn ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------10 2.2.1 Conceptualizations and Contributions ---------------------------------------------------------11 2.2.2 Defining Social Practices ------------------------------------------------------------------------13 2.2.3 On Symbolic Power ------------------------------------------------------------------------------15 2.2.4 On Background Knowledge ---------------------------------------------------------------------15 2.3 Practice, Identity and Discourse ----------------------------------------------------------------17 2.4 Cross-Border Practices and Discourses? The Concept of Community Regions ------19 2.5 Application of the Theoretical Framework --------------------------------------------------20 Chapter 3 Methodology -------------------------------------------------------------------------------21 3.1 A Three-Step Process: Induction, Interpretation and Historical/Contextual Positioning -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21 3.2 Data Selection and Collection -------------------------------------------------------------------23 3.3 Challenges and Pitfalls: Internal Validity, Reliability and Generalization ------------26 Chapter 4 Norway and Russia: Between Fear and Cooperation ------------------------------29 4.1 The Cold War Period ------------------------------------------------------------------------------30 4.1.1 NATO: A Western Demarcation ----------------------------------------------------------------31 4.1.2 Fisheries Cooperation and The Grey Zone Agreement ---------------------------------------32 4.2 Post-Cold War --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33 4.2.1 The 1990s and the Barents Spirit ----------------------------------------------------------------35 4.2.2 The 2010 Barents Sea Delimitation Agreement -----------------------------------------------36 VIII 4.2.3 The Crimea Crisis ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------36 4.3 After Crimea: What Next? -----------------------------------------------------------------------38 4.3.1 Storskog --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38 4.3.2 Frode Berg -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38 Chapter 5 Analysis of the Textual Data and Interviews ----------------------------------------41 5.1 Identifying Dominant Discourses and Practices ----------------------------------------------41 5.2 The Storskog Case ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------42 5.2.1 The ‘Cultural Competence’ Discourse ----------------------------------------------------------42 5.2.2 The ‘Cooperation’ Discourse --------------------------------------------------------------------44 5.2.3 The ‘High Politics’ Discourse -------------------------------------------------------------------46 5.3 The Frode Berg Case ------------------------------------------------------------------------------48 5.3.1 The ‘Cultural Competence’ Discourse ----------------------------------------------------------48 5.3.2 The ‘Cooperation’ Discourse --------------------------------------------------------------------50 5.3.3 The ‘High Politics’ Discourse -------------------------------------------------------------------52 5.4 Summary: Meaning and Action -----------------------------------------------------------------54 Chapter 6 Discourse, Practice and Perceptions of Russia: A Cross-Border Discussion --55 6.1 The Interplay Between Practices and Discourses --------------------------------------------55 6.1.1 Power and Knowledge ----------------------------------------------------------------------------57 6.2 Identity Constructions: The Self and the Other(s) ------------------------------------------58 6.3 Kirkenes: The Case for a Community Region? ----------------------------------------------59 Chapter 7 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------62 7.1 Main Findings ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62 7.2 Further Research -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------63 Literature List -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------65 Appendix
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