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21St CENTURY LANGUAGE POLICY in JAMAICA and TRINIDAD AND View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Birmingham Research Archive, E-theses Repository 21st CENTURY LANGUAGE POLICY IN JAMAICA AND TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO by ANNA ELIZABETH CRESSWELL A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS BY RESEARCH Department of English Language and Applied Linguistics School of English, Drama and American & Canadian Studies University of Birmingham October 2018 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Language rise models continue to play a role in world Englishes research but their potential to consider agency has not yet been applied in a complete manner. Existing research situates colonialism as the more salient variable in language rise but this assessment needs reviewing in order to determine its suitability for 21st century language policy. Language policy studies have centred around the activities of postcolonial nations in Asia; as such, the Caribbean is under-researched in comparison to these nations. This study addresses language attitudes in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago to identify if agency plays a role in the rise of the English language and to challenge the out-dated view that language rise, in modern day, is a result of colonialism. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Paul Thompson, for the guidance and support he has provided over the last 12 months. I would also like to acknowledge the Senate House Library, University of London in providing access to the data required to complete this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Rationale and aims 1 1.2 The use of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago 1 1.3 The way the thesis is organised 3 1.4 Key terms 4 1.4.1 Language policy and planning 5 1.4.2 Language rise and language spread 5 1.4.3 Colonisation 6 1.4.4 Postcolonialism and postcolonial Englishes 6 1.4.5 Globalisation 7 CHAPTER 2 – HISTORICAL CONTEXT 8 2.1 Overview 8 2.2 History before European colonisation 8 2.3 European first encounters of the Caribbean 10 2.4 European involvement in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago 16 2.4.1 Jamaica 16 2.4.2 Trinidad and Tobago 19 2.5 Chapter summary 22 CHAPTER 3 – LANGUAGE CONTEXT IN JAMAICA AND 24 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 3.1 Overview 24 3.2 Caribbean Creole languages 25 3.3 English Creoles and the Creole continuum 26 3.4 Language presence in Jamaica 27 3.5 Language presence in Trinidad and Tobago 28 3.6 Summary of language presence in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago 29 3.7 Sociolinguistic context of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago 31 3.8 Language planning 33 3.9 English in the Caribbean curriculum 35 3.10 Chapter summary 37 CHAPTER 4 – THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 39 4.1 Overview 39 4.2. Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism 39 4.2.1 Aims and motivations 40 4.2.3 Approach 41 4.2.3 Results 42 4.2.4 Summary 44 4.3 Alastair Pennycook, The Cultural Politics of English as an International 45 language and The Discourses of Colonialism 4.3.1 Aims and motivations 45 4.3.2 Approach 46 4.3.3 Results 47 4.4 Crusoe myth 49 4.5 Summary of Phillipson and Pennycook 50 4.6 Challenges of Phillipson’s and Pennycook’s assessments 51 4.7 The notion of ‘agency’ 53 4.8 ELT and the British Council 56 4.9 Other work surrounding world English attitudes 58 4.10 Views from West Indian native scholars 60 4.11 Chapter summary 62 CHAPTER 5 – THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALISATION 64 5.1 Overview 64 5.2 What is globalisation? 64 5.3 Existing research on language and globalisation 67 5.4 The role of English in globalisation 67 5.5 Chapter summary 69 CHAPTER 6 – METHODOLOGY 70 6.1 Aims and research proposal 70 6.2 Considered methods 70 6.3 Research design 72 6.4 Manifestos 73 6.4.1 Selection of manifestos 76 6.4.2 Sincerity of official documents 77 6.5 The Language Attitude Survey of Jamaica 77 6.6 Method 79 6.7 Ethical considerations 80 CHAPTER 7 – THE LANGUAGE ATTITUDE SURVEY OF JAMAICA 81 7.1 Overview 81 7.2 Profile of sample 82 7.3 Language awareness 83 7.4 Language use and stereotypes 84 7.5 Jamaican Patwa as an official language 87 7.6 Education 88 7.7 Chapter summary 90 CHAPTER 8 – POLITICAL CONTEXT OF JAMAICA 92 AND TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 8.1 Overview 92 8.2 Jamaica 93 8.2.1 Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) 93 8.2.2 People’s National Party (PNP) 94 8.3 Trinidad and Tobago 95 8.3.1 People’s National Movement (PNM) 95 8.3.2. The People’s Partnership Coalition (PPC) and the 96 United National Congress (UNC) 8.4 Chapter summary 97 CHAPTER 9 – POLITICAL PARTY MANIFESTO ANALYSIS 98 9.1 Overview 98 9.2 Results and Findings 99 9.3 Case-study analysis 101 9.4 Structure of manifestos 102 9.5 Jamaica 102 9.5.1 People’s National Party 1976 102 9.5.2 People’s National Party 2011 104 9.5.3 People’s National Party 2016 107 9.5.4 Jamaica Labour Party 1976 110 9.5.5 Jamaica Labour Party 2011 113 9.5.6 Jamaica Labour Party 2016 117 9.5.7 Summary of Jamaican manifestos 118 9.6 Trinidad and Tobago 119 9.6.1 People’s National Movement 1976 119 9.6.2 People’s National Movement 2015 122 9.6.3 The People’s Partnership Coalition 2010 124 9.6.4 The People’s Partnership Coalition 2015 127 9.6.5 Summary of Trinidadian manifestos 131 9.7 Chapter summary 132 CHAPTER 10 – DISCUSSION 134 10.1 Overview 134 10.2 Agency 135 10.3 Globalisation as a suitable model 137 10.4 Cultural baggage 141 10.5 Language maintenance 144 10.6 Exonormative orientation 145 10.7 The emphasis on the British Council 146 10.8 Beyond globalisation 147 10.9 The future of language rise models 148 10.10 Chapter summary 149 CHAPTER 11 – CONCLUSION 151 11.1 Overview 151 11.2 Findings 151 11.3 Limitations 152 11.4 Future study 153 BIBLIOGRAPHY 154 APPENDICES 163 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 Map of the Caribbean from Deuber (2014) 9 Figure 2 Colonial possession of the Caribbean Islands at the beginning 15 of the 19th century adapted from Deuber (2014). LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Summary of the language situation in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago 30 Table 2. Table 3, Language Attitude Survey of Jamaica, 2005. 82 Table 3. Table 9, Language Attitude Survey of Jamaica, 2005. 84 Table 4. Table 18, Language Attitude Survey of Jamaica, 2005. 86 Table 5. Table 16, Language Attitude Survey of Jamaica, 2005. 87 Table 6. Table 17, Language Attitude Survey of Jamaica, 2005 88 Table 7. Largest political parties in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. 91 Table 8. Frequency of selected terms in the Jamaican and Trinidadian manifestos. 99 1 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale and aims This study aims to reassess the well-known works by Robert Phillipson (1992, 1994) and Alastair Pennycook (1994, 1998) regarding the rise of the English language in postcolonial countries with reference to postcolonial Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Their work situates colonialism as the salient variable in the rise of the English language. Both scholars consider speakers of English as predominantly social actors, constrained and influenced by colonial ideologies through the discourse of English language teaching. Their views have been influential in language rise theories but their focus on structure, British colonialism, as a cause for English language rise has meant their work has led to the exclusion of the notion of agency and the choice to acquire English. By contrast, sociologists such as Bourdieu (1977, 1991), Giddens (1984) and Norton (1997) argue that agency - the power of individuals to make free choices - alongside structure are two fundamental positions that shape and influence human behaviour and, possibly, language choice. Phillipson’s and Pennycook’s focus on structure overlooks the possibility that agency could be a factor in language rise. This thesis, through the investigation of documentary data, aims to establish whether agency plays a role in the rise of the English language. If this can be shown, this then brings into question the claim that colonialism can be considered the major driver behind English language rise in the 21st century as argued by Phillipson and Pennycook. 2 1.2 The use of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago Research surrounding language policy has primarily focussed around the activities of Asia and Africa (Bhatt, 2010; Mufwene, 2002; Mukhejee, 2010; Schneider, 2007). The West Indies, too, has prominent British colonial history but work surrounding the rise of the English language is sparse. My interest in the Caribbean, socially and culturally, outside of my studies further motivated my selection of the West Indies for this thesis. A study of language policy in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago can add important dimensions to the understanding of attitudes towards the English language in the wider global context.
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