Notes

PREFACE

Nuclear Strategies and Belief-Systems in Britain, and the FRG (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 1988). 2 and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975).

1 WESTERN EUROPE BETWEEN SOVIET THREAT AND AMERICAN GURANTEE

NATO document MC 48 (FINAL) of 22 November 1954: 'The most effective pattern of NATO military strength for the next few years', § 6 (see Preface on sources). 2 For the switch from a mainly political and ideological to a military threat perception in 1950, see Robert Jervis: 'The impact of the Korean War on the Cold War', Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 24, No. 4 (December 1980), pp. 563-92; and for the European perspective, see Beatrice Heuser: 'NSC 68 and the Soviet threat', Review of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4 (1991), pp. 17-40. 3 Beatrice Heuser: Western Containment Policies in the Cold War: The Yugoslav Case, 1948-1953 (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), pp. 125-34, and Appendix C. 4 North Atlantic Treaty, Washington, DC, 4 April 1949, in NATO Office ofInformation: NATO Handbook (Brussels: 1989), p. 14. 5 With the exception of the Neth(:rlands, see Jan Willem Honig: Defense Policy in the North Atlantic Alliance: The Case of the Netherlands (New York: Praeger, 1993), passim. 6 See Beatrice Heuser: Nuclear Strategies and Belief-Systems: Britain, France and the FRG (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 1998). 7 See for example Carl-Christoph Schweitzer (ed.): The Changing Western Analysis of the Soviet Threat (London: Pinter, 1990). 8 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 7. 9 NSC 68, Section VIII. 3, printed in Thomas Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis: Containment: Documents on American Policy and Strategy, 1945-1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), p. 416. 10 NHP Bonn, Document No. 153, 'Aufgabenstellung und Arbeit der Defense Planning Working Group', 3 May 1965. 11 Compare this with for example NATO MC 48/2(Final Decision) of 23 May 1957, § 3. 12 See Beatrice Heuser: 'Stalin as Hitler's Successor: Western Interpreta• tions of the Soviet Threat', in Beatrice Heuser and Robert O'Neill (eds): Securing Peace in Europe, 1945-62 (London: Macmillan, 1992).

173 174 Notes

13 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 7; see also NSC 162/2, 'Basic National Security Policy', of 30 October 1953, in Foreign Relations of the Unites States [henceforth FRUS] 1952-54 Vol. 11, p. 579. 14 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 9. 15 Washington, US National Archives [henceforth NA], CCS 471. 6 USSR (11-8-49) Sec. 2, Joint Intelligence Committee Report to the Joint Chiefs of Staff JCS 208111, 13 February 1950. 16 Text in full in Alan Macmillan and John Baylis: A Reassessment of the British Global Strategy Paper of 1952 International Politics Research Papers No. 13 (Aberystwyth: University of Wales, Department of Inter• national Politics, 1993), pp. 58-89, and in excerpts in John Baylis: Ambi• guity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy, 1945-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 405-14. 17 Macmillan and Baylis: Reassessment, pp. 45-51. 18 FRUS 1952-4 Vol. 11., p. 581. 19 FRUS 1952-4 Vol. 11., p. 587. 20 NATO C-M(56)138(Final) of 13 December 1956, § 2. 21 NATO MC 14/1 (FINAL) of9 December 1952; NATO MC 48 (FINAL) of 22 November 1954, pp. 5f., 9f., 16. 22 NATO C-M(55)133(Revised) of 8 December 1955, § 2. 23 Sir Anthony Eden: The Memoirs Vol. III Full Circle (London: Cassell, 1960), p. 554. Macmillan claims to have been convinced that 'the Amer• icans could not have failed to take part' in a general nuclear war which 'must have' resulted from a Soviet nuclear attack on Britain; Harold Macmillan: Riding the Storm, 1956-1959 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 165 - but see private British views on this discussed in Chapter 3. Concerning France, the German Chancellor remem• bered that the message of Bulganin's 'ultimatum' was given to the head of the French government, Guy Mollet, during a dinner attended by Ade• nauer, and Mollet immediately had instructions sent to his ambassador in Washington to ask 'about the status of the American security guarantee'. The ambassador was supposedly told by Herbert Hoover Jr. in the State Department that, in this context, the American guarantee did not apply; : Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1989), p. 107f. Ade• nauer himself and his government took Bulganin's statement so seriously that it was debated in Bonn whether the German Chancellor should indeed travel to on his scheduled visit; see Wilhelm G. Grewe: Riickblenden: Aufzeichnungen eines Augenzeugen von Adenauer bis Schmidt (Frankfurt/Main: Propyliien, 1979), pp. 281-4. 24 NHP Bonn, Document No. 153, 'Aufgabenstellung und Arbeit der Defense Planning Working Group', 3 May 1965, my translation. 25 For a good synthesis, see Jiirg von Kalckreuth: 'Sicherheitspolitik im Rahmen der NATO', Wehrkunde Vol. 18 No. 6 (June 1969); p. 289, 291. 26 Her Majesty's Government [henceforth HMG]: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1967' (London: HMSO, 1967), Cmnd. 3203, §§ 11-12. 27 HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1968' (London: HMSO, ·1968), Cmnd. 3540, § 8. 28 NATO DPC/D(67)23 'Guidance to the NATO Military Authorities' (11 May 1967), §§ 8, 9, 11, 14. Notes 175

29 See for example King's College, Liddell Hart Archives, Sandrart Papers, 'Einfuehrung Generalleutnant v. Sandrart anlaesslich Podiumsdiskussion Kirchentag am 9 June 1983'. 30 NATO MC 14/3 (Final) of 16 January 1967, pp. 3, 9. 31 Schroder: 'Wie Westeuropa zu verteidigen ist', Politische Meinung Vol. 13 No~ 4 (1968), p. 14; 'Weissbuch 1969 zur Verteidigungspolitik der Bun• desregierung', Bulletin No. 25 (28 February 1969), p. 211. Compare this with the threat assessment by NATO and the West German military before the invasion of Czechoslovakia, for example Wolf Graf von Baudissin: 'NATO Strategie im Zeichen der Friedenserhaltung', Europa• Archiv [henceforth EA] Vol. 23 No. 17 (1968), p. 637. 32 General Grafvon Kielmansegg: 'Warnings must be heeded', Survival Vol. 10 No. 11 (November 1968), originally printed in Die Welt (24 August 1968); see also the FRG's Government's endorsement of this reasoning in Federal Ministry of Defence: Defence White Book (1969) Georg Graf von Baudissin: 'Europrusche Sicherheit: Kriterien und Anforderungen', EA Vol. 24 No. I (1969), p. 14f; : 'Grundlagen der deutschen Sicherheitspolitik', Wehrkunde Vol. 18 No. 2 (February 1969), p. 54f. 33 Denis Healey: The Time of My Life (London: Michael Joseph, 1989; this edition Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 309. 34 HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1969', Cmnd. 3927 (London: HMSO, February 1969), §§ er8. 35 HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1970', Cmnd. 4290 (London: HMSO, February 1970), § 18. 36 HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1983' Cmnd. 8951 (London: HMSO, 1983), § 103. 37 See for example 'National Security Strategy of the United States', signed by Ronald Reagan, (Washington: the White House, January 1987), p. er7. 38 For Warsaw Pact exercises from the late 1970s until the late 1980s, see Beatrice Heuser: 'Warsaw Pact Military Doctrine: Findings in the East German Archives', Comparative Strategy Vol. 12 No. 4 (1993). 39 Appendix in Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence, pp. 405-15, here p. 410. 40 Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence, pp. 144, 167,210. 41 'PHASE 1 - D-Day to the stabilization of initial Soviet offensive, to include the initiation of the Allied air offensive. PHASE 2 - Stabilization of initial Soviet offensive to the initiation of major offensive operations by the Allies. PHASE 3 - Major offensive operations by the Allies. PHASE 4 - Final achievement of Allied war objectives.' NATO MC 14/1 (FINAL) of 9 December 1952. 42 NATO MC 48 (FINAL) of 22 November 1954. 43 The definitions of 'strategic' and 'tactical' vary. One British definition employed was to call 'tactical nuclear weapons' those 'used against the enemy in the battle area', and 'strategic nuclear weapons' those 'used against his homeland to destroy his will and ability to wage war'. United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Kew [henceforth PRO], FO 3711 161240, SC(61)33 of28 August 1961, para. 1. Battlefield nuclear weapons were the first to be overtaken by evolutions in technology and political 176 Notes

considerations, for instance PRO, DEFE 5/126, COS(62)163 of 17 April 1962, p. 3f. In the 1980s, West Gennan officials tended to comment bitterly that a tactical nuclear weapon was one which was targeted at Gennany. 44 Robert Wampler: 'Ambiguous Legacy: The United States, Great Britain and the Foundations of NATO Strategy, 1948-1957' (MS Ph.D. Harvard University, 1991), Vol. Ill, p. 938f. 45 NATO MC 14/2 (Revised) (Final Decision) of 23 May 1957. 46 See the British Global Strategy Paper 1952 in Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence, pp. 405-14. 47 Harold MacmiIlan: Tides of Fortune: Memoirs. 1945-1955 (London: Macmillan, 1969), p. 622. 48 and Reiner Pommerin: Strategiewechsel: Bundesrepu• blik und Nuklearstrategie in der Ara Adenauer-Kennedy (Baden Baden: Nomos, 1992), p. 26. 49 NATO MC 14/2 (Revised) (Final Decision), § 9. 50 NATO MC 1412 (Revised) (Final Decision), §§ 19-20. 51 Summary by the BMVg, 'Sprechzettel fUr Sitzung des Bundesverteidi• gungs-Rats am 25.3.1958, hier: Unterrichtung iiber Document MC 70 (Entwurf)', NHP Bonn Doe. 23 of 20 March 1958 (emphasis in the original). 52 PRO, DEFE 5/100, Annex to COS(60)57 of 8 March 1960, pp. 2·-3. 53 Ibid. 54 PRO, DE FE 5/109, COS(60)351 of 6 December 1960. 55 PRO, DEFE 4/134, COS(61)13th Mtg., 21 February 1961, Item 2: a discussion of JlC(61)4(Final): 'Soviet Strategy in the opening phase of global war up to the end of 1965', see comments in (c). 56 PRO, DEFE 41137, JP(61)68(Final) of 7 July 1961, p. 3. 57 PRO, DEFE 5/115, Annex 'A' to COS(61)230, 19 July 1961, p. 4f.; see also CAB 131125, D(61)23 of 1 May 1961, Annex 'A', p. 3, Answer to Question 17(b). 58 PRO, CAB 131/25, D(61)23, 'UK views on NATO Strategy and Nuclear Weapons', Memorandum by the Minister of Defence, 1 May 1961, p. 2. 59 'Analyse der Reden des amerikanischen Verteidigungsministers MacNa• mara [sic] und des Aussenministers Rusk am 14.12.61 Vor dem NATO Rat', 5 March 1962, NHP Bonn Doe. 89, p. 4. 60 PRO, DEFE 131211, Record of a meeting between Harold Watkinson and Robert McNamara (11 December 1961). 61 According to a Gennan summary of the Athens Guidelines, quoted in Steinhoff and Pommerin: Strategiewechsel, pp. 100-2; see also PRO, DEFE 5/127, COS(62)246 of 6 June 1962, 'How War might start'; and DEFE 5/129, COS(62)320 of 26 July 1962, p. 1. 62 'Sprechzettel fUr Herrn Minister zum Besuch Prasident Kennedys', NHP Bonn Doe. 139 of 21 June 1963 (emphasis in the original). 63 NHP Bonn Doe. 154, 'Die Strategie der USA', 18 May 1965, p. 70. 64 NHP Bonn Doe. 159 pp. 28-39; cf. also 'Deutsches Strategisches Kon• zept: Fiihrungsweisung Ne. 1, Teill', NHP Bonn Doe. 173 of 26 January 1967, pp. 6, 7. This concept reflected NATO doctrine. Notes 177

65 'Heath warnt erneut vor Abzug der US-Truppen aus Europa', Tagesspie• gel (3 February 1973); Fred Emery: 'Mr. Heath warns US on the dangers of pulling out of Europe', The Times (5 February 1973). 66 'Times have changed for the Yank in Europe', The Times (25 October 1972). 67 Walther Leisler Kiep: 'Grundlagen der deutschen Sicherheitspolitik', Wehrkunde Vol. 18 No. 2 (February 1969), p. 55. 68 : 'A general defence policy overview', NATO's 15 Nations Vol. 22 No. 4 (August/September 1977), p. 57. 69 'NATO Verteidigungsplanung: Thema: Aufgabenstellung und Arbeit der Defense Planning Working Group', 3 May 1965, NHP Bonn Doc. 153, p. 5f; 'Die Strategie der USA', 18 May 1965, NHP Bonn Doc. 154, p. 69ff. 70 'Fiihrungsweisung Nr. 1: Deutsche Auffassung zum strategischen Kon• zept der NATO', 21 July 1965, Doc. Bonn 159, pp. 12-15. 71 'NATO Verteidigungsplanung: Thema: Aufgabenstellung und Arbeit der Defense Planning Working Group', 3 May 1965, NHP Bonn Doc. 153, p. 5f; 'Die Strategie der USA', 18 May 1965, NHP Bonn Doc. 154, p. 69ff. 72 Editorial: 'Dissuasion et Prestige', Esprit Vol. 31 No. 323 (December 1963), p. 813; General Valluy: 'Reflexions sur le "deterrent"', Revue Defense Nationale [henceforth RDNJ Vol. 19 No. 6 (June 1963), pp. 925-36; J. Levy-Jacquemin: 'Reponse a M. Sanguinetti: notre defense nucleaire', (3 October 1963). 73 For example, Jean Didisheim; 'L'Amerique et nous', Le Monde (2 June 1965); Alain Terrenoire's statements at the NATO young politicians' meeting at University College, Oxford, 1965, 'Can the use of nuclear weapons be decided upon collectively?' NATO Letter (October 1965), p. 22; Marc Valle: 'Les Yankees et la France', Combat (18 April 1966). 74 Rene Dabernat: 'La desamericanisation', Combat (18 January 1963). 75 Captain Sallerin: 'Guerre future et armee de l'air', Forces Aeriennes Franfaises Vol. 3 No. 16 (January 1948), p. 511. 76 Macmillan and Baylis (eds): A Rearsessment of the British Global Strategy Paper of 1952, p. 22 § 16. 77 P.-A. Bourget: 'Strategie Peripherique', Politique etrangere [henceforth PE] Vol. 19 No. 1 (February-March 1954), p. 65. 78 Robert Buron: 'La France face aux Etats-Unis', Le Monde (6 December 1956); Admiral Barjot, Deputy of the British of operation MUSKETEER, 'Reflexions sur les operations de 1956', RDN Vol. 22 No. 12. (December 1966), pp. 1913-24; 'M. Herve Alphand: dans des circonstances exceptionelles', Le Monde (11 June 1963). 79 See fer example 'Bombs', Observer (2 March 1958); P.M.S. Blackett: 'Nuclear Weapons and defence: comments on Kissinger, Kennan and King-Hall', International Affairs Olenceforth lA] Vol. 34 No. 4 (October 1958), p. 429; Denis Healey: 'Sputnik and Western Defence', lA Vol. 34 No. 2 (Apri11958), p. 146; Alastair Buchan: 'Britain and the Bomb', The Reporter Vol. 20 No. 6 (19 March 1959), p. 23; Adenauer in 'Besprechung beim Bundeskanzler' (27 April 1957), NHP Bonn Doc. 11; 'Der General• inspekteur der dem Herrn Minister' (26 August 1959), NHP Bonn Doc. 36 p. 7ff; Ernst Biiumler: 'Amerika iiberpriift seine Waffen', Siiddeutsche Zeitung (16 February 1960); '1st Amerika stark genug?', 178 Notes

Industriekurier (20 February 1960); Herbert v. Borch: 'Wer ist sHirker - Russland oder AmerikaT, Die Welt (23 February 1960); Hans B. Meyer: 'Das Arsenal, die Lucken und Berlin', Miinchner Merkur (24 February 1960); id. 'Wie stark sind die USA wirklich?', Kolnische Rundschau (28 February 1960). 80 See for example PRO, CAB 131125, Draft Memorandum by the British Minister of Defence: 'NATO Strategy and Nuclear Weapons', Annex to D(61)2 of 13 January 1961. 81 NA, CCS 471. 6 USSR (11-8-49) Sec. 2, JCS 208111, 13 February 1950. 82 General Paul Stehlin: 'Les consequences de la forme nucleaire de la guerre sur I'organisation de la defense nationale', Forces Aeriennes Fran• faises Vo!. 12 No. 134 and 135 (February and March 1957), pp. 143-66 and 301-17, esp. p. 161; P.G. [pierre Guillaumat?]: 'La force de Frappe', Perspectives No. 715 (30 July 1960), p. 2. 83 Basil Henry Liddell Hart: Deterrent or Defence: Afresh look at the West's military position (London: Stevens & Son, 1960), p. 40. 84 Colonel J. Calmel: 'Le "deterrent" a-t-il change de camp?', Forces Aer• iennes Franfaises Vo!. 12 No. 133 (January 1958), p. 101f; Herbert Blankenhorn: Verstandnis und Verstandigung: Blatter eines politischen Tagebuchs, 1949-1979, (Frankfurt/Main: Propyliien, 1980), p. 287. 85 quoted in Michael M. Harrison: The Reluctant Ally: France and Atlantic Security (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 76 and see note on p. 247f, after Harald von RieckholT: 'NATO: Issues and Pro• spects', Contemporary Affairs No. 38 (Toronto, Ont.: Canadian Institute of lA, 1967), p. 25 IT. 86 Talks between President de Gaulle and Chancellor Adenauer, Chateau de Rambouillet, 29 July 1960,11:15-12:55 hours, transcripts in the Fonda• tion , Paris, p. 5. 87 Pierre M. Gallois: 'Berlin et la nouvelle politique de dissuasion occi• dentale', Forces Aeriennes Franfaises Vo!. 16 No. 177 (January 1962), pp. 95-114. 88 Pierre Marie Gallois: 'La nouvelle strategie americaine et ses contradic• tions', PE Vo!. 26 No. 4 (1961), p. 322; see also Joel Le Theule (later Minister of Information under de Gaulle): 'La force nucleaire strategique fran~aise', Forum France No. 47 (March-April 1963), p. 4. 89 ***: 'Un, deux, trois, quatre ... cinq', Preuves No. 9 (1st term, 1972), p. 23; Jean de Broglie: 'Relations atlantiques et conference de securite europeenne', RDN Vo!. 28 No. 9 (October 1972), p. 1399. 90 Andre Fontaine: 'De Gaulle's View of Europe and the Nuclear Debate', The Reporter, Vo!. 27, No. 2 (19 July 1962), pp. 33-4. 91 Laurence Martin: 'Towards a nuclear Europe', Spectator (25 April 1969). 92 Norman Gibbs: 'Britain's Defense Dilemma', (US) Air Force Magazine (July 1959), p. 87. 93 Pierre-M. Gallois thought, however, that the large-scale presence of US schoolchildren would serve the same function: 'GIs als Geiseln', Christ und Welt (11 March 1966). 94 Pierre Genevey: 'Sur les aspects militaires du "degagement" en Europe', PE Vo!. 24 No. 2 (1959), p. 254f; General Louis Koeltz: 'Defense de la France', Ecrits de Paris Vo!. 66 No. 12 (December 1959), p. 82f; General Notes 179

Valluy: La defense militaire de /'Occident (paris: Caste! for AFCA, 3rd edn, 1960), p. 14; Michel Debre: 'Defense de l'Europe et securite en Europe', RDNVol. 28 No. 1I (December 1972), p. 1802; Alain Clement: 'L'Avenir des troupes americaines en Europe', Le Monde (30,31 Octo• ber, 1 November 1973); see also the convoluted argument made later: 'Le maintien des forces americaines sur le continent est "fondamental" pour les Etats-Unis mais non pour la France declare M. Michel Jobert', Le Monde (11 March 1974). 95 Phil Williams: 'La force de frappe britannique: un fardeau inevitable?', Politique lnternationale No. 2 (Winter 1978179), p. 217; 'Defence marks time', Economist (14 February 1970). 96 Lothar Ruehl: 'Die Europiier zweife!n an der Priisenz Amerikas', Die Welt (4 December 1970); Enno von Loewenstern: 'Mansfie!d und unsere Sicherheit', Miinchner Merkur (12 May 1971) and many other articles on the same day; Emil Miihlberger: 'Teufel mit Beelzebub austreiben', Bayern Kurier (11 September 1971); 'Kuppeln die Supermiichte ihre Verbiindeten ab?', Frankfurter A/lgemeine Zeitung [henceforth FAZ] (21 June 1972); Heinz Barth: 'Vor einem Riickzug Amerikas?', Die Welt (18 July 1972); id. 'Die gefiihrdete Allianz', Die Welt (4 December 1972); Rainer Barze!: 'The Nuclear Defence of Western Europe', The Round Table Vo!. 62 No. 642 (1972), p. 166; Henry Brandon: 'Heath asks Nixon for nuclear support', Sunday Times (4 February 1973); A.M. Rende!: 'Mr. Heath wins US assurance on nuclear defence exchanges', The Times (6 February 1973); Manfred von Nordheim: 'Der amerika• nische Kongress und die Stationierung von US-Truppen in Westeur• opa', Wehrkunde Vo!. 24 No. 12 (December 1975), pp. 618-21. 97 'US cannot keep NATO pledge', The Times (11 October 1967); Rene David: 'Dissuasion et defense nucleaire', RDN Vo!. 30 No. 3 (March 1974), p. 3; Jacques Vemant: 'Presence americaine et defense de l'Eu• rope', RDN Vo!. 30 No. 5 (May 1974), p. 122; Pierre Lellouche: 'La France et la politique americaine it I'egard de la securite de I'Europe', PE Vo!. 44 No. 3 (Nouvelle serie, December 1979), p. 490 f.; Pierre M. Gallois: 'Ies SALT, inutiles et dangereuses negociations', PEVo!. 44 No. I (nouveUe serie 1979). 98 Pierre Lellouche: 'Nuclear Deterrence and European Security: towards a not so "Happy Ending"?', Journal of Strategic Studies Vo!. 9 No. 4 (December 1986), p. 63. 99 'Is America going isolationist?', Observer (19 October 1969); Desmond Donnelly: 'Have the Americans the will?', Daily Telegraph (2 October 1970). 100 Lord Gladwyn: 'The Defense of Western Europe', Foreign Affairs [hen• ceforth FA] Vo!. 51 No. 3 (April 1973), pp. 588, 590. 101 See articles in the The Times (2,9 December 1971), 'Britisches Unbeha• gen iiber die Politik Nixons', Neue Ziircher Zeitung (19 December 1971); Laurence Martin: 'Changes in American Strategic Doctrine - an initial interpretation', Survival Vo!. 16 No. 4 (July-August 1974), p. 163. To Lord Chalfont, American safety meant enhanced European safety, see 'SALT 11 and America's European allies', lA Vo!. 55 No. 4 (October 1979), p. 559. 180 Notes

102 General Andre Beaufre: 'L' Amerique va-t-e1le "europeaniser" la secur• ite europeenne, comme elle "vietnamise" la guerre d'Indochine?', Le Figaro (30 September 1971); Fran~ois Duchene: 'A new European Defence Community', Revue militaire generale [henceforth RMG] No. 2 (February 1972), p. 191, reprinted from FA; Lothar Ruehl: 'Vietnam• eine Warnung fUr EuropaT, Die Welt (4 April 1968); Kurt Beeker: 'Mehr Geld fUr weniger Sicherheit', Die Zeit (19 March 1971); Charles Hargrove: 'Nato chiefs say withdrawal of US forces from Europe would create a dangerous gap', The Times (18 November 1970); see also short communique of the talks between German Ministry of Defence and Foreign Office at the 'Nette Muhle', NHP Bonn Doc. 148 (30 May 1964), pp. 4, 9; 'Die Strategie der USA' (18 May 1965), NHP Bonn Doe. 154 p, 72f; 'Wesentliche Ergebnisse der deutsch-amerikanischen Studie: "Grundsiitze und Richtlinien fUr den Einsatz der ADM''', NHP Bonn Doc. 155, p. 7f. 103 Lord Balniel: 'European Defence and European Security', translation of the speech printed in Wehrkunde, reprinted in Survival Vol. 13 No. 5 (May 1971), p. 169. 104 'When the Yanks go Marching home', Economist (28 April 1973); Lord Gladwyn noted that this was the view of 'most informed persons', but begged to disagree, as we shall see: 'The Defense of Western Europe', FA Vol. 51 No. 3 (April 1973), p. 588. 105 For example, Nora Beloff in Observer (1 May 1973). 106 Wing Commander David Bolton: 'European defence - Britain's Choice', RUSI Journal Vol. 118 No. 3 (September 1973), p. 46; at best, critics usually tried to portray force deployment as in the US interest: : 'So bitte nicht, Mr. Weinberger', Vorwiirts (16 April 1981). 107 For example, F.J. Strauss in NHP Bonn Doc. 72 (25 September 1961), p. 5f; id., communicating "Sicherheitszone in Europa", NHP Bonn Doc. 73 (1 September 1961), p. 165ff; (5 March 1962) NHP Bonn Doc. 88 p. 2. 108 Hans Zehrer: 'Wohin geraten wir eigentlichT, Die Welt (23 July 1956); Giinther Scholz: 'Bonn kiimpft gegen die "Umrustung": Statist bei der Entspannungspolitik der Atom-MiichteT, Weser Kurier (1 August 1956). 109 Alfred Grosser: 'General de Gaulle and the foreign policy of the Fifth Republic', lA Vol. 39 No. 2 (April 1963), p. 207; occasionally the Franco-Russian Peace of Tilsit is also invoked and applied to the 'hot line' between USA and USSR, see Contre-Amiral Lepotier: 'L'OTAN apres Cuba et Nassau', Revue militaire d'lnformation No. 345 (May 1963), p. 13. 110 Herbert Schildener: 'Gliicksspiel am Atom-Automaten', Kasseler Post (l September 1956). 111 This was the impression of Pierre Messmer, French Minister of the Armies (defence), at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, cr. PRO, FO 3711166328, 17 October 1962, p. 3; 'Partnerschaft statt Flitterwo• chen', lndustriekurier (7 March 1962); : 'Partnerschaft und Konsultation in der NATO', EA Vol. 18 No. 23 (1963), p. 865; 'Scheel dementiert Kritik Dahrendorfs an den USA', Die Welt (21 April Notes 181

1970); Kurt Becker: 'Gefiihrliche Invasion im Kambodscha', Die Zeit (8 May 1970); Walther Leisler Kiep, MP (COU): 'Schwiichen der Sta• aten machen die Schwiiche Europas aus', Frankfurter Rundschau (20 March 1974); General Gerd Schmiickle: "'Big Lift"und Krisen• Streitmacht', EA Vo!. 22 No. 8 (1967), p. 280; Or Friedrich Zimmer• mann, MP: 'Probleme der deutschen Verteidigungspolitik', Wehrkunde Vo!. 16 No. 3 (March 1967), p. 115; Professor Wilhelm Grewe: 'Atom• sperre heisst auch Forschungsbremse', Die Welt (28 January 1967); Joachim Schwelien: 'Kein Alibi fUr Washington', Die Zeit (4 August 1967); Heinz Barth: 'Bei abnehmendem Mond', Die Welt (18 August 1967). For the opposite view, see Kurt Becker: 'Truppenabzug - und was tun wir?', Die Zeit (14 April 1967). Il2 Alfred Frisch: 'L'Allemagne entre les Etats-Unis et I'Union Sovietique', RDN Vo!. 20 No. 7 (July 1964), p. 1237 f; reactions to William Foster's article in FAin the summer of 1965 were particularly strong, see 'Bonn will keine nukleare VerfUgungsgewalt', Die Rheinpfalz; 'Ausdriicklicher Verzicht auf Kauf von Atomwaffen unnotig', Frankfurter Neue Presse; 'Bonn beschwichtigt', Rhein-Neckar Zeitung (all 13 July 1965); 'Oie aufregenden Plane Mr. Gilpatrics', Rheinischer Merkur (14 July 1965); Adelbert Weinstein: 'Bonn und die Atomwaffen', FAZ (15 July 1965); William Foster: 'Grosse und Elend der Atommachte', FAZ (21 July 1965); 'Bonn will bei neuem Atom-Abkommen nicht iibergangen wer• den', FAZ (24 July 1965); see also Christoph Hoppe: Zwischen Teilhabe und Mitsprache: Die Nuklearfrage in der Allianzpolitik Deutschlands, 1959-1966 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1993), p. 27 If; Pierre Roustide: 'Aprt!s l'accord de Moscou: espoirs ou illusions', RMG No. I (January 1964), pp. 3-9; 'Adenauer: Genfer US-Vorschliige gefiihrlich', General Anzeiger (20 August 1965); : 'The future of Germany in a Changing European Context', talk at the annual conference of the IISS in 1966, Adelphi Papers No. 33 (March 1967), p. 43; Helmut Schmidt: Menschen und Miichte (orig. Berlin: Siedler, 1987; repr. by Goldmann, 1991), pp. 222-340 passim; Hans Werner Kettenbach: 'NATO-Reform 'die beste Art' der Krisenbewaltigung', Kolner Stadt• Anzeiger (24 January 1980); Franz Josef Strauss: 'Manifesto of a German Atlanticist', Strategic Review Vo!. 10 No. 3 (Summer 1982), pp. 11-15; 'Oeutscher Atomverzicht - um welchen Preis?', Die Welt• woche (30 July 1965); 'Kein Verlass mehr auf Amerika?', Der Spiegel (5 May 1975), coverstory; Marshal A. Juin: 'Que devons-nous penser de la securite fran~aise?', RDNVo!. 13 No. 1 (January 1957), p. 16; Raymond Aron: 'Un nouveau membre du Club', Le Figaro (14 August 1959); Pierre M. Gallois: 'L'Alliance Atlantique et l'evolution de l'armement', PE Vo!. 24 No. 2 (1959), pp. 200-3; Raymond Aron: 'Les relations franco-americaines: le centre du debat', Le Figaro (12 May 1962); Paul Norder: 'La guerre atomique n'aura pas lieu', RMG No. 6 (June 1963), p. 121; Paul Pigasse: 'L'iIIusion de la terreur nucleaire', Revue militaire d'Information No. 353 (October 1963), p. 65; Maurice Schumann at the 5th annual conference of the ISS: 'The evolution of NATO', Adelphi Papers No. 5 (London: September 1963), p. 24; James Reston: 'What do they think we are?', New York Times (21 January 1963); General 182 Notes

Andre Beaufre: 'La strategie des superpuissances', Strategie No. 28 (October-December 1971), pp. 14, 20--1; Denis Healey: The Race against the H-Bomb (London: Fabian Society, March 1960), p. 20; 'Don't forget Europe, Mr. Wilson!', New Statesman (29 October 1965). 113 is said to have used this term first on 27 February 1967, see Uwe Nerlich: 'Vor der Bonner Entscheidung iiber den Nicht• verbreitungs-Vertrag', EA Vol. 28 No. 21 (1973), p. 735; Jiirgen Tern: 'Der Aufschub hat ein Ende', FAZ (3 January 1969); Christoph Ber• tram: 'Vor den sowjetisch-amerikanischen Riistungsgesprachen', EA Vol. 24 No. 20 (1969), p. 717; Axe1 Schiitzsack: 'Ende der atomaren Abschreckung?', Die Welt (17 December 1969); Baudissin: 'Europaische Sicherheit', p. 16; Freund: 'Gibt es eine franzosische Alternative?', p. 186; General Wolfgang Pickert: 'Politische und rnilitarische Sorgen urn Europa', RMG No. 3 (March 1969), pp. 374-89. 114 'Une presence americaine est encore normale en Europe', Le Monde (25 February 1970); see also Georges Andersen: 'Coup de grace cl la force de frappe francaise', Combat (25 September 1967); Guy de Carmoy: 'Le traite de l'Atlantique nord', Revue politique et parlementaire Vol. 70 No. 789 (May 1968), p. 25. 115 Laurence W. Martin: 'Ballistic Missile Defence and Europe', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. XXIII No. 5 (May 1967), p. 45; Laurence W. Martin: 'The American ABM decision', Spectator (29 September 1967), reprinted in Survival Vol. 9 No. 12 (December 1967), p. 384; 'Why so little remains of the special relationship', The Times (4 January 1967); 'Britain pressed to stay in nuclear race', The Times (9 January 1967); William H. Stringer: 'Antimissile threat', Christian Science Monitor (26 January 1967). 116 Friedhelm Kriiger-Sprengel: 'Deutsche Sicherheitspolitik, Westeuropa und die Weltmachte', Beitriige zur Konfliktforschung Vol. 4 No. 4 (1974), pp. 29-46. 117 Christoph Bertram: 'European Security and the German Problem', In• ternational Security Vol. 4 No. 3 (Winter 1979/89), p. 109; Lord Kennet: 'Europe and Arms Control', SurvivalVol. XIX No. 3 (May-June 1977), p. 126; interviews with Whitehall officials; J.N.: 'Les Etats-Unis et la defense de l'Europe', RDNVol. 26 No. 6 (June 1970), pp. 1005-17; Jean Klein: 'Les SALT et la securite en Europe', Revue franfaise de science politique Vol. 23 No. 4 (August 1972), pp. 843-58; WaIter Schiitze: 'Un point de vueeuropeen', PEVol. 37 No. 3 (1972), p. 305; Andre Fontaine: 'L'avoir ou pas?', Le Monde (21 August 1973); Guy de Carmoy: 'Force de frappe et defense europeenne', Revue poltique et parlementaire Vol. 75 No. 847 (December 1973), p. 54; Pierre Hassner: 'SALT, ou le triomphe de l'arms control', Revue franfaise de science politique Vol. 23 No. 4 (August 1973), pp. 781-9; Jacques Vemant: 'Le "couple" et la crise', RDNVol. 29 No. 11 (December 1973), pp. 103-9; Jean-Louis Gergorin: 'Les negociations SALT et la defense de l'Europe', RDN Vol. 34 No. 6 (June 1978), p. 56; Norman Gibbs: 'The changing nuclear balance', Financial Times (4 March 1970); Andre Fontaine: 'Du faux Yalta au vrai?' Le Monde (23 May 1972). See also: 'La Nation reproche au "New York Times" d'etre impregne de I'esprit de Yalta', Le Monde (19 July Notes 183

1972); see also Jean Klein: 'Arms control, desarmement regional et securite en Europe', RDN Vo!. 30 No. 8 (August-September 1974), p. 67; Jean Klein: 'L'Europe et les relations transatlantiques a l'ere de la negociation', PEVo!. 40 No. 1 (January 1975), pp. 59-83 passim; see also Jane Sharp: 'Restructuring the SALT Dialogue', International Security Vo!. 6 No. 3 (Winter 1981182), p. 152. 118 Horst Wensauer: 'Altemativen unserer Sicherheitspolitik', Wehrkunde Vo!. 22 No. 9 (September 1973); Alois Friedel: 'Das Nixon-Breshnew• Abkommen zur Verhinderung eines Atomkrieges', Wehrkunde Vo!. 22 No. 10 (October 1973); General (Ret.) Hans Speidel: 'Die mogliche Entwicklung eines Verteidigungs-Systems in Europa', RMG No. 5 (May 1973), p. 634ff; TV interview with Dr , MP (CDU), in 'ZDF Magazin' (11 July 1973), p. 13 of transcript; Wolfram von Raven: 'Abschreckung bleibt die Basis der Allianz', Die Welt (23 July 1973); Carl Erhardt: 'Emiichterung zwischen Europa und Amerika', Aussenpolitik Vo!. 24 No. 3 (Autumn 1973). 119 PRO, AIR 19/999, Annex to COS (62) 473 of December 1962 re Cuba; Jacques Baumel: 'Les consequences politiques pour l'Europe de la deci• sion americaine de produire l'arme a radiations renforcees', Strategie et Defense No. 11 (September 1982), p. 25f. 120 Air Commodore D.W. Richardson: 'European Security and the Atlantic Link', RUSI Journal Vol. 120 No. 2 (June 1975), p. 59; see also Chris• topher Tugendhat: 'Europe's Need for Self-Confidence', lA Vo!. 58 No. 1 (Winter 1981182), pp. 8, 10. 121 Philip Windsor: 'Nato's twenty-five years', The World Today Vol. 30 No. 5 (May 1974), p. 187; Air Vice Marshal Stewart Menaul: 'Strategy for Europe', NATO's 15 Nations Vol. 18 No. 5 (October-November 1973), p. 26; Hubertus Hoffmann and Rolf Steinriicke: 'Participation of the European States in the SALT III Negotiations', NATO's 15 Nations Vol. 24 No. 3 (June-July 1979), p. 82; 'Nato: Zweifel an Amerika', Der Spiegel (17 December 1979); Josef Joffe: 'Why Germans Support SALT', Survival Vo!. 21 No. 5 (September-October 1979), p. 209; Lothar Ruehl: 'L'Europe sacrifiee aux accords SALT?', RDN Vol. 35 No. 3 (March 1979); General (Ret.) Johannes Steinhoff: 'Political Will and Detente', NATO's 15 Nations Vol. 24 No. 6 (Decem• ber 1979/January 1980). 122 Hans RUble: 'Zur politisch-strategischen Debatte in den USA', Euro• piiische Wehrkunde Vol. 26 No. 5 (May 1977), p. 209; 'Front gegen den "religiosen Schwarmer"', Der Spiegel (10 April 1978); 'Die Reise-Welle', Der Spiegel (17 April 1978); 'Carter und die NATO: "Hochexplosive Wirkung"', Der Spiegel (24 April 1978); Helmut Schmidt: 'Constraints and consensus in the Alliance', NATO's 16 Nations Vol. 29 No. 1 (February-March 1984), p. 52. 123 Yves Boyer: 'Illustration d'un monde en crise: "arms control" et zone grise', Strategique No. 9 (1st teml 1981), p. 109; Dominique MOlsi: 'La France et la crise des Euromissiles', RDN Vol. 39 No. 8 (August• September 1983), p. 39. 124 For a French answer, see Franl,':ois de Rose: 'Inflexible response', FA Vo!. 61 No. 1 (Fall 1982), pp. 136--50; General Claude Le Borgne: 184 Notes

'Dissuasion par la bombe ou dissuasion de la bombe', RDN Vol. 40 No. 5 (May 1984), p. 101. 125 Denis Healey: 'A Labour Britain, NATO and the Bomb', FA Vol. 65 No. 4 (Spring 1987), p. 721. 126 Daniel Colard: 'Le dialogue strategique est--ouest et la maitrise des armements', RDN Vol. 41 No. 6 (June 1985), p. 53. 127 Henri Rossel: 'La "guerre des etoiles": un defi incontournable', Revue Politique et Parlementaire No. 918 (July-August 1985), p. 44; Jacques Baumel: 'Quelle defense pour I'an 2000?', Revue des deux Mondes (October 1986), p. 64. See also Pascal Boniface and Franl):ois Heisbourg: La puce, les hommes et la bombe (paris: Hachete, 1986), pp. 121-36; see also Alun Chalfont: Star Wars: Suicide or Survival? (London: Weiden• feld & Nicolson, 1985). 128 Pierre Dabezies: 'Sicherheit in Europa aus franzosischer Sicht', Wehr• kunde Vol. 25 No. 5 (May 1976), p. 231; see also Helmut Schmidt: 'Arm in Arm mit den Franzosen', Die Zeit (29 May 1987); Christoph Ber• tram: 'Europe's security dilemmas', FA Vol. 65 No. 5 (Summer 1987), p. 951; Klaus Ritter: 'Politische Perspektiven nach dem Washingtoner Gipfeltreffen vom Dezember 1987', EA Vol. 43 No. 1 (January 1988), pp. 1-8; Karl Kaiser: 'Die RoUe der Vereinigten Staaten in der Welt im nachsten Jahrzehnt', EA Vol. 43 No. 24 (December 1988), p. 704. 129 Maurice Com'e de Murville: 'Le systeme bi-polaire', PEVol. 42 No. 3-4 (special issue 1977), p. 254; Jean Paucot: 'L'equilibre strategique de I'Europe', Strategie et defense No. 1 (May 1978), p. 38; 'Table Ronde: L'Europe: queUe defense pour queUe attaqueT, ibid., p. 33; Yves Jean• close and Raymond Manicacci: 'Securite de I'Europe et strategie nucle• aire integrale', RDN Vol. 45 No. 4 (April 1989), pp. 23-35, and id.: 'L'accord de Moscou du 12 juin 1989 ou la prevention des activites militaires dangereuses', RDNVol. 45 No. 11 (December 1989), pp. 61-9. 130 Denis Healey: 'A Labour Britain, NATO and the Bomb', FA Vol. 65 No. 4 (Spring 1987), p. 721. 131 Sir Geoffrey Howe (Foreign Secretary): 'European Security', Studia Diplomatica No. 1 (1987), p. 50f. But see also sympathy for this view in Geoffrey Lee Williams and Alan Lee Williams: The European Defence Initiative (London: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 1-3, 167-71,213-19. 132 : 'Foundations for European Security and Co-opera• tion', 1987 Alastair Buchan Memorial Lecture, Survival VoJ. 29 No. 4 (July-August 1987), p. 295; Jacques Baumel: 'La France et l'option zero', Revue des deux Mondes (May 1987), p. 329; ¥ves Boycr: 'La presence rnilitaire americaine en Europe et la politique de securite franl):aise', PE Vol. 52 No. 3 (Autumn 1987), p. 683; Pierre Lellouche: 'Eurornissiles: l'Europe rend les armes', Le Point (15 June 1987); Maur• ice Schumann: 'Sur l'Europe entre Reagan et Gorbachev', Revue des deux Mondes (July 1987), p. 7; SIRPA: 'Desarmement et desequilibre nucleaire', Armees d'aujourd'hui No. 120 (1987), pp. 23-5. 133 Jean Klein: 'Portee et signification du traite de Washington', PEVol. 53 No. 1 (Spring 1988), p. 60; Yves-Marie Laulan: 'Le grand choix a faire pour assurer notre securite', RDN Vol. 44 No. 3 (March 1988), p. 41; Colonel Roland Lahellec: 'Option triple zero', Libres Reflexions sur la Notes 185

Defense No. 22 in Armees d'aujourd'hui No. 129 (April 1988), pp. ii-iii; Nicolas Tenzer: 'La defense europeenne et ses mythes', RDN Vol. 44 No. 11 (December 1988), p. 47. 134 Christopher Coker: 'Discriminate Deterrence and the Alliance', Strate• gic Review Vol. XVI No. 2 (Spring 1988), pp. 51-9; : 'Nuclear Disarmament: Consequences for the Alliance - Perspectives for Germany and Europe', Comparative Strategy Vol. 7 No. 4 (1988), p. 338; Wolfram von Raven: 'Abgeschwachte Abschreckung', Euro• piiische Wehrkunde Vol. 37 No. 2 (February 1988), p. 69; General (Ret.) Gerd Schmiickle and Albrecht von Miiller: 'Das Konzept der "Stabilen Abhaltung"', (Stardberg: Max Planck Gesellschaft, April 1988), p. 2; Cay Graf Brockdorff: 'Eine konventionelle Waffe als Werk• zeug der NATO-Strategie', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vol. 37 No. 6 (June 1988), p. 314; Hans-Dieter Heumann: 'Nationale Interessen und Sicher• heit in Europa', Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte No. B8/89 (17 February 1989), p. 16; Clay Clemens: 'Beyond INF: 's centre-right party and arms control in the 1990s', lA Vol. 65 No. I (Winter 1988/89), p.61. 135 Fred Ikle & Albert Wohlstetter (chairmen): 'Discriminate Deterrence: Report of the Commission on Integrated Long Term Strategy' (Washington: January 1988), p. 30. 136 See Chapter 2. 137 Michael Howard, Karl Kaiser and Franr;ois de Rose: 'Differenzierte Abschreckung', EA Vol. 43 No. 5 (lO March 1988), pp. 129-31. 138 Walter Nielsen: 'Zwanzig J ahre Nordatlantikpakt', Aussenpolitik V01. 20 No. 4 (April 1969), p. 208; Kurt Fischer: 'Grundlinien amerikanischer Politik', Wehrkunde Vol. 22 No. 7 (July 1973), p. 355; Wilhelm Meyer• Detring: 'Unsere Sicherheit nach Vietnam', Wehrkunde Vol. 24 No. 6 (June 1975), p. 281. 139 Pierre Hassner: 'L'Europe sans options?', Politique Internationale No. 37 (Autumn 1987), pp. 97-9.; see also Pierre Hassner: 'Zero options for Europe?', European Journal of lA Vol. I No. I (Summer 1988), p. 9; Christoph Bertram: 'The implications of theater nuclear weapons in Europe' FA Vol. 60 No. 2 (Winter 1981/82), p. 325; Hans-Georg Wieck: 'Das Atlantische Bfuldnis und der Warschauer Pakt in den achtziger Jahren', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vol. 31 No. 7 (July 1982), p. 292. 140 Particularly the Reagan administration was widely seen in Britain, and of course not only there, as unnecessarily provocative. See David Owen: 'A New Realism in East-West Relations', RUSI Journa/Vol. 129 No. 1 (March 1984), p. 3; Mary Kaldor: 'The Non-Nuclear Alternative', Catalyst Vol. 1 No. 2 (Summer 1985), p. 56. 141 The Eisenhower administration merely stepped it up, but was not its initiator, see Beatrice Heuser: 'Covert action within British and Amer• ican concepts of containment', in Richard Aldrich (ed.): British Intelli• gence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945-51 (London: Routledge, 1992). pp. 65-84. 142 Ibid. 143 NSC 16212, FRUS 1952-1956 Vol. lI. p. 586. 144 Anon.: 'Turn again. John Nott', The Economist (24 October 1981). p. 16. 186 Notes

145 Nicole Gnesotto: 'L'Union Europeenne Occidentale', RDN Vol. 41 No. 6 (June 1985), p. 43; General Fricaud-Chagnaud & Dominique David: 'Une nouvelle approche de la securite de I'Europe', Strategique No. 25 (1st term 1985), p. 11. 146 'Space wars warning by Howe: "New Maginot line" speech upsets US', Daily Telegraph (16 March 1985). 147 For UK views, see for example Geoffrey Howe's Speech at the Royal United Services Institute, 15 March 1985, printed in EA Vol. 40 No. 8 (25 April 1985), p. D221; Lawrence Freedman: 'NATO and the Stra• tegic Defence Initiative', NATO's 16 Nations Vol. 29 No. 6 (November 1984),p.18. 148 Michael Howard: 'Reassurance and Deterrence: Western Defence in the 1980s', FA Vol. 61 No. 2 (Winter 1982/83), p. 315 f; Lawrence Freed• man: 'Limited War, unlimited protest', Orb is, Vo!. 26, No. I, (Spring 1982), p. lOO; cr. Philip A.G. Sabin: The Third World War Scare in Britain (London: Macmillan, 1986), p. 73. 149 David Owen: 'A new defence dynamic for Europe in NATO', NATO's 16 Nations Vo!. 29 No. 5 (September-October 1984), pp. 19,24. 150 Fischer: 'Grundlinien amerikanischer Politik', p. 356. 151 's Brussels speech of 1 September 1979, printed in Survival Vol. 21 No. 6 (NovemberlDecember 1979), p. 266; interview with Egon Bahr: 'In einer Katastrophe sind wir vereint', Der Spiege/ (15 October 1979), p. 34; see also Karsten D. Voigt: 'Das Risiko eines begrenzten Nuklearkrieges in Europa', EA Vol. 37 No. 6 (March 1982), p. 153 f; see also Giinther Gaus, quoted in Karl Kaiser: 'National im anti-nuklearen Gewande', Die Zeit (30 March 1984). 152 Henry Kissinger: 'NATO, the Next Thirty Years', in Christoph Bertram (ed.): Strategic Deterrence in a Changing Environment (Montclair, NJ: Allenheld, Osmun, 1981), p. 109: It is absurd to base the strategy of the West on the credibility of the threat of mutual suicide. . .. European allies should not keep asking us to multiply strategic assurances that we cannot possibly mean, or if we do mean, we should not want to execute because if we execute, we risk the destruction of civilization. 153 Cr. the journalist Dieter Cycon, and the CDU defence spokesman von und zu Guttenberg, 'Der Streit urn die Verteidigungspolitik', DFS radio broadcast (21 January 1963), pp. 7, 15 of transcript; Jiirgen Schilling: 'Der unverzichtbare Kern amerikanischer Truppen in Europa', Wehr• kunde Vo!. 22 No. 10 (October 1973), p. 521; Wilhe1m Grewe: Rilck• blenden: , p. 684. 154 Mary Kaldor: 'The Non-Nuclear Alternative', Catalyst Vo!. 1 No. 2 (Summer 1985), p. 50. 155 David Garnham: 'Extending Deterrence with German Nuclear Weap• ons', International Security Vol. 10 No. 1 (Summer 1985), p. 97. 156 For the significance of France's rallying to the Harmel Report of 1967, see He1ga Haftendorn: Kernwaffen und die Glaubwurdigkeit der Allianz: Die NATO-Krise von /966/67 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1994), pp. 287-344. Notes 187

157 John Mander: Great Britain or Little England (Harmondsworth: Pen• guin, 1963), p. 188. 158 See the Rockefeller Report, cited by General Gazin in 'Vers une strate• gie europeenneT, RDN Vol. 14 No. 7 (July 1958), p. 1096.

2 NATO'S NUCLEAR STRATEGY: COMPROMISES

Cr. Guilio Douhet: The Command of the Air trans. by Dino Gerrari (Coward-McCann: 1942, reprinted in Washington, DC by the Office of Air Force History, 1983), pp. 8--10; and also RAF War Manual Part I: Operations (originally 1928, updated February 1940). 2 David MacIsaac, unpublished conference paper of 1979, quoted in Aaron L. Friedberg: 'The evolution of US strategic "doctrine" - 1945 to 1981', in Samuel P. Huntington (ed.): The Strategic Imperative (Cam• bridge, MA: Ballinger, 1982), p. 57. 3 David Alan Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', in Desmond Ball and JefTrey Richelson (eds): Strategic Nuclear Targeting (lthaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), pp. 35-56. For a discussion of British thinking - and the British were at the time the only Europeans who had thoughts on this matter - see Alan Macrnillan: 'British Atomic Strategy, 1945-52', in John Baylis and Alan Macmillan (eds): The Foundations of British Nuclear Strategy, 1945-1960, International Po• litics Research Papers No. 12 (Aberystwyth: Department of Interna• tional Politics, University College of Wales, 1992), pp. 41-5. 4 'Overall strategic plan', text in Julian Lewis: Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-war Strategic Defence, 1942-1947 (London: Sherwood Press, 1988), p. 371. 5 Foreign Relations of the United States [henceforth FRUSj 1949 Vol. IV (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1975), DC 6/1, p. 354 (my emphasis). 6 NATO SG 1 'Strategic Concept for the Defense of the North Atlantic Area' of 10 October 1949. 7 FRUS 1949 Vol. IV, p. 352 fT. 8 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950 'Strategic Guidance for North Atlantic Regional Planning'; NATO DC 13 of 1 April 1950 'North Atlantic Treaty Organization Medium Term Plan'. 9 NATO DC 13, § 2. 10 Cr. Beatrice Heuser: 'Covert action within British and American con• cepts of containment, 1948-51', in Richard Aldrich (ed.): British Intelli• gence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945-51 (London: Routledge: 1992), pp. 65-84. 11 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 5. e. 12 FRUS 1949 Vol. IV, p. 352 fT. 13 Cr. the US short-range emergency plan DOUBLESTAR of 21 June 1948, JCS 1844/10, on microfilm No. 63 in Liddell Hart Archives, King's College London [henceforth LHA-MF]; Anthony Cave Brown (ed.): Operation World War Ill: the secret American plan 'DROPSHOT' 188 Notes

for war with the Soviet Union, 1957 (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1979), for DROPSHOT, dating from 31 January and 19 December 1949. For the December version, after the first Soviet nuclear test, see LHA• MF 65, JCS 1920/5. See also LHA-MF 38, JSPC 876/38, 'Short-term strategic concept and emergency war plan as related to the North Atlan• tic Pact, OFFTACKLE' of 7 September 1949, and LHA-MF 39, JCS 1868/136 'Strategic Guidance for the initiation of regional planning' of 25 October 1949; and USA, National Archives (NA), CCS 471. 6 USSR (11-8-49) Sec. 2, JCS 208111 'Implications of Soviet possession of atomic weapons' of 13 February 1950. 14 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 11. 15 NATO DC 13 of 1 April 1950, § 10. a. 16 NATO DC 13, § 9. i. 17 NATO MC 14, § 7. 18 NATO DC 13, § 6. DC 13 specifically only covered Phase 1. 19 LHA-MF 64, JCS 1920/1 and Brown (ed.): Operation World War Ill, pp. 48, 241--6. 20 NSC 40, 'American objectives vis-a-vis the USSR', excerpts in Brown (ed.): Operation World War Ill, p. 12f. 21 On Western strategy and on the military build-up of the Satellite coun• tries, see Beatrice Heuser: Western Containment Policies in the Cold War (London: Routledge, 1989), pp. 112-17, 216--18, and Beatrice Heuser: 'NSC 68 and the Soviet threat', Review of International Studies Vol. 17 (1991), pp. 17--40. 22 NATO MC 14 of 20 March 1950, § 6. d. 23 Public Record Office, Kew [henceforth PRO}, DEFE 5/33, COS(51)546, 21 September 1951. 24 PRO, DEFE 5/10, COS(48)26(0), letter of the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (Montgomery) to the COS, 30 January, 1948. See also Beatrice Heuser: 'The Demise of Anglo-Soviet and the Birth of Anglo• German Military Cooperation, 1941-1955', in Adolf M. Birke and Her• mann Wentker: Germany and Russia in British Policy towards Europe since 1815 (New Providence and London: K.G. Saur, 1994), pp. 123--42. 25 NA, Declassified Documents Microfiches (76) 161 C, SPGM-298-53 of 26 March 1953. 26 NATO DC 13 of I April 1950, § 54. 27 Cf. Heuser: 'NSC 68 and the Soviet threat', pp. 17--40. 28 NATO DC 13 of I April 1950, Part III § 4. 29 Macmillan: 'British Atomic Strategy', p. 41. 30 FRUS 1949 Vol. 1, pp. 616--17. Acheson's concerns are expressed also by the Joint Intelligence Committee in their report of February 1950 on the 'Implications of Soviet possession of atomic weapons', see NA, CCS 471. 6 USSR (11-8--49) Sec. 2 JCS 208111 of 13 February 1950. 31 NA, CCS 471. 6 USSR (11-8--49) Sec. 2, JCS 208111 of 13 February 1950. 32 NSC 68, Section IX, Thomas Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis: Contain• ment: Documents on American Policy and Strategy. 1945-1950 (New York: Columbia UP, 1978), p. 422. 33 Ibid. p. 425; my italics. Notes 189

34 Nuclear use against non-nuclear aggression was not excluded in certain conti'lgencies arising in Europe outside NATO territory, see Heuser: Western Containment Policies, pp .. 168-70. 35 For 'economy of effort, resources and manpower', see NATO DC 6 of 29 November 1949. 36 NATO MC 14/1 (FINAL) of 9 December 1952, § 12. 37 NA, Declassified Documents Microfiches (76)161 C of 26 March 1953. 38 NATO MC 14/1 (FINAL), § 14. 39 NATO MC 14/1 (FINAL), §§ 25-74. 40 NSC 162/2 (30 October 1953) in FRUS 1952-1954 Vo!. n, p. 585. 41 NATO MC 3/5(Final) of 3 December 1952, § 7. f. 42 NATO MC 1411 (FINAL), § 12. b. 43 NATO MC 14/1 (FINAL), § 3. 44 This strategy was actually called thus in NATO documents, cf. NATO CM(55)1l3(Revised) of 8 December 1955. 45 Text in full in Alan Macmillan and John Baylis: A Reassessment of the British Global Strategy Paper of 1952 International Politics Research Papers No. 13 (Aberystwyth: University of Wales, Department of Inter• national Politics, 1993), pp. 58-89, and in excerpts in John Baylis: Ambi• guity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy, 1945-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 405-14. 46 Section III §§ 9-11. 47 Matthew Ridgway Papers, USAMHI, letter from Montgomery to Ridg• way, 18 July 1952. I am grateful to Dr. Gregory Pedlow of SHAPE for having shown me the copy of this paper. 48 Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence, pp. 155-64. 49 FRUS 1952-4 Vo!. n, pp. 577-97, here p. 578. 50 p.590. 51 p. 581. 52 p. 591. 53 p. 593. 54 p.585. 55 NATO MC 48 (FINAL), 'The Most Effective Pattern of NATO Military Strength for the Next Few Years', of 22 November 1954. 56 Cf. also FRUS 1952-4 Vo!. V Part I, pp. 524f, 536-8, 557-9. 57 NATO MC 48 (FINAL), §§ 6-7. 58 Aaron L. Friedberg: 'The evolution of US strategic "doctrine" - 1945 to 1981', in Samuel P. Huntington (ed.): The Strategic Imperative (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1982), p. 58f. Apparently LeMay had earlier in the 1950s opposed counter-force targeting as he regarded it as technically unfeasible, see David Alan Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', in Desmond Ball and Jeffrey Riche1son (eds): Strategic Nuclear Targeting (Ithaca: Comell University Press, 1986), p.40f. 59 Friedberg: 'The evolution of US strategic "doctrine" " p. 58f. 60 Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', p. 35. 61 NATO MC 48 (FINAL), § 8; see also NATO MC 14/1 of 26 September 1955 § 38. b. 62 NATO MC 48 (FINAL), § 32. c. 190 Notes

63 NSC 20/4 of November 1948, repeated in Annex to NSC 153/1 of June 1953 and in Annex to NSC 162/2 of October 1953, FRUS 1952-4 Vol. 11 pp. 596£., and NSC 162/2 itself, ibid., p. 582. 64 David Elliot: 'Project Vista and Nuclear Weapons in Europe', Interna• tional Security, Vo!. 11, No. 1 (summer 1986), pp. 163-83. 65 Jane Stromseth, The Origins of Flexible Response, (London, Macmillan, 1988), p. 18. 66 Davy Crockett has been called the 'only weapon in history with a lethal radius [of effect] greater than its range', as Sir Michael Quinlan recalls. 67 NATO MC 48 (FINAL), § 6. 68 NATO MC 48 (FINAL), § 20. 69 Cr. NATO MC 48/1 (26 Sept. 1955). 70 For the Asian background of the policy of 'Massive Retaliation', see Rosemary J. Foot: 'Nuclear Coercion and the Ending of the Korean Conflict', International Security Vol. 13 No. 3 (1988/89); Roger Dingman: 'Atomic Diplomacy During the Korean War', ibid.; Daniel Calingaert: 'Nuclear Weapons and the Korean War', The Journal of Strategic Studies Vol. 11 No. 2 (1988). 71 John Foster Dulles: 'The evolution of foreign policy', printed in Phi lip Bobbitt, Lawrence Freedman and Gregory Treverton (eds): US Nuclear Strategy: a Reader (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 122-30. 72 John Lewis Gaddis: Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American Security Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982, pp. 127-97. 73 President of the Council of Ministers. 74 Documents Diplomatiques Franfais 21 July-31 December 1954 (paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1987), No. 399 p. 819, of 20 November 1954. 75 Greg Herring and Richard Immermann: '''Le jour ou nous ne sommes pas entres en guerre" - La politique americaine de Dien Bien Phu: un reexamen', in Denise Artaud & Lawrence Kaplan: Dien Bien Phu: L'Alliance at/antique et la defense du Sud-Est asiatique (Lyon: La Manu• facture, 1989). 76 John Foster Dulles: 'Policy for Security and Peace', Foreign Affairs Vo!. 32 No. 3 (1954), pp. 353-64. 77 See below. 78 Particularly by Bernard Brodie in his prophetic article of November 1945, 'The Atomic Bomb and American Security', reprinted in Bobbitt, Freedman and Treverton (eds): US Nuclear Strategy, pp. 64-94, see esp. pp. 67-8. 79 John Baylis: 'Anthony Buzzard', in John Baylis and John Garnett (eds): Makers of Nuclear Strategy (London: Frances Pinter, 1991), pp. 13Cr-152. 80 Ian Clark & Nicholas J. Wheeler: The British Origins of Nuclear Strategy, 1945-1955 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), pp. 18Cr-7. 81 Stromseth: Origins, pp. 15-7; 20-1. 82 NATO MC 48/1, 'The most effective pattern of NATO military strength for the next few years - Report No. 2' of 26 September 1955, § 22-4, 38. 83 'Himmelroder Denkschrift' of 9 October 1950, in Klaus von Schubert (ed.): Sicherheitspolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Dokumentation 1945-1977 Vol. 2 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft & Politik, 1979), p. 97. Notes 191

84 This probably led to NATO C-M(56)138(Final) of 13 December 1956, which shows the hand of a (British) English draftsman. 85 NATO MC 48/2(Final Decision) of 23 May 1957; for SACEUR Gruenther's study which became the basis of the Political Directive, see Robert Wampler: 'Ambiguous Legacy: The United States, Great Britain and the Foundations of NATO Strategy, 1948-1957' (MS Ph.D. Harvard University, 1991), Vo!. Ill, p. 941. 86 NATO MC 14/2(Revised)(Final Decision) of 23 May 1957, § 9. 87 MC 48/2(Final Decision), §§ 6. a, m, 12. 88 See above, pp. 4-5, 9-14. 89 NATO MC 14/2(Revised)(Final Decision), § 17. 90 'Minimum Requirements for the Main Forces of NATO for the Period 1958-1963', approved 14 March 1958. 91 Summary by the BMVg, Nuclear History Program, Bonn collection [henceforth NHP Bonn] Doe. 23 of 20 March 1958. 92 NATO MC 14/2(Revised)(Final Decision), § 5. g. 93 NATO MC 1412(Revised)(Final Decision), § 25; NATO MC 48/2 (Revised), § 2. 94 NATO MC 14/2(Revised)(Final Decision), §§ 19-20. 95 NATO MC 4812, § 6. m. 96 Summary of MC 70, NHP Bonn, Doe. 23. 97 John S. Duffield: 'The Evolution of NATO's Strategy of Flexible Response: A Reinterpretation', Security Studies Vo!. 1 No. 1 (1991); see also Wampler: 'Ambiguous Legacy', pp. 921-1057, passim. 98 NATO MC 48/2, § 7; Summary of MC 70, NHP Bonn Doe. 23. 99 Christian Greiner: 'Die militiirische Eingliederung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', in Hans Ehlert, Christian Greiner, Georg Meyer and Bruno Thoss: Die NATO-Option Vo!. 3 of An/tinge westdeutscher Sicherheitspolitik, 1945-1956 (: Oldenbourg, 1993), pp. 724,736. 100 NATO MC 14/2(Revised)(Final Decision), § 19. 101 Only the SlOP of 1961 apparently differentiated clearly between nuclear threat targets and other military forces, with options for withholding direct attacks on cities, see Friedberg: 'The evolution of US strategic "doctrine"', pp. 59-60. 102 David Alan Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', in Desmond Ball and Jeffrey Richelson (eds): Strategic Nuclear Targeting (lthaca: Comell University Press, 1986); Scott D. Sagan: 'SlOP 62: the nu~lear war plan briefing to President Kennedy': International Security. Vo!. 12 No. I (1987); Desmond Ball: 'Development of the SlOP, 1960-1983', in Ball and Richelson (eds): Strategic Nuclear Targeting. 103 See Chapter 5. 104 See for example the summary of this problem by Dean Rusk at a discussion about the need for an MLF with the Secretary General of the UN in the presence of British and Soviet representatives, PRO, PREM 11/4163, lAD 10613/23 of 7 October 1963. 105 A reference to this can be found in PRO, CAB 131123, D(60)12, Mem• orandum of 23 March 1960. 106 Stromseth: Origins, pp. 18-19. 192 Notes

107 Marc Trachtenberg: 'La formation du systeme de defense occidentale: les Etats-Unis, la France et MC 48', in Maurice Vai'sse, Pierre MeIandri & Frederic Bozo (eds): La France et l'OTAN, 1949-1996 (BruxeUes: Eds. Complexe, 1996), pp. 115-27. 108 Cf. Wolf Mendl: Deterrence and Persuasion: French nuclear armaments and the context ofnational policy, 1945-1969 (New York: Praeger, 1970). 109 See for example PRO, CAB 131125, D(61)lst Meeting, Item 3: 'NATO Strategy and Nuclear Weapons', 18 January 1961; for French and British disdain for the MLF, see PRO, FO 3711166328, record of a conversation between Thorneycroft and Messmer, 17 October 1962, p. 4. 110 Cr. the Nassau Protocol of 21 December 1962, Survival Vol. 5 No. 2 (1963), pp. 46-7. 111 not to be confused with Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces, for which this acronym was used in the 1980s. 112 'Erler wertet namenlose Atomstreitmacht positiv', Stuttgarter Nachrich• ten (29 May 1963). 113 In March 1961, McNamara and Paul Nitze had already told Harold Watkinson that they did not like the scheme but did not quite know how to sink it. PRO, DEFE 13/211, MM 20/61 of 21 March 1961. 114 See Leopoldo Nuti: 'Jupiter in : a risky shortcut to prestige', in Leopoldo Nuti and Cyril Buffet (eds): Nuclear Proliferation and Non• Proliferation, 1956-1964 (forthcoming 1998). 115 NHP Bonn Doc. 170 of 20 September 1966, p. 4f. 116 On this, see 'Multinational Nuclear European Force', Summary Record of NSC Executive Meeting No. 41, 12 February 1963, quoted in Pertti Ahonen: 'Franz Josef Strauss and the German nuclear question, 1956- 62', Journal of Strategic Studies (1995) (note 126). 117 As early as 1956-8, American military planners had seemed to German observers to prefer conventional, or at maximum, battlefield tactical defence as opposed to 'Massive Retaliation' even against aggression in Europe: Minutes 'Besprechung beim Bundeskanzler am 27.4.1957 vorm.', NHP Bonn Doc. 11; 'Der General Inspekteur der Bundeswehr dem Herrn Minister', Tgb. Nr. 50/59 (26 August 1959) NHP Bonn Doe. 36 p. 7f; 'Aufgabe und Planung der Bundeswehr, Ministerbesprechung am 4.,5. und 7.12.1959' (22 December 1959), NHP Bonn Doc. 41 p. 4. 118 Cr. 'Entwurf der deutschen Stellungnahme zur Erkliirung des amerika• nischen Vertreters beim N ordatlantikrat vom 26.4.1961 iiber Verteidi• gungsfragen' (2 May 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 63; PRO, DE FE 4/135, JP(61)46(Final) of 21 April 1961: Report by the Joint Planning Staff on 'Mr. Acheson's concept of conventional operations'; General lohannes Steinhoff and Reiner Pommerin: Strategiewechsel: Bundesrepublik und Nuklearstrategie in der lra Adenauer-Kennedy (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1992), p. 98. 119 The expression being, of course, Herman Kahn's. 120 Stromseth: Origins, pp. 42-68. 121 Macmillan: 'British Atomic Strategy', passim. 122 Clark and Wheeler: The British Origins, 186-7; Baylis: 'Anthony Buz• zard', pp. 136-49. 123 Cr. Baylis: 'Anthony Buzzard', pp. 148-9. Notes 193

124 FRUS 1949 Vol. I p. 616. 125 Letter from General Earle Wheeler, Chairman of the JCS, to General Trettner (2 February 1966), Annex to 'Deutscher Standpunkt zum strategischen Konzept der NATO', (9 May 1966) NHP Bonn Doc. 165, p. 15. 126 Cf. Fred Kaplan: The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983). 127 This can also be inferred from German reactions to McNamara's views and statements by the US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Earle Wheeler, in 1966, see NHP Bonn Doc. 165 (9 May 1966), p.4. 128 FRUS 1949 Vol. I, p. 616. 129 McGeorge Bundy, George Kennan, Robert McNamara and Gerard Smith: 'Nuclear Weapons and the Atlantic Alliance' Foreign Affairs Vol. 60 No. 4 (1982). 130 Theo Sommer: 'Auftauchen tut not', Die Zeit (22 May 1982); 'Apel: keine Anderung in der NATO Strategie', Siiddeutsche Zeitung (27 June 1982); Hans Ape! (Minister of Defence): 'Zur Diskussion iiber die Strategie der NATO', Europa Archiv Vol. 37 No. 11 (1982), p. 356; Hartmut Biihl: 'Chances fUr die Riistungskontrolle', Beitriige zur Konfliktforschung Vol. 12 No. 2 (Summer 1982), p. 20f; Karl Kaiser, Georg Leber, Alois Mertes, Franz-Josef Schulze: 'Nuclear weapons and the preservation of peace', Foreign Affairs Vol. 60 No. 5 (Summer 1982), pp. 1157-70, also in Europa Archiv Vol. 37 No. 12 (June 1982); Michael Howard: 'The issue of no first use', Foreign Affairs Vol. 61 No. 1 (Autumn 1982), pp. 211-12. Even in the post-Cold War world, 'no first use' is still anathema for the British and French official doctrine. 131 Carl Kaysen, Robert S. McNamara & George W. Rathjens: 'Nuclear Weapons after the Cold War', Foreign Affairs Vol. 70 No. 4 (1991). 132 With the exception of a brief British flirtation with the concept, see Chapter 3. 133 NHP Bonn Doc. 139, 'Sprechzettel fUr Herrn Minister zum Besuch Priisident KENNEDYS', 21 June 1963: 'limited aggression ... Fiir Bun• desrepublik ist ein konventioneller Krieg gleich todlich wie ein nuclearer [sic] Krieg.'. 134 Cf. Beatrice Heuser: 'Containing Uncertainty: Options for British Nuclear Strategy', Review of International Studies Vol. 19 No. 3 (1993). 135 'NATO-Verteidigungsplanung' (3 May 1965), NHP Bonn Doc. 153, p. 4. 136 The term 'first use' is sometimes confused with 'first strike'. Conven• tionally, the term 'first strike', although neutral in itself, is now used to denote a counter-force strike against enemy nuclear forces before the latter have been launched, whereas 'first use' is simply taken to mean the first time nuclear weapons of any sort are used. 137 Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (London: Macmillan, 2nd edn 1989), p. 292f; Robert Wampler: NATO Strategic Planning and Nuclear Weapons 1950-1957, Nuclear History Program Occasional Paper No. 6 (University of Maryland: CISSM, 1990), p. 43. 138 Cr. for example NHP Bonn Doc. 41 (23 December 1959) p. 4. 194 Notes

139 NHP Bonn Doc. 23 of 20 March 1958. 140 PRO, CAB 131125, D(61)2 of 13 January 1961, Annex A: 'NATO Strategy and Nuclear Weapons'. 141 Italy, Diario Storico dello Stato Maggiore Difesa, promemoria in data 25.2.1961, I Reparto-I sezione: 'Relazione sull'attivita svolta dalla 1 sezione durante il mese di marzo 1961 - I - Politia militare NATO'; John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files, Coun• tries: Italy, box 121, folder Italy; Subjects Fanfani visit 6/12/61-6/13/61 (A). I am very grateful to Professor Leopoldo Nuti for transcripts of these documents. 142 PRO, DE FE 4/137, Annex to JP(61)68(Final) of7 July 1961, p. 11. 143 Cr. for example Mottershead briefing for UK Minister of Defence Harold Watkinson for his talks with Paul Nitze, PRO, DE FE 13/254, 9 April 1962; for talks between Watkinson and US Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, Admiral and Nitze, see DEFE 7/ 2310, MM (62) 15 of 1 May 1962. 144 For its discussion with NATO governments and within NATO, see PRO, DEFE 712306-11 for 1961-3. 145 PRO, CAB 131125, Annex 'A' to D(61)23, I May 1961, answer to question 17(a). 146 Michael Quinlan: 'NATO nuclear deterrence concepts', Lecture given at the Royal College of Defence Studies, 26 October 1982, King's College, London: Liddell Hart Archives. 147 PRO, CAB 131125, Annex 'A' to D(61)23, I May 1961, answer to question 17(f). 148 Ibid. answer to question 17(b). 149 A departure from earlier thinking, see John Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence. 150 PRO CAB 131125, Annex 'A' to D(61)23, I May 1961, answer to question 17(c). 151 PRO, DEFE 6171, Appendix 'B' to Annex I to JP(61)83(Final), 15 September 1961. 152 PRO, DEFE 5/127, COS(62)246 of 6 June 1962 p. 2. 153 Cr. views of the West German military mission to NATO, September• October 1961: 'Gedacht war an die Detonation eines Sprengkopfes in 10 000 Metern Hohe oder eines air burst, einer Bombe geringen nuklea• ren Sprengwerts, tiber der Ostsee.' Steinhoff and Pommerin: Strategie• wechsel, 87, no footnote reference, probably eyewitness account of General SteinhofPs. 154 PRO, CAB 131/25, Annex 'A' to D(61)23, I May 1961, answer to question 17(d). 155 PRO, FO 3711161240, SC(61)33 of 28 August 1961, para. 11-12. 156 Ibid. 157 NHP Bonn Doc. 105, 'Kurzfassung des Stikker-Memorandum of 4.9.1962'. 158 PRO, DEFE 4/137, Annex to JP(61)68(Final) of7 July 1961, p. 11. 159 Washington, National Security Archive, National Security Action Memorandum No. 109 of 23 October 1961, McGeorge Bundy: 'Subject: US Policy on Military Actions in a Berlin Conflict': Notes 195

A. Selective nuclear attacks for the primary purpose of demonstrat• ing the will to use nuclear weapons. B. Limited tactical employment of nuclear weapons to achieve in addition significant tactical advantage such as preservation of the integrity of Allied forces committed, or to extend pressure toward the objective. C. General Nuclear War. N.B. that section B differs decisively from the British concept. A divi• sion into three scenarios, called A, Band C, in which A and C are very close to the views of Bundy, is also found in the Mottershead Report. I owe this source to Professor Marc Trachtenberg. 160 PRO, DEFE 131254, Annex to letter from Kennedy to Macmillan, 8 August 1962; for a printed version, see Bobbitt, Freedman and Trever• ton (eds): US Nuclear Strategy, p. 44f. 161 PRO, DEFE 5/126, COS(62)163, 'Briefs for Anglo-French Staff Talks', 17 April 1962, p. 5. 162 PRO, DEFE 5/127, COS(62)246, 'NATO Strategy', 6 June 1962, p. 3. 163 Reprinted in Survival Vol. 5 No. 1 (January-February 1963), pp. 19-22, here p. 22; cf. 'Bedingt abwehrbereit', Der Spiegel Vol. 16 No. 41 (10 October 1962), here p. 48. 164 NHP Bonn Doc. 97/1, 'Ergebnis der Besprechungen in Haus Giersberg, Miinstereifel vom 1. 12. Juni 1962', 15 June 1962, p. 3. 165 NHP Bonn Doc. 148, 'Aufzeichnung iiber die Besprechung zwischen Bundesverteidigungsminister von Hassel und dem britischen Verteidi• gungsminister Thorneycroft am 9.9.1963 in Bonn'. 166 Susanne Peters's argument that the GPGs and the INF are above all a German contribution to NATO strategy is thus somewhat misleading, see Susanne Peters: The Germans and the INF Missiles: Getting their way in NATO's strategy of Flexible Response (Baden Baden: Nomos, 1990). 167 Again, it seems that a British concept was at the origin of this: already on 17 April 1962, the United Kingdom proposed the constitution of a NATO Nuclear Committee as an alternative to the MLF 'hardware' solution; this was supposed to receive information on nuclear matters generally, share in the peace• time administration of nuclear weapons committed to NATO, and be consulted on aspects of nuclear deployment and policy in Europe. The [North Atlantic] Council is now discussing the terms of reference for such a Committee. We have agreed that it should have some say in the formulation of NATO target policy, but that it should not have access to US/UK strategic target policy or planning, or to NATO target planning. PRO, DEFE 5/126, COS(62)163 of 17 April 1962, p. 7f. This may explain in part why Denis Healey later claimed credit for the formation of the 'McNamara Committee', cf. Christoph Bluth: Britain, Germany and Western Nuclear Strategy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 180-93. 196 Notes

168 'Deutsches Strategisches Konzept: Fiihrungsweisung Nr. 1 Teil 1', NHP Bonn Doc. 173 (26 January 1967), pp. 8, 15f; see also Carl Amme, also dating such war-termination thinking to 1965: 'National Strategies within the Alliance: West Germany', NATO's 15 Nations Vol. 17 No. 4 (August-September 1982), p. 82. 169 presumably Atomic Demolitions Munitions. 170 NATO MC 14/3 (Final), § 34. 171 Duffield: 'The Evolution of NATO's Strategy of Flexible Response', passim. 172 MC 14/3 (Final), § 35. a. 173 Cf. for example Paul Buteux: The Politics of Nuclear Consultation in NATO, 1965-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1983), pp. 89-92. 174 J. Michael Legge: Theater Nuclear Weapons and the NATO Strategy of Flexible Response, RAND Paper R-2964-FF (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, April 1983), pp. 17-21. 175 NATO MC 14/3(Final) § 17; Legge: Theater Nuclear Weapons, pp. 18- 21. This was much against British views, see Christoph Bluth: Britain, Germany, pp. 18a-93. 176 Charles Douglas-Home in The Times (2 December 1969), quoted in Carl Amme: 'National Strategies within the Alliance: West Germany', NATO's 15 Nations Vo!. 17 No. 4 (August-September 1972), p. 84. 177 Erich Hauser: "MutmaBungen iiber die Truppenstiirke in Europa", Frankfurter Rundschau (28 April 1970). 178 Quoted by Leonard Beaton, The Times (25 February 1970). 179 Liddell Hart Archives, King's College London, Quinlan papers, lecture to the Royal College of Defence Studies, October 1982. 180 MC 48/3(Final) of 8 December 1969, § 8. 181 See also the common work undertaken by the Permanent Representa• tives in NATO of the US, Britain and the FRG in forming MC 14/3, NATO DPCID(67)23, § 2. e. 182 For NATO doctrine on the creation of barriers, see NATO MC 48/ 3(Final) of 8 December 1969, § 4. a. (5). 183 'Deutsches Strategisches Konzept: Fiihrungsweisung Nr. 1 Teil 1', Bonn Doc. 173 (26 January 1967), pp. 8, 15f; see also Catherine M. Kelleher: Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), p. 217 and, with some minor reservations, in Ivo Daalder: The Nature and Practice of Flexible Response (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 40-66; see Beatrice Heuser: 'Eur• opean defence before and after the "turn of the tide''', Review of International Studies Vo!. 19 No. 3 (October 1993). 184 See Chapter 5. 185 Interviews with Sir Michael Quinlan, 10 February 1992. 186 Charles Douglas-Home: 'Mountbatten nuclear arms warning', The Times (23 February 1970). 187 Cf. Chapter 5. 188 Helga Haftendorn: 'Das doppelte Missverstandnis: Zur Vorgeschichte des NATO-Doppelbeschlusses von 1979', Vierteljahreshefte fur Zeit• geschichte Vo!. 33 No. 2 (April 1985), p. 247f. Lawrence Freedman describes the guiding principle of any follow-on use as 'the way in which Notes 197

people talk to foreigners if these don't understand what has been said: they repeat exactly the same words, except louder'; see also Lynn Davis: 'Limited Nuclear Options', Adelphi Paper No. 121 (London: IISS, 1975176). 189 Letter from Sir Michael Quinlan to the author, 19 April 1995. 190 He1mut Schmidt: Menschen und Miichte (Berlin: Goldmann, 1991, ori• ginally Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1987), pp. 89-125; Margaret Thatcher: The Downing Street Years (London: Harper Collins, 1993), p. 239; John Nott in an interview, 'Nott speaks out', International Defence Review (December 1981); Michael Heseltine in interview with Anthony Bevins: '2001: a nuclear strategy for Britain', The Times (2 December 1983); Douglas Hurd, Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, 'The debate we must win', speech to the Tory Reform Group annual conference at Oxford (22 March 1981), p. 4, IISS press archives. 191 For a discussion see Heuser: 'European defence before and after', pp. 409-19. 192 Cf.lecture by Michael Quinlan of October 1982, 'NATO Nuclear Deter• rence Concepts', King's College, Liddell Hart Archives, Quinlan papers. 193 Daalder: The Nature and Practice. 194 Holger Mey: NATO Strategie vor der Wende: Die Entwicklung des Verstiindnisses nuklearer Macht im Biindnis zwischen 1967 und 1990 (Baden Baden: Nomos, 1992), pp. 70--1. For a translation of his sum• mary of the GPGs, see Heuser: 'European defence before and after', pp. 412-13. 195 This was also rejected by the NATO nuclear study group on Warsaw Pact nuclear forces, see Lothar Ruhl: Mittelstreckenwaffen in Europa (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1987), pp. 144--7. 196 Mey: NATO Strategie vor der Wende, p. 71. 197 Sir Michael Quinlan: 'Nuclear Weapons - the Basic Issues', Lecture of November 1982, The Ampleforth JournalVol. XCI Part 11 (1986), p. 66. 198 Summary published by NATO Press Service Communique S-I(91)85 of 7 November 1991, 'The Alliance's New Strategic Concept'. 199 Text in NATO's 16 Nations VoL 35 No. 4 (July-August 1990), p. 67. 200 NATO 8-1(91)85, §§ 55-6. 201 'The circumstances in which any use of nuclear weapons might have to be contemplated by [NATO] are even more remote', 'The Alliance's New Strategic Concept', NATO Press Service, Press Communique S-I(91)85 of7 November 1991, §57. 202 Secretary of Defence Schlesinger: 'Report to Congress: the theatre nuclear force posture in Europe', Survival Vol. 17 No. 5 (September• October 1975), pp. 235-40; Haftendorn: 'Das Doppelte Missverstand• nis' pp. 249-79; Daalder: Nature and Practice, pp. 128-47, 171-223; see also Davis: 'Limited Nuclear Options'; James A. Thomson: 'The LRTNF decision: evolution of US theatre nuclear policy, 1975-9', International Affairs Vol. 60 No. 4 (1984). 203 cf. Terry Terriff: 'The Innovation of US Strategic Nuclear Policy in the Nixon Administration, 1969-1974: Objectives, Process and Politics', Nuclear History Program Working Papers No. 4 (Center for Interna• tional Security Studies at the University of Maryland, July 1990); 198 Notes

Christopher J. Makins: 'TNF Modernization and "Countervailing Strategy"', Survival Vol. XXIII No. 4 (July-August 1981), pp. 157-64; Ivo H. Daalder and Catherine McArdle Kelleher: 'The United States and theater Nuclear Modernization since 1970', (unpublished paper prepared for the Nuclear History Program, 1991), pp. 22-36. 204 Daalder: Nature and Practice, passim, and Christoph Bluth: Britain, Germany, passim. 205 Der Bundesminister der Verteidigung: Weissbuch 197511976: Zur Sicher• heit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und zur Entwicklung der Bundeswehr (Bonn: Presse- und Infonnationsamt der Bundesregierung, 1976), p. 21; id.: Weissbuch 1979: Zur Sicherheit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und zur Entwicklung der Bundeswehr (Bonn: Presse- und Infonnationsamt der Bundesregierung, 1979), p. 123; id.: Weissbuch 1985: Zur Lage und Entwicklung der Bundeswehr (Bonn: Presse- und Infonnationsamt der Bundesregierung, 1985), p. 29. 206 For example Colin Gray and Keith Payne: 'Victory is possible', Foreign Policy No. 39 (Summer 1980). Cf. Robert A. Levine: 'The Strategic Nuclear Debate', RAND Paper R-3565-FFICCIRC (1987); for later thinking, see 'New Technology for NATO: Implementing Follow-on Forces Attack' (Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, 1987); Frank Carlucei: 'Support of NATO Strategy in the I 990s' (Report to Congress, 25 January 1988); Fred Ikle & Albert Wohlstetter: Discriminate Deterrence: Report of the Commission on Integrated Long-Term Strategy, (Washington: January 1988), p. 30. 207 Bobbitt, Freedman and Treverton (eds): US Nuclear Strategy, pp. 338- 46, 415-25; Address by US Secretary of Defense Harold Brown, 20 August 1980, in Survival Vol. XXII No. 5 (1980), pp. 267-9; Jeffrey Riche1son: 'PD-59, NSDD-13 and the Reagan Strategic Modernization Program', Journal of Strategic Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 (1983), pp. 125-45. 208 For example Robert C. Aldridge: First Strike! The Pentagon's Strategy for Nuclear War (Boston, Mass: South End Press, 1983); Alfred Mech• tersheimer: Zeitbombe NATO: Auswirkungen der neuen Strategien (Cologne: Eugen Diederichs, 1984), p. 14; Ulrich Albrecht: Kiindigt den NachrUstungsbeschluss! Argumentefiir die Friedensbewegung (Frank• furt/Main: Fischer, 1982), p. 17. 209 For the differences between European and US views on this point - counting the renegade Colin Gray as an American - see Hans Hinrichs: 'Nuklear-Strategie im Wander, Wehrkunde Vol. 24 No. 5 (May 1975), p.227f. 210 Wampler: 'Ambiguous Legacy', p. 1056f. 211 For a clear contrasting of the European and the US preferences, see also Colin S. Gray: 'Theatre Nuclear Weapons: Doctrines and Postures', World Politics Vol. 28 No. 2 (January 1976), p. 301f; Uwe Nerlich: 'Die Modernisierung der "Theater Nuclear Forces" der NATO', Euro• piiische Wehrkunde Vol. 26 No. 2 (February 1977), p. 63f; Manfred Worner: 'Taktische Nuklearwaffen und die Verteidigung Europas', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vol. 26 No. 12 (December 1977); p. 600f. 212 Wilhelm G. Grewe: Riickblenden 1976-1951 (Frankfurt/M: Propyliien, 1979), p. 683f. Notes 199

213 Daalder: Nature and Practice, p. 92. 214 See Chapter 3. 215 Peters: The Germans and the INF Missiles, p. 30, see also Richard Hart Sinnreich: 'NATO's doctrinal dilemma', Orbis Vol. 19 (1975), p. 462 claiming that Flexible response was developed by the US and 'imposed' on the Alliance. Peters's whole work refutes this myth, although she underemphasizes the role of the UK (which she acknowledges in de• tailed analysis, but not in her conclusions - see The Germans and the INF Missiles, p. 162 f, but pp. 297-306). 216 quoted in John Roper: 'Nuclear policies: different approaches to similar objectives', in Boyer, Lellouche and Roper (eds): Franco-British Defence Cooperation (London: Routledge for the RIIA, 1989), p. 12. 217 Walter Schiitze: 'European Defence Co-operation and NATO', The At/antic Papers No. 3 (paris: the Atlantic Institute, November 1969), pp. 22-4; Kurt Becker: 'Ein behiibiger Herr', Die Zeit (6 Juni 1969); see also Beatrice Heuser: 'Reflexions sur les doctrines de represailles mas• sives et de riposte graduee', Revue d'histoire diplomatique Vol. 105 No. 3-4 (1991), pp. 371-3. 218 Sir Michael Quinlan, letter to the author, 19 April 1995.

3 BRITISH STRATEGY: INTER-DEPENDENCE

Jan Melissen: The Struggle for Nuclear Partnership: Britain, the United States and the Making ofan Ambiguous Alliance, 1952-1959 (Groningen: Styx, 1993), p. 13. 2 Simon Duke: US defence bases in the United Kingdom: A matter for joint decision? (London: Macmillan for St. Antony's, 1987), p. 39. 3 Duke: US defence bases, pp. 41-3. 4 On British-American military co-operation in this period, see also Alex Danchev: 'In the back room: Anglo-American defence co• operation, 1945-51', in Richard Aldrich (ed.): British Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945-51 (London: Routledge: 1992), pp. 215-35. 5 Duke: US Defence Bases, pp. 195-96. 6 For this interpretation, see Gregory Donaghy for the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (ed.): Documents on Canadian External Relations [henceforth DCER] Vol. 16 [1950] (Ottawa: Canada Communications Group, 1966), p. 1469; Foreign Relations of the United States [henceforth FRU511949 Vol. IV, p. 355. 7 DeER Vol. 16 p. 1488, Note of 2 December 1950. It seems that the bombers deployed to Britain in 1948 during the Berlin crisis, although in principle nuclear-capable, were not fitted with nuclear weapons, see Sheila Kerr: 'The Secret Hotline to Moscow: Donald Maclean and the Berlin Crisis of 1948', in Anne Deighton (ed.): Britain and the First Cold War (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 78-81. 8 James Eayrs: In Defence of Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), pp. 247-49. 200 Notes

9 lan Clark and Nicholas Wheeler: The British Origins of Nuclear Strategy, 1945-1955 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), pp. 139-140. 10 Cf. also DCER Vo!. 16, p. 1477. 11 Melissen: The Struggle, p. 12. 12 Clark and Wheeler: The British Origins, p. 150ff. 13 Public Record Office (PRO) AIR 8/2271, 'Military strategy for circum• stances short of global war 1960-1970', mid-March 1961. 14 For example PRO, DEFE 5/99, COS(60)14 of 25 January 1960; DEFE 4/ 132, Appendix 'B' to JP(60)16(Final) of 21 June 1960, pp. 5, 10. 15 PRO, AIR 8/2271, CAB 2416/AUS(A)17l25, note by R.e. Kent, Assis• tant Under Secretary (Air), 29 September 1960; and ibid. summary of JP(60)16(Final), 'Military strategy for circumstances short of global war', discussed in mid-March 1961. 16 'Le Foreign Office fait une mise au point moderee it la suite de l'article de "Life"', Le Monde (15 January 1956); interview with John Foster Dulles, 'On the Brink of War', Life (January 1956). 17 Duke: US Defence Bases, pp. 172, 175. 18 COS(45)402(0), quoted in Julian Lewis: Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-War Strategic Defence, 1942-1947 (London: The Sherwood Press, 1988), p. 187. 19 Annex to COS(45)246th Mtg (1), quoted in Lewis: Changing Direction, p. 201. Cf. also Alan Macmillan: 'British atomic strategy 1945-52', in John Baylis and Alan Macmillan (eds): The Foundation of British Nuclear Strategy, 1945-1960, International Politics Research Papers No. 12 (Dept. of International Politics, University College of Wales, 1992), p. 41. 20 Cf. Andrew J. Pierre: Nuclear Politics: The British Experience with an Independent Strategic Force, 1939-1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 87 and confirmed by Clark and Wheeler: The British Origins, p. 170. 21 See Andrew D. Lambert: 'The Parameters of British Naval Power 1850- 1914: Deterrence and War Fighting', in Michael Duffy (ed.): Parameters of Naval Power (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1997). 22 Uri Bialer: The Shadow of the Bomber: The Fear of Air Attack and British Politics, 1933-1939 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1980), p. 48. 23 Reference in Freedman, Navias and Wheeler: Independence in Concert: The British Rationale for Possessing Strategic Nuclear Weapons Nuclear History Program Occasional Paper 5 (College Park, MD: University of Maryland, 1989), p. 11. 24 Margaret Gowing assisted by Lorna Arnold: Independence and Deter• rence: Britain and Atomic Energy 1945-1952 Vo!. I Policy Making (Lon• don: Macmillan, 1974), p. 184f. 25 Jean-Yves Haine: 'Les premieres decisions nucleaires en France et en Grande-Bretagne: une etude comparative', (Memoire de D.E.A., Paris IV-Sorbonne, December 1992), pp. 71-92. 26 Cf. Stuart Croft and Phil Williams: 'The United Kingdom', in Regina Cowen Carp (ed.): Security with Nuclear Weapons (Oxford, Oxford Uni• versity Press, 1991), p. 149. 27 Gowing: Policy Making, p. 197. Notes 201

28 For a chronology, cf. the Office of the Historian of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Commission (Lorna Arnold): The Development of Atomic Energy 1939-1984 (Bournemouth: The Bourne Press, 1984). 29 COS, January 1947 quoted in Alan Macmillan: Britain and Atomic Weapons 1945-1949: The Development of a Deterrence Frame of Mind, International Politics Research Paper No. 9 (Dept. of International Politics, University College of Wales, 1991), p. 11. 30 PRO, DEFE 4/132, Appendix B to JP(60)6(Final) of 21 June 1960, §§ 6, 33. 31 JP(46)146(Final) quoted in Lewis: Changing Direction, p. 310. 32 Macmillan: 'British atomic strategy 1945-52', p. 43. 33 Clark and Wheeler: The British Origins, p. 97. 34 Sir Charles Webster and Noble Frankland: The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939-1945 (London: HMSO, 1961), pp. 63 f., 284-311. 35 As Peter Hudson recollects, who in 1950 was Private Secretary to the Permanent Under Secretary at the Air Ministry. Letter from Sir Michael Quinlan to the author, containing excerpts of comments by Peter Hud• son, 19 April 1995. 36 Macmillan: 'British atomic strategy 1945-52', passim. 37 Clark and Wheeler, The British Origins, p. 95. 38 Anthony Cave Brown (ed.): Operation World War Ill: The Secret Amer• ican Plan 'Dropshot' for War with the Soviet Union, 1957 (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1979), pp. 22-9. 39 See p. 41 above. 40 Macmillan: 'British atomic strategy 1945-52', p. 51. 41 JPS in 1947, quoted in Clark and Wheeler, British Origins, p. 100. 42 Quoted in Clark and Wheeler, The British Origins, p. 106. 43 Ibid. p. 101. 44 Cf. Admiral Sir Rhoderick McGrigor in 1954, quoted by Nicholas Wheeler: 'The Chiefs of Staff and British Nuclear Strategy, 1952-1944', in Baylis and Macmillan (eds.) The Foundations of British Nuclear Strat• egy, p. 64; and for the Eden period, see Martin Navias: 'Independence and British Nuclear Targeting: 1955-1958', ibid., pp. 77-100. 45 Clark and Wheeler: The British Origins, p. 105. 46 'ROMEO' was applied to different missions later. 47 DO(46)47 of 5 April 1946, quoted in Lewis: Changing Direction, p. 259. 48 PRO, DEFE 4/42, JP(51)33(Final) of 17 May 1951, 'Defence of Europe in the Short Term'. 49 See pp. 33f. above. 50 Full text edited by AIan Macmillan & John Baylis: A reassessment of the British Global Strategy Paper of 1952, International Politics Research Paper No. 13 (Dept. ofInternational Politics, University College of Wales, 1993), here § 39, on p. 26; this has to be read in the context of the section on 'Small Atomic Weapons for Tactical Use', §11 on p. 21; see also Sir John Slessor: Strategy for the West (London: Cassell, 1954), p. 60 f. 51 Martin S. Navias: Nuclear Weapons and British Strategic Planning, 1955- 1958 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 43. 52 Ibid. p. 104. 53 Ibid. pp. 105, 166--77. 202 Notes

54 For example Beatrice Heuser: Western Containment Policies in the Cold War (London: Routledge, 1989), pp. 13~7. 55 The British government wanted to announce this fact at the time of the Suez crisis, but President Eisenhower refused to grant permission to do so: see PRO, AIR 19/939, passim, and particularly the exchange ofletters between Eden and Eisenhower of 5 and 12 October 1956. 56 Pierre: Nuclear Politics, p. 151; cf. Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance, 1963-1964 (London: 1963), p. 35. 57 TWC(45)10th Meeting(I), quoted in Lewis: Changing Direction, p. 221. 58 Navias, Nuclear Weapons, p. 169. 59 For the description of a variety of projects, see for example PRO, AIR 21 15070, 'Report by an Air Ministry Working Party to consider the Defence of the United Kingdom against the guided bomb, 1960--1967', 15 November 1957, p. 2. 60 Letter from Sir Michael Quinlan to the author, 19 April 1995. 61 Navias: Nuclear Weapons, pp. 21~29; Jan Melissen: 'The Thor Saga: Anglo-American Nuclear Relations, US IRBM Development and Deployment in Britain, 1955-1959', Journal of Strategic Studies Vo!. 15 No. 2 (June 1992), pp. 172-207, and id.: The Struggle, pp. 63-86. 62 See for example PRO, PREM 11/3712, letter from Peter Thorneycroft to Macmillan of 10 October 1962 and following correspondence, and the Report from Trend, Caccia, Scott and Makins to Macmillan, 7 December 1962, on Franco-British co-operation in the nuclear field. 63 According to Peter Hudson, letter from Sir Michael Quinlan to the author, 19 April 1995. 64 Pierre: Nuclear Politics, pp. 186, 296. 65 'Polaris afternoon', The Economist (28 October 1967). 66 Quoted in Navias, Nuclear Weapons, pp. 62-3. 67 'Defence: Outline of Future Policy', Cmnd. 124 (London: HMSO, April (1957). 68 Sir John Slessor: 'British defense policy', Foreign Affairs Vo!. 35 No. 4 (July 1957), p. 551; John Baylis and Alan Macmillan: 'The British Global Strategy Paper of 1952', The Journal of Strategic Studies Vo!. 16 No. 2 (June 1993), pp. 219-20. 69 The British Army of the Rhine already built its planning on a short-range or battlefield nuclear capability in the mid-1950s, although it did not receive such missiles - Honest John and Corporal - until the end of the decade, see Navias, Nuclear Weapons, p. 87. 70 Clark and Wheeler: British Origins, p. 230 f. 71 Navias: Nuclear Weapons, pp. 104f., 131,208,211 and 214. 72 Ian Clark: Nuclear Diplomacy and the Special Relationship: Britain's Deterrent and America, 1957-1962 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994). pp. 129-35; see also John Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy 1945-1964 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995). 73 This was later appropriated or at best re-invented by Richard Nixon. see Herbert von Borch: 'Begnugt sich Nixon mit 'ausreichenden' Streitkriif• ten?', Siiddeutsche Zeitung (4 February 1969). 74 'Defence: Outline of Future Policy', Cmnd. 124 (London: HMSO. April 1957), §8. Notes 203

75 Martin S. Navias: 'Independence and British nuclear targeting', p. 84. 76 Cr. PRO, CAB 131125, Annex B to D(61)2 of 12 January 1961, §2. 77 DEFE 4/111, COS 77(58)1 of 3 September 1958, cited in Navias, Nuclear Weapons, p. 212. 78 DEFE 4/lll, COS 77(58)1 of 3 September 1958, cited in Navias, 'Independence and British nuclear targeting', p. 87. 79 John Roper: 'The British nuclear deterrent and new developments in ballistic-missile defence', The World Today (May 1985), pp. 92-5. 80 Malcolm Rifkind: 'UK Defence Strategy: A continuing role for nuclear weapons?', speech given at King's College, University of London, 16 November 1993, § 29. 81 Ibid. § 15. 82 HMG: 'Report on Defence: Britain's Contribution to Peace and Secur• ity', Cmnd. 363 (London: HMSO, February 1958), § 12. 83 David Alan Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', in Des• mond Ball and JefTrey Richelson (eds): Strategic Nuclear Targeting (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), p. 49. 84 Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', p. 35. 85 Lawrence Freedman comes to similar conclusions in his 'British Nuclear Targeting', in Ball and Richelson (eds.): Strategic Nuclear Targeting, p. 116. 86 PRO, PREM 1113712, letter by Philip de Zulueta to Harold Macmillan, 24 June 1962. 87 PRO, PREM 11/3712, RHS/809/62, letter of 4 December 1962. 88 For more recent independent targeting planning, see Freedman: 'British Nuclear Targeting', p. 120. 89 Eric Grove: 'Second centre of nuclear decision making?', Council of Arms Control Bulletin (October 1987). 90 Lord Lewin: 'Why we need Trident', The Times (6 February 1985); Mark Urban: 'Britain's new deterrent', The Independent (19 January 1987). 91 Multiple Re-entry Vehicle. 92 Multiple, Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle. 93 Peter Malone: The British Nuclear Deterrent (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 113; John Roper: 'The British nuclear deterrent and new devel• opments in ballistic-missile defence', The World Today (May 1985), pp. 92-5. 94 For the history of this decision, see Lawrence Freedman: 'The European Nuclear Powers: Britain and France', in Cruise (Washington: the Brook• ings Institution, 1981), pp. 447-64. 95 Malone: The British Nuclear Deterrent, pp. 106-28; MaJcolm Pithers: 'Trident debate continues amid rousing fanfare for 'Vanguard', The Independent (5 March 1992). 96 Its drafter, Sir Michael Quinlan, in a letter to the author, 27 June 1991. 97 'Defence Open Government Document 80/23'. 98 Lawrence Freedman: 'British Nuclear Targeting', p. 124; Mark Urban: 'Architect of the flexible response', The Independent (20 October 1988). 99 'How much striking power is enough for British strategic nuclear deterrence?', lecture given at Windsor in February 1982, King's College London, Liddell Hart Archive. Quinlan Papers. For deliberate ambiguity about targeting (Moscow or leadership bunkers in the vicinity?), see 204 Notes

Michael Quinlan, HofC Defence Committee Hearings, 29 October 1980, p.87. 100 Michael Quinlan: 'Nuclear Weapons - the Basic Issues', The Ampleforth Journal Vol. 91 part 2, § 26-7. 101 Mark Urban: 'MoD considers shift in nuclear strategy', The Independent (20 October 1988). 102 Julian Critchley: 'Trident's Potential Targets', RUSI Journal Vol. 129 No. 1 (March 1984), pp. 40--2. 103 DO(46)47 of 5 April 1946, quoted in Lewis: Changing Direction, p. 259. 104 Rosenberg: 'US Nuclear War Planning, 1945-1960', p. 49. 105 P.M.S. Blackett: Atomic Weapons and East-West Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge U.P, 1956), p. 9-11. 106 Sir Anthony Buzzard, Sir John Slessor and Richard Loewenthal: 'Mas• sive retaliation or graduated deterrence?', International Affairs Vol. 32 No. 2 (1956), p. 148. 107 Navias: Nuclear Weapons, p. 83. 108 House of Commons Debates [henceforth HofC Deb. ], Vol. 568, col. 1765,16 April 1957. 109 HofC Debate., Vol. 568, col. 1979, 17 April 1957. 110 The - (false) - story that Hitler was planning an all-out air attack on London for 21 February 1939 as a pre-emptive strike against Britain was a crucial factor in moving the British Government from appease• ment to containment of Hitler in early 1939, see Donald Cameron Watt: How War Came: The immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938- 1939 (London: Heinemann, 1989), p. 101 r. 111 PRO, DEFE 4/134, COS(61)13th Mtg., 21 February 1961, Item 2. 112 On the service rivalries, cf. Baylis: Ambiguity and Deterrence, pp. 126- 177, and thereafter, passim. 113 MC 1417 (Final) of 16 January 1968, § 29. 114 'Disquiet on the Western Front', The Times (13 December 1955). 115 Hugh Gaitskell:'Disengagement: Why? How?', Foreign Affairs Vol. 36 No. 4 (July 1958), p. 542. 116 See pp. 48-·51 above. 117 CAB 131125, D(61)23, 'UK views on NATO Strategy and Nuclear Weapons', Memorandum by the Minister of Defence, 1 May 1961, p. 3. Cr. Rear Admiral Sir Anthony Buzzard: 'The H-bomb: Massive retaliation or graduated deterrence?', International Affairs Vol. 32 No. 2 (April 1956), pp. 148-58. 118 HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1966' - Part I: the Defence Review, Cmnd. 2901 (London: HMSO, February 1966), §§ 12-13. 119 HMG loco cit. 120 Cf. PRO, FO 3711161240, SC(61)33, Steering Committee on NATO Strategy, 28 August 1961, §§ 18-19. 121 HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1968', Cmnd. 3540 (Lon• don: HMSO, February 1968), § 8 in advocating 'extending the conven• tional phase of hostilities, should war break out', reflects a temporary acceptance by the United Kingdom of the US preferences. But Healey otherwise expressed his dislike of the emphasis on conventional defence, cf. David N. Schwartz: NATO's Nuclear Dilemmas (Washington, DC: Notes 205

The Brookings Institution, 1983), p. 184 f. His own explanation of his tem!,orary support for more conventional forces is counter-chronologi• cal, cf. Denis Healey: The Time of My Life (London: Michael Joseph, 1989, this edition: Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 309. 122 Sir Maurice Heath: 'L'avenir des forces aeriennes tactiques dans un conflit nucleaire', Forces Aeriennes Fran{:aises No. 213 (April 1965), pp. 461-77, providing both the original English text and the French translation. 123 Heath: loc. cit. 124 J. Michael Legge: Theater Nuclear Weapons and the NATO Strategy of Flexible Response, RAND Paper R-2964-FF (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, April 1983), p. 70fT; Holger Mey: NATO Strategie vor der Wende (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1992), pp. 64-66. 125 Susanne Peters: The Germans and the INF Missiles (Baden-Baden: No• mos, 1990), p. 162f; see pp. 54-7 above. 126 'Nott speaks out', International Defence Review (December 1981). 127 See the WINTEX exercise of 1989, Daalder: The Nature and Practice of Flexible Response, p. 93. 128 See Chapter 5. 129 For example Michael Heseltine as Defence Secretary, in an interview with Anthony Bevins: '2001: a nuclear strategy for Britain', The Times (2 December 1983). 130 Ivo H. Daalder and Catherine McArdle Kelleher: 'The United States and Theater Nuclear Modernization since 1970', (paper prepared for the Second Nuclear History Program Study Review Conference, Ebenhau• sen, June 1991), pp. 158-160. 131 For example, see David Omand: 'Nuclear deterrence in a changing world: the view from a UK perspective', RUSI Journal Vol. 141 No. 3 (June 1996). 132 Sir GeofTrey Howe, Foreign Secretary, speech at the Foreign Press Association (17 March 1986), translation printed in Europa Archiv Vol. 41 No. 9 (May 1986), p. 243: George Younger, Defence Secretary, speech at Chatham House (11 March 1987): 'Nuclear weapons - is there a choice?', §§ 12, 22, IISS press archive. 133 Douglas Hurd (Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Af• fairs), speech to the Tory Reform Group's annual conference at Oxford (22 March 1981), p. 2, IISS press archive; Sir GeofTrey Howe (Foreign Secretary): 'European security', Studia Diplomatica No. I (1987), p. 49 f. 134 David Green and Robert Mauthner: 'Navy to scrap tactical nuclear weapons', Financial Times (16 June 1992). 135 See the criticism of Lord Wigg, quoted by Charles Douglas-Home: 'Healey attacks critics of NATO nuclear role', The Times (20 February 1970). 136 N.B. Not military! 137 PRO, CAB 131/23, D(60)2, 24 February 1960. 138 'The Nassau Communique' issued by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and US President Kennedy, Nassau, Bahamas, 21 December 1962, printed in Surviva/Vol. 5 No. 2 (March-April 1963), pp. 46-7. 139 Pierre: Nuclear Politics, p. 247. 206 Notes

140 The British would never have admitted to any doubts about the US guarantee in public, see Chapter 1. 141 Cr. §§ 6-7 of the 'Statement on Defence 1964', Cmnd. 2270 (London: HMSO, February 1964). For the second centre argument, see Defence Secretary Francis Pym: 'Britain's Nuclear Weapons', Atlantic Commun• ity Vol. 18 No. 1 (Spring 1980), p. 54 f, and in § 7 of the 'Defence Open Government Document' 80/23 of July 1980; Defence Secretary George Younger at Chatham House, 'Nuclear Weapons: is there a choice?', (11 March 1987) § 20, IISS press archives. See also Eric Grove: 'Second Centre of nuclear decision-making?" Council for Arms Control Bulletin (October 1987). 142 § 6 of the 'Declaration on Atlantic Relations', 19 June 1974, NATO Final Communiques. 1949-1974 (Brussels, NATO Information Service, 1975), p. 319. 143 Macrnillan quoted in Michael Hilton: 'Anglo-US Pledge on Atom Secrets - President will seek change in act', Daily Telegraph (26 October 1957); HMG: 'Report on Defence: Britain's Contribution to Peace and Security', Cmnd. 363 (London, HMSO, February 1958), § 24. 144 Pierre: Nuclear Politics, p. 266. 145 HofC Deb., Vol. 537 col. 1905 (I March 1955), cited in C1ark and Wheeler: The British Origins, p. 232. 146 Healey: The Time of My Life. p. 307. 147 Pierre: Nuclear Politics, p. 276-83; Healey: The Time of My Life, p. 305. 148 PRO, AIR 8/2271, CAB 2416/AUS(A)17l25, note by R.C. Kent, Assist- ant Under Secretary (Air), 29 September 1960; and ibid. summary of JP(60)16(Final), 'Military strategy for circumstances short of global war', discussed in mid-March 1961. 149 For example, PRO, DEFE 5199, COS(60)14 of 25 January 1960. 150 PRO, AIR 8/2271, 'Military strategy for circumstances short of global war 1960--1970', mid-March 1961. This is presumably the answer to the riddle why the Israelis can claim not to be the first to introduce nuclear weapons to that region. 151 PRO, DEFE 4/132, Appendix 'B' to JP(60)16(Fina1) of 21 June 1960, pp. 5, 10. 152 A.G. Noorani: 'India's quest for a nuclear guarantee', Asian Survey Vol. 7 No. 7 (July 1967), pp. 490--502, esp. p. 491. 153 'The ANF and the non-nuclear nations', The Guardian (17 December 1964); 'The Bomb East of Suez', The Times (11 December 1964). 154 'Statement on the Defence Estimates, 1965', Cmnd. 2592 (London: HMSO, February 1965), § 12. 155 HMG, loc. cit. 156 Lawrence Freedman: Britain and Nuclear Weapons (London: Macmillan for the RIIA, 1980), pp. 28-29. 157 'Strategies East and West', The Economist (16 January 1965); Andrew Wilson: 'Labour will keep Britain's bases and the bomb', Observer (14 February 1965). 158 '£39 a head for our defence', The Guardian (24 February 1965). 159 Cr. also Christoph Bluth: Britain. Germany and Western Nuclear Strat• egy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 179-200. Notes 207

160 The 1967 defence white paper was dominated by the need to 'save foreign exchange', the refrain punctuating the papers outline of the cuts, withdrawals and downscaling of force deployments, see 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1967', Cmnd. 3203 (London: HMSO, Febru• ary 1967). 161 As' Michael Edwardes suggested in 1967: 'India, Pakistan and nuclear weapons', International Affairs Vol. 43 No. 4 (October 1967), p. 663. 162 For example John Mackintosh and Leonard Beaton writing in The Times (7 and 17 April 1969). 163 Cr. the United Kingdom statement made in the context of the signing of the NPT, Security Council, Official Records, 1430th Meeting, 17 June 1968, alluded to here in the Resolution of the Security Council 255(1968), adopted on 19 June 1968, UN, Office of Public Information, (New York: 1969), p. 67. 164 Cr. HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1967', Cmnd. 3203; 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1968', Cmnd. 3540; and 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1969', Cmnd. 3927 (London: HMSO, Febru• ary 1969). 165 Denis Healey: 'Perspektiven der sowjetischen MiliUirpolitik', Wehrkunde Vol. XVIII No. 3 (March 1969), p. 113; see also 'On European Defence', Survival Vol. 11 No. 4 (April 1969), p. 114. Two years later, Christopher Irwin spoke of British nuclear capable aircraft still assigned to CENTO: 'Nuclear aspects of West European Defence Integration', International Affairs Vol. 47 No. 4 (October 1971), p. 680. 166 UN Disarmament Yearbooks, Vol. 14 (New York: 1989), p. 233. 167 'Treaty of Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence, signed at Brussels on March 17, 1948, as amended by the "Protocol Modifying and Completing the Brussels Treaty", signed at Paris on October 23, 1954' (my italics). 168 Healey: The Time of my life, p. 316. 169 Pierre: Nuclear Politics, p. 299. 170 The origins of this term are uncertain. Anthony Hartley in 1964 attrib• uted to Adelbert Weinstein, correspondent of the Frankfurter AlIge• meine Zeitung, the term 'a second Western centre of deterrence': 'The British Bomb', Survival Vol. 6 No. 4 (July-August 1964), p. 179. For the later use see Freedman: Britain and Nuclear Weapons, pp. 25 fT, 135fT. 171 HMG: 'Statement on Defence, 1964', Cmnd. 2270 (London: HMSO, February 1964), § 7. 172 HMG:'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1966' - Part 11: 'Britain's Military Role', Cmnd. 2901. 173 'Nott faces twin attack over Trident', Guardian (30 March 1982); Omand: 'Nuclear deterrence in a changing world'. i74 HMG: 'Defence Open Government Document 80/23'. 175 See pp. 54-7 above. 176 Michael Quinlan: 'NATO nuclear deterrence concepts', Lecture given at the Royal College of Defence Studies, 26 October 1982, Liddell Hart Archive, p. 7. 208 Notes

4 FRENCH STRATEGY: INDEPENDENCE

1 Berrand Goldschmidt: Pionniers de l'atome (Paris: Stock, 1987). 2 Jacques BounolIeau and Jean-Claude Levain: 'Les brevets nucJeaires de l'equipe Joliot en Grande Bretagne et aux Etats-Unis (1939-1968)" in Maurice Vaisse (ed.): La France et I'Atome: Etudes d'histoire nucIeaire (Brussels: Bruyland, 1994), pp. 13-40. 3 Dominique Mongin: 'La genese de l'armement nucJeaire fran~ais, 1945- 1958', Vo!. I (MS Doctorate, Universite de Paris I Sorbonne, 1991), p. 228 ff. 4 Marcel Duval and Yves Le Baut: L'arme nucIeairefranf-aise: Pourquoi et comment? (paris: KronoS/S.P.M., 1992), p. 139; Jean-Christophe Sau• vage: 'Les problemes du nucU:aire sous la IVe Republique a travers les debats de I'Assemblee nationale' (Memoire de D.E.A. a l'Universite de Reims, 1990), pp. 35-41. 5 Cr. Maurice Vaisse: 'Le choix atomique de la France (1945-1958)', Revue d'Histoire No. 36 (1992). 6 Greg Herring and Robert Immerman: 'Le jour ou nous ne somrnes pas entres en guerre: la politique americaine au moment de Dien Bien Phu', in Denise Artaud and Lawrence Kaplan (eds): Dien Bien Phu: L'Al/iance atlantique et la defense du Sud-Est asiatique (Lyon: la Manufacture, 1989), pp. 116-27. Britain's advice became known through Dulles: 'Le Foreign Office fait une mise au point moderee a la suite de l'articJe de "Life"', Le Monde (15 January 1956) and John Foster Dulles, 'On the Brink of War', Life (January 1956). 7 Quoted in Georges-Henri Soutou: 'La politique nucJeaire de Pierre Mendes France', Relations Internationales No. 59 (autumn 1989), p. 321. 8 Mongin: 'La genese', Vo!. 11, pp. 280-319. 9 Bertrand Goldschmidt: 'La genese de l'armement nucJeaire fran~ais', Armees d'aujourd'hui No. 3 (September 1975), p. 34; Sauvage: 'Les pro• blemes du nucJeaire', pp. 36-41. 10 Quoted in Soutou: 'La politique nucJeaire de Pierre Mendes France', p. 321, note of 20 August 1954. 11 Ibid. pp. 317-30. 12 Ibid. p. 322. 13 Duval and Le Baut: L 'arme nucIeaire franfaise, p. 28. 14 Soutou: 'La politique nucJeaire de Pierre Mendes France', p. 325 f. 15 Jean-Yves Haine: 'Les premieres decision nucJeaires en France et en Grande-Bretagne: une etude comparative' (Memoire de D.E.A., Paris IV-Sorbonne, December 1992), pp. 99-103; 113-25. 16 For a summary of French thinking between 1947 and 1961, see: Cyril Buffet: 'The Berlin Crises, France, and the Atlantic Alliance. 1947-1961: from integration to disintegration' and Gerard Bossuat: 'France and the leadership of the West in the 1950s: the story of a disenchantment', in Beatrice Heuser and Robert O'Neill (eds): Securing Peace in Europe, 1945-1962 (London: Macmillan, 1991). 17 Martin Navias: Nuclear Weapons and British Strategic Planning, 1955- 1958 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 182. Notes 209

18 Bourges-Maunoury: 'La nouvelle politique militaire fran9aise', Revue Militaire d'information No. 284 (June 1957), p. 48. 19 See Chapter 6. 20 Marcel Duval and Dominique Mongin: Histoire des forces nuc/eaires franfaises depuis 1945 (paris: Presses Universitaires de France, series Que sais-je?, 1993), p. 90. 21 Maurice Vai'sse: 'Aux origines du memorandum de Septembre 1958', Relations Internationales No. 58 (Summer 1989). 22 See the many testimonies to this effect with regard to US and British policies in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Institut Charles de Gaulle (ed.): L'Aventure de la Bombe (paris: Pion, 1985), pp. 63-9. 23 Duval and Le Baut: L 'arme nucJeaire franfaise, p. 33. 24 Mongin: 'La genese', Vo!. 11, pp. 494. 25 For example General Paul Stehlin: 'La guerre atomique', Forces aeriennes franfaises Vo!. 13 No. 147 (April 1959), p. 505. 26 'Point delicat de la rencontre de Gaulle-Dulles: la cooperation atomique France-Etats-Unis', Combat (13 June 1958); see also Maurice Vaisse: 'La filiere sans issue: I'histoire du premier sous-marin atomique fran9ais, 1954-1959', Revue Historique des Armees Vo!. not given, No. 3 (1990). 27 Maurice Vaisse: 'Un dialogue de sourds: les relations nucleaires franco• americaines 1957- 1960', Relations Internationales No. 68 (Winter 1991). 28 For the details, see Beatrice Heuser: 'Britain, France and the Bomb from Suez to Nassau' in Leopoldo Nuti and Cyril Buffet: Nuclear Proliferation and Non-Proliferation (forthcoming, 1998). This US offer was reiterated in 1971, see Pierre Melandri: 'Aux origines de la cooperation nucleaire franco-americaine', in Maurice Vai'sse (ed.): La France et l'Atome, p. 242, an eyewitness account at the meeting of the Groupe de Recherches et Etudes Fran9ais de I'Histoire de I' Armement Nucleaire, Institut de France, 6 May 1995. 29 Admiral Castex: 'Apen;us sur la bombe atomique', Revue Defense natio• nale [henceforth RDN Vo!. 2 (October 1945). 30 Quoted in Soutou: 'La politique nucleaire de Pierre Mendes France', p.326. 31 'Minimum deterrence' is explained by Basil Liddell Hart: 'Les problemes fondamentaux de la defense de I'Europe', RDN Vo!. 15 No. 1 (January 1959), pp. 19-34; see also Jean Klein: 'Desarmement et arms .control en 1973: bilan et perspectives', Politique errangere [henceforth PE] Vo!. 39 No. 1 (January 1974), p. 82, and Annex: Dominique Dubarle: 'a propos de la notion de "minimum deterrent"', ibid. pp. 96-7. 32 Evoked variously by French politicians and strategists, up to and includ• ing the Mitterrand Presidency, for example discourse by Pierre Mauroy, Prime Minister, at the Institut des Hautes Etudes de Defense nationale in September 1981. 33 Maurice Leman: 'Defense civile et dissuasion nucleaire', Strategie et Defense No. 8 (May 1981), pp. 23-7. 34 Dominique David (ed.): La Politique de defense de la France - textes et documents (paris: Fondation pour les Etudes de RDN, 1989), p. 77. 35 For the latter, see Livre Blanc sur la Defense (1994), p. 57. 210 Notes

36 See for example Fran~ois Mitterrand: Reflexions sur la politique exter• ieure de la France (Paris: Fayard, 1986), pp. 22-3. 37 On the influence of Gallois on de Gaulle's thinking, see Duval and Le Baut: L'arme nucleaire /ran,aise, pp. 30,47; Samy Cohen: La de/aite des generaux: le pouvoir politique et l'armee sous la Ve Republique (paris: Fayard, 1994), pp. 94-5, 101-12. 38 Pierre M. Gallois: Strategie de tage nuc/eaire (Paris, Calmann-Levy, 1960). 39 Bourges-Maunoury: 'La nouvelle politique militaire fran~aise', Revue Militaire d'information No. 284 (June 1957), p. 48; for Gallois's espousal of British concepts, see his enthusiastic review of the British Statement on Defence of 1962: Pierre M. Gallois: 'Deux budgets militaires, une poli• tique de securite qui s'accomode du "desequilibre de la terreur"', RDN Vo!. 18 No. 6 (June 1962), p. 938 ff. See also Andrew J. Pierre: Nuclear Politics: The British Experience with an Independent Strategic Force, 1939-1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 214-15, and Wolf Mendl: Deterrence and Persuasion (London: Faber & Faber, 1970), pp. 40-8. Per contram, see Claude Delmas: 'La France et sa defense nationale', RDN Vo!. 13 No. 10 (October 1957), pp. 1436, 1440f. 40 Pierre M. Gallois: 'The raison d'etre of French defence policy', Interna• tional Affairs Vo!. 39 No. 4 (October 1963), p. 497; see also id.: Strategie de I'age nuc/eaire, pp. 182-7. 41 Alastair Buchan: NATO in the 1960s: Implications o/interdependence (1st edition: London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson for the ISS, 1960), p. 66. 42 'Look at Your Alliance' The Economist (7 November 1959), p. 488: 'the misfortune is that the [British] 1957 white paper has been translated into French, and has become de Gaulle policy; and there simply is not room for two countries with Sandys defence policies in one Nato.' See also Jacques Vernant: 'Defense et independance nationales: I'exemple britan• nique', RDN Vo!. 15 No. 11 (December 1959), esp. pp. 2034-5. 43 Gallois introduced many British metaphors into French thinking, such as, for example, the nuclear weapon as 'great leveller' - Lothar Ruehl, La politique militaire de la Ve republique (paris, Presses de la FNSP, 1976), p. 169, which became one of de Gaulle's favourite concepts, see Jean Lacouture: De Gaulle Vo!. 3: Le Souverain, 1959-1970 (Paris, Seuil, 1986), p. 452. 44 See for example Pierre M. Gallois: 'Les consequences strategiques et politiques des armes nouvelles', PE Vo!. 23 No. 2 (February 1958), pp. 167-180, and id.: 'Nuclear Aggression and National Suicide', The Re• porter Vo!. 19 No. 4 (18 September 1958), pp. 23-6. 45 Gallois: 'Nuclear Aggression and National Suicide', p. 26. 46 Cf. Mongin: 'La genese', Vo!. 11, passim. 47 RDN, Forces Aeriennes Fran,aises, Bilans hebdomadaires, La Revue nou• velle, PE, Revue militaire d'in/ormation, Revue maritime, 1955-9 passim. 48 Documents Diplomatiques Fran,ais 21 July-31 December 1954 (paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1987), p. 819, telegram of 30 November 1954; Marcel Duval, then member of the Standing Group, quoting from his own papers of 1954, in Duval and Le Baut: L 'arme nucleaire /ran,aise, p.25. Notes 211

49 DuvaI and Le Baut: L 'arme nucleaire franfaise, p. 69. 50 Jean Lacouture: Le souverain, 1959-1970, p. 466. There seems to be no consensus now on whether the US ever did stock any nuclear weapons in France. 51 Captain M. Sallerin: 'Guerre future et armee de I'air', Forces aeriennes franfaises Vol. 3 No. 16 (January 1948), p. 515; General Paul Gerardot: 'Plaidoyer pour l'attaque', RDN Vol. 12 No. 3 (March 1956), p. 292; id. 'A I'ere des engins thermonucleaires', Le Monde (18 December 1957); Colonel Socquet: 'Mission et organisation de la defense aerienne de l'occident', RDN Vol. 13 No. 11 (November 1957), p. 1698. 52 As reflected in their emphasis of the idea that even tactical nuclear weapons are weapons 'de non emploi'; interview with General Henri Paris, 7 May 1991, and Jean Quintard, both members of the 'Delegation aux etudes generales du ministere de la Defense', 'Quel avenir pour les armements prestrategiquesT, RDN Vol. 47 (April 1991), p. 103. Minister of Defence Chevenement also stated this: Journal Officiel, Assemblee Nationale, Compte Rendu Integral, No. 79, 3e Seance, 7 November 1990, p. 4933. 53 PRO, FO 3711161231, WP 17171G, letter from Sir Antony Rumbold, Paris, to Sir Evelyn Shuckburgh, 15 April 1961. According to Rumbold, the only exception to this was General Stehlin. 54 General Charles Ailleret: 'Unite fondamentale des armements nucleaires et conventionnels', RDN Vol. 20 No. 4 (April 1964), pp. 565-77; see also 'Le general Ailleret definit la tache respective des forces nucleaires et classiques', Le Monde (28 March 1964). 55 J.H.: 'Atome et guerilla', Perspectives No. 908 (14 November 1964). 56 'Les forces militaires du territoire seront chargees en priorite de proteger les bases nucleaires', Le Monde (8 March 1972). 57 'M. Messmer: le general Ailleret n'a pas exprime une opinion person• nelle', Le Monde (2-3 August 1964). 58 Charles Ailleret: 'Opinion sur la theorie strategique de la "flexible response"', RDN Vol. 20 No. 8 (August-September 1964), esp. p. 1334f. 59 Cr. Charles Salzmann: 'La recherche operationelle appliquee aux proble• mes strategiques', PE Vol. 26 No. 3 (1961), pp. 197-213; Lucien Poirier: Des Strategies nucleaires (Paris, Hachette, 1977), the first major publica• tion by one of the two main thinkers in the CPE; Hughes L'Estoile: 'Les implications strategiques de I'innovation technologique', RDN Vol. 24 No. I (January 1968); Alain Bru and Lucien Poirier: 'Dissuasion et defense anti-missiles', RDN Vol. 24 Nos. 10 and 11 (November & December 1968). 60 The Institut Fran~ais d'Etudes Strategiques, founded by General Andre Beaufre, with its journal Strategie made important and widely-read con• tributions to this approach, partly based on systems analysis; see for example 'Etude de la dissuasion', Strategie No. 1 (Summer 1964), pp. 52-9 and 'Analyse de dissuasion bilaterale au niveau nucleaire', Strategie No. 2 (Autumn 1964), pp. 39-60. 61 For a history of the CPE and its work, see Lucien Poirier: Des strategies nucleaires (Paris: Complexe, 1988), pp. 316--25. 62 Dominique David and Guy-Philippe Halleman: 'Les partis politiques fran9ais et les Euro-missi1es', RDN Vol. 37 No. 2 (February 1981), p. 82. 212 Notes

63 Duval & Le Baut: L'arme nuc/eairejran,aise, p. 76 note 36. 64 Lucien Poirier: Des Strategies Nucleaires (paris, Hachette, 1977; re• printed 1988 by Editions Complexe); for Poirier's role, cf. Vice-Admiral Doniol: 'On ne m'a rien demande, mais ... ', Armees d'aujourd'hui No. 129 (April 1988), p. xii. 65 Raymond Aron: 'La force fran~ise de dissuasion et l'Alliance atlan• tique', RDN Vo!. 33 No. 1 (January 1977), p. 40 f; Jean Klein: 'La France, I'arme nucleaire et la defense de l'Europe', PE Vo!. 44 No. 3 (December 1979), pp. 465--6; General Etienne Coppel: 'L' Atome n'est pas tout', Perspectives No. 32 (June 1985), p. 25; Regis Debray; Tous Azimuts (paris: Ed. Odile Jacob pour la Fondation d'Etudes de Defense nationale (FEDN), October 1989), p. 166. 66 Samy Cohen thinks that the influence of the CPE has been exaggerated, see La dejaite des generaux (paris: Fayard, 1994), pp. 96-7. But this concept was of importance as it laid the foundations for the 1972 defence White Paper. 67 General Michel Fourquet: 'Employ des differents systemes de force dans le cadre de la strategie de dissuasion', RDN Vo!. 25 No. 5 (May 1969), pp. 757--67. 68 Pierre Lellouche: L'avenir de la guerre (paris: Mazarine, 1985), p. 273 fn. 1. 69 Duval and Le Baut: L'arme nuc/eairejran,aise, pp. 76-81. 70 Ibid., passim. 71 Jean Planchais: 'Le gouvernement veut reorganiser la RDN en fonction des armements atomiques', Le Monde (14 November 1958). 72 Constitution of 4 October 1958, Title 11 Article 15. 73 Title Il Article 5. 74 Decret No. 64--46 (14 January 1964) concerning the strategic air forces, Article 5. 75 Constitution of 4 October 1958, Title III Article 21. 76 Jacques Godechot (ed.): Les Constitutions de la France depuis 1789 (paris: Flammarion, 1979), 'La Constitution de 1958', Title Il Arts. 5, 15, 16 and Title III Arts. 20 and 21, pp. 425-9; Pascal Boniface: 'La defense et la cohabitation', Le Trimestre du Monde No. 2 (2nd Term 1988), p. 56f. 77 Journal Ojficiel, Assemblee Nationale, Debats (4 November 1966), quoted in Maxime Roux: 'L'Union de l'Europe Occidentale et la defense de l'Europe', RDN Vo!. 32 No. 3 (March 1976), p. 67f. 78 General Guy Mery proclaimed his master's decision, 'Une armee pour quoi faire et comment?', RDN Vo!. 32 No. 6 (June 1976), pp. 11-34. 79 Printed in Strategie et Dejense No. 7 (December 1980), p. 18. 80 Jean Delmas: 'Securite collective dans l'Orbite atlantique', Le Spectacle du Monde No. 93 (December 1969), p. 64. 81 PRO, PREM 11/3334, Extract of conversations, 28 January 1961. 82 PRO, FO 3711166328, 'Record of a conversation at the Ministere des Armees in Paris', 17 October 1962, and comments. 83 For example, 'M. Pierre Guillaumat, Ministre des Armees: ... Pas d'inte• gration totale des forces armees a l'OTAN', Le Figaro (24 June 1959); 'Paris confirme le retrait des officiers fran~ais des etats-majors navals interallies', Le Monde (29 April 1964); for a chronology, see Jean De1mas: Notes 213

'Securite collective dans l'Orbite atlantique', Le Spectacle du Monde No. 93 (December 1969), p. 64. 84 Roger Massip: 'Pourquoi la France ne participe pas a I'exercice Fallex', Le Figaro (1 June 1965). 85 Text of the Press conference in Survival Vo!. 7 No. 8 (November 1965), p.294. 86 Andre Fran~ois-Poncet: 'L'integration est-eIle un monstreT, Le Figaro (16 March 1966); Andre Fontaine: 'Tirez-nous de la, messieurs les Anglais', Le Figaro (17 March 1966). 87 Letter from President de Gaulle to President Johnson, 7 March 1966, printed in David (ed.): La Politique de defense, pp. 132. 88 'Interview with President Georges Pompidou: a new look at France', US News and World Report Vo!. 68 No. 9 (2 March 1970), p. 44; Giscard hosted the 'Euromissile' summit in GuadeIoupe; Mitterrand urged the German to accept the deployment of US Pershing II missiles; Jacques Chirac presided over France's rapprochement with NATO. 89 Auswartiges Amt: 40 Jahre Aussenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutsch• land - eine Dokumentation (Stuttgart: Bonn Aktuell, 1989), pp. 177-8. 90 General Fran~ois Valentin: 'La dissuasion et les armements classiques', in Institut Charles de Gaulle (ed.): L'Aventure de la Bombe, pp. 190--1. 91 Duval and Le Baut: L 'arme nucIeaire franfaise, pp. 72-3. 92 Charles de Gaulle: Discours et Messages, 1962-1965 (Paris: Pion, 1970), p.86. 93 Duval and Mongin: Histoire des forces nucIeaires, p. 43. 94 France did not develop nuclear depth charges, unlike the USA and the UK, nor atomic demolition munitions, nor ground-air nuclear missiles to be used against attacking enemy bombers like the American Nike• Hercules that France had had access to in the mid-1960s. 95 Diego Ruiz Palmer: French Security Policy in the 1990s: Planning for Uncertainty, Adelphi Paper (London, IISS, 1991). 96 Jacques Chirac: 'Au sujet des armes nucleaires tactiques fran~aises', RDN Vo!. 32 No. 5 (May 1975), p. 11. 97 Fran~ois Heisbourg: 'Defense fran~aise: l'impossible statu quo', Poli• tique internationale No. 36 (Summer 1987), p. 143. 98 'M. Giscard d'Estaing: la France doit avoir une capacite militaire propre mobile .. :, Le Monde (10--11 November 1974); in 1975 he spoke of France as the world's 'third nuclear power', see Radio transcript, Radio Francel France Inter/ frz. 125.3.75/19.451 MV!HW/BU of the Bundes• presseamt, Bonn; 'Pour la premiere fois, Valery Giscard d'Estaing', Le Figaro (12 November 1975). 99 David S. Yost, 'France in the new Europe', Foreign Affairs Vo!. 69 (Winter 1990--1), p. 108; L'Evenement, 28 March-3 April 1991: 'Adieu de Gaulle, ciao le socialisme ... Que reste-t-ilT, and Alain Duhamel, 'La seconde mort du gaullisme', Le Monde, 6 April 1991. 100 Defence Minister R. Galley, speech at IHEDN, February 1981; Prime Minister Pierre Mauroy, speech at IHEDN, September 1981; President Fran~ois Mitterrand, speech at Caylus, October 1986. 101 'Entretien avec le General Maurin, Chef d'Etat-Major des Armees', RDN Vo!. 30 No. 7 (July 1974), p. 14. See also Pierre M. Gallois: 214 Notes

'The future of France's force de dissuasion [sic]', Strategic Review Vol. 7 No. 3 (Summer 1979), p. 38. 102 'Intervention du M. Franc;ois Mitterrand ... sur le theme de la dissua• sion', 5 May 1994, text made available by the British Ministry of Defence, p. 7. 103 See pp. 43-7 and 52-4 above. 104 As the French Ministry of Defence's Livre Blanc sur la Defense Natio• nale (1972), Vo!. I, p. 8, reads: '[If the United States and the Soviet Union] would acknowledge objectively that the game of deterrence cannot have any value between them except when their national sanc• tuaries are directly threatened, one has to conclude from this - and this is evident - that the defence of Western Europe cannot benefit auto• matically from American deterrence.'. 105 Herve Alphand, L'etonnement de l'etre, (Paris, Fayard, 1977), p. 351. 106 General Andre Beaufre: Dissuasion et Strategie (paris: Armand Colin, 1964), pp. 85-116 and id.: 'The Sharing of Nuclear Responsibil• ities: A Problem in Need of a Solution', International Affairs Vo!. 31 No. 3 (July 1965), passim; see also Michael Howard: Problems of Modern Strategy, Part I, Adelphi Paper No. 54 (IISS, February 1969), pp. 29-30. 107 David (ed): La Politique de defense de la France, p. 77. 108 North Atlantic Council, 'Declaration on Atlantic Relations', Ottawa, 19 June 1974, The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation - Facts and Figures (Brussels, 11th ed. 1989), pp. 405-7. 109 For a discussion of this see for example Lothar Ruehl, La politique militaire de la Ve republique (Paris, Presses de la FNSP, 1976), pp. 192-3. 110 Duval and Le Baut: L 'arme nuc!eaire franfaise, p. 47. It is also in Rene Silvain: 'La crise de l'OTAN', La Revue de Paris Vo!. 73 No. 2 (Feb• ruary 1966), p. 45: 'un detonateur des armes americaines'. III Duval and Le Baut: L 'armement nucieaire franfais, p. 51. 112 Jerome Dumoulin: 'Arsenal nucleaire franc;ais: des armes a l'ameri• caine', Le Figaro (12 June 1977); Paul-Marie de la Gorce: 'Marine et arme nucleaire tactique', Armees d'aujourd'hui No. 24 (October 1977), p. 6; Adelbert Weinstein: 'De Gaulles rnilitarisches Erbe', Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (29 November 1977). 113 Livre Blanc sur la Defense Nationale (1972), Vo!. I, pp. 8-9. 114 Duval and Le Baut: L'armement nucieairefranfais, p. 57. 115 4th defence procurement law of May 1976, quoted in Duval and Le Baut: L 'armement nucleaire franfais, p. 57. 116 First used by Pierre M. Gallois: 'Defense et securite dans un monde "multipolaire"', Forces aeriennes franfaises Vo!. 18 No. 206 (August! September 1964), p. 222. Cr. also Yost: 'French Nuclear Targeting', pp. 132-3. 117 Lothar Ruehl: La politique militaire de la Ve Republique (Paris: Presses de la FNSP, 1976), pp. 169-71. 118 Rayrnond Barre: 'La politique de defense de la France', RDN Vo!. 36 No. 10 (November 1980), p. 12; see also speeches by Prime Minister Pierre Mauroy at the IHEDN in September 1981, and General Jeannou Lacaze at the CHEAR in the same month. Notes 215

119 David Yost: 'French Nuclear Targeting', in Desmond Ball and Jeffrey Richelson (eds): Strategic Nuclear Targeting (Ithaca: Comell University Press, 1986), p. 131. 120 Admiral Duval, letter to the author, January 1995. 121 Colonel Guy Lewin: 'La dissuasion fram;aise et la strategie anti-cites', RDN Vol. 36 No. 1 (January 1980), p. 24. 122 David S. Yost: France's Deterrent Posture and Security in Europe - Part I: Capabilities and Doctrine, Adelphi Papers No. 194 (London: IISS, Winter 1984/85), pp. 31-2. 123 Charles de Gaulle, speech of 3 November 1959, in Discours et Messages, 1958-1962 (paris: Pion, 1970), p. 127. 124 General Charles Ailleret: 'Defense dirigee ou defense tous azimuts?', RDN Vol. 23 (December 1967), pp. 1923-32. 125 Pierre Messmer, 'Les conceptions strategiques du General de Gaulle face au monde de 1990', RDN Vol. 46 (November 1990), pp. 20-3. 126 '''Notre strategie doit etre tous azimuts" declare le general de Gaulle', Le Monde (30 January 1968); see also 'La defense "tous azimuts": Ailleret repond aux objections et de Gaulle le soutient', Combat (30 January 1968); and Ailleret's clarifications in 'A propos de la defense "tous azimuts"', RDN Vol. 24 No. 2 (February 1968), pp. 851--6. 127 The most notable critiques were those by Rene Cogny: 'Mirages et realites de la defense', Revue politique et parlementaire Vol. 70 No. 788 (April 1968), pp. 27-34, and Ingenieur-General Edmond Combaux: 'Defense tous azimuts? Qui mais ... " RDN Vol. 24 No. 10 (November 1968), pp. 1600-18; see also Edmond Ruby: 'La Defense "tous azimuts" a vecu', Ecrits de Paris No. 283 (July/August 1969), pp. 57- 63; J.H.: 'Encore la force tous azimuts', Perspectives No. 1108 (29 March 1969), p. 1. 128 Pierre Messmer, Ministre des Armees: 'L'atome, cause et moyen d'une politique militaire autonome', RDNVol. 24 No. 3 (March 1968), p. 398. 129 J.-P.M: 'Nouvelle orientation de la politique militaire fran<;;aise', Le Figaro (30 April 1969). 130 General Michel Fourquet: 'Emploi des differents systemes de forces dans le cadre de la strategie de dissuasion', RDN Vol. 25 No. 5 (May 1969), pp. 753--67. 131 Jacques Isnard: 'Une evolution importante de la doctrine militaire', Le Monde (30 April 1969). 132 Fourquet: 'Emploi des differents systemes', p. 762. 133. 'Les armees pourraient renoncer au projet d'un missile sol-sol a longue portee', Le Monde (25 December 1969). 134 Claude Delmas: 'Securite collective dans l'orbite atlantique', Le Specta• cle du Monde No. 93 (December 1969), p. 63; Ruby: 'La Defense "tous azimuts" a vecu'; see also Beatrice Heuser: 'Reflexions sur les doctrines de repesailles massives et de riposte graduee', Revue d'histoire diplomat• ique Vol. 105 Nos. 3-4 (1991), pp. 349-74. 135 Prior to Fourquet's talk, Army Minister Messmer had used similar language in relation to tactical nuclear weapons - which France did not yet possess, of course. Jacques Isnard: 'Une evolution importante de la doctrine militaire', Le Monde (30 April 1969). 216 Notes

136 'Une doctrine officielle: la riposte nucleaire gradu6e', Le Monde (21 September 1973). 137 Claude Le Borgne: 'Strategies pour l'Europe', RDN, Vol. 41, No. 2 (February 1985), p. 43. 138 Jacques Isnard: 'Des satellites militaires completeraient apres 1980 la force nuch~aire', Le Monde (18 January 1973). For Debre's dementi: 'La France et la strategie "tous azimuts" - une lettre de M. Michel Debre', Le Monde (23 January 1973). 139 John Morrison: 'Chirac gives unqualified support to US Strategic De• fense Initiative', International Herald Tribune (23 May 1986). 140 Jean-Pierre Chevenement: 'Evolution du monde, role et politique de defense de la France', RDN, Vol. 46 (July 1990), p. 25. The Socialist Chevenement agreed totally on the necessity for a 'Strategie tous azi• muts' with the Gaullists RPR defence expert Franyois Fillon, Journal Officiel, Assemblee Nationale, Compte Rendu Integral, No. 79, 3e Seance, 7 November 1990, p. 4914. 141 J. Quintard, 'Quel avenir pour les armements prestrategiques?', RDN Vol. 47 (April 1991), p. 100. 142 Quoted in Duval, 'Elaboration et deveIoppement du concept franyrus de dissuasion', Relations internationales No. 59 (Autumn 1989), p. 382; see also Giscard d'Estaing's press interview, 24 October 1974. 143 The NATO guidelines, as we have noted, were concerned with first and follow-on use only. 144 Poirier was the originator of this idea, which Fourquet adopted and adapted to suit his own views. See Poirier: Des strategies nucieaires, pp. 325-32. 145 According to Admiral Duval, Norstad, before becoming SACEUR, worked very closely with Gallois in the New Approach Group in SHAPE. There are, however, earlier French discussions of such a trial by conventional forces of the enemy's intentions, cr. General Ailleret: 'Opinion sur la theorie strategique de la "flexible response" " RDN Vol. 20 No. 8 (August-September 1964), p. 1336f. 146 Fourquet: 'Emploi des differents systemes', p. 759. 147 Ibid., p. 760 (italics in the original). 148 Ibid., pp. 758-60. 149 Cf. French government reasoning in the 2nd 'loi-programme' of 1965, quoted in Lothar Ruehl: La politique militaire de la Ve republique, p. 211. 150 Fourquet: 'Emploi des differents systemes', p. 764; for a short history of the development of French thinking on tactical nuclear weapons see: Admiral Marcel Duval: 'L' Arme nucleaire tactique, pour quoi faire?', RDN Vol. 45 (February 1989), pp. 13-19. 151 Fourquet: 'Emploi des differents systemes', p. 761. 152 'Entretien avec le General Maurin, Chef d'Etat-Major des Armees', RDNVol. 30 No. 7 (July 1974), pp. 15-17. 153 Jacques Chirac: 'Au sujet des armes nucleaires tactiques franyaises', RDN Vol. 31 No. 5 (May 1975), p. 13. 154 Jacques Gerville-Reache: 'La France et sa defense militaire', RDN Vol. 30 No. 9 (October 1974), p. 105; regarding the shot across the bows and the general confusion on prevailing doctrine, see Jacques Notes 217

Isnard: 'L'armee de terre franyaise dispose d'armes nucleaires tactiques - les conditions d'emploi demeurent peu claires', Le Monde (11 May 1974). 155 Quintard, 'Que1 avenir pour les armements prestrategiques?', RDNVol. 47 (April 1991), p. 102. 156 Entretien avec le General Franyois Maurin RDN Vol. 30 (July 1974), pp. 15-17. 157 Allocution de M. Valery Giscard d'Estaing ... it l'Institut des Rautes Etudes de Defense Nationale, RDN Vol. 32 No. 7 (July 1976), p. 15. 158 General Guy Mery: 'Une armee pour quoi faire et comment?', RDN Vol. 32 No. 6 (June 1976), p. 16. . 159 This is. adopted by the Council of Ministers which in turn is presided over by the President of the Republic. 160 'Rapport sur la programmation des depenses militaires et des equipe• ments des forces armees pour la periode 1977-1982', Assemblee Natio• nale - 2nd session of 25 May 1976, p. 3449. 161 This was one of the main points of disagreement between him and Poirier. For Poirier's postulate of separate 'test' and 'battle' tactical nuclear weapons, see Poirier, Des Strategies nuc/eaires, pp. 324--32. 162 Pierre-M. Gallois: L'Adieu aux Armees (paris: Albin Michel, 1976). 163 For example Charles Rernu, Defence Minister, 'Repondre aux defis d'un monde dangereux', RDN Vol. 37 No. 11 (December 1981), p. 16: 'la force de dissuasion est l'arme de la "non-guerre"'. 164 Cf. David S. Yost: France's Deterrent Posture and Security in Europe: Part I: Capabilities and Doctrine, Ade1phi Papers No. 194 (London: IISS, Winter 1984/85), p. 55. 165 Cohen: La difaite des generaux, p. 16. The definition was incidentally applied not only to the Pluton but also to the air-launched medium-range missile (ASMP, missiles air-sol de moyenne portee), and Pluton's planned successor, Hades; again, here, the government of President Mitterrand produced a declaratory doctrine more Gaullist than de Gaulle's, or more purist than Poirier's own. See also Quintard, 'Quel avenir pour les armements prestrategiquesT, RDNVol. 47 (April 1991), pp. 101-2. 166 Pascal Boniface: 'La revolution strategique et la doctrine franyaise de defense', RDNVol. 46 No. 5 (May 1990), p. 78. 167 Duval: 'L'arme nucleaire tactique', pp. 22-7. 168 Jacques Chirac, quoted in Pascal Boniface: 'La dCfense et la cohabita• tion', Le trimestre du Monde No. 2 (2e term 1988), p. 54. 169 Franyois Mitterrand, quoted in Pascal Boniface: 'La defense et la cohabitation', Le trimestre du Monde No. 2 (2e term 1988), p. 55.; see also the interview with Mitterrand, 'La Strategie de la France', Le Nouvel Observateur (18 December 1987), pp. 38-42. 170 'Loi de Programmation' No. 87-342, 22 May 1987, Journal Officiel de la Republique Franfaise p. 5649. 171 'Allocution de M. Franyois Mitterrand ... le 11 Octobre 1988', RDN Vol. 44 No. 10 (November 1988), p. 18. 172 Olivier Debouzy: 'Anglo-French nuclear co-operation: perspectives and problems', RUSI Journal (1991); RuehI: La politique militaire de la Ve repub/ique, pp. 207- 9. 218 Notes

173 See Chapters 2, 3 and 5. 174 Mitterrand: 'La logique voudra que I'armee franc;;aise stationnee en Allemagne regagne son pays', Le Monde (8-9 July 1990); for Chirac's policy, see Alain Baer, Franc;;ois Gere, etc.: Demain, /'ombre portee de l'arme nuc!eaire (Paris: CREST, 1996). 175 Duval and Le Baut: L'arme nucleaire franrais, pp. 74--6. 176 Speech at the Ecole Militaire, 15 February 1963, in Charles de Gaulle: Discours et Messages, 1962-1965, p. 86. 177 This was admitted even by Franc;;ois de Rose, in George Buis (for) and Francois de Rose (against): 'Une defense europeenne', Politique inter• nationale No. 11 (Spring 1981), p. 63; see also Pierre Eylau-Wagram: 'Propositions pour une strategie francaise de 1980 a 1990', PE Vol. 40 No. 1 (March 1981), p. 128. 178 For French support of a European nuclear force, see Chapter 6. 179 Poirier: Des Strategies Nuc!eaires, p. 330. In 1994 Mitterrand seemed to confirm the theory that P/uton and Hades would have been fired from French soil: it no longer seemed necessary to deploy the means of 'showering the Rhine in this way': 'Intervention du M. Franc;;ois Mit• terrand ... sur le theme de la dissuasion', 5 May 1994, p. 5. 180 Jacques Chirac: 'Au sujet des armes nucleaires tactiques francaises', RDN Vo!. 31 No. 5 (May 1975), pp. 11-16; see also General Mery: 'Reflexions sur le concept d'emploi des forces', RDN Vo!. 31 No. 10 (November 1975), p. 18. 181 According to the CPE's study of 1966; see Ruiz Palmer: French Security Policy, p. 12. 182 Livre Blanc sur la Defense Nationale (1972), Vo!. I, p. 6. 183 Frederic Bozo: La France et l'OTAN (Paris: Masson, 1992), pp. 109-22; General Francois Maurin: 'L'Originalite franc;;aise et le commande• ment', RDN Vo!. 45 No. 7 (July 1989), pp. 45-58. 184 Departments d'outre-mer and territoires d'outre-mer. 185 Speech quoted in Atlantic News No. 675 (30 October 1974). 186 Jacques Isnard: 'Les manoeuvres nation ales on fait apparaltre un nouvel equilibre strategique', Le Monde (8 May 1975). 187 Mery: 'Une armee pour quoi faire et comment?', p. 16. 188 Raymond Aron: 'La force francaise de dissuasion et l'Alliance atlan• tique', RDN Vo!. 33 No. 1 (January 1977), p. 45. 189 Speech at the Ecole Militaire, 15 February 1963, in Charles de Gaulle: Discours et Messages, 1962-1965, p. 86. 190 Jacques Chirac: 'Au sujet des armes nucleaires tactiques francaises', RDNVo!. 31 No. 5 (May 1975), p. 12; for de Gaulle's and Pompidou's statements, see pp. 155-6 below. 191 Mery: 'Une armee pour quoi faire et comment?', p. 15. 192 Allocution de M. Valery Giscard d'Estaing ... a l'Institut de Hautes Etudes de Defense Nationale, RDN Vo!. 32 No. 7 (July 1976), p. 17. 193 Mery: 'Une armee pour quoi faire et comment?'; see also 'Rapport sur la programmation des depenses militaires et des equipements des forces armees pour la periode 1977-1982', Assemblee Nationale 2nd Session of 25 May 1976, pp. 2448-9. 194 'Raymond Barre au plateau d' Albion', Le Figaro (4 July 1977). Notes 219

195 Klaus Huwe: 'Fur die Bundesrepublik sterben?', Deutsche Zeitung (22 July 1977). 196 Lothar Ruehl: 'Franco-German military cooperation: an insurance pol• icy for the Alliance', Strategic Review Vo!. 16 No. 3 (Summer 1988), p. 52. 197 Jacques Isnard: 'L'U.D.F. se proponce en favour de la possession par la France de la bombe a neutrons', Le Monde (28 May 1980). 198 Pierre Gallois: 'Sur une arme dont on ne sait que faire', PEVo!. 42 No. 1 (1977), pp. 35-62; Lutz Hermann: 'Gaullisten fordern den Ausbau der Atomstreitmacht', Rheinische Post (4 June 1980). 199 Cr. Valery Giscard d'Estaing: Le pouvoir et la vie Vo!. 2: L 'affrontement (paris: Cie 12, 1991), pp. 206-211. 200 Jacques Lanxade: 'Le livre blanc et l'emploi des forces', RDN Vo!. 50 No. 7 (July 1994), p. 28. 201 Pierre Lellouche: 'France and the Euromissiles', Foreign Affairs Vo!. 62 No. 2 (Winter 1983/84), p. 329; Francois Puaux: 'La dissuasion au fi1 des ans', RDN Vo!. 39 No. 10 (November 1983), pp. 57-60. 202 These meetings had first been planned in the Elysee Treaty concluded by de Gaulle and Adenauer in January 1963, but the Treaty's defence clauses had never been acted upon. 203 Lutz Krusche: 'Frankreich will die Neutronenbombe ... Gaullisten und Linke dagegen', Stuttgarter Zeitung (21 June 1980); Lutz Hermann: 'Gaullisten fordern den Ausbau der Atomstreitmacht', Rheinische Post (4 June 1980). 204 Chirac's speech to the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Bonn, reported in Le Monde (20 October 1983), quoted in Lellouche: 'France and the Euromissiles' Foreign Affairs Vo!. 62 No. 2 (Winter 1983/84), p. 329. 205 Ruiz Palmer: French Security Policy, p. 46; on the model of the Athens guidelines which contained this formulation. 206 Cf. Jacques Chirac: 'La France et les enjeux de la securite europeenne', RDN Vo!. 44 No. 2 (February 1988), pp. 9-17; Harry Anderson, Fred Coleman, Andrew Nagorski: 'The French Connection', Newsweek (1 February 1988); Joseph Fitchett: 'Quietly, France boosts NATO co• operation', International Herald Tribune (19 February 1988). 207 Jacques Chirac: 'La France et les enjeux de la Securite europeenne', Defense nationale Vo!. 44 No. 2 (February 1988), p. 16 r. 208 -Colonel Philippot: 'Genese d'une cooperation', Armees d'au• jourd'hui No. 150 (May 1990), pp. 20-2. 209 For example see his discourse at the IHEDN in October 1988: RDN (November 1988). 210 Ruiz Palmer: French Security Policy, p. 46. 211 Jean Saulnier: 'La stra~egie de dissuasion nucleaire francaise, son passe et son avenir', RDN Vo!. 46 (October 1990), pp. 38-40. 212 Livre Blanc sur la Defense (1994), p. 57. 213 For example Pierre Lellouche, L'avenir de la guerre (Paris: Mazarine, 1985), p. 25 note 1. 214 Raymond Aron: 'En quete d'une doctrine francaise', Le Figaro (23 May 1975); Michel Tatu: 'Retour au "globalisme"?', Le Monde (29 May 1975); Raymond Aron: 'Finlandisation volontaire', Le Figaro (6 June 1975); Alfred Grosser: 'La contradiction perpetuee', Le Monde (20 220 Notes

November 1975); Henri Meyrowitz: 'La France a la recherche d'une strategie nucleaire', Revue politique et parlementaire No. 864 (September-October 1976), p. 78. 215 France Statements, SFC/96/56, speech of 22 February 1996 in Bonn, p.25. 216 Livre Blanc sur la Defense (1994), pp. 56-7. 217 'La France a "contribue a ce mouvement" vers le desarmement', Le Monde (30 September 1991). 218 'De Gaulle propose une conference des quatre puissances atomiques', Le Figaro (20 February 1962); 'La France boycottera la conference du desarmement', Combat (6 March 1962). 219 Marc UIlmann: 'Remarques sur une contradiction fran~aise ... entre politique europeenne et politique de defense', Commentaire Vol. 12 No. 45 (Spring 1989), pp. 35-9; Paul Vallin: 'Une defense pour l'Eu• rope', Ecrits de Paris (May 1989), pp. 19-25. 220 In the words of Nicholas K.J. Witney: 'British Nuclear Policy after the Cold War', Survival Vol. 36 No. 4 (Winter 1994-5), p. 106. 221 Printed in Le Monde (30 January 1997). 222 Raymond Aron: 'La Force fran~aise de dissuasion et l' Alliance atlan• tique', RDNVol. 33 No. 1 (January 1977), pp. 31,41. 223 Quoted in Pierre Lellouche: L 'avenir de la guerre (paris: Mazarine, 1985), p. 267; see also Lt. Col. Bemard Gillis: 'Les missions des armees en discussion a l'Assemblee nationale', Le Monde (21 May 1975). 224 Yvan Scordino: 'Strategie anti-cites et strategie anti-forces', RDN Vol. 38 No. 5 (May 1982), p. 54f. 225 Cf. Maurice Valsse: 'Un dialogue de sourds'. 226 Jacques Andreani: 'L'Europe, l'OTAN et la France: les problemes non resolus de la defense europeenne', PE Vol. 48 No. 2 (Summer 1983), p. 217; Dominique David: 'Regards sur une logique: les Etats-Unis et la securite de l'Europe', Strategique No. 24 (4th term 1984), p. 89; Jacques Soppelsa: 'Defense: continuite dans le changement', RPP No. 916/917 (May-June 1985), p. 89. 227 Claude Le Borgne: 'Strategies pour l'Europe', RDN Vol. 41 No. 2 (February 1985), p. 36. 228 Marc Ullmann: 'Remarques sur une contradiction fran~aise', pp. 35-9. 229 Pierre MeJandri: 'France et l' Alliance atlantique sous Georges Pompi• dou et Valery Giscard d'Estaing', in Maurice Valsse, Pierre Melandri and Frederic Bozo (eds): La France et ['0 TA N, 1949-1996 (Brussels: Editions Complexe, 1996), pp. 539--41. 230 It has been said, for example, that the Valentin-Ferber agreements contained provisions for such nuclear collabration, and that in the late 1980s, talks about potential targeting were held with the Germans. No written evidence for either seems available in the public domain so far. 231 For a relatively comprehensive treatment, see Bozo: La France et ['aTAN, pp. 119-22; and Melandri: 'France et I' Alliance atlantique'. 232 Richard Ulman: 'The covert French connection', Foreign Policy No. 75 (Summer 1989), pp. 3-33; Joachim Fritz-Vannahme: 'Ein Spiel aufZeit', Die Zeit (16 June 1989). Notes 221

233 Beatrice Heuser: 'France, Germany and sub-strategic nuclear weapons, 1972-95', NHP paper (forthcoming, 1997). 234 Alfred Grosser: 'Les valeurs fondamentales', RDN Vol. 45 No. 8 (August-September 1989), p. 45.

5 THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY: CONSULTA nON

The texts can be found in Auswiirtiges Amt: 40 Jahre Aussenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: eine Dokumentation (Stuttgart: Bonn Ak• tuell, 1989), pp. 70-2, 78- 80. 2 Peter Fischer: Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse: Die Anftinge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1949-1955 (Baden• Baden: Nomos, 1994); Michae1 Eckert: 'Die Anfange der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', Vierteljahreshefte fur Zeit• geschichte Vol. 37 No. 1 (January 1989), pp. 115-43. 3 Hans-Peter Schwarz: Adenauer Vol. 2 Der Staatsmann, 1952-1967 (Stuttgart: Deutsche VerIags-Anstalt, 1991), pp. 154, 157. 4 Leopoldo Nuti: '''Me too, please": Italy and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons', Diplomacy and Statecraft Vol. 4 No. I (March 1993), p. 116. 5 "Atomwaffenfreie Zone ist nicht sinnvoll, meint Bonn', Lubecker Freie Presse (5 October 1957); 'Bonn lehnt Rapackis Plan ab', SUddeutsche Zeitung [henceforth SZ] (5 October 1957); Fritz ErIer: 'Disengagement und die Wiedervereinigung Deutschlands', Europa Archiv [henceforth EA] Vol. 14 No. 9-10 (1959), pp. 291-300; Defence Minister F.J. Strauss to German Foreign Office: 'Stellungnahme zum Entwurf einer gemeinsa• men Erkliirung iiber Abriistung', communicating the memorandum 'Sicherheitszone in Europa', NHP Bonn Doc. 73 (I September 1961), pp. 182ff.; Tgb. Nr. 609/61: 'Betr.: NATO als 4. Atommacht', 17 Nov• ember 1961 NHP Bonn Doc. 81 p. 4; 'Hasse1lehnt "Einfrieren" oder Abzug von Atomwaffen ab', Die Welt (14 March 1964); 'Brandt hofft auf ein Arrangement mit Kanada', Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung [hence• forth FAZ] (8 April 1969); 'Birrenbachs Erkliirung in Washington: Trup• penabzug verhindern', Christ und Welt (4 July 1969); 'Brandt erinnert die USA an Verpflichtungen in Europa', Die Welt (27 August 1969); 'Aus• senministerium tritt Pliinen fUr US-Truppenabzug entgegen', Die Welt (22 January 1970); Lothar Ruehl: 'Gespriich mit Bundesverteidigungs• minister Helmut Schmidt ... Die Europiier konnen US-Truppen nicht ersetzen', Die Welt (16 February 1970); 'Brandt warnt vor Verringerung der amerikanischen Truppen', FAZ (8 April 1970); Bundesminister der Verteidigung: Weissbuch 1970 zur Sicherheit der Bundesrepublik Deutsch• land und zur Lage der Bundeswehr (Bonn: Presse- u. Informationsamt der Bundesregierung, 1970), pp. 5-6, 10-11; 'Schmidt tritt fUr ungeschmii• lerte US-Priisenz in Europa ein', Die Welt (23 April 1971); 'Exclusive Interview with German Chancellor WiIIy Brandt: Why US must stay in Europe', US News and World Report Vol. 70 No. 24 (14 June 1971); 'Rush 10bt Arbeit He1mut Schmidts', Die Welt (27 January 1972). 222 Notes

6 Quite apart from the Morgenthau Plan developed in the USA at the end of World War 11. See Catherine M. Kelleher: Germany and the Politics of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Columbia U.P., 1975), p. 118, 145f. and Cyril Buffet: 'De Gaulle, Berlin and the Bomb, or how to use a political weapon', in Leopoldo Nuti and Cyril Buffet (eds): Nuclear Proliferation and Non-Proliferation (forthcoming, 1998); Curt Gasteiger: 'Der Atlan• tikpakt und das Problem der europaischen Sicherheit', EA Vo!. 13 No. 7 (5 April 1958), esp. pp. 10647-59; re British disengagement plans under Wilson and Healey, see Alfred Frisch: 'Truppenverringerung in Europa?', SZ (15 March 1965); 'Bonn iiber die britischen Plane zum Abzug von Raketenwaffen besorgt', Der Kurier (Berlin, 27 August 1965); 'Ziehen die Amerikaner ab?', Christ und Welt (27 May 1966). Such projects were supported, however, by vocal groups within the Federal Republic, in• cluding a majority in the Social-Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) until the early 1960s, and the small nationalist parties. 7 Kel1eher: Germany and the Politics, p. 271. 8 Christian Tuschhoff: Die MC 70 und die Einfuhrung Nuklearer Triiger• systeme in die Bundeswehr 1956-1959, Nuclear History Program Arbeits• papier (Ebenhausen: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, 1990), p. 12; Hans Kepper: 'Aufforderung zum Tanz', Frankfurter Rundschau (14 July 1973); for example quoted in 'Ich lag in Kissingers Badewanne', ostensibly transcripts of Cabinet meetings, published in Der Spiegel (6 June 1983), p. 23. 9 'Das sagte die Bundesregierung zum Problem der Atombewaffnung', Westdeutsche Allgemeine (Essen 4 May 1957). 10 Hans Apel (Minister of Defence): 'Braucht die NATO eine andere Stra• tegie?', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vo!. 32 No. 4 (April 1982), p. 158. 11 Der Bundesminister der Verteidigung: Weissbuch 1983: Zur Sicherheit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Bonn: Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung, 1983), p. 160. 12 Fischer: Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse, pp. 43- 4; 139-43; 284. 13 Konrad Adenauer: Erinnerungen, Vo!. 11: 1954-1955 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1966), p. 347; cf. Cyrus Sulzberger: 'Strauss wollte 1958 Atomwaffen', Die Welt (14 October 1964); and Franz Josef Strauss: 'An alliance of continents', International Affairs Vo!. 41 No. 2 (April 1965), p. 200 f.; NHP Memory Jogging Session, Ebenhausen, II2 July 1988; and Hans Peter Schwarz: Adenauer Vo!. 2 Der Staatsmann: 1952-1967 (Stutt• gart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1991), p. 157- 8. 14 Fischer: Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse; Hans-Peter Schwarz: Der Staatsmann, pp. 157-8. 15 For an excellent analysis of early West German defence reasoning, see Commandant Champeau: 'Les problemes de defense de la Republique Federale d'Allemagne', Revue Defense Nationale Vo!. 22 (November 1966), pp. 1760-73. 16 cf. Opinion polls of 1950-5 given in Klaus von Schubert (ed.): Sicherheits• politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Dokumentation 1945-1977 Vo!. 2 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft & Politik, 1979), pp. 343-44; Gordon D. Drummond: The German Social Democrats in Opposition, 1949-1960: The case against rearmament (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982); Notes 223

Matthias Hartwid and Bemhard Moltmann: Neutralitiit und Bewaffnung: Die Diskussion in der Bundesrepublik bis 1955 (Heidelberg: Fest, 1986). 17 TuschhofT: Die MC 70, pp. 30, 55. 18 Hans Henrich: 'Sozialer Faktor Atombombe', Frankfurter Rundschau (24 April 1957); 'Frankfurt gegen AtomwafTenversuche', Stuttgarter Zeitung (27 April 1951). 19 'Atom Alarm in Bonn', Abendpost (Frankfurt/Main, 14 July 1955); 'De• batte iiber die AtomkriegfUhrung am Samstag', FAZ (15 July 1955); 'Uber 1,7 Millionen Deutsche wiiren getOtet worden', Westdeutsches Tageblatt (Dortmund, 18 July 1955); press reports in February and April 1957, press cuttings files of the Bundesamt fUr Presse und Information, Bonn. 20 Quoted in Mark Cioc: PAX ATOMICA: the nuclear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer Era (New York: Colurnbia University Press, 1988), p. 29. 21 'Atomstrategie setzt sich durch', Frankfurter Rundschau (4 August 1956); for Twining's statement, see 'USA stelIen ihre Strategie jetzt v511ig urn', Hannoversche Presse (4 August 1956); 'Twining fUr Radikale Atomstra• tegie', FAZ (4 August 1956). 22 'Analyse der Reden des amerikanischen Verteidigungsministers MacNa• mara [sic] ... ', NHP Bonn Doe. 89 (5 March 1962), p. 4; Emil Walter: 'Bonn legt strategisches Konzept vor', SZ (14 November 1964); Franz Josef Strauss, transcripts of interviews of 1988, pp. 90-2, which served as the basis of his Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1989), p. 353 f. 23 Kelleher: Germany and the Politics, pp. 44-6. 24 'Taktische AtomwafTen fUr die Bundeswehr erwogen', Stuttgarter Nach• richten (4 August 1956). 25 Transcripts of 1988 Strauss interviews, p. 93 f. (a much edited rendering of this is to be found in Erinnerungen, p. 357). 26 Hans Meyer: 'Die neue Strategie der USA', Bremer Nachrichten (26 July 1959); 'Riickzugsstrategie', Kasseler Post (26 July 1959); 'Der Hinter• grund der Generalsreisen', Rhein-Zeitung (, 26 July 1959); Im• manuel Bimbaurn: 'Amerika denkt urn', SZ (26 July 1959). 27 See pp. 33-41 and 43-7. 28 'SoIl Europa sich selbst verteidigen?', Die Welt (7 December 1959); 'Gefahrliches Spiel', Kieler Nachrichten (8 December 1959). 29 'Die USA priifen ihre Riistungspolitik', SZ (8 February 1960); Herbert von Borch: 'Die letzte Schranke', Die Welt (9 February 1960); 'Amerikas LuftwafTe stiitzt die Kritik General Powers', FAZ (9 February 1960); 'Verwirrung in Amerika iiber die Verteidigung', FAZ (11 February 1960); 'Abschreckungstheorie unzureichend', SZ (to August 1960); 'Streit urn die US-Luftstrategie', Industriekurier (1 December 1960). 30 'Amerika bleibt bei der massiven Abschreckung', FAZ (8 April 1960). 31 Hans Schneider: 'Wendepunkt bei Kennedy', Weser Kurier (Bremen, 15 April 1961). 32 'Bonn befiirchtet BenachteiIigung der Bundeswehr', Augsburger Allge• meine (6 April 1961). For the Acheson tour, see p. 44 above. 33 'Bonn hat gute Griinde', Mannheimer Morgen (6 April 1962); 'Die Achse Bonn-Washington quietscht', Die Weltwoche (Ziirich, 4 May 1962); 224 Notes

'Bonn aussert Bedenken gegen US-Atomstrategie', Hannoversche Allge• meine Zeitung (31 July 1962). On Taylor, see pp. 38 and 44 above. 34 Kelleher: Germany and the Politics, p. 52. 35 Ibid. pp. 33-56. 36 'Atomare Mitbestimmung fUr Kontinentaleuropa - neuer Bonner Vors• chlag an die USA', Der Mittag (Dusseldorf 26 August 1959); 'Bonn hat einen Plan fUr atomare Mitentscheidung', K61ner Stadt-Anzeiger (2 De• cember 1961); Hans Gerlach: 'Atom Bastelei', Kolner Stadt-Anzeiger (5 December 1961). 37 'Taktische AtomwafTen fUhren zum grossen Krieg', Hamburger Echo (7 June 1958); 'Fragwiirdige Verteidigung', Westfiilische Rundschau (Dort• mund, 7 June 1958); 'Mit der grossen Bombe gekoppelt', Die Welt (7 June 1958); '1st der Atomkrieg unteilbarT, FAZ (9 June 1958); 'Wide• rspruch zur NATO-Strategie: die 'Ketzerei' des Generals Panitzki', Christ und Welt (Stuttgart, 12 June 1958); Colonel Gerd Schmuckle's radio speech of 1 March, printed in Bulletin No. 44 (4 March 1961), p. 393f. 38 Ferdinand Otto Miksche (who wrote in several countries): 'Der alte Carnot ist uberholt', Die Zeit (3 January 1957); 'USA: Atombomben auch bei lokalen AngrifTen', Vorwiirts! (1 February 1957); General Dr. Lothar Rendulic: 'Probleme des Atornkrieges', Deutsche Soldatenzeitung (Munich: February 1957); General W. Pickert: '1st im Atornzeitalter eine 'territoriale Verteidigung' noch sinnvoll?', Revue Militaire Generale No. 4 (April 1964), pp. 498-506; Heusinger's remarks during the preparatory talks on the Bundeswehr's size, structure and tasks, quoted in Cioc: PAX ATOM/CA, pp. 22 f., 36.; Christian Greiner: 'Die militarische Einglieder• ung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in die WEU und die NATO 1954 bis 1957' in Hans Ehlert, Christian Greiner, Georg Meyer and Bruno Thoss: Die NATO-Option Vol. 3 of Anfiinge westdeutscher Sicherheitspo• litik, 1945-1956 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1993), p. 705 f.; Erich von Man• stein: 'Sind Heere und Flotten uberflussigT, Die Welt (4 September 1956). 39 'Bonn teilt nicht Edens Optimismus uber Kriegsrisiko', SZ (26 July 1956). 40 Hans-Erich Schult: '''Kleiner Krieg" in Europa ist kaum denkbar', Neue Rhein-Zeitung (Cologne, 16 October 1957). 41 Adelbert Weinstein: 'Harmonious Strategy', article reprinted from the FAZ (19 July 1959) in Survival Vol. 1 No. 4 (September-October 1959), pp. 117-18; General Pickert: 'The Value of Numbers in the Nuclear Age - a German view', Revue Militaire Generale, reprinted in Survival Vol. 3 No. 5 (September-October 1961), pp. 229-32; Helmut Schmidt: Verteidi• gung oder Vergeltung (Ist edn, Stuttgart: Seewald Verlag, 1961); tran• script of radio interview of Helmut Schmidt, WD R (8 March 1961). p. 4. 42 Franz Josef Strauss in the FAZ (13 May 1961), reprinted as 'The Debate in Germany - the Government View', in Survival Vol. 3 No. 4 (July• August 1961), pp. 176--78; Adelbert Weinstein was converted to Strauss's point of view: 'Fur eine gemeinsame Atompolitik', FAZ (25 January 1962); Wolfram von Raven: 'Demontage der Abschreckung', Wehrkunde Vol. 15 No. 12 (December 1966), p. 624; Peter Wittig: 'Einige Fragen der Abschreckungsstrategie aus deutscher Sicht', Wehrkunde Vol. 15 No. 6 (June 1966), p. 280 fT. Notes 225

43 Wittig: 'Einige Fragen der Abschreckungsstrategie aus deutscher Sicht', p. 281 f; see also Defence Minister Gerhard Schroder: Wie Westeuropa zu verteidigen ist', Politische Meinung Vol. 13 No. 4 (1968), p. 16. 44 Col. Gerd Schmiickle: 'Die Wandlung der Apokalypse', Christ und Welt (26 January 1962). 45 Schwarz: Der Staatsmann, p. 158 f. 46 Strauss: Erinnerungen, p. 462. 47 Ibid., p. 481 f. 48 'Will Bonn auf AtomwafTen umrusten?', FAZ (25 September 1956); Kelleher: Germany and the politics, p. 93. 49 This reasoning is implied by Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker: 'Should Germany have atomic arms?', Bulletin 0/ the Atomic Scientists Vol. 13 No. 8 (October 1957), p. 284. 50 See pp. 41-2 above. 51 'Blank hat ganz neue Plane: eine Atom-Armee', Der Mittag (Diisseldorf, 25 September 1956). 52 This article caused an uproar as critics alleged that the Generals were demanding that nuclear weapons, warheads and all, should be handed over to Germany in peacetime. Cf. Robert d'Harcourt: 'Le rearmement allemand', Revue de/ense nationale Vol. 16 (November 1960), pp. 1751- 62. 53 Kelleher: Germany and the Politics, p. 141 f. 54 Quoted in Johannes SteinhofT and Reiner Pommerin: Strategiewechsel: Bundesrepublik und Nuklearstrategie in der lra Adenauer-Kennedy (Ba• den-Baden: Nomos, 1992), p. 159. 55 'Baut Paris fUr Bonn Atom-WafTen? .. Ein Ultimatum von Strauss', Hamburger Echo (SPD, 12 January 1962); 'Grosse Verwirrung iiber Bundeswehr Strategie', Hannoversche Presse (SPD, 29 March 1962); Kelleher: Germany and the Politics, p. 32, cr. also Matthias Kiintzel: Bonn und die Bombe (Frankfurt: Campus, 1992), p. 27; Antony Terry: 'Bonn threat to buy A-bombs as "shield''', Sunday Times (11 July 1965); 'Germany's atomic claims', Daily Telegraph (12 July 1965); 'Bonn beharrt weiter auf NATO-Atommacht', Weser-Kurier (13 July 1965); Martin Urban: 'Konnte Bonn Atombomben bauen?', SZ (22 January 1969). 56 Horst Mendershausen: 'Will West Germany go nuclear?', Orbis Vol. 10 No. 2 (Summer 1972), pp. 418, 421. 57 See note 55. 58 Minister Dr H. Krone: 'Die Deutschen und die AtomwafTen', Ruhr• Nachrichten (CDU, 22 March 1965); 'Kiesinger: Bundesrepublik will keine Atom-WafTen', Saarbriicker Zeitung (25 June 1965). 59 (23 January 1963) NHP Bonn Doc. 119, p. 16; (9 April 1963), NHP Bonn Doc. 132 p. 11; Kelleher: Germany and the Politics, pp. 200,205. 60 Transcripts of 1988 Strauss interviews, p. 123 f; Erinnerungen, p. 465f; Reiner Marcowitz: Option/ur Paris? Unionsparteien, SPD und Charles de Gaulle, 1958 his 1969 (Munich, Oldenbourg, 1996), pp. 177-294 passim. 61 Texts in Auswiirtiges Amt: 40 Jahre Aussenpolitik, pp. 147-52. 62 Generalinspekteur der Bundeswehr dem Herm Minister (6 April 1961) NHP Bonn Doc. 57 p. 4; 'Ergebnis der Besprechungen in Haus 226 Notes

Giersberg, Miinr,tereifel vom I. 12. Juni 1962' (15 June 1962), NHP Bonn Doe. 97 p. 6; 'Stellungnahme zum Bahama-Abkommen', (I February 1963), NHP Bonn Doe. 123 p. 23. 63 Dieter Cycon: 'Welche Gegenleistung?" Stuttgarter Zeitung (8 March 1963); 'Der Bundeskanzler bremst', Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung (9 March 1963). 64 Von Hassel on defence issues in a radio broadcast of the Bayerischer Rundfunk (13 March 1963), transcript of Press and Information Office of the Federal Goverment. 65 Bundesministerium fUr Verteidigung. 66 'Die nukleare Frage' (23 August 1965), NHP Bonn Doe. 160, p. 2f. This formulation was used a year later by the new Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger: 'Kiesinger wiederholt Verzicht auf Atomwaffen', Die Welt (20 December 1966). 67 as rightly argued by Theo Sommer: 'The objectives of Germany', Alastair Buchan (ed.): A world o/nuclear powers (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice• Hall, 1966), p. 39. 68 Gerd Schamhorst: 'Die modemste Waffe der Bundeswehr', Welt am Sonntag (6 September 1964). The article gives the later range of Pershing I missiles (1100 km). 69 On timing of nuclear release, see Carl Amme: 'National Strategies within the Alliance: West Germany', NATO's 15 NationsVo!. 17 No. 4 (August• September 1972), p. 82. 70 Strauss: Erinnerungen, p. 481. 71 Cf. the Himmelroder Denkschrift, in von Schubert (ed.): Sicherheitspoli• tik Vo!. 2, p. 97. 72 PRO, DEFE 5/126, COS(62)163 of 17 April 1962, p. 5. 73 Letter from F1iB to the Minster of Defence, (December 1962), NHP Bonn Doe. 114, p. 1 f. 74 'Sprechzettel fUr den Besuch des Herm Ministers bei General Norstad' (5 March 1962), NHP Bonn Doe. 88, p. 5. 75 'Strategische und nukleare Planung der NATO' (8 February 1962) NHP Bonn Doe. 86, p. 3. 76 PRO, DEFE 13/254, British Defence Staff Washington to the MoD in London, 23 April 1962. 77 'Wesentliche Ergebnisse der deutsch-amerikanischen Studie: "Grundsatze und Richtlinien fUr den Einsatz der ADM'" (May 1965), NHP Bonn Doe. 155 pp. 1-5; see also Christoph Bluth: Britain, Germany and Wes• tern Nuclear Strategy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 87-93. 78 The first would run from the Iron Curtain to a line connecting • Hanover-Kassel-Fulda-Nuremberg and Landshut. The second zone would extend to a line connecting Bremen-Minden--Marburg an der Lahn-Tauberbischofsheim-Augsburg and Landsberg. The third ex• tended to the line Emden-Hanau-Siegrnaringen-Konstanz. 79 'Wesentliche Ergebnisse der deutsch-amerikanischen Studie: "Grundsatze und Richtlinien fUr den Einsatz der ADM'" (May 1965), NHP Bonn Doe. 155 pp. 1-5. 80 'Fiihrungsweisung Nr. I: Deutsche Auffassung zum strategischen Kon• zept der NATO' (21 July 1965), NHP Bonn Doe. 159, p. 10. Notes 227

81 This study is probably at the origin of the great 'Atomic Mines' or 'Trettner Proposal' debate of December 1964 and early 1965, Kelleher: Germany and the Politics, p. 214f. 82 'Atomare Mitbestimmung fUr Kontinentaleuropa - neuer Bonner Vor• schlag an die USA', Der Mittag (Dusseldorf 26 August 1959); 'Bonn hat einen Plan fUr atomare Mitentscheidung', Kolner Stadt-Anzeiger (2 December 1961); Hans Gerlach: 'Atom Bastelei', Kolner Stadt-Anzeiger (5 December 1961). 83 'Entwurf der deutschen Stellungnahme' (10 May 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 63, on Item 8 'Control and use of nuclear weapons'. 84 'Minutes for Talk at Defence Council' for F.J. Strauss (4 December 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 82 pp. 3-4. 85 'Grundsiitze der Verteidigungspolitik' (23 January 1963), NHP Bonn Doc. 119, p. 19 f. 86 'Vorschlag fUr Einleitungsvortrag Minister' (for von Hassel talks in Pentagon, February 1963) NHP Bonn Doc. 128, p. 36f. 87 'Deutsches Veto-Recht' (12 April 1966), NHP Bonn Doc. 10. 88 'Einsatz von Atomkorpem im Rahmen der Ubung "LION NOIR'" (11 April 1957), NHP Bonn Doc. 10. 89 Letter to Major General Trettner (16 September 1960), NHP Bonn Doc. 52 p. 2. 90 'Mitspracherecht bei Kemwaffen notig', Stuttgarter Nachrichten (7 April 1962); 'Atomfriede', Sonntagsblatt, Hamburg (15 April 1962). Strauss reiterated this point 22 years later, see Andre Andrets: 'Les relations franco-allemandes et le fait nucleaire dans une Europe divisee', Politique etrangere Vol. 49 No. 3 (Autumn 1984), p. 655. 91 FuB III I to Leiter III (30 June 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 69, p. 3. 92 'Deutsches Veto Recht' (14 April 1966), NHP Bonn Doc. 164, p. 6. 93 NHP Bonn Doc. 164, passim. 94 'Wenigstens mitreden', Der Spiegel (6 June 1977). 95 See also the Minister Extraordinary Krone, Chairman of the Defence Council, quoted in 'Bonn hat es mit der MLF night mehr eilig', SZ (29 December 1964); General Heusinger quoted in 'Hindemis fUr die Wiedervereinigung', Die Welt (17 August 1965); the CDU Presid• ency's communique of 23 August, in 'CDU fordert atomares Mitspra• cherecht Bonns', SZ (24 August 1965); Fritz Siinger: 'Erhard und die Mitbestimmung', Westfiilische Rundschau (15 November 1965); (CDU) quoted in 'Schreibt Bonn die MLF endgultig ab?', Stuttgarter Zeitung (13 December 1965); 'Mitwirken' is another term used in this context, see NHP Bonn Doc. 160, p. 2; 'Deutscher Standpunkt zum strategischen Konzept der NATO', NHP Bonn Doc. 162 p. 5ff. 96 'Die nukleare Frage' (23 August 1965), NHP Bonn Doc. 160, p. 2 f. This formulation was used a year later by the new Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger: 'Kiesinger wiederholt Verzicht auf Atomwaffen', Die Welt (20 December 1966). 97 See pp. 97, 100 above for General Gallois's views. 98 Sic in 'MRB-Problematik: hier: Kommentar zum Fragebogen' (20 October 1962), NHP Bonn Doc. 110, p. 2. 228 Notes

99 'Untersuchung iiber Interallied Nuclear Force' (9 April 1963), NHP Bonn Doc. 132, p. 115. 100 'Kurzstudie iiber Zweischliisselsystem' (15 December 1965) NHP Bonn Doc. 162, p. 5. 101 Hermann Knorr: 'Was heisst MitspracherechtT, Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung (Heidelberg, 4 January 1965); Thilo Koch: 'Zwei IlIusionen', Rhein-Ruhr Zeitung (27 August 1965). 102 'Atomare Mitbestimmung fUr Kontinentaleuropa', Der Mittag (Dussel• dorf, 26 August 1959). 103 See for example 'MLF/ANF und die nukleare Frage: der deutsche Standpunkt', NHP Bonn Doc. No., 154/38, FuB III 3 of 17 May 1965. 104 For the origins of the NATO Nuclear Committee of 1962, see PRO, DEFE 5/126, Annex 1 to COS(62)163 of 17 April 1962. 105 Paul Buteux: The Politics of Nuclear Consultation in NATO, 1965-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 39-68; 'Krone entzaubert Atompolitik', Die Rheinpfalz (15 January 1966); 'SPD und FOP rucken von einer Nuklearstreitmacht ab', Stuttgarter Zeitung (24 September 1966); Karl Theodor Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg: 'Die grundlegenden Probleme der NATO', Wehrkunde Vol. 15 No. 4 (April 1966), p. 178. 106 Wilhelm Grewe: Ruckblenden: Aufzeichnungen eines Augenzeugen deutscher Aussenpolitik von Adenauer his Schmidt (Frankfurt/Main: Pro• pyliien, 1979), p. 629. 107 'GeteiIte "Atomansichten" in Bonn', Hannoversche AlIgemeine (3 Jan• uary 1967); 'Atombewaffnung wird zum Priifstein fUr die Bundesregier• ung', Weser Kurier (3 January 1967). 108 See Christoph Hoppe: Zwischen Teilhahe und Mitsprache: Die Nuklear• frage in der Al/ianzpolitik Deutschlands, 1959-1966 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1993), pp. 320-39; Bluth: Britain, Germany, pp. 179-237. 109 'Regierungserkliirung von Bundeskanzler Kurt Georg Kiesinger ... am 13 December 1966', EA Vol. 22 No. 1 (10 January 1967), pp. 015-019, translation in 'German foreign policy', Survival Vol. 9 No. 2 (February 1967), p. 47. Cf. also 'Bonns Beitrag zum Atomsperrvertrag', FAZ (19 May 1967). 110 Allrich Eden: 'Bonn und die Atomwaffen', Trierischer Volksfreund (22 July 1965); 'Abrustungskonferenz bereitet Bonn Sorgen', SZ (7 August 1965); see also Helga Haftendom: Kernwaffen und die Glauhwiirdigkeit der AlIianz: Die NATO-Krise von 1966/67 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1994), pp. 148-66. III M!ndershausen: 'Will West Germany go nuclear?', p. 411-12. 112 'Bonn will keine Atombomben', K6Inische Rundschau (13 August 1966); Alfons Dalma: 'Kemwaffenfreie Zone - Ende der Abschreckung', Bayern Kurier (13 August 1966); Heinz Barth: 'Washington verzichtet aufEuropa-Klausel', Die Welt (29 October 1966); 'Kiesinger wiederholt Verzicht auf Atomwaffen', Die Welt (20 December 1966); Erich Peter: 'Gefahr fUr Europa, Gefahr fUr unsere Zukunft', Stuttgarter Zeitung (21 February 1967); interview with politicians Schroder and Ehmke in 'Kennzeichen 0' Television documentary, 6 November 1973, tra."lscript Notes 229

p. 10; 'Europa stand im Mittelpunkt der Debatte iiber Atomsperrver• trag', Die Welt (9 November 1973). 113 Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker: 'Industriell fahige Nationen nicht aus• schliessen', SZ (17 February 1967); 'Weizsiicker: Automatische Kontrol• len', FAZ (22 February 1967); see also 'Die Atomindustrie misstraut dem Sperrvertrag', FAZ and Rulf Zundel: 'Werden wir ein Volk von BettlernT, Die Zeit (both 17 February 1967); 'Auch Stoltenberg iiussert Bedenken', Die Welt (18 February 1967); Interview with FRG's Foreign Minister, conducted by Georg [sic!] Schroder: 'Fiihrt Atomkontrolle zur Industriespionage?', Die Welt (18 March 1967); (Schro• der's successor as Foreign Minister): 'Deutschland und der Atomsperr• vertrag', Aussenpolitik Vol. 18 No. 5 (May 1967), pp. 257-67; Christa Jendrock: 'Zwangsjacke fUr die Forschung', Bayern Kurier (18 July 1968); 'Wirtschaft fordert Atom-Klarheit', FAZ (18 April 1969); Lothar Ruehl: 'Miissen nichtnukleare Staaten mit Nachteilen fUr Wissenschaft und Wirtschaft rechnenT, Die Welt (24 April 1969); Konrad Miiller: 'Atomsperrvertrag kann Forschung gefahrden', Die Welt (26 April 1969); 'Grosse Anfrage der Fraktion der CDUlCSU betr. Atomwaffen• sperrvertrag', Deutscher Bundestag, 6. Wahlperiode, Drucksache VIII; 'Antwort auf die Grosse Anfrage', ibid., Drucksache VI/50 (both 20 October 1969); Dieter Cycon: 'Ein Blankoscheck fUr die Weltmiichte', Die Welt (8 November 1969); 'Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Grosse Anfrage zum NV-Vertrag' of 12 November 1969); Bulletin No. 137 (12 November 1969), p. 1165 ff; 'Dringende miindliche Fragen fUr die Fragestunde der Sitzung des Deutschen Bundestages', Deutscher Bundestag, 6th Legislature, Drucksache VI/94 (27 November 1969); '19 Punkte zum Atomsperrvertrag - Der Wortlaut der Erkliirung der Bundesregierung', SZ (29 November 1969); Wilhelm Throm: '1st unsere Atomwirtschaft in GefahrT, FAZ (10 December 1969); Hans Kern, MP (SPD): 'Ein Schritt zur WeItfriedensordnung', SPD Press Service (7 November 1973); Birrenbach, MP (CDU) in debate in Bundestag 7th Legislature, 64th session (8 November 1973), pp. 3712-4. 114 Ernst-Ulrich Fromm: 'Haken im Atomsperrvertrag', Die Welt (20 Jan• uary 1967); WilIy Brandt quoted in Theo Sommer: '''Ja-aber'' zur Atomsperre', Die Zeit (3 February 1967). 115 Klaus Mehnert: 'Trinker warnen Abstinente', Christ und Welt (9 De• cember 1966); 'Bonn sucht nichtatomare Mitstreiter', SZ (14 February 1967); Ernst Majonica (CDU/CSU) in radio interview, SWF 11 (6 May 1968), p. 4 of transcript; 'Sperrvertrag muss verbessert werden', Die Welt (3 February 1968); Lothar Ruehl: 'Unterschrift mit Vorbehalten', Die Welt (14 November 1969). 116 'Wenig Hoffnung auf Washingtoner Sicherheitsgarantien ... Was wird nach dem Auslaufen des Atlantikpakts?', FAZ (8 July 1968); Herbert von Borch: 'USA konnen keine dauerhaften Garantien geben', SZ (10 July 1968). 117 Horst Mendershausen: 'Will West Germany go nuclear?', Orbis Vol. 10 No. 2 (Summer 1972), p. 415; Giinther Gillessen: 'Sperrvertrag und Opposition', FAZ (15 June 1973). 230 Notes

118 Erich Peter: 'Gefahr fUr Europa, Gefahr fUr unsere Zukunft', Stuttgar• ter Zeitung (21 February 1967); Giinther Gillessen: 'Sperrvertrag und Opposition', FAZ (15 June 1973). 119 Schroder: 'Wie Westeuropa zu verteidigen ist', Politische Meinung Vol. 13 No. 4 (1968), passim; Georg Graf von Baudissin: 'Europaische Sicherheit: Kriterien und Anforderungen', EA Vol. 24 No. 1 (1969), p. 14f. 120 Printed in Auswartiges Amt (ed.): Deutsche Aussenpolitik 1990/1991 (Stuttgart: Bonn Aktuell, 1991), p. 169. 121 'Taktische Forderung fUr das Ballistische Flugkorpersystem FK 90 (Folgesystem fUr PERSHING la!)', date ca. 4-8 April 1987, copy in the possession of the author. 122 Jane Sharp: 'Arms Control and Alliance Commitments', Political Science Quarterly (Winter 1985~), p. 661. 123 For an overview of the divergent US-German interests, see Susanne Peters: The Germans and the INF Missiles: Getting their way in NATO's strategy offlexible response (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1990), pp. 53-91. 124 'Fiihrungsweisung Nr. 1: Deutsche Auffassung zum strategischen Kon• zept der NATO' (21 July 1965), NHP Bonn Doc. 159, p. 38f. 125 Steinhoff and Pommerin: Strategiewechsel, p. 29. 126 For example, 'REAPER: Joint outline warpJan for a war beginning I July 1954', JCS 2143/6 of 7 December 1950, US National Archives, RG 218, JCS 1951-53 381 (1-26-50), B.D. Part I; US Declassified Documents (Microfiche Series) DD (76)161 B: 'Review of the current world situation .. .', JCS 1888/32 of 4 March 1953, and see Chapter 2. 127 'Betr.: Vorwarts-Strategie' (27 February 1958), NHP Bonn Doc. 19, p. 3. 128 NHP Bonn Doc. 19, p. 3; Theo Sommer: 'Le systeme bi-polaire', Poli• tique etrangere Vol. 42 No. 3-4 (1977), p. 266. 129 Tuschhoff: 'Die MC 70', p. 11. 130 8. Anlage zu Fii B III I -Tgb. Nr. 89/63 str. geh. (14 February 1963), Bonn Doc No. 127; see also references to SACEUR's EDP (SHAPE 144/61)(CC 45/62) in 'Fiihrungsweisung Nr. l' (21 July 1965), NHP Bonn Doc. 159 p. 35. 131 PRO, DEFE 4/144, COS(62)31st Mtg, 1 May 1962, Item 1, Lord Mountbatten to General Lyman Lemnitzer, Chairman of the US JCS. 132 'Bedingt abwehrbereit', Der Spiegel Vol. 16 No. 41 (10 October 1962), pp. 32-53. 133 'Kurzprotokoll iiber Gespriich General Norstadl Generalinspekteur' (30 November 1962), NHP Bonn Doc. 113 p. 1. 134 Uwe Nerlich: 'Die nuklearen Dilemmas der Bundesrepublik Deutsch• land', EA Vol. 20 No. 17 (1965), p. 644; Sommer: 'Le systeme bi• polaire', p. 266. 135 'Die US-VerteidigungspoJitik und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Militarpo• litik der NATO' (6 April 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 57 p. 5; 'Deutsche Stellungnahme' (26 April 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 62; 'Verteidigungsfra• gen ... Erklarung des amerikanischen Vertreters beim NATO-Rat vom 26.4.1961' (15 May 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 63 pp. 3-5; 'Sprechzettel fUr Besuch des Herrn Ministers bei General Norstadt am 6.3.62' (5 March 1962), NHP Bonn Doc. 88; Giersberg Protocoll (15 June 1962), NHP Notes 231

Bonn Doc. 97 p. 9; Analysis of McNamara speech at NAC council of 14 December 1962 (21 December 1962), NHP Bonn Doc. 116, p. 3; 'Grundsatze der Verteidigungspolitik, insbesondere des Nassau-Abkom• mens', (23 January 1963) NHP Bonn Doc. 119 p. 32; 'Sprechzettel fUr Herrn Minister zum Besuch Kennedys' (21 June 1963) NHP Bonn Doc. 139, p. 32.; 'McNamara-Rede in Athen' (1 August 1963), NHP Bonn Doc. 140 p. 6. 136 Auswartiges Amt. 137 Giersberg Protocoll (15 June 1962), NHP Bonn Doc. 97, p. 2f; see also PRO, DEFE 4/146, Annex 11 to JP(62)72(Final) of 22 June 1962. 138 NHP Bonn Doc. 97, p. 2f; see also PRO, DEFE 4/146, Annex 11 to JP(62)72(Final) of 22 June 1962; see p. 39. 139 See for example Bundesminister der Verteidigung: Weissbuch 1979: Zur Sicherheit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und zur Entwicklung der Bun• deswehr (Bonn: Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesrepublik, 1979), p. 124; Weissbuch 1983, p. 146. 140 Wilhelm Grewe: Riickblenden, p. 687: WTO writing claimed that 'for• ward defence' implied a massive attack on and an invasion of WTO territory. See for example Anonymous: 'Die Vorwartsstrategie der NATO und das Einwirken der BRD auf ihre Entwicklung bis 1963', Militiirgeschichte (Berlin/Ost), Vol. 25 No. 2 (1986), pp. 129-36. 141 General (Ret.) Johannes SteinhofT: Wohin treibt die NATO? (Hamburg: HofTmann & Campe, 1976); 'Urn Gottes willen, was fUr ein Kriegsbild', Der Spiegel (8 March 1976); 'Schlachtfeld Deutschland', Der Spiegel (12 September 1977), pp. 68-74; , Inspector General of the Bundeswehr: 'Abschreckung und Entspannung', FAZ (25 November 1977). 142 For divergences on timing, see also: 'So spat wie moglich', Der Spiegel (8 August 1977); 'Schlachtfeld Deutschland', Der Spiegel (12 September 1977), p. 67 f. 143 Charles Douglas-Home: 'Mountbatten nuclear arms warning', The Times (23 February 1970); Lothar Ruehl: 'Der Beschluss der NATO zur Einfiihrung nuklearer MittelstreckenwafTen', EA Vol. 35 No. 4 (February 1980), p. 109. 144 Diego Ruiz Palmer: 'La cooperation militaire entre la France et ses Allies, 1966-1991', in Maurice Vai:sse, Pierre Melandri and Frederic Bozo (eds): La France et [,OTAN. 1949-1996 (Brussels: Eds. Complexe, 1996), p. 585 f. 145 'Zur SS-20-Stationierung sagt Ruh!: ... Der Streit urn Washingtons Atomstudie', FAZ (21 August 1982); Hoimar von Ditfurth: 'Real ist nur die eigene Angst', Der Spiegel (6 June 1983), p. 53. 146 General (Ret.) Hans Hinrichs: 'Die amerikanische Konzeption der "Luft-Land-Schlacht"', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vol. 32 No. 5 (May 1983), pp. 222-3; : 'FOFA im Kreuzfeuer der Kritik: Die Wandlungen eines NATO-Konzepts', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vol. 36 No. 12 (December 1987), pp. 664--9. For earlier NATO strategies, see Chapter 2. 147 Der Bundesminister der Verteidigung: Weissbuch 1985 Zur Lage und Entwicklung der Bundeswehr (Bonn: Presse- und Informationsamt der 232 Notes

Bundesregierung, 1985), p. 30; see also Michael Forster: 'AirLand Battle 1986: Das Ziel bleibt Abschreckung', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vo!. 36 No. 12 (December 1987), pp. 672, 673; Lothar Domrose: 'FOFA als Mittel der Abschreckung', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vo!. 38 No. 11 (Nov• ember 1989), pp. 648-51; Florian Gerster, MP, and Michael Hennes: 'FOFA-Irrtiimer: Riickbesinnung auf die Vorneverteidigung', Euro• piiische Wehrkunde Vo!. 38 No. 10 (October 1989), pp. 595--600; General : 'Defensive Doktrinen und Streitkraftestrukturen', EA Vo!. 44 No. 22 (November 1989), p. 669; Jiirgen Och: 'Operative Auf• gaben des FOFA-Konzepts: Raum nach vorne schafTen', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vo!. 38 No. 2 (February 1989), pp. 78-80. 148 'Strauss verteidigt seine AtomwafTen-Strategie', Weser-Kurier (4 August 1962). 149 See for example 'Sprechzettel fUr Herrn Minister zum Besuch Prasident Kennedys' (21 June 1963), NHP Bonn Doc. 139, pp. 3,4 6, 9 f. 150 Ludger Stein-Ruegenberg: 'Atomminen - Zu gefahrlich fUr die Sicher- heit', Christ und Welt (11 December 1970). 151 Radio interview with Georg Leber, NDR (21 July 1973), transcript p. 6. 152 Commander-in-Chief, Central Europe. 153 Ulrich Mackensen: 'Unruhe iiber atomares Planspiel', Frankfurter Rundschau (13 November 1976). 154 Diethart Goos: 'Hardthohe weist die Kritik an General Schnell zuriick', Die Welt (15 November 1976); 'Planungsgruppe berat Atomstrategie', Frankfurter Rundschau (16 November 1976); 'Viel zu spat', Der Spiegel (22 November 1976). 155 'Leber: Die Abschreckung wird glaubwiirdiger: Mehr Sicherheit durch neue PrazisionswafTen', FAZ (10 April 1976); Adelbert Weinstein: 'Le• ber-Doktrin und Sicherheit', FAZ (12 April 1976). 156 David E. Rodgers: 'Atomic Demolition Munitions in NATO's Theater Nuclear Forces', NHP Working Paper No. 2 (July 1989), p. 20. 157 Rodgers: Loc. cit.. 158 State-Secretary Friedhelm Ost, FRG Government spokesman, Press and Information Office of the Federal Government, press release No. 70/89 of 8 February 1989, p. 2. 159 'Bonn pocht auf Abzug von Atom-Minen', SZ (26 March 1985); see also 'Atomminen: Antiquitaten in BRD Atomwaffenlagern', TAZ (Ber• lin: 9 January 1985). 160 Heinz Osswald: 'Nukleare WafTen der Luftverteidigung - ein iiberfliis• siges Relikt', Wehrkunde Vo!. 20 No. 3 (March 1971), pp. 126-30. 161 See p. 54 above. 162 Letters re strategic thinking of General Boyd and British military lea• ders in NORTHAG (16 September 1960) NHP Bonn Doc. 52 p. 2f. 163 'Kurzbericht iiber die zweite deutsch-franzosische Generalstabsbespre• chung am 12. und 13. Mai 1961 in Paris' (5 June 1961), NHP Bonn Doc. 67 p. 2. 164 Protocol of the 'Nette Miihle' Meeting, (30 May 1964), NHP Bonn Doc. 148 p. 4. 165 'Deutscher Standpunkt zum strategischen Konzept der NATO' (9 May 1966), NHP Bonn Doc. 165, pp. 2, 9, 11 f. For German preferences for Notes 233

targeting the Soviet Union see 'Mountbatten nuclear arms warning', The Times (23 February 1970); see pp. 54-7 above. 166 Uwe Nerlich: 'Theatre Nuclear Forces in Europe', The Washington Quarterly Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 1980), p. 121. 167 See Chapter 2, and Bluth: Britain, Germany and Peters: The Germans and the INF Missiles. The degree of German influence was little known even within the FRG, cf. Kurt 1. Lank: 'Kernwaffen und eine Diplo• matie der Friedenssicherung', Beitrtige zur Konfliktforschung Vol. 7 No. 4 (1977), p. 130; For the similarities between the nuclear missile deploy• ments of the late 1950s/early 1960s and the deployments of the early 1980s, see Thomas Risse-Kappen: 'Deja vu: Deployment of Nuclear Weapons in West Germany - Historical Controversies', Bulletin of Peace Proposals Vol. 14 No. 4 (1983), pp. 327-36. 168 For the Follow-on-to Lance (FOTL) story, see Beatrice Heuser: 'Ger• many, France and Sub-strategic Nuclear Weapons 1972-95', NHP pa• per (forthcoming 1997). 169 Ronald Asmus: 'West Germany faces nuclear modernization', Survival Vol. 30 No. 6 (November-December 1988), p. 499. 170 Theo Sommer: 'Le systeme bipolaire', Politique etrangere Vol. 42 No. 3- 4 (1977), p. 261 f; the LRTNF decision has been interpreted as due mainly to German pressure, see Peters: The Germans and the INF Mis• siles, pp. 259-95. 171 Christoph Bluth: Britain, Germany, p. 4.

6 PROJECTS FOR A EUROPEAN NUCLEAR FORCE

Pierre Guillen: 'Die franzosische Generalitat, die Aufriistung der Bund• esrepubJik und die EVG (1950--1954)" in Hans-Heinrich Volkmann and WaIter Schwengler: Die Europtiische Verteidigungsgemeinschaft (Boppard: Harald Boldt Verlag for the Militargeschichtliches For• schungsamt, 1985), pp. 156-7; Klaus A. Meier: 'Die internationalen Auseinandersetzungen um die Westintegration der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und urn ihre Bewaffnung im Rahmen der Europaischen Verteidigungsgemeinschaft', in Lutz Kollner, Klaus A. Maier, Wilhelm Meier-Dornberg and Hans-Erich Volkmann: An/tinge Westdeutscher Sicherheitspolitik, 1945-1956 Vol. 2 Die EVG Phase (Munich: R. Old• enbourg Verlag, 1990), p. 188. 2 Guillen: 'Die franzosische Generalitat, die Aufriistung der Bundesrepu• blik und die EVG (1950-1954)" pp. 156-7, quotation in German trans• lation, no footnote given. 3 Major General Edward Fursdon: The European Defence Community (London: Macmillan, 1980), p. 231. 4 Cf. lan Clark and Nicholas Wheeler: The British Origins of Nuclear Strategy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 217; Lawrence Freedman, Martin Navias and Nicholas Wheeler: Independence in concert: The British Rationale for Possessing Strategic Nuclear Weapons, Nuclear History Program Occasional Paper No. 5 (College Park, MD: CISSM, 1989), pp. 10--17. 234 Notes

5 Peter Fischer: Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse: Die Anfiinge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1949-1955 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1994), p. 34ff. 6 Cr. for example Peter Weilemann: Die Anfiinge der Europiiischell Atom• gemeinschaft: Zur Griindungsgeschichte von Euratom, 1955-1957 (Baden• Baden: Nomos, 1983); Fischer: Atomenergie und staatliches Interesse. 7 Maurice Valsse: 'Autour des accords Chaban-Strauss, 1956-58'; Colette Barbier: 'Les negociations franco-germano-italiennes en vue de I'etablis• sement d'une cooperation militaire nuc1eaire au cours des annees 1956- 1958'; Eckart Conze: 'Un point de vue allemand'; Leopoldo Nuti: 'Le role de l'Italie dans les negociations trilaterales, 1957-1958', all in Revue d'histoire diplomatique Vol. 104, No. 2 (1990), pp. 77-158. 8 'Taktische Atomwaffen fUr die Bundeswehr erwogen', Stuttgarter Nach• rich ten (4 August 1956). 9 Franz JosefStrauss: Erinnerungen (orig. Berlin, Siedler: 1989, Ppb. Gold• mann, 1991), p. 343. 10 Barbier: 'Les negociations franco-germano-italiennes', p. 90f. 11 'Raketenbau in der Bundesrepublik angestrebt', Frankfurter AlIgemeine Zeitung [henceforth FAZ] (5 November 1957); 'Gemeinsame westliche Verteidigung', Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesre• gierullg [henceforth Bulletin] No. 206 (6 November 1957). 12 Barbier: 'Les negociations franco-germano-italiennes', p. 93f. 13 Ibid. p. 109. 14 Hans-Peter Schwarz: Adenauer Vol. 2 Der Staatsmann: 1952-1967 (Stutt• gart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1991), p. 394. 15 Documents Diplomatiques Franfais 1957 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1991), pp. 717-18, 762-3. 16 Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker: 'Should Germany have atomic arms?', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. 13 No. 8 (October 1957), p. 284; for the Gottingen physicists' protest, see Marc Cioc: Pax Atomica: the nu• clear defense debate in West Germany during the Adenauer era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), p. 78f.; Schwarz: Der Staats• mann, p. 398f. 17 Conze: 'La cooperation franco-germano-italienne', pp. 130--1; Hans• Peter Schwarz: Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Die Ara Adenauer Part 11 1957-1963 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1983), p. 97. Cr. also Leopoldo Nuti in 'Italy and the Nuclear Choices of the Atlantic Alliance', in Beatrice Heuser and Robert O'Neill (eds): Securing Peace in Europe, 1945-62 (London: Macmillan, 1992), p.230. 18 'London geht eigene Wege', Hamburger Abendblatt (26 March 1958); Hans Wunderlich: 'Machttraume urn eigene Atombomben', Westfiilische Rundschau (1 April 1958). 19 See p. 130 above. 20 Daily Mirror (2 April 1958), quoted in John Newhouse: De Gaulle and the Anglo-Saxons (New York: the Viking Press, 1970), p. 59; 'Labour und Gewerkschaften fUr neutrale Zone - Crossman verOffentlicht sein Inter• view mit Strauss im Wortlaut', FAZ (12 April 1958). 21 Strauss: Erinnerungen, p. 346. Notes 235

22 'Drohungen und ihr Echo', Aachener Nachrichten (2 April 1957); see also 'Bezahlt Bonn die franzosische AtombombeT, Westfiilische Rundschau (9 April 1958), referring to speculations in France Observateur; see also 'Nukleare Partnerschaft Bonn-ParisT, General-Anzeiger (19 April 1958). 23 See Valsse, Barbier, Conze and Nuti in Revue d'histoire diplomatique Vol. 104 No. 1-2 (1990). 24 Nuti: 'Italy and the Nuclear Choices', pp. 222-45; Maurice Valsse: 'La cooperation nucleaire en Europe (1955-1958)', Storia delle Relazioni internazionali Vol. 8 No. 1-2 (1992), pp. 201-14; Catherine McArdle Kelleher: Germany and the politics of nuclear weapons (New York: Co• lumbia V.P., 1975), p. 132f. 25 Alain Peyrefitte: C'hait de Gaulle Vol. I (Paris: Fayard, 1994), p. 346; Reiner Marcowitz: Option fur Paris? (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1996), p. 22. 26 'Kurzprotokoll des Gespriichs Minister Messmer-Minister Strauss, vom 28.3.1960 in Paris' (28 March 1960) NHP Bonn Doc. 43 p. 4. 27 Strauss: Erinnerungen, pp. 462, 465-7. 28 Thomas Enders: Franz Josef Strauss, Helmut Schmidt und die Doktrin der Abschreckung (Koblenz: Bemard and Graefe, 1984), pp. 136-7. 29 Multilateral (Nuclear) Force, see Chapter 2. 30 'Bonn fUr Europiiische Atommacht', Mannheimer Morgen (13 November 1962). 31 Parlement europeen, Commission politique: Le dossier de l'Union poli• tique (Direction generale de la documentation parlementaire et de I'in• formation, January 1964), pp. 11-37. 32 E. Jouve: Charles de Gaulle et la Construction de I'Europe Vol. I (Paris: Librairie generale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1967), cited in Jean Lacouture: De Gaulle Vol. 3 Le Souverain, 1959-1970 (Paris: Eds. du Seuil, ppb 1986), pp. 318-23. 33 Public Record Office, Kew [henceforth PRO], PREM 11/3712, Sir Solly Zuckerman to Harold Watkinson, 25 May 1962. 34 'Vers la force europeenne?', Le Monde (18 July 1962). 35 Ibid. 36 Quoted in Miche1 Eyraud: 'La controverse nucleaire au sein de I'Alliance Altantique', Strategie No. I (Summer 1964), pp. 116-17. 37 PRO, FO 3711173300, passim. 38 Hi Bill-Hi B III 8, 'Ergebnis der Besprechungen in Haus Giersberg, Miinstereife1 vom 1. /2. Juni 1962', NHP Bonn Doc. 97/1 of 15 June 1962; Fii B III 1 LO, 'Verteidigungspolitische Grundsatzfragen: hier: Deutsche Stellungnahme zur franzosischen 'force de frappe", NHP Bonn Doc. 97/ 14 of 23 August 1962. 39 Fii B III 1 LO: 'Verteidigungspolitische Grundsatzfragen' (23 August 1962), NHP Bonn Doc. 97 p. 14f. 40 'Stichworte fUr Einleitungsvortrag Minister' (20 February 1963), NHP Bonn Doc. 128, pp. I, 6f, 24. 41 NHP Bonn Doc. 128, p. 44. 42 PRO, FO 3711173300, WP5/2 of 26 February 1963. 43 Peyrefitte: C'etait de Gaulle Vol. 1, p. 346. 44 Wilfrid L. Kohl: French Nuclear Diplomacy (princeton, NJ: Princeton V.P., 1971), pp. 288 and 306n. 236 Notes

45 PRO, FO 3711161097, WF 1051120/G, Meeting de Gaulle/Macmillan in Rambouillet, 28 January 1961. 46 Christoph Hoppe: Zwischen Teilhabe und Mitsprache: Die Nuklearfrage in der Allianzpolitik Deutschlands, 1959-1966 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1993), p. 178f. 47 Ibid.; Freiherr v. u. z. Guttenberg: 'Europa muG Atommacht werden', Die Welt (27 April 1964). 48 'Kurzbericht iiber das Kolloquium des BMV g und des AA in der 'Netten Miihle' am 27. und 28.4.1964', NHP Bonn Doc. 148, 30 May 1964, pp. 13-16. 49 Secret conversation between de Gaulle and Erhard, 3 July 1964, Akten zur Auswiirtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland [henceforth AAP] 1964 Vol. n (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1995), pp. 713-14. 50 Secret conversation between de Gaulle and Erhard, 3 July 1964, AAP 1964 Vol. 11, pp. 715-17. 51 Secret conversation between de Gaulle and Erhard, 4 July 1964, AAP 1964 Vol. 11, p. 775. 52 AAP 1964 Vol. n, p. 775. 53 Conversation of State-Secretary Carstens with de Gaulle, 4 July 1964, AAP 1964 Vol. n, p. 768 and note 9. 54 AAP 1964 Vol. lI, p. 737. 55 AAP 1964 Vol. 11, pp. 714--15, 752-5. 56 AAP 1964 Vol. 11, pp. 715-17, 775-7. 57 'M. Pompidou: "La force de dissuasion francaise joue automatiquement au benefice de l'Europe"', Le Monde (3 December 1964). 58 See pp. 116f. above. 59 XXX: 'Faut-il reformer l'alliance atlantique', Politique etrangere [hence• forth PE] Vol. 30 No. 3 (1965), pp. 230-44; **: 'Faut-il reformer l'Alli• ance atlantique? Examen critique', PE Vol. 30 No. 4--5 (1965), pp. 324--9; see also Frank Siebel: 'Kein atomares Mitspracherecht fUr Bonn', Rhein• Ruhr-Zeitung (30 December 1965). 60 T.F. Thompson in the Daily Mail (9 February 1959), quoted in Alastair Buchan: 'Britain and the Bomb', The Reporter Vol. 20 No. 6 (19 March 1959), p. 24; Fred Mulley, MP and others: The Report of the Assembly of the WEU, November 1959, printed in Survival Vol. 2 No. 1 (January• February 1960), pp. 34--6; Letter from John CoIlins, Chairman, CND to The Guardian (4 December 1959); 'Shared Bombs', The Guardian (4 December 1959); 'Anti-American', The Guardian (2 May 1960); Roy Jenkins: 'Europe after Blue Streak', The Spectator (6 May 1960). For Frencr responses, see Raymond Aron: 'Force de frappe europeenne?', Figaro (10 December 1959). 61 lan Clark: Nuclear Diplomacy and the Special Relationship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), pp. 305, 307, 323. 62 Andrew J. Pierre: Nuclear Politics (London: Oxford U.P., 1972), p. 222. 63 HofC, Deb., Vol. 661, cols. 954--60, Questions and Answers session of26 June 1962. 64 Alun Gwynne Jones: 'Nuclear Weapons and European Defence', The Times (26 July 1962); Alastair Buchan: 'The reform of NATO', Foreign Affairs Vol. 40 No. 2 (January 1962), p. 172. Notes 237

65 Working Group on European Policy, PRO, DEFE 7/2236, Mountbatten to Thorneycroft, 12 December 1962, and Chiefs of Staff Meeting on 11 December 1962; 'US objections to the minor deterrent force', The Times (18 June 1962); 'Nuclear togetherness', Daily Telegraph (18 June 1962); 'Europe and the deterrent', The Spectator (22 June 1962); Max Freedman: 'Towards Anglo--French Nuclear Force? - Changes in US strategic thinking', The Guardian (23 June 1962); 'A European Deter• rent?', Sunday Times (24 June 1962); 'New Nuclear Strategy', Daily Telegraph (27 June 1962); Denis Healey: 'Europe and the bomb', The Spectator (4 July 1962). 66 'National bombs', The Guardian (18 June 1962); Anthony Verrier: 'The Grammar of British Defence', New Statesman (6 July 1962), p. 10r. 67 Leonard Beaton: 'Change coming in defence - European design', and 'Independent nuclear deterrence', The Guardian (27 June 1962). 68 Couve de Murville described Nassau as the 'trigger element' which had led France to veto the British admission to the EEC, see his conversation with Carstens, AAP 1964 Vo!. 11, p. 767. 69 'France's rival deterrent', The Guardian (25 September 1963). 70 'Daylight on the Missile Row: Cronin versus Amery', The Observer (6 September 1964). 71 Denis Healey: The Race against the H-Bomb (London: Fabian Society, March 1960), p. 15. 72 HofC Deb. Vo!. 707 co!. 1364 (3 March 1965). 73 Pierre Maillard: 'Defense nationale et esprit de defense', Revue Defense Nationale [henceforth RDN] Vo!. 23 No. 3 (March 1967), p. 376; see also Edmond Combaux: 'Defense tous azimuts? Oui mais .. .', RDN Vo!. 24 No. to (November 1968), p. 1616. 74 Neville Brown: 'Ang1o--French nuclear collaboration', The World Today Vo!. 25 No. 8 (August 1969), pp. 351-7; 'La perspective d'une reduction des etTectifs americains en Europe domine les debats de la conference des parlementaires', Le Monde (22 October 1969). 75 Hans Reiser: 'Denkiibungen der Verteidigungsminister', Siiddeutsche Zei• tung [henceforth SZ] (10 March 1970). 76 Edward Heath: 'West European Integration and East-West Relations', Western and Eastern Europe: the Changing Relationship Adelphi Paper No. 33 (London: ISS, 1966), p. 34. 77 'British bombs on trust', The Guardian (11 May 1967); Edward Heath in the Godkin Lectures, Old World, New Horizon: the Common Market and the Atlantic Alliance (London: Oxford U.P., 1967), p. 73. 78 Edward Heath: 'Realism in British Foreign Policy' Foreign Affairs Vo!. 48 No. 1 (October 1969) pp. 39-50; see also for example GeotTrey Rippon, MP: 'The Reason behind the Opposition Viewpoint', Financial Times (4 March 1970); the Bow Group (a Conservative discussion group) pamphlet of March 1970, quoted by Boyer: 'The legacy of history finally overcome?', p. 22. 79 Laurence Martin: British Defence Policy: The Long Recessional, Adelphi Paper No. 61 (November 1969), p. 17f; 'The ultimate arm', The Times (6 July 1970); 'Tilting nuclear balance', Daily Telegraph (9 January 1970); Eldon Griffiths, MP and Michael Niblock: 'Towards Nuclear Entente: 238 Notes

the case for Anglo-French nuclear co-operation', Conservative Political Centre Publication No. 459 (London: Conservative Political Centre, March 1970), pp. 11 f., 13 ff; Christopher Irwin: 'Nuclear aspects of West European Defence integration', International Affairs Vol. 47 No. 4 (October 1971), pp. 679-91; Ian Smart: Future Conditional: The Prospect for Anglo-French Nuclear Co-operation, Adelphi Papers No. 78 (August 1971); Michae1 Howard: 'NATO and the Year of Europe', Round Table (October 1973), reprinted in Survival Vol. 16 No. 1 (January-February 1974), p. 25; Kenneth Younger: 'Europas RoUe in der Weltpolitik', Europa Archiv [henceforth EA] Vol. 25 No. 15-16 (Summer 1970), p. 575. 80 'Mr. Heath seeks new cordiality with US', The Times (14 December 1970). 81 There was some French interest: Raymond Aron: 'Defense nationale et unification europeenne', RDN Vol. 26 (April 1970), pp. 556-70; J.R. Cadoux: 'L'impasse des strategies nucleaires europeennes', Revue militaire generale [henceforth RMG] No. 5 (May 1970), pp. 630-50; Marc Geneste: 'Les conversations sur la limitation des armes strategiques', RMG No. 6 (June 1970), pp. 3-20; Fran~ois Schlosser: 'La France doit-elle conserver la bombe?', Realites No. 289 (February 1970), pp. 84-9, 100. 82 John Groser: 'Mr Heath claims balance of power role for Europe', The Times (3 January 1973). 83 John Andrews: 'Europe's Strategic Nuclear Options', RUSI Journal Vol. 118 No. 1 (March 1973), pp. 38-44. 84 Fran~ois Duchene (Director of the ISS in London): 'A new European Defense Community', Foreign Affairs Vol. 50 No. 1 (October 1971), p. 79; Norman Dodd: 'Europaische Nuklearstreitkrafte?', Wehrkunde Vol. 22 No. 11 (November 1973), p. 573; Fran~ois Bourg: 'La crise, I'O.T.A.N. et la France', Nouvelle Revue Socia/iste No. 6 (1974), p. 44f. 85 'Nuclear arms discussions', The Times (2 February 1973). Cf. Pierre M. Gallois: 'L'Europe ala recherche de sa securite', RMG No. 7 (July 1972), pp. 3-20; Jacques Veroant: 'Reflexions sur la "defense de I'Europe"', RDNVol. 28 (March 1972), p. 463f. 86 'Defense nationale: un amendement supprime les tirs atomiques dans le Pacifique en 1970', Le Monde (5 December 1969). See also Fran~ois Mitterrand's radio interview of 13 May 1974, quoted in Charles Herou: 'L'impossible Defense Europeenne', Paradoxes No. 9-10 (August 1975), p. 41; for Giscard d'Estaing, see 'Un entretien avec M. Yvon Bourges', Le Monde (16 July 1976). 87 Cf. Jean Klein: 'La France et la securite de l'Europe', PE Vol. 48 No. 2 (Surr_mer 1983), p. 320-22. 88 Uwe Nerlich: 'Die nuklearen Dilemmas der Bundesrepublik Deutsch• land', EA Vol. 20 No. 17 (1965), p. 643. 89 Quoted in A.J.R. Groom: 'British Defence Policy under the Conservat• ives', Round Table (October 1973), p. 489. 90 The subject was apparently raised again between Heath and Pompidou in the following year: 'Vor einer Verminderung der US-Truppen in Europa', Tages-Spiege/ (24 July 1973). 91 Quoted in Horst Mendershausen: 'Will West Germany go nuclear?', Orbis Vol. 10 No. 2 (Summer 1972), p. 429. Notes 239

92 '''Force de Frappe" soll Westeuropa schutzen', Deutsche Tagespost (13 January 1978). 93 Hubertus Hoffmann: Die Atompartner: Washington-Bonn und die Mod• ernisierung der taktischen Kernwaffen (Koblenz: Berhard and Graefe, 1986), pp. 383-95; Hans Ruhle: 'Cruise Missiles, NATO and the "Eur• opean Option" " Strategic Review Vo!. 6 No. 4 (Autumn 1978), p. 50. 94 David Carlton: 'What future for the British deterrent?', Daily Telegraph (20 January 1977). 95 Pierre Eylau-Wagram (pseud.): 'Propositions pour une strategie fran• ~aise de 1980 a 1990', PEVo!. 46 No. 1 (March 1981), p. 127f; Maurice Leman: 'Les neutrons: l'arme anti-invasion pour une defense europe• enne', PE Vo!. 46 No. 2 (June 1981), pp. 423-5 - but see id.: 'Defense civile et dissuasion nucleaire', Strategie et defense No. 8 (May 1981), p. 25, rather putting into doubt France's willingness to use nuclear weap• ons; Dominique David: 'L'alliance: notre arche et son deluge', Strategi• que No. 17 {1st term 1983}, pp. 108-9. 96 Eylau-Wagram: 'Propositions pour une strategie fran~aise', p. 130; Jac• ques Chirac: 'Le role de la France dans les relations est-ouest', PE Vo!. 49 No. 3 (Autumn 1984), p. 685; Jacques Soppelsa: 'Defense: continuite dans le changement', Revue Politique et Parlementaire No. 916/917 (May-June 1985), p. 96; see also Alain Carton: 'L'initiative de defense strategique et l'Europe: la defense aerienne elargie', Strategique No. 32 (4th term 1986), p. 166; Fran~ois Heisbourg: 'Alliance and sovereignty', NATO's 16 Nations Vo!. 31 No. 7 (November 1986), pp. 18,25. 97 Helmut Schmidt: 'Constraints and consensus in the Alliance', NATO's 16 Nations Vo!. 29 No. 1 (March 1984), p. 56. 98 Konrad Seitz (head of the Policy Planning Staff of the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs): 'Die Zukunft von Sicherheit und Abrustung in Europa', EA 41st year, No. 5 (l0 March 1986), pp. 119-28, speaking in a personal capacity; Sir Geoffrey Howe: 'The European pillar', Foreign Affairs Vo!. 63 No. 3 (winter 1984/85), p. 333. 99 Pierre Schwed and General Henri Bagnouls: 'Vers une defense europe• enne', RDN Vo!. 40 No. 9 (October 1984), pp. 52-3. 100 See Chapter 2; Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine: 'The Impact of Arms Control on the balance of Nuclear and Conventional Forces', RUSI Journal Vo!. 132 No. 4 (December 1987), p. 10. 101 Sir Geoffrey Howe: 'Europe's Role in NATO's Fifth Decade', RUSI Journal Vo!. 134 No. 2 (Summer 1989), p. 6. 102 Pierre Hassner: 'L'Europe sans options?', Politique internationale No. 37 (Autumn 1987), p. 107; Robert Mathner: 'Zero option could weaken West's defence, says Barre', Financial Times (28 March 1987); Jacques Baumel: 'La France et l'option zero', RellUe des deux mondes (May 1987), p. 328; Groupe 'Renouveau defense': 'Le defi du double zero', RDN Vol. 44 (February 1988); Yves Jeanclos and General Raymond Manicacci: 'Securite de l'Europe et strategie nucleaire integrale', RDN Vo!. 45 No. 4 (April 1989), pp. 23-35. 103 General Rogers, 'Time to say "Time out"', Army (September 1987), p. 26, quoted in Thomas Halverson, MS. Ph.D. King's College London, Dept. of War Studies, 1992. 240 Notes

104 Sir GeofTrey Howe (Foreign Secretary): 'European Security', Studia Diplomatica No. 1 (1987), p. 50f. Cf. GeofTrey Lee Williams and Alan Lee Williams: The European Defence Initiative (London: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 1-3, 167-71, 213-19. 105 Francois Heisbourg: 'British and French nuclear forces; current roles and new challenges', Survival Vol. 31 No. 4 (July-August 1989), p. 311. 106 Karl-Heinz Kamp: 'Die Modernisierung der nuklearen Kurzstrecken• wafTen in Europa', EA 43rd year No. 10 (25 May 1988), pp. 270, 274-5. 107 Ivo H. Daalder and Catherine McArdle Kelleher: 'The United States and Theater Nuclear Modernization since 1970' (paper presented to the Second Nuclear History Program Study Review Conference, Ebenhau• sen, June 1991), pp. 156-69; 186--201. 108 Ibid. p. 154. 109 Ibid. pp. 182-4. 110 Nuclear Planning Group, Communique, 27-8 October 1988, The Ha• gue, NATO: Final Communiques, 1985-1990 (Brussels, NATO Informa• tion Bureau, n.d.), p. 99. 111 'Decision "was made in 1985"', The Times (25 May 1988). 112 Mark Urban: 'Architect of the flexible response', The Independent (20 October 1988). 113 'SPD vermutet geheime Nachriistungspliine', SZ (25 May 1988). 114 President Bush's announcement of September 1991, United States In- formation Service (USIS), rejected at least one such option. 115 The missile 'air-sol moyenne portee', ASMP. 116 The missile 'air-sollongue portee', ASLP. 117 Raymond Tourrain: 'Dissuasion francaise et strategie de l'OTAN: Euromissiles, Bombe "N" et Pacifisme', Strategie et Defense No. 10 (June 1982), p. 22; Groupe 'Renouveau defense': 'Le defi du double zero', RDNVol. 44 (February 1988), pp. 23, 29-33; Francois Heisbourg: 'The British and French nuclear forces: Current roles and new chal• lenges', Survival Vol. 31 No. 4 (July-August 1989), pp. 301-20. 118 Yves Boyer, Pierre Lellouche and John Roper (eds): Franco-British Defence Cooperation: a New Entente Cordiale? (London: Routledge for the RIIA and IFRI, 1989). 119 Raymond Barre: 'Foundations for European Security and Co-opera• tion', 1987 Alastair Buchan Memorial Lecture, Survival Vol. 29 No. 4 (July-August 1987), p. 298; Jean-Benoit Rame: 'Cooperation indus• trielle dans le domaine de I'armement', RDN Vol. 45 No. 8 (August• September 1989), pp. 25-34. 120 Boyer and Roper: 'Conclusion', in Boyer, Lellouche and Roper, Franco• British Defence Cooperation, p. 185. 121 'Pym pressed to go for neutron bomb', The Guardian (18 July 1980); Ian Mather: 'Britain may build "cruise" missile', The Observer (3 November 1985); Anon.: 'Nuclear weapons - standstill or standoff', The Economist (4 April 1987); for 'European' projects, see David Adamson: 'Europe must look to its own defence, says Howe', Daily Telegraph (l7 March 1987); John Grigg: 'The defenders Europe needs', The Times (5 June 1987); Robin Oakley: 'Heseltine calls for links with France on nuclear Notes 241

weapons', The Times (25 September 1987); David Fairhall: 'Partnership on missiles is grounded', The Guardian (18 January 1988); Michael Heseltine: 'A European role Britain should take', Daily Telegraph (9 March 1988); David Owen quoted in MichaeI Cassell: 'Review of British defence strategy urged', Financial Times (9 June 1988). 122 Howe: 'Europe's Role in NATO's Fifth Decade', p. 3. 123 Quoted in Regis Debray: Tous Azimuts (paris: Odile Jacob for the FEDN, 1989), p. 61. 124 Quoted by Boyer in 'The legacy of history finally overcome?', p. 23. 125 Heads of State and Government meeting as the North Atlantic Council, 'London Declaration on a transformed North Atlantic Alliance', 5....{) July 1990, NATO: Final Communiques, 1985-1990, p. 43. 126 'London Declaration ... 5-6 July 1990', p. 43. 127 'La logique voudra que I'armee fran~aise stationnee en Allemagne regagne son pays' declare M. Mitterrand, Le Monde (8-9 July 1990). 128 Fran~ois de Rose: 'Esclaves de I'Independance', Le Monde (6 June 1991); Frederic Bozo: La France et l'OTAN (paris: Masson for IFRI, 1991). 129 USIS, London: European Wireless File No. 185/91. 130 NATO Press Service, Press Release M-NPG-2(91)75 of 18 October 1991. 131 Jane's Defence Weekly (I September 1990), p. 340 and (13 July 1991), p. 45; HMG: 'Statement on the Defence Estimates 1992', Cm. 1981 (London: HMSO, July 1992), p. 28; Secretary of Defence Malcolm Rifkind's announcement in October 1993, cited in Foreign and Com• monwealth Office: Notes on Security and Arms Control No. 9 (October 1993), p. 6. 132 'Paris et Londres veulent coordonner leurs politiques de dissuasion nucleaire', Le Monde (22 October 1992); 'L'amiral Lanxade evoque la possession en commun d'armes nucleaires par I'Europe', Le Monde (23- 4 October 1994). 133 Joint declaration by John Major and Jacques Chirac, 26 July 1996, French Embassy in London: Speeches and Statements Sp. StlLON/93/ 93, 29 July 1993. 134 See the contributions of Nicholas Witney and Olivier Debouzy in Wit• ney, Debouzy and Robert A. Levine: Western European Nuclear Forces: a British, a French, and an American View (Santa Monica, CA.: RAND, 1995). 135 Jacques Isnard: 'Pluton, ou les vertus de l'ambiguite', Le Monde (25 July 1975); see also the allusions to a West German Government initiative on this score, Iean-Marie Dedeyan: 'La defense europ6enne: un symbole et un pari', Paradoxes Nos. 9-10 (August 1975), p. 39. 136 Helmut Schmidt: 'Arm in Arm mit den Franzosen', Die Zeit No. 23 (29 May 1987). 137 Heinz Brill: 'Frankreichs taktisch-nukleares Waffensystem PIuton', Wehrkunde Vol. 24 No. 9 (September 1975), p. 445. 138 See pp. 116-17 above. 139 'Allocution de M. Valery Giscard d'Estaing ... cl l'Institut de Hautes Etudes de Defense NationaIe', RDNVol. 32 No. 7 (July 1976), p. 17; see 242 Notes

also the commentary of Michel Schneider: 'Defense franco-allemande? le point du debat', Strategie et defense No. 4 (November 1979), pp. 24-7. 140 For example, Lucien Poirier: 'Quelques problemes actuels de la strategie nucleaire franryaise', RDN Vo!. 35 No. 11 (December 1979), pp. 51-2; Dominique David: 'Defense europ6enne: du phantasme au reel', Poli• tique internationale No. 11 (Spring 1981), 82-6. 141 For example, Pierre Lellouche: 'La France et la politique americaine a l'egard de la securite de l'Europe', PE Vo!. 44 No. 3 (December 1979), p. 496; interview with General Buis and Alexandre Sanguinetti in the Nouvel Observateur (20 August, 10 September 1979), and the reactions by Paul-Marie de la Gorce: 'Associer l'Allemagne a notre strategie nucleaire?', Le Figaro (31 August 1979) and Pierre Dabezies: 'En un debat douteux', Strategie et defense No. 4 (November 1979), pp. 28-31, and Jean Faverge: '''Euroshima'' ou le grand frisson strategique', Stra• tegie et defense No. 4 (November 1979), pp. 40-2; A. Graf Kageneck: 'Bliitentraum de frappe', Die Welt (5 September 1979). 142 Cf. Beatrice Heuser: 'Mitterrand's Gaullism', in Antonio Varsori (ed.): Europe 1945-1990s: the end of an era? (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 346-69. 143 Josef JofTe: 'Europe's American Pacifier', Survival Vo!. 26 No. 4 (July• August 1984), p. 179. 144 Konrad Seitz: 'La co-operation franco-allemande dans le domaine de la politique de securite', PE Vo!. 47 No. 4 (December 1982), pp. 979-87. See also the touchingly idealistic and stunningly unrealistic article by Jiirgen TodenhOfer, MP (CDU): 'Europaische Atommacht mit ameri• kanischem Kern', Europiiische Wehrkunde Vo!. 33 No. 9 (September 1984), pp. 517-22. 145 Cf. Jolyon Howorth: 'Consensus of silence: the French and defence policy under Fran~ois Mitterrand', International Affairs Vo!. 60 No. 4 (Autumn 1984), p. 58lf. 146 Jean Pierre Chevenement, radio speech, January 1983, as cited in Philippe Hayez: 'Qu'est-ce que la politique de defense? La place des concepts et des moyens' (unpublished typescript, 1990), p. 9.; quoted also in Fran~ois de Rose: 'La France et l'avenir de la dissuasion en Europe', Politique internationale No. 24 (Summer 1984), p. 113. 147 Jean Fran~ois-Poncet and Pierre Mehaignerie: 'Propositions pour l'ave• nir', Le Monde (18-19 March 1984); Gabriel Robin: 'Un dilemme incontoumable' Le Monde (7 April 1984); Jacques Huntzinger: 'L'avenir de la defense de l'Europe occidentale: une alliance cl deux piliers', PE Vo!. 50 No. 4 (Winter 1985/86), p. 965. 148 Union pour la Democratie Fran~aise: Defendre ['Europe (Paris: 1984), discussed by Jean Klein: 'Le debat en France sur la defense de l'Europe', Strategique No. 24 (4th term 1984), pp. 7-8; Document on European Security by the Socialisi Party, adopted on 2 July 1985, discussed in Patrice BufTotot: 'La gauche europeenne face aux questions de defense', Revue politique et parlementaire No. 926 (November-December 1986), p. 39f. 149 'Entretien entre Pierre Lellouche et Andre Soussan' in Perspectives No. 32 (June 1985), l'p. 32-3; General (Ret.) Georges Fricaud-Chagnaud: Notes 243

'L'Europe de la dissuasion et des solidarites actives', Strategique No. 29 (ist term 1986), pp. 13-16; Jacques Huntzinger: 'L'avenir de la defense de l'Europe occidentale: une alliance a deux piliers', PE Vol. 50 No. 4 (Winter 1985/86), pp. 966-71; Philippe Moreau Defarges: '" ... J'ai fait un reve ... ": Le president Francois Mitterrand, artisan de l'union eur• opeenne', PEVol. 50 No. 2 (Summer 1985), pp. 359-76; Alain Joxe: 'La nouvelle grande strategie americaine et l'Europe', Strategique No. 36 (4th Term 1987), p. 188. 150 Pascal Boniface and Francois Heisbourg: La puce, les hommes et la bombe (Paris, Hachette, 1986), pp. 272-3. 151 Jacques Chirac: 'La France et les enjeux de la securite europeenne' - Allocution du Premier Ministre, le 12 d6cembre 1987, devant les audi• teurs de l'IHEDN, RDN, 44th year, No. 2 (February 1988), p. 16. 152 Printed in EA No. 2 (January 1988), pp. D44-5. 153 Mitterrand, 'La strategie de la France', Nouvel Observateur, (18 Decem• ber 1987). 154 Cr. Maurice Schumann: 'Sur l'Europe entre Reagan et Gorbachev', Revue des deux mondes (July 1987), p. 7. 155 Cr. Daniel Colard: 'L'UEO et la securite europeenne', RDN Vol. 44 (March 1988), pp. 76-80. 156 For other Gaullist views, see for example Jacques Baumel: 'La France et l'option zero', Revue des deux mondes (May 1987), p. 331; id.: 'Pour une cooperation militaire franco-allemande', Revue des deux mondes (Sep• tember 1987), p. 586. For Barre's views, see 'De la securite en Europe', Alastair Buchan Memorial Lecture of 1987, RDN Vol. 43 (June 1987), pp. 24-30. 157 KarI Kaiser in Kaiser, Cesare MerIini, Thierry de Montbrial, William Wallace and Edmund Wellenstein: The European Community: Progress or Decline? (London: RIIA, 1983), p. 36; Hans-Gert Poettering, MEP: 'Deutschlands und Frankreichs Interesse an einer europaischen Sicher• heitspolitik', Aussenpolitik Vo!. 37 No. 2 (2nd Quarter 1986), pp. 179, 182; Heinrich Quaden: 'Frankreichs Konzeption und Deutschlands Si• cherheit: die Strategie des erweiterten Sanktuariums', Europaische Wehr• kunde Vol. 37 No. 9 (September 1988), p. 503; Alfred Dregger: 'Entwurf einer Sicherheitspolitik zur Selbstbehauptung Europas', Europaische Wehrkunde Vol. 36 No. 12 (December 1987), pp. 703-06; Helmut Schmidt: 'Deutsch-franzosische Zusammenarbeit in der Sicherheitspol• itik', EA 42nd year, No. 11 (10 June 1987), p. 310. 158 Lothar Ruehl: 'Franco-German Military Cooperation: an insurance policy for the Alliance', Strategic Review Vol. XVI No. 3 (Summer 1988), pp. 53-4. 159 Jacques Isnard: 'Une auto-limitation des armes prestrategiques fran• caises', Le Monde (13 September 1991). 160 French Embassy, London: France Statements SFC/96157, 23 February 1996, p. 34. 161 French Embassy London: France Statements SFCl95122, Speech of Foreign Minister Alain Juppe on 30 January 1995 p. 21; France State• ments SFC/95/206, Speech by Prime Minister Juppe at IHEDN, 6 September 1995, p. 10; see also Interview with Minister for European 2~ !Votes

Affairs Michel Barnier: 'L'idee de la dissuasion peut etre mise au service de toute I'Europe', Le Monde, 11 August 1995. 162 'Concept commun franco-allemand en matiere de securite et de defense', signed by Chirac and Kohl in Nuremberg, 9 December 1996, printed in Le Monde (30 January 1997). 163 Pierre Messmer: 'Notre politique militaire', RDN Vol. 19 (May 1963), p.761. 164 Lothar Ruehl: 'Diskussion und Kontroverse in Bonn urn die Klauseln des Atomsperrvertrags', Die Welt (23 April 1969). 165 Jacques Amalric: 'La France suggere a ses partenaires d'etudier une "doctrine" nucleaire pour l'Europe', Le Monde (12/13 January 1992). 166 And of equal importance, the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons technology, and of missiles. There is not the space here to discuss all these issues. 167 'Intervention de M. Fran90is Mitterrand, President de la Republique, sur le theme de la dissuasion', Paris, the Elysee, 5 May 1994, p. 16. Index

Acheson, Dean 17, 30f, 38, 44--7, Ballistic Missile Defences (BMD) see 53, 60, 105, 136 Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABM) Adenauer, Konrad 17, 124--9, 141, Bamberg 142 f 150-2 Barre, Raymond 107, 117, 168 ADM see Atomic Demolition battle of Germany see World War III Munitions scenarios Afghanistan, Soviet invasion of Bayreuth 142 (December 1979) 8, 19 Beaufre, General Andre 100, 106 Africa 86, 106, 149 Belgium 32, II5, 124 AiIleret, General Charles 97 f, see also Benelux 108-10 Benelux countries 9, 152, 156 AirLand Battle 144 Berlin Air-Launched Cruise Missile First Berlin Crisis (1948-9) 199 (ALCM) 161,163f note 7 Air-Sol Moyenne Portee (ASMP) Second Berlin Crisis (1958-62) 3, missile 104 f, II 2 II,50 Alanbrooke, Field Marshal biological and chemical Lord 68 weapons 124, 244 note 166 Algerian War 2 Blackett, P.M.S. 38, 65, 78 all-out war see major war Blank, Theodor 126, 130 Alps 29 Blue Steel 70 Amery, Julian 157 f Blue Streak 70 Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABM), ABM Bluth, Christoph 146 Treaty 19, 73, 76, 162 Bomber Gap 5 Armor (French exercise) 99 Boniface, Pascal 167 arms control 73, II9 Bourges-Maunoury, Maurice 94, Athens Guidelines (May 1962) 13, 97, 149 44,47, 134, 168 Brandt, Willy 141 see also North Atlantic Council Braunschweig 142 Atlantic Nuclear Force Bremen 227 note 78 see Multilateral Force (MLF) Brodie, Bernard 95 Atomic Demolition Munitions broken-backed warfare see World (ADM) 5, 133-6, 143-5 War III scenarios Attlee, Clement 64 f, 84 Brussels Treaty 148 Augsburg 227 note 78 Brussels Treaty Organisation 88 Australia 63 see also Western European Union Austria 124 (WEU) Auswiirtiges Amt (AA, Foreign Brzezinski, Zbigniew 21 Office of FRG) 143, 145, 152, Bulganin, Nikolai A. 5 154 Bulgaria 32 automaticity of French nuclear Bundesministerium der Verteidigung guarantee 101, 155 (BMV g, Ministry of Defence of FRG) 131,136-9,141,143, Bahr, Egon 23 145, 152, 154

245 246 Index

Bundeswehr 125 conventional forces, conventional Bundy, McGeorge 20,51, 195 note defence 31,44,79, 129, 132 159 COS see Great Britain, Chiefs of Bush, George 120 Staff Buzzard, Rear Admiral Sir counter-strike capability 27 Anthony 38, 45, 78 see also nuclear equipoise Couve de Murville, Maurice 101, Canada 29, 63 f, 93, 137 150, 152--4, 156 Carrington, Lord 160 Coventry 26 Carstens, Karl 154, 156 Crete 29 CARTE BLANCHE 127 Critchley, Julian 78 Carter, Jimmy 20,58 Crossman, Richard 79, 150 Castex, Admiral Raoul 95-7 Cruise Missiles 56f, 70, 82, 161 Catroux, General Georges 93 see also Euromissiles; INF; CDU (Christian Democratic Union), LRTNF CSU (Christian Social CSCE (Conference on Security and Union) 154, 167 Cooperation in Europe) 8,20 Central Treaty Organisation Cuban Missile Crisis (autumn (CENTO) 85 1962) 3,6,19,41,133 Centre for Advanced Planning and Cyprus 64, 85 Evaluation of French Ministry Czechoslovakia 54, 56 of Defence (CPE) 99 f, 106, WTO invasion of (1968) 3, 7 f, 109, 115, 146 14, 62, 108, 141 Chaban-De1mas, Jacques 150f Charette, Herve De 119 Danube 32 chemical and biological DC 6/1 (December 1949) 26-9, 49, weapons 124, 244 note 166 53 Chevaline 76, 160 DC 13 (April 1950) 22 Chevenement, Jean Pierre 109 De Zulueta, Philip 75 China 37,64,85 Debre, Michel 100, 107, 109f, 160 Chirac, Jacques 103-5, 109, Defence Planning Committee of 112-16, 118-20, 156, 165, 168 NATO (DPC) 52, 54 Churchill, Winston 64 Delors, Jacques 169 CIMEX see WINTEX Denmark 33 civic defence 96 detente 4, 8, 19, 23, 122 Clausewitz, Carl von I11 Dien Bien Phu, fall of (1954) 16, 64, Cold War, end of 119f, 123, 125, 79,93 139, 141, 165, 170 Differentiated Responses MC 14/2 Commonwealth 85, 87 (May 1957) 10, 13, 38--41,48, conscription 2, 71 52 f, 128 Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche direct defence see symmetrical Nucleaire (CERN) 149 response Conservative Party of the United Discriminate Deterrence: Ikle• Kingdom 89, 159 f. Wohlstetter Report on consultation of non-nuclear members (1988) 21 of NATO 54,138,141 disengagement 125 see also Nuclear Planning Group Dortmund 118 Conventional Forces in Europe Douglas-Home, Charles 54 (CFE), Treatyon 1,57, 83 Douhet, Giulio 97 Index 247

DPC (NATO's Defence Planning European Union (EU) 130, 169, Committee) 171 Dregger, Alfred 167 Dresden 26 FALLEX (NATO exercises) 12, 14, DROPSHOT, US defence plan 51 f, 102, 139, 143 (1949) 29, 67 Faure, Maurice 150 Dual Track decision (December FDP (Free Democratic Party of 1979) 82 FRG) 138 see also Cruise; Euromissiles; Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) Pershing II; SS 20 ix, 1-62, 91, 124--57, 166-9 dual-key release arrangements 74, NATO membership 130 137 nuclear abstention 124, 126, 129 f Duffield, John 40 political parties, see CDU, CSU, Dulles, John Foster 41,43, 64, 72, FDP, SPD 93, 127 f. rearmament decided 32 speech at New York Council on relations with France 103, 105, Foreign Relations 37 lllf, 115-17, 120 f, 124, 129-31, 134, 141, 147 Eden, (Sir) Anthony (later Lord relations with Great Britain 124, Avon) 64, 125 128, 130, 141, 147 Egypt 16 see also USA, relations with FRG Eisenhower, Dwight D. 17,34, 37f, fire-break 146 40-3,64,84,93, 151 first use of nuclear weapons 21, 54, Elysee Treaty 119,131, 153f, 167 56, 145, 193 note 136 Emden 227 note 78 see also PPGs and GPGs Emergency Defence Plan of flexibility, call for 31, 40, SACEUR (EDP) 51, 134, Flexible Escalation MC 14/3 142 (1967) 7, 47f, 52-7, 80,105, equal security for non-nuclear 108, Ill, 165 weapons states in NATO 146, see also PPGs and GPGs 162 Flexible Response 38--41,43-57, equalising power of the atom 95 109 Erhard, Ludwig 131, 140, 154-6 see also graduated deterrence; MC escalation 53 1412 'Differentiated EURATOM 149 Responses'; MC 14/3 'Flexible Eureka European space Escalation'; US strategic programme 109 preferences Euromissiles 20, 82 Follow-on-Forces Attack see also Cruise and Pershing II; (FOFA) 144 Dual Track decision Follow-on system to Lance European Defence Community (FOTL) 163 Project 1950-54 (EDC) 32, follow-on use of nuclear 93f, 125-7, 148, 159 weapons 5, 20, 113, 197 European Economic Community note 188 (EEC) 89, 149, 158 Force d'Action Rapide (FAR) 117 f European nuclear force 130-1, 140, Force Oceanique Strategique 148-57 (FOST) 104 European nuclear protector 83-5, forward defence 28, 142, 144 88-91, 119 Fouchet Plan 149, 157 248 Index

Four plus two Treaty on German General Strike Plan (GSP) of reunification 141 SACEUR 59 Fourquet, General Miche1 100, Geneste, Colonel Marc 122 108-11, 113f, 121 Geneva Conference (1955) 10 Fourquet-Goodpaster German Democratic Republic agreements 115 (GDR) 54, 137 f, 146 France ix, 1-47, 52, 63, 73, 88, Gesamtkonzept (Comprehensive 92-123, 125 f, 138, 141 f, 148-69 concept), NATO strategy and Defence White Papers (1972, German quest for 146 1994) 96, 106, ll5-17, ll9 Giersberg Protocol 143, 152 Fifth Republic 96-123 Giraud, Andre 21 Fourth Republic 93-6 Giscard d'Estaing, Valery 101, 103, pure and hard deterrence 105, 110, 112, 116f, 160, 162, school 109, 113, ll7, 121f 167 relations with Great Britain 63, Global Strategy Paper of 1950 (of 73,88,97, 157-66,210 notes British Chiefs of Staft) 30 39 and 42 see also MC 14/1 and Lisbon Force relations with NATO 101, 103, Goals 106, 1l0, 117, 121, 134, 164f. Global Strategy Paper of 1952 (of sanctuarisation of French British Chiefs of Staft) 9, 30, territory 106 f, 117, 120 33 f, 37, 46, 68, 72 three circles of defence 115 see also MC 48 tous azimuts 62, 108 f. Gomulka, Wladyslaw 125 see also Federal Republic of Gorbachev, Mikhail S. 4, 8, 20, 162 Germany, relations with Gordon Walker, Patrick 84 France; RPR; Socialist Party; GPGs (General Political Guidelines United States, relations with for the Employment of Nuclear France; UDF Weapons in the Defence of Franco-German Defence NATO of 1986) 57,60,90, Council 119 145, 166 Franco-Halo-German Treaty on joint GPGs (of 1991) 58 f, 166 production of Nuclear Weapons graduated deterrence (British (FIG Treaty) 94, 148-51 expression for flexible response FRG see Federal Republic of in the sense of MC 14/3) 39, Germany 144 Fulbright, Senator James 18 Great Britain ix, 1-92,93,96, 102, Fulda (city) 143, 227 note 78 105f, 119f, 125f, 138, 142f, 151, Fulda (River) 142 156 air bases 64 Gaillard, Fe1ix 95, 150 Chiefs of Staff (COS) 4, 9, 12, Gaitskell, Hugh 125 33 f, 46, 50 f, 65, 68, 73, 79 Gallois, General Pierre-Marie 96 f, HC (Joint Intelligence 99-101, 105, 109 f, 113, 139, 159 Committee) 79 Gaulle, Charles de 17, 94-6, 98- Joint Planning Staff 66, 68 101,103-6, 108f, 114, ll6, 120f, Project E 69 f 130f, 151-7, 160, 167, 169f V-bombers (Valiants. Victors, GDR see German Democratic Vulcans) 67, 70 f Republic White Papers (Statement on the General Nuclear Response 53 Defence Estimates) 6, 8, 72 Index 249

see also Conservative Party; see also Vietnam; Dien Bien Phu Federal Republic of INF see Intermediate-Range Nuclear Germany, relations with Forces Great Britain; France, Inner-German Border (1GB) 55, relations with Great Britain; 101, 119, 125, 134, 137, 144 Labour Party; USA, relations Institut des Hautes Etudes de with Great Britain Defense Nationale Greece 30,32, 125 (IHEDN) 112, 114, 168 Greenland-lceland-UK Gap 79 interdependence (British concept Grenada, US invasion of 23 of) 83, 89 Grewe, Wilhelm 154 Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles Gromyko, Andrej 125 (IRBM) 104, 120 Grosser, Alfred 123 see also Intermediate-Range Ground-Launched Cruise Missile Nuclear Forces (GLCM) 161, 163 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Gruenther, General Alfred 9, 40 f, (lNF) 56,61,82, 125, 161 guerrilla operations 28, 98 INF Treaty (1987) 20f, 119, 146, gunboat diplomacy 65 f 163 see also Cruise and Pershing Il Habib-Deloncle, Philippe 158 IRBM see Intermediate-Range Hades 105, 114f, 118-20, 167, 169, Ballistic Missiles, INF 218 note 179 Italy 29, 32f, 41, 43, 124, 140f, Hamburg 142 149 f, 152, 156, 158, 170 Hanau 227 note 78 Hanover 227 note 78 Japan 15,47, 140f Hassel, Kai-Uwe von 131, 153f JCS see USA, Joint Chiefs of Staff Hawk 132 nc see USA, Joint Intelligence Hawker-Siddeley 158 Committee Healey, Denis 6f, 20, 54, 81, 84, 89, Jobert, Michel 160 125,158f Johnson, Lyndon B. 20, 43 f, 46 Healey-Schroder Report 55,62,145 Juin, Marshal 148 f see also PPGs Jupiter 146 Heath, Edward 89, 159-61 see Medium-Range Ballistic Heath, Sir Maurice 81 Missiles Heisbourg, Francois 167 Juppe, Alain 169 Herter, Christian 17,24 Heusinger, General Adolf 127, 130 Kassel 142 f, 227 note 78 Hiroshima 26, 47, 65, 98 KC-135 95 Hitler, Adolf 4, 8, 124 Kelleher, Catherine M. xi Honest John 103 Kennan, George 20, 125 Howe, Sir Geoffrey 164 Kennedy, John F. 41, 43f, 46f, Hungary, Soviet invasion of 105,120, 128f, 136, 143, 151 f (1956) 3,22 Khrushchev, Nikita S. 6, 12 Huntington, Samuel 21 Kiesinger, Kurt Georg 19, 140f Kissinger, Henry 20 f, 23 f Ijssel 29, 142 Kohl, Helmut 118, 120, 145, 167 Ikle-Wohlstetter Report (1988) 21 Konstanz 228 note 78 India 85 f, 140 Korean War (1950-3) 2f, 4,30,32, Indochina 37 36,37,64 250 Index

L'Estoile, Hughes de 100 Massive Retaliation or 'New Look' Labour Party (Great Britain) 84f, MC 48 (November 1954) 5, 9, 87, 158 13, 33-8f, 41, 45, 47, 53, 69, 71 f, Lance 82, 105, 159 f 79, 93f, 96f, 99, 108, 128 see also Short-Range Nuclear Massive Retaliation see MC 48 Forces Matra Engins 158 Landsberg 227 note 78 Maurin, General Francois 105, Landshut 227 note 78 III f Leber, Georg 14, 145 MBFR see Mutual Balanced Force Lech 142 Reductions Lellouche,Pierre 167, 167f MC (NATO Military Committee) see LeMay, General Curtis 35 individual MC documents Libya, US bombardment of MC 100/1 (NATO document, not (1986) 23 adopted) 47 Liddell Hart, Captain (Later Sir) MC 14 (of March 1950) 28, 36,49, Basil Henry 17 53, 126 Limited Test Ban Treaty MC 1411 (December 1952): (LTBT) 19, 120 'Symmetrical Response' 5,9, limitedwar lOf, 13f,48, 129, 144 22, 30-3, 36, 53, 59, 126, 129 LION NOIR 127,137 MC 14/2 (May 1957) 'Differentiated Lisbon Force Goals, see North Responses' 10, 13, 38-41,48, Atlantic Council, Lisbon 52f, 128 Meeting (1952) MC 14/3 (1967) 'Flexible local war see limited war Escalation' 7, 47f, 52-7, 80, London Declaration see North 105, 108, 111, 165 Atlantic Council, London see also PPGs and GPGs Meeting (1990) MC 3/4 (Final) Strategic long haul 33, 72 Concept 33 Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces MC 400 (of 1991) 57f, 60,165 (LRTNF) 56 MC 48 (November 1954) 'Massive see also Euromissiles, INF Retaliation' or 'New Look' 5, LRTNF see Long-Range Theatre 9, 13, 33-8 f, 41, 45, 47, 53, 69, Nuclear Forces 71 f, 79, 93f, 96f, 99,108,128 L TBT see Limited Test Ban Treaty MC 48/2 see MC 14/2 Liibeck 142 MC 48/3 (December 1969) 55 Luxembourg 32 see also MC 14/3 see also Benelux countries MC 70 (1957) 128, 130 see also MC 14/2 Mace B 146 McMahon Act (1946) 63,93 Macmillan, Harold 10, 40, 43, 83 f, McNamara, Robert 13,43-7,53, 88f, 97, 102, 154, 157 60, 73, 84, 105, 138 f, 151, 153 Maginot Line 133 f Athens Speech 45 note 120, 51 major war 11, 13 f, 48, 129 Medium Range Ballistic Missiles Manhattan Project 63, 93 (MRBM) 41 f, 43, 52, 56, 75, Mansfield, Senator Michael 18, 146, 152 125 see also IRBM. LRTNF, INF Marburg an der Lahn 227 note 78 Medium-Range Ballistic Margerie, Roland de 153 Missiles 43, 70, 75, 104, 109, Marshall Aid 16 120,146,163 Index 251

Mendershausen, Horst 130 Multilateral Nuclear Force Mendes-France, Pierre 37,94, 125 (MLF) 43,52,126, 131, 137f, Mery, General Guy 106, 112, 116 f, 154, 158, 161, 163 122, 167 see also European nuclear force Mery-Haig agreement (1977) 122 Munich 118 Messmer, Pierre 99, 108, 151 f, 154, Munich myth 21 169 Murville, Couve de 20 Middle East, role in military Mutual Balanced Force Reductions planning 30, 64, 85 f, 106, 206 (MBFR) 146 note 150 mutual deterrence 30, 34 Military Committee of the North see also nuclear equipoise Atlantic Council see MC mutually assured destruction 46 documents see also nuclear equipoise Minden 227 note 78 Mirage 2000 105 NAC see North Atlantic Council Mirage IV 95, 102, 104 Nagasaki 26, 47, 65 MIRV 76 Napoleon 20 Missile Gap 6 Nassau, Bahamas: Agreement Mitbestimmung (co-decision- between UK and USA on making) 136, 138 Polaris sales (December Mitsprache (consultation) 138, 141 1962) 43, 84, 157 see also consultation of ... Nasser, Gamal Abdel 16 Mitterrand, Fran~ois 103-5, 109 f, NAT see North Atlantic Treaty 113 f, 118-21, 160, 165 f, 168 f, National Security Council (NSC) of 172,218 note 179 the US see NSC documents MLF see Multilateral Nuclear NATO nuclear force see Multilateral Force Force Moch, Jules 125 NATO see North Atlantic Treaty modus vivendi Agreement between Organisation UK and USA 63 negative security assurances 88 see also UK-US special Netherlands 32, 124 relationship see also Benelux countries Moineau HardilKecker Spatz Neutron Bomb (Enhanced Radiation exercise (1991) 118 VVeapon) 20, 122 Mollet, Guy 94, 150 New Look see Massive Retaliation Monnet, Jean 130 Nike-Hercules 103. 132, 145,213 Montebello Decision of (1983) see note 94 North Atlantic Council Nitze, Paul 32, 38, 44 Montgomery of Alamein. Field Nixon, Richard 20 Marshal Lord 29, 34 NNVVS see Non-Nuclear VVeapons Moscow criterion see targeting, city States targeting no-first-use 20, 82 Mottershead Report 48-50, 54, 58, non-automaticity of French nuclear 80,82,85,99, 144f, 195 note use 101, 155 159 Non-Nuclear VVeapons States Mottershead, Frank 48 (NNVVS) 85 MRBM see Medium Range Ballistic see also consultation of non• Missiles nuclear members of NATO MRV 76 Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 87 252 Index

Norstad, SACEUR General NSC 68 (of 1950 - Massive Lauris 41,47,49-51,98, 110, Conventional Build-up) 30,32, 142f 38,44 North Atlantic Council (NAC) 12 f, see also Global Strategy Paper 32, 42, 48, 51 (1950), MC 14/1 and Lisbon Defence Committee 27 f Force Goals Athens Meeting (1962) 13,44, NSTL see USA, Strategic Air 47, 51, 134, 139 Command Lisbon Meeting (1952) 30, 32 f, nuclear abstention 124, 126, 130 37 see also Federal Republic of London Meeting (1990) 58, 165 Germany Montebello Meeting (1983) 57, nuclear equipoise 17 f, 35, 73 145, 154 see also mutually assured Ottawa Meeting (1974) 84, 106 destruction see also Athens Guidelines; MC nuclear forces see nuclear weapons (Military Committee) Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) of documents NATO 52,54,90, 145, 148, North Atlantic Treaty 1 f, 27 f, 163, 169f 101-3, 155 development of 52, 136 f, 139, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 195 f note 167 (NATO) 1-62, 170 nuclear sharing 130 Integrated Military Structure 47, see also European nuclear force; 102, 168 Multilateral Force Political Directive of 1956 39 nuclear sufficiency 72 f, 77, 91, suggestions for reform 155 96 Supreme Headquarters of the nuclear 'teasing' 130, 140, 157 Allied Powers in Europe nuclear threshold 46 (SHAPE) 59 nuclear war fighting 59, 113 Standing Group 27, 97, 134, Nuclear Weapons States 138f (NWS) 85f see also France, relations with nuclear weapons NATO; MC (Military battlefield nuclear weapons 32, Committee) documents; 36, 42, 50, 78, 82, 112, 114, USSR, Soviet threat 127, 132, 146 Northern Army Group first test of tactical nuclear (NORTHAG) 142 weapons in Nevada Norway 33, 125, 138, 142 Desert 36 see also Trondheim and Stavanger hydrogen bomb 32 no-target explosion of nuclear as 'non-use' weapons 97 weapon 50, 54f, 194 note 153 tactical, non-strategic, sub- Nott, John 82 strategic, pre- strategic 34, NPG see NATO Nuclear Planning 36 f, 42, 56, 78 f, 82, 11 0--15, Group 121, 128f, 139, 165 NPT see Non-Proliferation Treaty Nuremberg 227 note 78 NSC 16212 (of October 1953): 'New Nuremberg Agreement of Look', 'Massive Retaliation' 5, Franco-German Defence 34f. Council (Der..ember see also Global Strategy Paper 1996) 120 (1952) and MC 48 NWS see Nuclear Weapons States Index 253

Osterheld, Horst 156 Radford Strategy, Radford Doctrine, Ostpolitik 8 Radford Crisis 127, 129 Owen, David 23 Radford, Admiral Arthur 127 Rafale 105 Palewsky, Gaston 152 RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Passau 142 CA 38, 44f, 99 pause 47, 49, 143 Rapacki, Adam 125 see also World War III scenarios Reagan, Ronald 4, 20, 23 Pearl Harbor 15 f Regensburg 142 Pershing I 132 Reykjavik 20, 119 see also Medium-Range Ballistic Rhine 29, 142 Missiles Ridgway, SACEUR General Pershing IJ 56, 146, 161-3 Matthew 34, 38 see also Intennediate Range Rocard, Yves 165 Nuclear Forces Rogers, SACEUR General Peyrefitte, Alain 153 Bernard 162 phase-concept see World War III roll-back policy (USA) 22, 28 scenarios Rome see Treaties of Rome Pinay, Antoine 93 Rose, Fran~oise de 106, 152 Pineau, Christian 150 Rotterdam 118 Plateau d'Albion 104, 109, 120, 163 RPR (Rassemblement pour la see also Medium-Range Ballistic Repub/ique) 118 Missiles Ruehl, Lothar 117, 168 Piu ton 103,105, 112f, 115f, 118f, Rusk, Dean 13 159, 167,218 note 179 Russian Federation 120, 170 Poirier, General Lucien 97, 100f, see also USSR 109f,133-5 Poland 8 f, 54, 56 SAC see USA, Strategic Air Polaris 71, 73, 76, 84, 86, 95, Command 159f SACEUR (Supreme Allied Pompidou, Georges 19, 103, 108, Commander Europe) of 116, 152, 156, 160f NATO 9,42 Portugal 32, 125, 156 SALT see Strategic Arms Limitation Poseidon 76 Treaty PPGs (provisional Political Salzburg 143 Guidelines for the Initial Salzgitter 142 Defensive Tactical Use of Sandys, Duncan 72 Nuclear Weapons by Sandys' White Papers (Great NATO) 54--7, 59f, 82, 90, 108, Britain) 74, 79, 88, 94, 97, III ISO PPS see USA, Policy Planning Staff satellite states of the USSR I, 4, of the State Department II pre-delegation 42, 133-5 Sauvagnargues, Jean 116 pre-emptive strikes 35 Scandinavia 28, 156 pure and hard see France see also Denmark, Norway Schlesinger, James R. 58 Quebec Agreement 63 Schmidt, Helmut 56, 137 f, 145, Quinlan, (Sir) Michael 54, 77, 82, 161 f, 166f 90 Schnell, General Karl 145 254 Index

Schroder, Gerhard (do not confuse sovereignty 99-101,103,108, 139, with SPD politician of the same 169 name in the 1990s) 6, 54, 131, Soviet Union see USSR 151, 156 Spaatz-Tedder Agreement see also Healey-Schroder Report (1946) 63 Schubert, KJaus von x see also UK-US special nuclear Scordino, Vice-Admiral Yvan 121 relationship. SDI see Strategic Defense Initiative Spain 29 Sea-Launched Cruise Missile SPD (Social Democratic Party of (SLCM) 161, 163 f Germany) 140,222 note 6 SEATO see South East Asian Treaty Speidel, General Hans 142 Organisation Sputnik 5, 16 f, 24 f, 38, 129 f, 170 second centre of decision 76, 84 SS 20 (Soviet missiles) 21, 56 second strike capability 46 SS 4, SS 5 (Soviet missiles) 41,56 see also mutually assured SSBN (nuclear-weapons carrying destruction submarines) 160 Seelow Heights 133 Stalin, Josef I, 4--6, 10 Sergeant 132 Starfighter 132 SHAPE see NATO, Supreme START I (1991) 57 Headquarters Stavanger 29 Shastri, Lal Bahadur 86 Stikker, Dirk 152 shield forces in Europe 32, 39 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties Short-range Nuclear Forces (SALT I and SALT 11) 19 (SNF) 82f, 119f, 125, 146, Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) of 162, 165f, 168, 170 the USA 20, 23 see also Hades: Honest John; strategic nuclear targeting Lance; Piu ton see targeting shot across the bow see targeting, see also World War 11 bombing war-termination use strategy, DC 6/1 and MC 14 Siegmaringen 227 note 78 Strauss, Franz Josef 126, 128-31, Singapore 86 138-41, 145f, 149-54, 157, 169 singularisation 162 sub-strategic nuclear weapons see see also equal security nuclear weapons SlOP see USA, Strategic Air Suez Crisis 5, 16f, 22, 79, 84, 94 Command ' sufficie!1cy see nuclear sufficiency Skybolt 70 f, 157 Super Etendard 105 f SLCM see Sea-Launched Cruise surprise attack by USSR see World Missile War III scenarios Slessor, Air Chief Marshal Sir Symmetrical Response MC 14/1 John 34, 68, 125 (December 1952) 5,9,22, small wars see limited wars 30-3,36,43-7, 52f, 59,61,91, Smith, Gerard 20 126f,129 SNF see Short-range Nuclear Forces see also Acheson; MC 14/1 US Soames, Sir Christopher 158 strategic preferences Socialist Party (pS, France) 167 Sources, discussion of x-xii TAC see USA, Tactical Air South America 107 f Command South East Asian Treaty Tactical Air-to-Surface Missile Organisation (SEATO) 64 (TASM) 163f, 166 Index 255 tactical nuclear weapons see nuclear Trenchard, Sir Hugh (later weapons Lord) 67 targeting Trident 73, 77 f, 90, 164 BRAVO (blunting) missions 68 Trondheim 29 city-targeting 26, 36 f, 67, 76, Truman, Harry S. 22, 31, 34, 64 102, 107 Turkey 29 f, 32 f, 43, 125, 142, 145 city withhold strategy 45 Twining, General Nathan F. 34f. counter-force targeting 35 f, 40, 44,46,67, 75, 81 U-2 spy planes 27 counter-value 75 UDF (Union pour la Democratie infrastructure targeting 26 f, 67 Franfaise) 117, 167 f Moscow criterion (GB) 76 f United Nations, Charter 87 f, 141 ROMEO (retardation) USA 93,125 missions 68, 78 air power doctrine 26 selective targeting 45, 53, 195 bases in Europe 64, 98, 138 note 159 decoupling from Europe 15-22, 'sources of power' 74f, 76, 78 23 strategic targeting 37,91 European fear of US 'vitals' 107 abandonment 15-22,24, 66 war-termination use 47-57,91, interventionism 22 f 113,217 note 154 isolationism 23 see also non-target explosion Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) 4, 34, T ASM see Tactical Air-to-Surface 128 Missile Joint Intelligence Committee Tauberbischofsheim 227 note 78 (JIC) 31 Taviani, Paolo Emilio 151 nuclear guarantee 2, 17 f, 24 f, 30, Taylor, General Maxwell 10, 38, 121,130,134,138,170,214 44, 128 note 104 test 110, 113, 115, 217 note 161 Policy Planning Staff of the State Thatcher, (Lady) Margaret 20, Department (PPS) 31 78 relations with Federal Republic of theatre nuclear weapons, see Germany 124, 126, 129, Intermediate Range Nuclear 134-6, 142, 144, 147 Forces; Medium-Range Ballistic relations with France 95 f, 102, Missiles; Short-Range Nuclear 104, 108, 117 Forces relations with Great Britain Thor 70,75 ('special relationship') 63-5, see also Medium-Range Ballistic 69-71, 75-7, 83-5, 87, 91 f, Missiles 160 Thorneycroft, Peter 157 f soldiers as hostages 18 Tizard Committee 65 strategic preferences 43-7, 91, Tizard, Sir Henry 65 147f Tokyo 26 Strategic Air Command Tornado 71 (SAC) 27, 36,42, 51, 78; tous azimuts see France National Strategic Target List Trachtenberg, Marc 42 (NSTL) of SAC 74; Single Treaties of Rome 149, 151 Integrated Operations Plan see also EURATOM; European (SlOP) of SAC 36, 40, 74, Economic Community 78 256 Index

Tactical Air Command (TAC) West Germany see Federal Republic 78 of Germany USSR If, 41, 94, 96, 104-7, 141, Western European Union (WEU), 162 succeeded the Western Union Soviet territory, targeting of 61, (WU) in 1955, based on the 144; see also city targeting Brussels Treaty (1948) 88, 101, Soviet threat 3-15,22, 32f, 39, 117,119,124,148, 160, 163, 166, 132 168, 171 US-UK special nuclear relationship Hague Platform (1987) 163 f 63-92 passim WEU see Western European Union White, General Thomas Valentin-Ferber agreements liS, (USAF) 128 220 f note 230 Wilson, Harold 81, 84, 86f, 125 Vauban, Sebastien Le Prestre WINTEX (NATO Winter de 134 Exercises) 61,90,139 victory as war aim 28, 36, 40 Wolfsburg 142 Vietnam War 2, 18, 23 World War I 15f see also Indochina) World War II 15, 133 Vista, US study of tactical nuclear bombing strategy 26-8,41,67 use 36 World War In, scenarios 9,41, 143 vital interests 106 f, 110, 119, 142 battle of Germany 1I5 f, 168 broken-backed warfare 9 f, 12, 79 Wampler, Robert 60 phase concept 9, 11, 13 f, 28 f, 53 war aims of NATO 28,36,40,48-57 surprise attack, perceived threat see also victory; war-termination of 3,7 use Worner, Manfred 145 Warsaw Treaty Organisation WTO see Warsaw Treaty (WTO), Warsaw Pact 3, 13 f, Organisation 4lf, 83, 107, 113, 115, 142 f, 145, Wiirzburg 143 170 war-termination use of nuclear Yaltamyth 19f,22 weapons see targeting Yom Kippur War (1973) 20 WE 177 free-fall bombs (UK) 164, Yost, David 107 166 Younger, George 165 Weimar 137 Weser 142f zero option 20