sign in sign up
<<
Home , Bloody, Cockney, General American English, Geordie, Singapore English

Introduction

1. Key concepts in the description of English. a/ ENL (English as Native ). b/ ESL (English as Second Language). c/ EFL (English as Foreign Language). d/ EIL (English as International Language). e/ ELF (English as ).

Standard English

1. Standard language: the norm and the prestige variety spoken by those in power; codified in grammar books and dictionaries; used in government, law, education, science, and literature.

2.Inferior social status is reflected by the inferior variety of language used.

3. Prescriptive language rules and the role of change. Broadening the standard?

4. : a variety spoken by the educated in ; accent not involved in it, but only grammar and vocabulary; a variety taught to EFL students.

5. Standard English: not a style or register, but a social dialect. a/ Father was exceedingly fatigued subsequent to his extensive peregrinations. b/ Dad was very tired after his lengthy journey. c/ The old man was bloody knackered after his long trip.

6. New Englishes, e.g. American or : standard or non-standard?

7. Non-standard varieties of : regional dialects and rural dialects, e.g. , Brummie, , , , London Jamaican, etc.

8. Non-standard : speech of Southerners, New Yorkers, , Mexican Americans, etc.

9. Find the non-standard part of each of the American English sentences below and rewrite it as standard.

They play their stereo softer anymore. For a time, things looked badly, but they are better now. Somebody rung the doorbell. They put dynamite in the old hotel and blowed it up. It don’t matter at all. I want for him to enjoy himself. She did the job good. Please leave him go. She advised me as regards to my courses. We’re nowhere near finished yet. He stood on line an hour to get tickets. I seen him at the Union this morning. I’ll learn not to be late. These here books are not mine. I hoped you was finished. Don’t open the door without I tell you. They missed the bus theirselves. We might could help if you want us to. We can’t skate anymore, but we used to could. He wants that we should help him. Did they suspicion anything from what you said? I had went down there. I done forgot what you wanted. She usually be home in the evening. She was a-coming home. They answered wrong. The man wasn’t saying nothing. I ain’t go to school yesterday. Me and him will do it. Y’all won the game. Youse won the game. Them books are on the shelf. I got me a new car.

10. Find the non-standard part of each of the British English sentences below and rewrite it as standard.

I didn’t do nothing. I ain’t doing it. I ain’t got one. I never done it. I wants to see the film. We was there last year. I drawed a picture for you. She come home last week. He writes real quick. She waited for twenty year. The man as/what lives here. He hurt hisself. You done it, did you?

References: Algeo, John. 1974. Exercises in Contemporary English. : Harcourt. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. : A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Spread of English

1. The three-circle model of World Englishes. 2. The circle of World Englishes.

3. The first dispersal: the British Isles, America, , New Zealand, South Africa. New Englishes as independent varieties continuous with British English. The second dispersal: West Africa, East Africa, South-East Asia, South Pacific. , as fossilized varieties.

Variation across Englishes

1. Grammar: nouns and verbs. a/ Up to twelve year of schooling (). b/ And they know all four dialect (Jamaica). c/ Everyone has car (India). d/ I’m staying in one house with three other (India). e/ Don’t eat so much sweets (). f/ Some few fishermen may be seen (West Africa). g/ When I first met my husband, she was a student (East Africa). h/ My mother, he live in kampong (). i/ A two-hour exciting display (Ghana). j/ Ninety over cheques (Singapore/Malaysia). k/ She drink milk (Philippines). l/ Every microcosm consist of many cells (India). m/ Mandarin, I learn it privately (Hong Kong). n/ My wife she pass her Cambridge (Singapore). o/ I have worked there in 1960 (India). p/ She is knowing her science very well (East Africa). q/ Mohan is having two houses (India). r/ His name cropped in the conversation (East Africa). s/ I’m going to voice out my opinion (West Africa).

2. Idioms. a/ To put sand in someone’s gari (Nigerian English). b/ To be in hot soup (Singaporean English).

3. Discourse. a/ So how? (). b/ You’re enjoying? (Nigeria). c/ How? How now? (West Africa). d/ Are you all right? (East Africa). e/ I’ll go and come (Sri Lanka). f/ Walk slowly ho! (Singapore/Malaysia).

4. Vocabulary: locally coined expressions. a/ Stingko (Singapore). b/ Teacheress (India). c/ Jeepney (Philippines). d/ Enstool/destool (Ghana). e/ Peelhead (Jamaica). f/ Dry coffee (East Africa). g/ Key-bunch (India). h/ High hat (Philippines).

5. Vocabulary: borrowings from indigenous . a/ Chai (East Africa). b/ Crore (India). c/ Kundiman (Philippines).

References: Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. English wordstock

1. by borrowing: the acquisition of words, sounds, or rules from another language. a/ Substratum influence: a dominant language borrows from a non-dominant language, e.g. English has borrowed the words Canada, moccasin, totem, tomahawk from Amerindian languages. b/ Superstratum influence: a non-dominant language borrows from a dominant language, e.g. Mohawk has borrowed the words automobile, wheelbarrow from English.

2. Classification of borrowings. a/ Lexical, e.g. Pol. ratusz from Ger. Rathaus vs. structural, e.g. Pol. czasopismo from Ger. Zeitschrift, Pol. ostatni krzyk mody from Fr. dernier crie de la mode, Eng. It goes without saying from Fr. Ça va sans dire. b/ Proper, e.g. Pol. plajta from Ger. Pleite vs. artificial, e.g. Pol. magnetowid from Gr. magnes/magnetis and Lat. vid–/videre, Pol. telewizja from Gr. tele– and Lat. visio. c/ Partly assimilated, e.g. Pol. pizza (It.), weekend, komputer (Eng.) vs. fully assimilated, e.g. Pol. firanka, ganek from Ger. Fürhang/Vorhang, Gang. d/ Direct, e.g. feast from Middle French festa vs. indirect, e.g. Eng. algebra borrowed from via Spanish.

3. Can you identify the sources of the following words in English? a/ House, see, beer, Sunday. b/ Ketchup, typhoon. c/ Kayak, igloo, anorak. d/ Cruise, slim, yacht, schooner, deck, iceberg, sloop, cole slaw, smuggle, gin, cookie, boom. e/ Sultan, algebra, nadir, zenith, alcohol, cipher. f/ Trek, apartheid. g/ Dingo, boomerang, budgerigar. h/ Robot, polka, czar, tundra, intelligentsia. i/ Aunt, prince, mustache, castle. j/ Banshee, galore.

k/ Waltz, poodle, dachshund, snorkel, plunder, swindler, kindergarten, seminar, noodle, pretzel. l/ Crisis, topic, dogma, coma. m/ Kibbutz, kosher. n/ Guru, pundit, thug, coolie, bungalow, dumdum, pyjamas, cummerbund, punch, shampoo, chintz. o/ Goulash, paprika. p/ Sonnet, bandit, balcony, loggia, colonnade, parapet, bankrupt, lava, ballot, motto, artichoke, casino, malaria, soprano, tenor, opera. q/ Flamingo, buffalo, veranda, marmalade. r/ Cigar, potato, cafeteria, sherry, armada, embargo, cargo, comrade, tornado, cannibal, mosquito, banana, guitar. s/ Both, egg, knife, low, sky. t/ Opossum, toboggan, wigwam, chipmunk, Alabama, . u/ Yogurt, horde, kiosk.

4. Native English words used in conjunction with French borrowings, e.g. cow vs. beef, calf vs. veal, sheep vs. mutton, pig vs. pork.

5. Origin of 5,000 most frequently used words in English.

Degree of frequency Source language

English French Other

First 1,000 83% 11% 2% 4% Second 1,000 34 46 11 9 Third 1,000 29 46 14 11 Fourth 1,000 27 45 17 11 Fifth 1,000 27 47 17 9

References: Crystal, David. 2002. The . London: Penguin. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Jespersen, Otto. 1967. Growth and Structure of the English Language. Oxford: Blackwell. Langacker, Ronald W. 1973. Language and Its Structure: Some Fundamental Linguistic Concepts. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. Maćkiewicz, Jolanta and Edward Łuczyński. 2001. Językoznawstwo ogólne: Wybrane zagadnienia. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. English in Scotland

1. Population: the Celts, the Picts, the English, the Vikings, and the Normans.

2. The burghs as Anglo-Norman settlements in Scotland after the Norman Conquest (1066) and other new township names in the heart of Scotland, e.g. Staneycroft, Stobstone, Bradwell.

3. Northumbrian and Scots Gaelic spoken in Scotland in the 6th century AD. Scotland a Gaelic-speaking country till the end of the 13th c.: Alexander III the last Gaelic king.

4. ‘Scottis’ (1286-1560) and the influence of English. The capital moved from Perth to Edinburgh. The Balliols, the Bruces, the Stewarts and the 300 Years’ War against England. National literature and ‘Scottis’ vs. ‘Inglis’ (1494).

5. Southern English influence (1560-1700) and the prestige of English. Printing introduced in 1508. Reformation and the traditional alliance with France. James I the king of England (1603) and the declining role of Scots.

6. 1700-1900 and renewed interest in old Scottish poetry, e.g. Allan Ramsay (1686-1758) and John Watson (1850-1907). David Hume (1711-1776) and his pro-English attitude. Romantic period, e.g. Robert Burns (1759-1796) and Walter Scott (1771-1832). John Jamieson and The Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language (1808).

7. Highlands faithful to Catholicism. The uprisings of 1715 and 1745.

8. Older Scots (to 1700). a/ , e.g. presence of [l] after [a], [o], [u] as in calm [ka:lm]; [u] unaffected in down [doon]; articulations devil [deil], serve [ser] and act [ack], collect [colleck]. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions ene [eyes], shuin [shoes], childir vs. childrin/children; Germanic core, but strong French influence; 3,506 words typical only of Scots, e.g. scathful [harmful], halfindall [a half part]; Gaelic topographical names, e.g. ben [peak], glen [valley], loch [lake], craig [gorge]. c/ Syntax, e.g. that dominant as a relative pronoun.

9. . a/ Phonology, e.g. the retention of [x] in bright, rough, daughter. b/ Lexis: on The Shetlands, e.g. expressions lorin [cormorant], blogga [marsh]; in the North- East, e.g. expressions spurgie [sparrow], hallach [scatterbrained]; in Galloway, e.g. expressions banter [exchange], Cadillac [sea lamprey]; in the Borders, e.g. expressions crackie [3-legged stool], huller [cold mist], pronouns mines [mine] and thou [you]. c/ Syntax, e.g. clitic forms isna [is not], kanna [cannot], willna [will not], disna [does not] (see http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/auxiliar.htm); non-periphrastic negation, e.g. –Comes he? –He comes not. 10. . a/ Phonology, e.g. rhotic accents. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions crannie [little finger], forenoon [late morning], academy [senior secondary school], advocate [barrister].

English in Ireland

1. Population: the Celts, the Vikings, the English (since 1169), the Scots (17th c.).

2. 1250: the first mention of the use of English in records of the Dublin Merchant Guildsmen.

3. The Middle Ages: loss of English as vernacular. Henry VIII (1541) and six counties subject to the Crown, but Irish Gaelic used by the nobility. Bilingualism (17th c.).

4. Plantation of Ulster (1607) makes Gaelic aristocracy leave. The Irish defeated by Oliver Cromwell (1649). English population in the counties between 15% and 50% (17th c.).

5. Language in Ireland: Anglo-Irish vs. Hiberno-English; .

6. Early Irish English. a/ Sources, e.g. Kildare Poems (early 14th c.). b/ Phonology, e.g. spelling and articulation of privilech [privilege].

7. Forth and Barge/y dialect. a/ Phonology, e.g. spellings and articulations of breed [bride], deemes [times]. b/ Lexis, e.g. plural forms of ashen [ashes], been [bees], kyne [cows].

8. Modern Irish English. a/ Phonology, e.g. spellings and articulations of fome vs. whom, furle vs. whirl, faat vs. what or shantleman vs. gentleman, shudge vs. judge, sheldom vs. seldom; [r] retained in all positions; epenthetic [ ] in fil m. b/ Lexis, e.g. suffix –ín in maneen, girleen, houseen. c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions He does come [ ]; There bees no partition [ ]; He does be weighing things [ ]; Those pancakes do be gorgeous [ ]; That’s how it does be [ ]; I am after writing it [ ]; We’re living here 17 years [ ].

References: Burchfield, Richard (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: CUP. English in Wales

1. Acts of Union under the Tudor Monarchy (1536 and 1542). English as the official language: no office under the Crown available to people without mastery of English.

2. Educated gentry spoke English. The rest of the gentry and the peasants spoke Welsh.

3. Welsh as language of religion among the peasants: the principle of divide and rule. Weak anglicisation of the peasantry by the end of the 18th century.

4. The Education Act (1888): tipping the linguistic scales in Wales. The Welsh working class became anglicised. Speakers of Welsh: 37% (1921), 26% (1961), 19% (1981).

5. Diglossic situation in Wales until World War II. Depopulation of the agricultural areas. Pembrokeshire and the Gower anglicised by the 15th century through English settlements.

6. Early : little evidence for Welsh English before the 20th century. a/ Syntax, e.g. constructions I am against you to come; I think to be at Newtown; The police have not catch the person; It was broke out.

7. Modern Welsh English: the presence of substratal Welsh influence. a/ Phonology, e.g. articulations runner [ ], mine [ ], house [ ]; bin [bhin], pin [phin]. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions eisteddfod (a festival of arts), bara brith (bread with currants), off (angry). c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions bringed, catched, growed; two pound, five mile; He do go to the cinema; Coal they are getting out or Singing they were as equivalent of cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences; There’s tall you are!; I’m not sure is it true or not; to stop the wood to wear out; I haven’t been nowhere; I knows that or They plays football; He hit his self or They hit their selves; You’re going home now, isn’t it?; She was pretty, pretty.

American English: external history

1. Periods in the development of American English: colonial (the colony of Jamestown, Virginia–1607); national (Declaration of Independence–1776 and onwards); international (Spanish-American War –1898 and onwards).

American dialects

1. Grammar of most dialects, e.g. constructions He hit his self on the head; Me and him will do it; Them books are on the shelf; I got me a new car; The man wasn’t saying nothing.

2. Grammar of Northern and Southern dialects, e.g. constructions I had went down there; He seen something out there; She come to my house yesterday; Nobody didn’t like the mess.

3. Northern dialect (Great Lakes and ). a/ Phonology, e.g. presence of postvocalic [r] except in New England; articulation greasy [gri: si]. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions angleworm, pail, brook. c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions wun’t; hadn’t ought; Youse won the game.

4. Midland dialect (between the North and the South). a/ Phonology, e.g. presence of retroflex postvocalic [r]. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions blinds, little piece, skillet, coal oil, redworm, green beans. c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions I got awake; I want off.

5. Southern dialect (south of the Potomac River to and Missouri). a/ Phonology, e.g. articulations often [of t n] and rouge [ru: d ]. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions right nice, bucket, peckerwood, chifforobe. c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions He big; He done it; We might could do it; I done told you that already; Y’all won the game; You might oughta take it.

6. Western dialect (beyond the Mississipi River to the Pacific Coast). a/ Phonology, e.g. articulation greasy [gri: zi]. b/ Lexis, e.g. expressions Dutch cheese, spider.

7. Appalachian and Ozark English. a/ Syntax, e.g. constructions She was a-coming home; They answered wrong; I come from Virginia original.

8. Southern Anglo and African American vernaculars. a/ Syntax, e.g. constructions I done forgot what you wanted; She usually be coming home in the evening; There wasn’t much that I couldn’t do.

References: Algeo, John (ed.). 2001. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6: English in North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aronoff, Mark (ed.). 1989. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin’s. Burchfield, Richard (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: CUP. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Grammar of /GAE compared with British English/English (BE/English)

1. Provide the BE/English equivalents of the following GAE constructions. a/ She has already gotten the letter: b/ –Did you lose it? –I may have: c/ She and the boy goes fishing: d/ She brang the book: e/ He hadn’t brung the newspaper: f/ I insist that he do it: g/ Frank sent her it: h/ She is in the hospital, lying in the bed: i/ She dove in the lake and never surfaced again: j/ He snuk quietly out of the room: k/ He must not be in–his car has gone: l/ This one is different than that one: m/ –Did you buy it already? –I didn’t buy one yet: n/ I put it in back of the shed: o/ She hasn’t seen me in ages: p/ Let’s meet at twenty of/till three or at half after eight: q/ They never lived on that street: r/ The product was never on sale:

Lexis of GAE compared with BE/English: four major categories of differences

1. Same word, different meaning. 2. Same word, additional meaning in one variety. 3. Same word, difference in style, connotation, frequency of use. 4. Same concept or item, different word.

word BE/English meaning GAE meaning

regular ‘consistent, habitual ‘consistent, habitual, average, normal’

pants ‘underpants’ ‘trousers’

smart ‘intelligent, well-groomed’ ‘intelligent’

autumn used in all styles used in poetic or formal style only

device for controlling tap faucet the outflow of water from the pipe

Lexis of GAE compared with BE/English: major differences

1. Match the following GAE lexemes with their BE/English counterparts provided below.

GAE lexeme BE/English lexeme alumnus apartment bar candy diaper cab overalls pitcher pacifier vacation purse drug store elevator first floor garbage janitor hood lawyer pullman car muffler line schedule realtor sidewalk public school mailbox station wagon gas traffic circle suspenders trunk wrench pub, flat, spanner, braces, sweets, graduate, lorry, pavement, roundabout, solicitor, dungarees, nappy, handbag, dummy, holidays, boot, petrol, jug, timetable, bonnet, pillar-box, estate agent, silencer, caretaker, ground floor, chemist, lift, queue, taxi, rubbish, sleeping car, state school, estate car

References: Crystal, David. 2002. The English Language. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Black English in America

1. Possibility of African influence: West African and Niger-Khordofanian languages.

2. Syntax: major source of differences between Black English and white American dialects. a/ General, e.g. utterance An’ so I comin’ an’ she out there blabbin’ her mouth told my sister I was playin’ hookey from school. b/ Verb system.

Negation, e.g. John run negated as John don’ run or John ain’ run; He go yesterday negated as He dit’n go yesterday.

Tense markers, e.g. The boy carried the dog dish to the house and put some dog food in it and put some water in and bring it out and called his dog . . . When the day begin to crack, the whole plantation break out with all kinds of noise, and you could tell what was going on by the kind of noise you hear.

Perfective aspect, e.g. He been go; He been eat. He been know that, I been had it a long time, I been knowing him a long time vs. I done go, I done gone, I done went.

Auxiliaries, e.g. Is you see(n) him?, Is they gone?, I is seen him.

Copulas or linking verbs, e.g. You right. c/ Noun and pronoun system.

Pluralisation, e.g. so many million dollar, a whole lotta song.

Personal pronouns, e.g. He a nice little girl, I don’t know her [a male linguist’s] name. d/ Prepositions, e.g. Put the cat out the house, The dress is made outta wool, She teach Francis Pool [educational institution]. e/ Relative clauses.

There was one woman owns some slaves . . .

I has an uncle was one of the world’s heavyweight contenders.

He got a gun which it sound like a bee.

My youngest sister, what live in Georgia, writ me about a year ago. f/ Questions, e.g. I don’t know can he go. References: Dillard, Joey Lee. 1973. Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States. New York: Vintage. Black English in the Caribbean

1. Geography: Leeward Islands, Barbados, Providence Island, Dutch Winward Islands, Suriname, Jamaica, Bahamas, Virgin Islands, Guiana.

2. Different ethno-linguistic communities from in the Africa17th century. Creolisation of English.

3. Lexis, e.g. expressions fufu (boiled and mashed vegetables), lion (cougar), tiger (jaguar), tea (coffee or cocoa) as in I must have my tea (coffee or cocoa) before I go to bed.

4. Pronouns, e.g. forms mi (I, me, my), you (you, your), im (he, him, his), wi (we, us, our), um (you, your), dem (they, them).

5. Nouns, e.g. forms shuuz (shoe or shoes).

6. Verbs, e.g. forms to marid (to marry), to fishin’ (to fish), to dark up, to drunk up, to hug up, to wet up.

7. Syntax. a/ Big-big (very big), a long-long walk (a very long walk). b/ From I was a child I do this (1602). c/ If you wud sief, you wud ron’ (If you want to be safe, you should run). d/ He advantage her (He took advantage of her). e/ She out the light (She put out the light). f/ Aal di waari ron kom bai mi (ran came=came running). g/ Di uman biebi (the woman’s baby). h/ Im no wier shuuz (He doesn’t wear shoes). i/ I can? (Can I?).

References: Burchfield, Richard (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. English in Canada

1. History. a/ English settlement in Newfoundland in the early 17th century. b/ A large part of the territory ceded to England in 1713. c/ in English hands since 1763. d/ British Loyalists arriving in the province after the American Revolution in 1783.

2. Bilingualism: 84 % speakers English, 14 % speakers of French, and 2 % speak other languages. /CE is an amalgam of British and American features. Standard CE, or General Canadian/GC is spoken by the educated urban middle-class from Ontario to Vancouver Island.

3. Phonology. a/ Metal vs. medal, latter vs. ladder, hearty vs. hardy, atom vs. Adam as . b/ Which vs. witch, where vs. wear, whale vs. wail as homophones. c/ Articulations of suit [ ] vs. Tuesday [ ], due [ ], new [ ]. d/ Articulation of arm [ ].

6. Lexis. a/ Foreign wordstock, e.g. kayak (Inuktitut), chipmunk (Ojibwa), saskatoon (Cree), muskeg (Cree). b/ Canadianisms.

Politics, e.g. Francophone, separatist, land claim, Status Indian, and mainstreeting. Finance, e.g. credit union, toonie. Education, e.g. bird course, week. Food and drink, e.g. all dressed, drink(ing) box, and screech. Miscellaneous, e.g. snow route, blood donor clinic, seat sale, splash pants, reno and physio. c/ Canadian slang, e.g. expressions hoser, spinny, chippy, to have had the biscuit, Molson muscle, double-double, loonie, hydro, regular, joe job. d/ Canadian vs. American and British expressions.

Bachelor apartment, runners/running shoes, bank machine, chesterfield, eaves trough, grade one, parkade, scribbler, washroom.

ATM, couch, gutters, studio apartment, parking garage, first grade, restroom, notebook, /tennis shoes.

Settee, studio flat/bed-sit, gutters, cash dispenser, first form, car park, trainers, exercise book, lavatory/loo.

7. Syntax: American and British elements. a/ I have gotten a letter. b/ She dove in the lake. c/ He lent her some money. d/ As well, I have to do some work. e/ He complains a lot anymore. f/ He is after telling me all about it. g/ So you like it, eh? and How are you doing, eh? h/ Is John ever stupid! and Does John ever drive fast! i/ It’s angry she will be and It’s stressed we will be. j/ We could sit on the floor ‘cep ‘fer the teacher would probably tell us not to. k/ It is quarter to twelve. l/ He lives on that street. m/ She is different than me. n/ I put it behind the shed. o/ After the accident Helen had to go to hospital. p/ He is taking his first vacation in two years. q/ She felt sick to the stomach. r/ He was named for his grandfather. s/ The project was postponed due to the lack of funds.

8. French influence on Canadian English. a/ Lexis, e.g. expressions shanty, coulee. b/ Syntax, e.g. order of nouns and attributives, e.g. Air Canada, Revenue Canada, Parks Canada, and Statistics Canada; collocations, e.g. to give a conference [a lecture] from French donner une conference and take [make] a decision from French prendere la decision.

9. Canadian sayings. a/ He’s long gone to Mancoda (Saskatchewan). b/ He’s from BC (Ontario). c/ His mind’s as empty as the sleeping-pill counter at a Niagara Falls motel. d/ She had a grin as wide as St. Lawrence. e/ The best thing that ever came out of Toronto was the train to Thunder Bay. f/ Make like a maple leaf and drop off. g/ It is colder than a polar bear’s pyjamas on the shady side of an iceberg.

References: Algeo, John (ed.). 2001. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6: English in North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rozumko, Agata. 2006. Metaphors and Similes in Australian and Canadian Folk Sayings. In Krzysztof Bogacki and Anna Miatluk (eds), Semantic Relations in Language and Culture, 273-280. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku. Http://www.grammar.about.com>Canadian English. English in Australia

1. Late 18th century: Australia as a convict settlement. The First Fleet arrived in Sydney Cove on January 26th 1788.

2. Australian English/AE: south-east English (rural and city) as its basis.

3. Phonology. a/ Articulation of the idea of [ -r- ]. b/ No [r] in farther and world. c/ Articulation of milk [ ].

4. . a/ Endings –y and –o in Johnny and Johnno rather than Johnnie. b/ Verbal forms in the sentence The committee has/have decided.

5. Lexis. a/ Words ending in vowels, e.g. Wodonga, kangaroo. b/ Words ending in a velar , e.g. boomerang, jumbuck. c/ Proper names, e.g. Tasmania and Australia. d/ Convict life, e.g. to throw off at, to ding, lag, old hand, new chum. e/ Gold rushes, e.g. cradle, grog shop, to get down to bedrock. f/ Pastoral industry, e.g. sheep station. g/ Abbreviations, e.g. barbie, Aussie, arvo.

6. Syntax. a/ Prepositions, e.g. He looked out (of) the window. b/ Verb forms, e.g. I seen him and He might’ve took him. c/ Conditional forms, e.g. If I’d’ve (known). . . d/ Conjunctions, e.g. Funny old car, I quite like it but.

7. Match the following AE expressions with their BE equivalents.

To barrack for, footpath, stroller, singlet, paddock, bathers, washer, good day, lolly, weekender vs. field, hello, pavement, push-chair, swimming costume, sweet, vest, to support, holiday cottage, face-cloth.

8. Australian slang. Match the following AE expressions with their BE equivalents.

Drongo, chine, offsider, sheila, full as a boot, to spit the dummy, to front up, to fine up, to shoot a fairy, She’ll be apples vs. fool, partner/companion, mate, drunk, girl, to lose one’s temper, to improve (used of weather), to arrive, Everything is going to be OK, to break wind.

9. The influence of GAE on AE in terms of lexis. a/ Politics, e.g. electorate, floating voters. b/ Miscellaneous, e.g. truck, elevator, freeway, but BE words petrol, boot, tap.

10. Translate the following text from AE to BE using the words provided below it.

I got up and put on my black daks. They are the most exy piece of my clobber as they’re my

Dad’s last Chrissie prezzie. My Dad’s a bonzer bloke and I like him most of my rellies. That’s cos I’ve got no Mum and my brother’s a bloody bludger and an ignorant ocker. We’ve never been matey with each other and I often get aggro with him.

I had a nana and a sanger for brekkie and then took my ankle biters to the kindie. In the arvo I talked to my nib about our new Kiwi bizzo partners, and I had a snag and a durry during the smoko. In the evo I dropped in to the shop to buy some tucker and grog for the barbie we’ll have on Sunday. It’s London to a brick that no one will bring anything, we’ve agreed it would be a BYO party though.

I had a chook, some vedgies and amber for tea and then Shazza lobbed in. She looked beaut and in full feather, so she earbashed all night long. In the end I had to walk her to her unit, cos my car had gone cactus. When I was back I felt a bit crook, so I hit the sack right away.

Beer, very good, chicken, clothes, ill, trousers, alcohol, well-dressed, banana, sausage, chap, children, food, absolutely certain, cigarette, fool, angry, idler, talk incessantly, simpleton.

10. Australian sayings. a/ Sydney or the bush! b/ Don’t turn dingo on me! c/ It’s lower than a snake’s belly. d/ I’m on the wallaby track.

References: Burchfield, Richard (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: CUP. Crystal, David. 2002. The English Language. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Rozumko, Agata. 2006. Metaphors and Similes in Australian and Canadian Folk Sayings. In Krzysztof Bogacki and Anna Miatluk (eds), Semantic Relations in Language and Culture, 273-280. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku. Http://www.australianenglish1.narod.ru. English in New Zealand

1. The Polynesian influence since 925. The arrival of the Dutch in 1642. The arrival of James Cook in 1769. Anglican missionaries present in the country since 1814. The Treaty of Waitangi between Maori chiefs and the Crown in 1840.

2. More New Zealand-born Europeans than immigrants in 1890: the beginnings of /NZE, which is a variant of south-east English system.

3. Phonology. a/ Articulations of which [hw t ], fast as [f st], and arm [a: m].

4. Lexis. a/ Local words for flora and fauna, e.g. matai (black pine). b/ GAE expressions, e.g. guy, kerosene, movie, muffler, truck. c/ GAE high-style advertising terms, e.g. flashlight, elevator, diaper, cookie. d/ Miscellaneous expressions, e.g. sickie, rellies, footpath, cobber.

5. Syntax: NZE, BE, and GAE constructions. a/ It has proven the point. b/ She’ll be right! c/ Do you have time today? d/ Will I open the window? e/ I didn’t used to swim when I was young. f/ I have seen it last week. g/ I’ve gotten used to it now. h/ They will meet with Mary. i/ She will appeal this decision.

Maori and Maori English

1. Maori: a Polynesian language; VSO word order; only some nouns marked for plural; 5 vowels and 10 .

2. Maori English/ME syntax. a/ Who’s your name? b/ He asked me if I will go c/ I wish we are going to town tomorrow.

References: Burchfield, Richard (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: CUP. Crystal, David. 2002. The English Language. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. English in South Africa

1. The Dutch East India Company at the Cape (1652).

2. Population. a/ The Dutch. b/ French Huguenots. c/ Caffres (Zulu and Swazi). d/ The Hottentots (Khoikhoi) reduced to slaves.

3. British occupation of the Cape (1795-1838). Exodus of the Boers northwards and eastwards known as The Great Trek. Dutch Trekker Republics: Natalia, Orange Free State, and Transvaal (1839-1869).

4. The industrial revolution and extraction of diamonds in Johannesburg and Kimberley (1870-1910).

5. The Boer Wars of 1881-2 and 1899-1902.

6. Dutch Republics and English colonies form The Union of South Africa (1910). Anglo- Afrikaaner cooperation (1910-1990s). Resistance of The African National Congress (Nelson Mandela) and Soweto uprising (1976).

7. /SAE. a/ Politics.

English as an exclusive language in courts since 1827. English and on equal footing (1910). Bilingualism as a result of intermarriage. b/ Statistics.

10% of the population speak English as first language in 1820. 2,8 million speakers of English as first language and 4,9 million speakers of Afrikaans as first language in a population of 25 million people in 1980. c/ Varieties of SAE.

Cape English, Natal English, and Transvaal English. The influence of Afrikaans (South African Dutch/SAD). d/ Phonology.

[ ] replaced by [ ] in broad accents, e.g. dinner [ ], limited [ ] even in stressed .

No rhoticity, but words Afrikaner, apartheid (SAD influence).

Unaspirated consonants p, t, k (SAD influence). Devoicing of final voiced , especially in polysyllabic words, e.g. defeated [ ]. e/ Lexis.

Expressions assimilated from SAD, e.g. smous (pedlar), spruit (stream), lekker (nice), kopje (small hill), stompie (cigarette stump), ja (yes), sloep (verandah), die lekker lewe (good life).

Symbolism of trek, e.g. expressions voortrekker, trekboeren.

Dutch and Afrikaans present in local names, e.g. Johannesburg, Pretoria.

Warfare terms, e.g. commando (republican troops), khakis (), concentration camps.

Other expressions, e.g. bioscope (cinema) in They went to bioscope. f/ Syntax.

Dank du as a polite refusal.

Sentence initiators, e.g. No, sure, we will do it.

Pro-predicates, e.g. –They got married. –Is it?

Prepositional phrases, e.g. He parked the car otherside the bridge (anderkant die brug in SAD).

8. Match the following SAE expressions with their British English equivalents provided below.

Busy with

Robot

Location

Land

Camp

Just now

Traffic light, paddock, cultivated field, engaged in, in a little while, black residential area.

References: Burchfield, Robert (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, David. 2002. The English Language. Harmondsworth: Penguin. English in South Asia

1. Four language families in the region: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, and Munda. 2. English in India: East India Company (1600); the 19th century missionaries. 3. The role of the Empire: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Ceylon. 4. Planned activity to introduce English in the region since 1835; prior to that time each state had its own policy. 5. Types of South Asian English/SAE. a/ Babu English: influenced by Hindi and Urdu and used by clerks in Bengal. Text sample: Sir, being much in need and suffering many privations I have after long time come to the determinations to trouble your bounteous goodness. To my sorrow I have not the good friendships with many people hence my slow rate of progression and destitute state. b/ Butler/Kitchen/Bearer English: a pidgin used in Madras. Text sample: Tea, I making water. Is boiled water. Want anybody want mixed tea, boil the water, then I put tea leaves, then I pour the milk and put sugar.

Syntax, e.g. constructions I telling (I will tell), I done tell (I have told you), family (wife). c/ Boxwãllã(h) English: used by door-to-door sellers. Syntax, e.g. constructions I come go (I am going away, but I’ll be back), One man no chop (Eating is not the privilege of only one person), This good, fresh ten rupee (This is good and fresh; it is only ten rupees), He thief me (He robs/robbed me, etc.).

6. The South-Asianness of SAE. a/ Phonology.

Initial voiceless plosives not aspirated because aspiration is distinctive in Hindi and Urdu, e.g. pal (moment) vs. phal (fruit).

Different distribution of consonant clusters sk–, sl–, st–, e.g. in the expression school [isku: l]. b/ Lexis.

Words catamaran, cheetah, pariah, bungalow. Hybrid elements, e.g. bindi mark. Miscellaneous expressions, e.g. litters, fruits, aircrafts, chalk-piece, key-bunch, schoolgoer, Himalayan blunder, pin-drop silence, backward class, cow worship, pay attention on, accompany with, combat against. c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions It is a hot, hot coffee; She hesitated from using it; He is knowing the answer; Who and who left early?; They went running running.

References: Burchfield, Richard (ed.). 1994. The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development. Cambridge: CUP. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Pidgins

1. The medieval concept of lingua franca: a mixed language or a contact language.

2. Properties. a/ They are “simple, clumsy languages incapable of nuance, detail, abstraction and precision” (McArthur 1998: 161 cit. in Jenkins 2003: 9). b/ They have no native speakers, and communication is reduced to basic transactions, which leads to redundancy, e.g. the expression di tu big pepa (the two big papers) in Cameroon pidgin. c/ Lexis comes from a dominant/lexifier language, e.g. English. Its phonology and syntax often come from indigenous languages.

Wes-Kos (English-based pidgin used in Cameroon, West Africa)

1. Phonology, e.g. articulations of bath [baf], nose [nows], camp [kam], stranger [trenja], and school [sikul].

2. Lexis, e.g. expressions was-rum-was-rum (washrooms), tif-tif (to steal repeatedly), and dokta-kau (veterinarian).

3. Syntax, e.g. constructions I bin gow mit king-boi (He went to meet the prince); Wi masa i tu wuman, dem now fit gow josna (Our boss’s two wives can’t go now).

Common elements of other pidgins

1. Phonology, e.g. articulations of friend (fren), salt (sol), cold (col).

2. Lexis. a/ Reduced pronouns, e.g. me (I, me). b/ Expressions tok (talk) vs. toktok (chatter); sip (ship) vs. sipsip (sheep); pis (peace) vs. pispis (to urinate); was (watch) vs. waswas (to wash) in Pacific and Atlantic pidgins. c/ Expressions lemooto (Fr. le mouton–sheep), lalang (Fr. la langue–language/tongue) in (based on Chinook, Nootka, French, and English; used in Oregon to the panhandle).

References: Aronoff, Mark (ed.). 1989. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin’s. Crystal, David. 2002. The English Language. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Creoles

1. A creole is “a pidgin that has become a first language of a new generation of speakers . . . A creole, therefore, is a ‘normal’ language in almost every sense” (Wardhaugh 2002: 60-61 cit. in Jenkins 2003: 10).

2. Properties. a/ Lexis: shorter words formed along phrases, e.g. man bilong pait (fighter) becomes paitman; word-building develops, e.g. the verbal suffix –im: bik (large)→bikim (to enlarge), brait (wide)→braitim (to widen). b/ Syntax: creoles spoken faster than pidgins due to assimilation and reduction of phrases, e.g. man bilong mi (my husband) becomes mamblomi; tense system develops, e.g. bin marks past tense and bi (from baimbai) marks future tense; sentence complexity increases. c/ Creoles have native speakers.

Tok Pisin (English-based pidgin used in New Guinea).

1. Structure. a/ Phonology: only 5 vowels: [a], [e], [i], [o], [u]; no contrasts based on . b/ Lexis: more complex pronouns, e.g. pronouns yumi (the addressee and the speaker) and mepela (the speaker and others). c/ Syntax, e.g. constructions naispela house (nice house) and gutpela meri (good woman); possessives with bilong (of), e.g. papa bilong mi (my father), haus bilong yu (your house).

2. Text samples. a/ Bimeby hed bilongyu i–arrait gain. b/ Colgate i save strongim tit bilong yu. c/ Lukaut: planti switpela kaikai na loli i savi bagarapim tit hariap.

Hawaiian Creole English: text samples a/ Us two bin get hard time dog. b/ John-them stay cockroach the kaukau. c/ He lazy, ‘a’swhy he no like play. d/ More better I bin go Honolulu for buy om. e/ The guy gon’ lay the vinyl bin quote me price. f/ Bin get one wahine she get three daughter. g/ She no can go, she no more money, ‘a’swhy.

References: Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2002. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. Yule, George. 1991. The Study of Language: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. English-based pidgins and creoles

1. Tok Pisin: text samples and their English equivalents.

“The Lord’s Prayer”

Fader bilong mifelo, yu stop long heven–Ol i santuim nem bilong yu–Kingdom bilong yu i kam–Ol i hirim tok bilong yu long graund olsem long heven. Tude givim mifelo kaikai bilong de–Forgivim rong bilong mifelo–olsem mifelo forgivim rong–ol i mekim long mifelo. Yu no bringun mifelo long traiim–tekewe samting no gud long mifelo. Amen. (Tok Pisin Nupela Testamen translation, 1969)

Our father in heaven, may your name be held holy, your Kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we have forgiven those who are in debt to us. And do not put us to the test, but save us from the evil one. (The Jerusalem Bible, Matthew 6, 9-13)

“Ol meri gat bikpela wari yet”/“Women still have big worries”

Helt na envairomen em ol bikpela samting ol meri long kantri tude i gat bikpela wari long en. Bikos dispela tupela samting i save kamap strong long sindaun na laip bilong family na komyuniti insait long ol ples na kantri. Long dispela wik, moa long 40 meri bilong Milen Be provins i bung long wanpela woksop long Alotau bilong toktok long hevi bilong helt na envairomen long ol liklik ailan na provins. Bung i bin stat long Mande na bai pinis long Fraide, Epril 22. Ol opisa bilong Melanesin Envairomen Faundesen wantaim nesenel na provinsal helt opis i long stap tu bilong givim toktok insait long dispela woksop.

Health and environment are two of the major things which women in the country today have big concerns about. Because these two things often have a strong effect on the situation and life of families and communities within villages and in the country. This week, more than 40 women from Milne Bay Province are meeting in a workshop at Alotau in order to talk about the difficulties of health and environment in the small islands and provinces. The meeting began on Monday and will finish on Friday April 22. The officers of the Melanesian Environment Foundation together with the national and provincial health office are there too in order to give talks in the workshop.

English in Europe, The United States, and Asia

Europe

Great Britain: Cockney Rhyming Slang

1. Lexis, e.g. expressions Aristotle/Arry (bottle), war and strife, carving-knife, drum and fife, joy of my life, storm and strife, struggle and strife, trouble and strife, worry and strife (wife), bottle of spruce (two pence/deuce), the old pot and pan (old man).

2. Syntax, e.g. construction The old pot got an Arry for his trouble and strife.

Great Britain: Estuary English/EE

1. EE is the most recent variety of English in Great Britain. It is between the RP and Cockney. Campaign launched by the UK Education Secretary in 1994 to stop the spread of EE among young speakers.

2. Phonology, e.g. articulations very funny [veri: f ni:], assume [ ], pursuit [ ], middle [m d l], button [b t n], There is a lot of it about [ z l v i bau’], It is due on Tuesday [ it s d u: on T u: zdi], Get off at the station, The phone was ringing, I’m interested that you say it; speech more nasal and slower than in RP.

France:

1. Use of English words regarded as unwelcome in French.

2. Lexis, e.g. expressions un fuck-off, le weekend (la fin de semaine), un parking, un camping, un déstockage.

Germany: Gerglish

1. Lexis, e.g. the hybrid compounds Telefon junkie and Drogenfreak.

Poland: Polglish

1. Examples of Polish youth slang expressions influenced by English: batman, czipłajn, depesz, dżądra, jump, kałboj, lukadło, pałer, smerf, widło, zadżebisty.

The European Union

1. The official status of the languages of member states.

2. The three dominant languages.

3. English is the ‘biggest’ language and the European lingua franca. It is used to express emotional and social identities of young people.

4. Code switching and code mixing possible.

5. Euro(pean)-English and the processes of denativisation, that is, de-americanization and de- anglicization.

The United States: Spanglish

1. It is a pidgin based on Mexican Spanish and American English. It has simplified Spanish grammar and many borrowings from English.

2. Lexis. a/ Pipe/tubo/paipa. b To catch/atrapar/cachar. c/ To park a car/aparcar un coche/parquear el carro. d/ Vacuum the carpet/aspirar la alfombra/vacuemar la carpeta. e/ The roof of the building/el techo del edificio/el rufo del bíldin. f/ Tough/duro/tofe. g/ Brakes/los frenos/las brekas. h/ Truck/camión/troca. i/ To load/cargar/lodear.

Asia: Singapore

1. Colloquial /CSE or is different from Standard Singapore English/SSE. It is a contact rather than a code-mix variety with semi-institutionalised status like Spanglish or Hindlish. a/ Phonology: tendency to lengthen the final vowels, e.g. stories→storeees, quality→ qualiteee, shopping→shoppeeeng. b/ Lexis.

Borrowings from other Singaporean languages, e.g. siau (crazy), buaya (womanizer), ulu (country bumpkin).

Idioms, e.g. I feel so frus (frustrated); I just go zap this article (photocopy); Now her boss away, she shake legs only (Now that her boss is away, she idles away her time).

Forms feedbacks, staffs, etc. c/ Syntax.

Verbs used as adjectives, e.g. blur (confused).

Examples of constructions, e.g. I very scared, I so blur; I was study in Primary School; This house was belong his son.

References: Aronoff, Mark (ed.). 1989. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. English as an international language

1. Which of the following are most important to people who want to be able to communicate internationally in English? a/ Historical reasons. b/ Internal political reasons. c/ External economic reasons. d/ Practical reasons. e/ Intellectual reasons. f/ Entertainment reasons.

2. Mutual intelligibility vs. group identity. Consider the following points as a speaker of English as a second or subsequent language? a/ Have you ever given thought to retaining your L1 identity in English? b/ Is it important to you to retain your L1 identity in English? c/ Are you more concerned to be intelligible to native speakers of English or to non-native speakers of English, or do you not distinguish between the two groups of listeners? d/ Do you believe it is appropriate to retain your L1 accent in your English or that you should attempt to sound ‘native-like’? e/ Do you believe it is possible to retain your L1 accent in English and still be intelligible to native speakers/non-native speakers of English?

3. What is your reaction to the following distinction between the learning/speaking of English and that of other modern foreign languages such as Spanish?

Most people quite simply do not learn English to speak to native speakers. On the other hand, people learn Spanish, as I am doing at present, because they are interested in Hispanic culture for some reason (work or pleasure) and will therefore want a spoken and written model which will further this aim. There is a world of difference between English and, in fact, all other living languages at present. (Prodromou 1997: 19)

6. Difficulties inherent in English. a/ Unpredictable spelling, e.g. pronouncing the sequence ‘ea’ (bead, head, bear, fear, pearl) or ‘ough’ (cough, bough, tough, through); silent letters ‘p’ and ‘k’ (pneumonia, psychology, know). b/ A large number of vowels and ; frequent use of weak vowel forms. c/ A large number of tenses, modal verbs, and multi-word verbs.

7. Is a new international language with less linguistic complexity possible?

References: Jenkins, Jennifer. 2003. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge.