Index

Abu Nidal Organization (ANO), bombings and, 51 88–90, 93–95, 100 Bush administration and, 3 Ackerman, Gary, 149n19 countering hegemony and, Action Plan of the European Council, 247–250 191 failed governance and, 257 Action Plan for Freedom, Justice, and human rights and, 258 Security, 219–220 jihadist ideology and, 5–6, 240, Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism 243–244 (United Nations), 53 leader deaths of, 240 Afghanistan, 1, 21n23, 125, 239 Madrid bombings and, 187 Al-Qaida and, 129 military pressures on, 240–241 Bush administration and, 3 money laundering and, 160, failed governance and, 257 170–171 ideology and, 6 political grievances of, 244–246 Soviet invasion of, 248 reducing allies of, 264 UN sanctions and, 9 sanctions and, 41–42, 45–46, U.S. military and, 241 57–58, 61–62, 67, 241 Afghan war, 5, 84 social dynamics of, 250–252 African National Congress (ANC), strengthening of, 1 109 structure of, 2, 239–240 African Union (AU), 53 trained reserve of, 241–242 Ahern, Stephanie, 17–18, 187–236 understanding, 239–243 Air-Sol Moyenne Porté (ASMPs), weapons of mass destruction 136t5.4nf (WMD) and, 15–16, 124–131, Albania, 26 146, 244 Albright, Madeleine, 110 winning strategies for, 261–266 Allison, Graham, 130 Al-Qaida/Taliban Sanctions Al-Meghrahi, Abdel Basset, 111 Committee (United Nations), 43, Al-Qaida, vii–ix, 237 45–46, 57–58, 61–62 Afghanistan and, 129 Al-Qaida/Taliban Sanctions anti-Americanism and, 245 Monitoring Team (United Nations), asset seizures and, 210–211 3, 13, 36 bargaining with, 264–265 Amman, 1 316 Index

Analysis work files (AWFs) (European Beslan massacre, 13, 58, 243, Union), 196 259–260 Analytic Support and Sanctions Binalshibh, Ramzi, 7 Monitoring Team (United Nations), bin Laden, Osama, vii, 57, 220, 239, 42–43, 57, 241 241 Annan, Kofi, 10–11, 18, 36, 111, anti-Americanism and, 245 238 bargaining with, 264–265 on civil liberties, 37, 258–261 countering hegemony and, 247–250 priority alignment and, 264 fatwa and, 126t5.1, 248 suicide bombers and, 247 political grievances of, 244–246 on United Nations Counter- Saudi rebuff and, 248 Terrorism Committee (CTC), training camps of, 242 23–24 wealth of, 253 Anti–money laundering (AML). See weapons of mass destruction Money laundering (WMD) and, 125–128 Aouzou Strip, 87 Black September, 96 Archick, Kristin, 196 Blair, Tony, 74, 253 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Blix, Hans, 123 (APEC), 40 Blunkett, David, 217, 219 Asia/Pacific Group on Money Bolton, John, 142, 154n54 Laundering (APG), 182n38 Bombings, 1, 124 Aslan, Reza, 244 Al-Qaida and, 51 Asset seizures, 58, 78n20, 233n120, Amman and, 1 240–241 Bali and, 160 Al-Qaida and, 210–211 financial costs of, 160, 241, 251 Common Position and, 208–210 Germany and, 89–90, 93, 124 European Union and, 208–212 Hague Programme and, 219–220 Financial Action Task Force (FATF) international law and, 53–54 and, 158–161 and, 89–90 Taliban and, 210 Lockerbie families and, 110–111 and, 211 London and, 1, 160, 240, 243 Association of Southeast Asian Madrid and, 160, 187, 199, Nations (ASEAN), 40 202–203, 206–207, 211, 216–220, Australia, 143 240, 243 Austria, 88–89, 94, 217 Pan Am flight 73 and, 93–95 Pan Am flight 103 and, 9, 51, 95, Baathists, 256 98–102, 107–112 Baker, Howard, 130–131 Sharm el-Sheikh and, 1 Bali, 160, 243 suicide logic and, 246–247 Bank of England, 210 U.S. barracks and, 96–97 Basel Committee on Banking U.S. embassies and, 51, 160, 243 Supervision (BCBS), 32 USS Cole and, 160 Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA), UTA flight 772 and, 9, 51, 99–101, 208 111–112 , 143, 217 Boogerd-Quaak, Johanna, 222 Benjamin, Daniel, 4, 36, 241, 262 Brazil, 152n38 Index 317

Brussels, 188, 198, 216 Chirac, Jacques, 107 Bures, Oldrich, 17–18, 187–236 Civil liberties, 6, 37 Burkina Faso, 108 defining terrorism and, 204–208 Bush, George H. W., 14 failed governance and, 256–257 Libya and, 83, 98, 100–102, Geneva Conventions and, 205–206 113–114 Patriot Act and, 260 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives poverty and, 252–256 (PNIs) and, 134, 138 Putin and, 260 Bush, George W., 2, 74, 263 terrorist societies and, 257–261 European arrest warrant (EAW) and, United Nations and, 11 196 Clinton, Bill, 107, 114, 138 global war on terror and, 4 Cohen, William, 148n8 Libya and, 114 Collier, Paul, 254 military emphasis of, 4–5 Colombia, 209 multilateral coalition and, 3–4 Common Foreign and Security Policy National Security Strategy and, 253, (CFSP) (European Union), 228n59, 256 229n64 National Strategy for Combating Common Position, 208–210 Terrorism and, 6 Commonwealth of Independent States poverty and, 253 (CIS), 40 United Nations and, 8–9 Commonwealth Secretariat, 39 “war on terror” metaphor and, 4 “Communication on the Fight Against Terrorism” (European Camp David, 84–85, 243 Commission), 202 , 92 Communism, viii Candidate countries (CCs), 188 Confrontation Arabs, 85 Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Consolidated List of Financial 80n26 Sanctions Targets in the UK, 210 Caribbean Financial Action Task Consolidation issues, 66–71 Force (CFATF), 40 Convention on Simplified Extradition Carly, Christian, 247 Procedures Between Member States Carter, Jimmy, 84–86 of the European Union, 190 Casey, William, 87, 115n15 Convention on the Physical Castro, Fidel, 254 Protection of Nuclear Materials, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 144 139 Convention Relating to Extradition Central Asian Nuclear Weapons Free Between Member States of the Zone, 140 European Union, 190 Centre for Defence Studies, 5 Cook, Robin, 110 , 86–88, 99, 108 Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR), Charities, 180 133 Chatham House, 257 Cortright, David, viii Chechnya, 131, 247 strategic counter-terrorism and, 1–22 Che Guevara, 254 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Chesterman, Simon, 64 Committee (CTC) and, 23–50 China, 56, 103, 124 winning policies and, 237–274 318 Index

Costa Rica, 14, 64, 70 Counter Terrorism Task Force Council of Europe, 188 (CTTF) (Asia-Pacific Economic Select Committee of Experts on the Co-operation), 197 Evaluation of Anti–Money Country Reports on Terrorism (U.S. Laundering Measures State Department), 242 (MONEYVAL) and, 182n38 Crenshaw, Martha, 6 Council on Foreign Relations, 14, 74 Cronin, Audrey Kurth, 250 Counter-Terrorism Action Group Cuba, 106 (CTAG), 39 Customer due diligence (CDD), 161 Counter-terrorism financing (CTF). Cuthbertson, Ian, 207 See Financial Action Task Force Cutler, Lloyd, 130–131 (FATF) Cyberterrorism, 149n18 Counter-terrorism policy options, Cyprus, 212 262t8.1, 263t8.2 Czech Republic, 143, 212 Counter-terrorism strategies, vii–x assessment of, 261–263 Dar-es-Salaam, 243 bilateral confrontation and, 85–98 “Declaration of Holy War on the coalitions and, 4 Americans Occupying the Country countering hegemony and, 247–250 of the Two Holy Places” (fatwa), current debate over, 3–6 248 European Union and, 196–200, Declaration on Combating Terrorism 208–212 (see also European (European Council), 40 Union) Declaration on Measures to Eliminate FATF and, 157–179 (see also International Terrorism (United Financial Action Task Force Nations), 53 (FATF)) Defense Intelligence Agency, 125 “go it alone” approach and, 6–7 Democracy, 266 increased extremism and, 1 den Boer, Monica, 191 institutional approaches and, 6–9 Denmark, 143 international law and, 51–76 Development aid, 37–39 knowing enemy and, 239–243 Djibouti, 103 law enforcement and, 1–2, 7 (see Dublin Agreement, 188–189 also Law enforcement) Dubois, Dorine, 192, 206, 208 Libyan case study and, 83–114 Dying to Win (Pape), 247 military and, 4–5 (see also Military) multilateral approach and, 2–9, 19, Eastern and Southern Africa Anti– 98–114 Money Laundering Group new terrorism and, 243–244 (ESAAMLG), 182n38 regional approaches and, 6–9 Egypt, 53, 99, 105, 109 tools and, viii-ix Abu Nidal Organization and, 89 unilateral approach and, 102–105 Libya and, 85 United Nations and, 1, 3, 9–11, 23 Sadat and, 85 (see also United Nations) weapons of mass destruction “war on terror” metaphor and, 4 (WMD) and, 141, 152n38 weapons of mass destruction Eight Special Recommendations on (WMD) and, 123–147 Terrorist Financing (FATF), 163 Index 319

ElBaradei, Mohamed, 142, 144–145 candidate countries and, 188 ELF, 107 Common Position and, 208–210 el-Motassadeq, Mounir, 7–8 Convention on Simplified Estonia, 212 Extradition Procedures Between Eurasian Group on Combating Member States of the European Money Laundering and Financing Union and, 190 of Terrorism (EAG), 182n38 Convention Relating to Extradition Europe Agreements, 213–214, 216 Between Member States of the European arrest warrant (EAW), European Union and, 190 17–18, 192–196 Counter-Terrorism Group (CTG) European Commission and, 228n59 “Action Paper in Response to Counter Terrorism Task Force Terrorist Attacks on Madrid,” 203, (CTTF) and, 197 206–207, 211 defining terrorism and, 187–189, European Judicial Network (EJN) 204–208 and, 230n76 Dublin Agreement and, 188–189 Libya and, 102–105 enlarging cooperation in, 212–216 Regulation No. 2580/2001 and, 208 Eurojust and, 187–188, 200–203 European Convention on the Europol and, 187–188, 190, Suppression of Terrorism (ECST), 196–200 188–190 Europol Drugs Unit (EDU) and, European Council, 40 190 Action Plan of the, 191, 219–220 former candidate countries (FCCs) European arrest warrant (EAW) and, and, 212–216, 233n123 192–196 Framework Decision and, 193–197, Europol and, 196–200 204–207, 221 Madrid bombings and, 218 Hague Programme and, 219–220 European Court of Justice (ECJ), 202 institutional approach of, 7–9 European Judicial Cooperation Unit and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) (Eurojust), 187–188, 200–203 and, 106–112 European Police (Europol), 187–188, Justice and Home Affairs (JHA), 190, 196–200 187–192, 196–201, 213–216, European Political Cooperation 221–222 (EPC), 188 Libya and, 90–93 Single European Act (SEA) and, London bombings and, 160, 240, 227n1 243 European Union (EU), 2–3, 12, 17 Maastricht treaty and, 189–191, Abu Nidal Organization and, 88–89 210 acquis communautaire approach Madrid bombings and, 160, 187, and, 213–216, 233n125 199, 202–203, 206–207, 211, Action Plan of the European 216–220, 240, 243 Council and, 191, 219–220 Network of Independent Experts in air base use of, 8 Fundamental Rights (CFR-CDF) Anti-fraud Office and, 201 and, 200, 206, 209 asset seizures and, 208–212, Phare Programme, 215, 233nn126, 233n120 127 320 Index

European Union (EU) (cont.) asset seizures and, 158–161 Plan of Action and, 17, 187, 192, charities and, 180 200, 218 compliance and, 166–168, 175–176, Police Chiefs Operational Task 184n58, 185n60 Force (PCOTF) and, 228–229n59 Council on Foreign Relations and, Police Working Group on Terrorism 178–179 (PWGT) and, 200 creation of, 157–158 post-9/11 counter-terrorism policy, Eight Special Recommendations on 192, 216–223 Terrorist Financing and, 163 preaccession advisers and, 234n129 Forty Recommendations on Money pre-9/11 counter-terrorism policy, Laundering and, 161–170, 188–191 175–176 Revised Plan of Action and, G-7 countries and, 157 218–220 as global solution, 178–179 Situation Centre and, 198 hawala system and, 180 Special Accession Programme for International Best Practices papers Agriculture and Rural Development and, 165, 178 (SAPARD) and, 233n127 “Know Your Customer” approach terrorist identification and, 208–212 and, 163, 177 Terrorist Working Group (TWG) membership status in, 181n22 and, 228n59 model of, 161–170, 175–178 Treaty of Amsterdam and, 191 money laundering and terrorist Treaty on European Union (TEU) financing (ML/TF) and, 157–166 and, 189, 202 (see also Maastricht mutual review and, 166–168 treaty) Nine Special Recommendations on TREVI Group and, 189 Terrorist Financing and, 162–169, twinning and, 213–214, 234nn128, 173, 175–176, 178 129 Noncooperative Countries and United Nations and, 8–9 Territories (NCCTs) Initiative and, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (Basque 167, 170–171, 172t6.2, 183n51 Fatherland and Liberty, ETA), peer review and, 167–168, 208 171–175 Extraordinary European Council, political commitments to, 158 196–197, 200, 221, 225n23 regional bodies of, 168–170 Exxon, 86 self-reporting and, 166–168 typology exercises and, 165–166 FATF-style regional bodies (FSRBs), United Nations Counter-Terrorism 168–170 Committee (CTC) and, 31–32, 39 Fatwa, 248 Financial intelligence units (FIUs), Federation of American Scientists, 163 148n11 Financial Times, 211 Feldman, Andreas, 258 Fingar, Thomas, 128, 149n20 Fhimah, Al-Amin Khalifa, 111 Fisk, Robert, 248 Financial Action Task Force (FATF), Foreign Policy, 4 3, 12, 16–17 Former candidate countries (FCCs), assessment of, 175–178 212–216, 233n123 Index 321

Forty Recommendations on Money Habre, Hissen, 87 Laundering (FATF), 161, 173, Hadley, Steven J., 4 175–176 Hague, The, 9, 95, 109–111, compliance issues and, 166–170 219–220 peer review mechanism and, Hamas, 239 167–168 Hamilton, Lee H., vii–x regional FATFs and, 168–170 Hawala system, 180 standards process and, 162–166 Hegemony, 247–250 , 87, 91–92, 96, 217 Helms-Burton Act, 106–107 Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) , 252–254 and, 107–108 Highly enriched uranium (HEU), Libya and, 9, 51, 99–110 132t5.3 UTA flight 772 and, 9, 51, 99–101, Hit squads, 86, 88, 90 110–112 Ho Chi Minh, 254 Freedom House, 258 Hoffman, Bruce, 5–6, 241 Friedman, Thomas, 255 Hostages, 58, 96 Fukuyama, Francis, 245, 267 Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) and, 100 G-7 countries, 16, 92, 157 defining terrorism and, 204–208 G-8 countries, 35 Iran and, 52, 84–85 Counter-Terrorism Action Group Hungary, 212, 214 (CTAG) and, 39 Hussein, Saddam, 15, 113, 248 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Hutchings, Robert L., 257 Committee (CTC) and, 39 weapons of mass destruction Ideology, vii–viii (WMD) and, 143–147 Afghan war and, 84 G-8 Summit, 7, 252–253 bombings and, 53–54 Gardner, Kathryn L., 16–17, jihadists and, 5–6, 126t5.1, 240, 157–186 243–244 Geneva Conventions, 205 Libya and, 84–85, 113 Gerber-Stellingwerf, Linda, 12, pan-Islamic, 84 23–50 weapons of mass destruction Germany, 199, 217, 227n42 (WMD) and, 131 Guernica bombings and, 124 Incentives-based diplomacy, 12 West Berlin disco bombing, Independent, The, 248 89–93 India, 28 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 134, 138 Indonesia, 264 Greenberg, Karen, 7 In Larger Freedom: Towards Greenstock, Jeremy, 26 Development, Security, and Human Grupo de Acción Financiera de Rights for All (UN Report), 11 Sudamerica (GAFISUD), 182n38 Institute for International Law and Guantanamo, 8 Justice, 64 Guerillas, 251–252 Institutional approaches, 6–9 Gulf of Sidra, 86, 89 Instrument for Structural Policies for , 141, 249 Pre-Accession (European Council), Gurulé, Jimmy, 178 233n127 322 Index

Inter-American Committee Against future institutional options and, Terrorism (CICTE), 40 73–75 Intergovernmental Action Group General Assembly and, 51–54 Against Money Laundering Global Programme Against Money (GIABA), 182n38 Laundering (GPML) and, 60–61, International Atomic Energy Agency 68–69 (IAEA), 71, 73, 75, 129, 139, legal framework for, 52–59 141–142, 145, 153n42 Libya and, 106–110 International Best Practices (Financial nonproliferation and, 56–57 Action Task Force), 165, 178 Office on Drugs and Crime, International Civil Aviation 59–61 Organization (ICAO), 32, 39, 52, pro-Western orientation and, 73 53 International Convention for the Resolution 1566 and, 58–59 Suppression of Acts of Nuclear sanctions and, 106–110 (see also Terrorism (United Nations), 53, Sanctions) 146 9/11 and, 51, 55, 57 International Convention for the short-term solutions and, 71–73 Suppression of the Financing of streamlining efforts and, 62–65 Terrorism (United Nations), 29 UNODC/TPB and, 59–61 International Convention for the weapons of mass destruction Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (WMD) and, 123–147 (United Nations), 29 International Maritime Organization International Court of Justice, (IMO), 32, 39 109–110 International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Emergency Economic 32, 35, 169, 171, 175, 179n5 Powers Act (IEEPA), 89–90 International Organization for International Institute for Strategic Migration, 39 Studies (IISS), 240, 242 Interpol, 32 International law, 76 Ipe, Jason, 15–16, 123–155 Al-Qaida/Taliban Sanctions IRA, 252 Committee and, 57–58 Iran, 65 asset seizures and, 58, 78n20 (see Contra scandal and, 95 also Asset seizures) Iran and Libya Sanctions Act Beslan hostages and, 58 (ILSA), 106–112 bombings and, 53–54 Iran Sanctions Act (ISA), 107 consolidation options and, 66–71 U.S. hostages in, 52, 84–85 Counter-Terrorism Committee and, weapons of mass destruction 55 (WMD) and, 129, 141–142 Declaration on Measures to Iraq, ix, 1, 243, 245, 252 Eliminate International Terrorism failed governance in, 256–257 (United Nations) and, 53 ideology and, 6 duplication issues and, 61–62, invasion of, 4 79n26 pedagogic value of, 15 European arrest warrant (EAW) and, resolving crisis in, 265–266 17–18, 192–196 suicide bombers and, 247 Index 323

war as military blunder, 4–5 Law enforcement, 1–2, 7 weapons of mass destruction Al-Qaida leaders and, 240 (WMD) and, 142 assessment of, 261–263 Ireland, 144, 152n38, 218, 252 asset seizures and, 208–212 (see also Islam. See Muslims Asset seizures) Israel defining terrorism and, 204–208 Abu Nidal Organization and, 89 Dublin Agreement and, 188–189 Middle East stability and, 249 Eurojust and, 200–203 Palestinians and, 96, 265 European arrest warrant (EAW) and, Sadat and, 85 192–196 weapons of mass destruction Europol and, 196–200 (WMD) and, 141 international law strengthening and, , 108, 193, 226n27 51–76 Milan hostages and, 207–208 Maastricht treaty and, 189–191 Rome airport attacks and, 88–89, money laundering and, 157–161 92, 94 (see also Financial Action Task Ivanov, Igor, 151n35 Force [FATF]) Police Working Group on Terrorism Jacoby, Lowell E., 125 (PWGT) and, 200 Japan, 92, 133 terrorist identification and, 208–212 Jasinski, Filip, 194 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Jentleson, Bruce W., 15 Committee (CTC) and, 32, 37 JFK Airport, 93, 107 weapons of mass destruction Jihadists, 2 (WMD) and, 123–147 ideology of, 5–6, 126t5.1, 240, Lebanon, 65, 96–97, 252 243–244 Legal issues, 7, 12, 28–29 U.S. military and, 248 Action Plan of the European Jordan, 26, 53 Council and, 191 asset seizures and, 58, 78n20, Kashmir, 247 208–212 Kazakhstan, 41, 140 Common Position and, 208–210 Kennedy, Edward, 106, 108 Convention Relating to Extradition Kenya, 26, 51 Between Member States of the Khan, A. Q., 131, 133, 144 European Union and, 190 Khobar Towers, 243, 249 Convention on Simplified King’s College, 5 Extradition Procedures Between “Know Your Customer” approach, Member States of the European 163, 177 Union and, 190 Krueger, Alan B., 253–255, 258–259 defining terrorism and, 204–208 Kurdistan Worker’s Party, 208 European arrest warrant and, Kuwait, 25, 248 17–18, 192–196 Kyrgyzstan, 140 freedom of navigation maneuvers and, 86 Lang, Gordon, 124 Global Programme Against Money Lantos, Tom, 15 Laundering (GPML) and, 60–61, Latvia, 212 68–69 324 Index

Legal issues (cont.) sanctions and, 9, 86, 88–92, 99, Guantanamo and, 8 102–114 torture and, 8 unilateral approach and, Treaty of Amsterdam and, 191 102–105 TREVI Group and, 189 UN Security Council and, 103 United Nations Counter-Terrorism U.S. military and, 86, 89–92 Committee (CTC) and, 23, 31 U.S. policy changes and, 84–85, Lenin, Vladimir Ilych, 254 100–102 Leverett, Flynt, 15 UTA flight 772 and, 9, 51, 99–101, Liberia, 142 110–112 Libya, ix, 14–15 weapons of mass destruction Abu Nidal Organization and, (WMD) and, 83, 143 88–90, 93–95, 100 Weinberger Doctrine and, 97–98 Aouzou Strip and, 87 West Berlin bombing and, 89–90, April 1986 strikes and, 90–92 93 bilateral confrontation and, 85–98 Lithuania, 212 Bush (George H. W.) and, 83, London Times, 124 100–102, 113–114 Lopez, George A., viii Bush (George W.) and, 114 strategic counter-terrorism and, Carter administration and, 84–86 1–22 Chad and, 86–88 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Clinton administration and, 114 Committee (CTC) and, 23–50 Egypt and, 85 winning policies and, 237–274 Europe and, 90–93 Lugar, Richard, 150n29 four-year standoff against, 105–106 Maastricht treaty, 189–191, 210. See France and, 9, 51, 99–110 also European Union Gulf of Sidra and, 86, 89 Macedonia, 26 Helms-Burton Act and, 106–107 McNamara, Thomas E., 14–15, hit squads and, 86, 88, 90 83–122 International Emergency Economic Madrid Summit, 10–11, 18, 238 Powers Act (IEEPA) and, 89–90 Malesckova, Jitka, 253–255, 258 Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) , 108 and, 106–112 Malta, 212 isolation of, 104 Mandela, Nelson, 109–111 Karachi attack and, 94–95 Mao Tse Tung, 252, 254 Lockerbie families and, 110–111 Marshall, Monty G., 255 multilateral approach and, 98–114 Mearsheimer, John J., 4 oil firms and, 86 Members of the European Parliament Palestine Liberation Organization (MEPs), 222 (PLO) and, 85, 96 Memorial Institute for the Prevention Pan Am flight 73 and, 93–95 of Terrorism, 243, 269n29 Pan Am flight 103 and, 9, 51, 95, Mexico, 152n38 98–102, 107–112 Middle East and North Africa FATF- Reagan administration and, 83, style regional body (MENAFSRB), 85–87, 96–98 40, 169–170 Index 325

Middle East and North Africa self-sufficient cells and, 160–161 Financial Action Task Force shell banks and, 162–163 (MENAFATF), 182nn38, 40, 41 suspicious transaction reports Middle East and North Africa Region (STRs) and, 161, 181n21 (MENA), 40 terrorist financing and, 157–161 Military, vii, 2 , 26, 103 Al-Qaida and, 240–241 Mueller, John, 241 excessive emphasis on, 4–5 Mujahedeen, 248 guerillas and, 251–252 Multilateral Affairs Unit, 13 increased Arab buildup and, Musharraf, 131 248–249 Muslims, viii jihadists and, 248 fatwa and, 248, 126t5.1 Libya and, 86, 89–92 hit squads and, 88 nuclear weapons and, ix (see also politics and, 244–246, 264–267 Weapons of mass destruction radicalism and, 244–246 (WMD)) sharia law and, 248 Qaddafi and, 85 Myers, Richard, 148n8 solving Iraq crisis and, 265–266 U.S. barracks bombing and, 96–97 Nairobi, 243 U.S. support in Pakistan and, 248 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 85 Weinberger Doctrine and, 97–98 National Academy of Sciences, winning strategy for, 262–263 258–259 Millar, Alistair National Intelligence Council (U.S.), international law and, 51–82 131 strategic counter-terrorism and, National Intelligence Estimate (U.S.), 12–16 242 United Nations Counter-Terrorism National Security Council (NSC) Committee (CTC) and, 23–50 (U.S.), 4 weapons of mass destruction and, National Security Strategy (Bush 123–155 administration), 253, 256 Mitchell, Ronald, 173–174 National Strategy for Combating Mitterand, François, 100 Terrorism (White House), 6, 238, Monar, Jörg, 191 253, 259–260, 266 Money laundering (ML), 16, 25, National Transportation Safety Board 251–252. See also Financial Action (NTSB) (U.S.), 107 Task Force (FATF) Natural Resources Defense Council Al-Qaida and, 160, 170–171 (NRDC), 151n30 charities and, 180 Netherlands, 9, 110 gatekeepers and, 162–163 New Agenda Coalition (NAC), Global Programme Against Money 152n38 Laundering (GPML) and, 60–61, New terrorism, 243–244 68–69 New York Times, 4–5, 259 informal banking systems (hawala) New York University School of Law, and, 159 64 precious stones and metals, 159 New Zealand, 144, 152n38 profit in, 159 , 99, 108 326 Index

Nine Special Recommendations on Organization for Security and Co- Terrorist Financing (FATF), operation in Europe (OSCE), 16 162–169, 173, 175–176, 178 Oslo peace process, 243 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), 105 Noncooperative Countries and Pakistan, 93–94, 103, 240 Territories (NCCTs) Initiative, 167, international law and, 53, 56 170–171, 172t6.2 U.S. military support and, 248 Nongovernmental organizations weapons of mass destruction (NGOs), 209–210, 222 (WMD) and, 131, 133 Nonproliferation, 56–57, 129, 140, Palestine, 100, 243, 249, 265 145, 237 Abu Nidal Organization and, North Africa, 141 88–90, 93–94 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Popular Front for the Liberation of (NATO), 84, 90, 140 Palestine-General Command (PFLP- North Korea, 129, 142 GC), 98 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty suicide bombers and, 247 (NPT), 129, 140, 145 weapons of mass destruction Nuclear weapon-free zones (NWFZs), (WMD) and, 141 140–141 Palestine Liberation Organization Nuclear weapons, ix, 15–16. See also (PLO), 85, 96 Weapons of mass destruction Panama, 142 (WMD) Pan Am flight 73, 93–95 Nunn, Sam, 124, 138, 150n29 Pan Am flight 103, 51, 95, 98, 99–102, 107–112 Office of the Coordinator for Pape, Robert, 247, 249 Counterterrorism (U.S. Dept. of Patriot Act, 260 State), 13 Patterns of Global Terrorism (U.S. Offshore Group of Banking State Department), 101, 105, Supervisors (OGBS), 182n38 242 Oil, 86, 88, 106, 255 Pelindaba Treaty, 140 OLAF, 201 Peraelae, Maftu, 258 Order of Good Hope, 109 Perry, William, 15, 138 Organisation of African Unity Persian Gulf, 141, 248 (OAU), 53, 110 Philippines, 264 Organisation for Economic Plutonium, 129 Co-operation and Development Poland, 212 (OECD), 31, 37–39, 168 Police Working Group on Terrorism Development Co-operation (PWGT), 200 Directorate (DAC) and, 37–38 Policy, 3 Organisation of the Islamic bargaining and, 264–265 Conference (OIC), 53, 59 bilateral, 85–98 Organization of American States Convention on the Physical (OAS), 28, 40 Protection of Nuclear Materials Organization for the Prohibition of and, 144 Chemical Weapons (OPCW), 39, Cooperative Threat Reduction 73, 75 (CTR) and, 133 Index 327 democracy and, 266 Politics European Union and, 188–196, anti-Americanism and, 245 216–220 (see also European bilateral confrontation and, 85–98 Union) countering hegemony and, “go it alone” approach and, 6–7 247–250 Helms-Burton Act and, 106–107 democracy and, 266 International Convention for the human rights and, 257–261 Suppression of Acts of Nuclear multilateral approach and, 98–114 Terrorism (United Nations) and, poor governance and, 256–257 146 poverty and, 252–256 Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) priorities for, 264–267 and, 106–112 radicalism and, 244–246 Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) and, religion and, 244–246, 264–267 107 sanctions enforcement and, 45–46 legal issues and, 190–191 (see also terrorism and, 244–246, 250–252, Legal issues) 264–267 Libya and, 83–114 unilateral approach and, 102–105 multilateral, 98–114 “war on terror” metaphor and, 4 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Popular Front for the Liberation of (NPT) and, 129, 145 Palestine–General Command options and, 262t8.1 (PFLP–GC), 98 peer review and, 167–168, Population growth, 255 171–175 Poverty, 252–256 Pelindaba Treaty and, 140 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives poverty and, 252–256 (PNIs), 134, 138 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), (PNIs) and, 134, 138 142–143 priority alignment and, 264–267 Protocol of the United Nations Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) Transnational Organised Crime and, 142–143 Convention, 217 Protocol of the United Nations Putin, Vladimir, 139, 259–260 Transnational Organised Crime Convention and, 217 Qaddafi, Mohamar. See also Libya social opportunity expansion and, Abu Nidal Organization and, 266–267 88–90, 93–94 torture and, 8 Chad and, 87–88 Trade Expansion Act and, 87 Europe and, 102 transparency and, 32 ideology of, 85, 113 Treaty of Amsterdam and, 191 Karachi attack and, 94–95 Treaty of Nice and, 201 Mandela and, 109–111 Treaty of Rarotonga and, 140 Palestine Liberation Organization Treaty of Tlatelolco and, 140 (PLO) and, 85 unilateral, 102–105 Pan Am flight 73 and, 93–95 weapons of mass destruction Reagan administration and, 83, (WMD) and, 123–147 85–87, 96–98 winning strategy for, 261–263 Sadat and, 85 328 Index

RAND Corporation, 5–6, 199, 242, Sadat, Anwar, 85 244 Sageman, Marc, 5, 240 Reagan, Ronald, 92 Sanctions, 12, 67 hit squads and, 86, 88, 90 Afghanistan and, 9 International Emergency Al Qaida/Taliban and, 41–42, Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) and, 45–46, 57–58, 61–62, 67, 241 89–90 Analytic Support and Sanctions Iran hostage crisis and, 84 Monitoring Team (United Nations) Libya and, 83, 85–87, 96–98 and, 42–43, 57, 241 Pan Am flight 103 and, 96 asset seizures and, 58, 78n20, SALT II Treaty and, 84, 130–131 158–161, 208–212 Regional approaches, 6–9 Consolidated List of Financial Rejectionist Arabs, 85 Sanctions Targets in the UK and, Religion, 53–54, 104 210 anti-Americanism and, 245 duplication issues and, 61–62 fatwa and, 126t5.1, 248 enforcement issues and, 45–46 politics and, 244–246, 264–267 Global Programme Against Money radicalism and, 244–246 Laundering (GPML) (United sharia law and, 248 Nations) and, 60–61, 68–69 terrorism and, 244 Helms-Burton Act and, 106–107 Vatican and, 108 International Emergency Economic Republic of Korea, 144 Powers Act (IEEPA) and, 89–90 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) Colombia, 208 and, 106–112 Rosand, Eric, 13–14, 51–82 Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) and, 107 Rumsfeld, Donald, 123 Libya and, 9, 86, 88–92, 99, Rupérez, Javier, 32 102–114 Russia, 103 multilateralization of, 102–105 Beslan massacre and, 13, 58, 243, Resolution 1267 and, 57–58 259–260 Sudan and, 9 Chechen separatists and, 131 targeted, 104 Cooperative Threat Reduction United Nations Counter-Terrorism (CTR) and, 133 Committee (CTC) and, 24, 33, Gorbachev and, 134, 138 41–46 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives Saudi Arabia, 243, 248–249 (PNIs) and, 134, 138 Scotland Putin and, 139, 259–260 Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) Soviet Union and, 10, 16, 84 and, 106–112 tactical nuclear weapons (TNWs) Lockerbie attack and, 51, 95, and, 133–140 98–102, 107–112 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Self-radicalization, 240 Committee (CTC) and, 33 Self-starter groups, 240, 242 weapons of mass destruction 9/11, vii, 1–2, 4, 9–10, 243, 247 (WMD) and, 129–140, 143, el-Motassadeq and, 7–8 151n35 European Union and, 188–192, Yeltsin and, 134, 138 216–223 Index 329

Financial Action Task Force (FATF) Sudan, 9, 30, 99 and, 16–17 Suicide bombers, 1, 243, 246–247 financial costs of, 251 Superterrorism, 18, 243–244 hijackers’ wealth and, 253 Suspicious transaction reports (STRs), international law and, 51, 55, 57, 161, 181n21 60 Sweden, 152n38 Patriot Act and, 260 , 14, 64, 70, 209 terrorist financing and, 158–163, , 100, 118n43 251 Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) United Nations Counter-Terrorism and, 88, 93, 95 Committee (CTC) and, 23 international law and, 53, 65 UNODC/TPB and, 60 weapons of mass destruction U.S. military buildup and, 249 (WMD) and, 142 weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and, 125 Tactical nuclear weapons (TNWs). 9/11 Commission, 160, 241, 242, See Weapons of mass destruction 267 (WMD) Serrano, Mónica, 159, 251 Tajikistan, 140 Sharia law, 248 Taliban, vii, 237 Sharm el-Sheikh, 1 asset seizures and, 210 Simon, Steven, 4, 36, 241, 262 Bush administration and, 3 Slovak Republic, 212 overthrow of, 239 Slovenia, 212 sanctions and, 41–42, 45–46, Snyder, Laura, 149n19 57–58, 61–62, 67, 241 Sokov, Nikolai, 139–140 understanding, 239 South Africa, 28, 152n38 weapons of mass destruction Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapons Free (WMD) and, 125 Zone, 140 Tampere European Council, 191, 201 Soviet Union, 10, 16, 84 Tanzania, 51 Spain, 124 Task Force of EU Police Chiefs, 217 Madrid bombings and, 160, 187, Technology, 36, 86, 149n18, 240 199, 202–203, 206–207, 211, Telhami, Shibley, 18, 238–239, 216–220, 240, 243 244–245 Madrid Summit and, 238, 253 Terrorism weapons of mass destruction anti-Americanism and, 245 (WMD) and, 217 bargaining with, 264–265 Sri Lanka, 247 Common Position and, 208 Stares, Paul, 237–238 cyberterrorism and, 149n18 Stepanova, Ekaterina, 244, 256–257 defining, viii, 44–45, 187–189, Stern, Jessica, 5, 255 204–208 Stevenson, Jonathan, 197–198 democracy and, 266 Stiles, Kendall W., 52–53 Global Programme Against Money Storbeck, Jürgen, 200 Laundering (GPML) (United Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II Nations) and, 60–61, 68–69 (SALT II) Treaty, 84, 130–131 global war on, 1 (see also Counter- Strategic Survey (IISS), 242 terrorism strategies) 330 Index

Terrorism (cont.) Treaty on European Union (TEU), growing danger of, 241–244 189, 202 (see also Maastricht guerillas and, 251–252 treaty) hit squads and, 86, 88, 90 “Trends in Global Terrorism” home-grown cells and, 240 (National Intelligence Estimate), human rights and, 257–261 242 ideology and, vii–viii, 5–6 (see also TREVI (Terrorism, Radicalism, Ideology; Religion) Extremism, and Political Violence) international law and, 51–76 Group, 189 Libya and, 83–114 Trotsky, Leon, 254 literature on, 3 Tsoukala, Anastassia, 191 money laundering and, 157–161, Tunisia, 99 251–252 (see also Money Turkey, 89, 108 laundering) Turkmenistan, 140 motivations for, 6 Twinning, 213–214, 234nn128, new terrorism and, 1, 243–244 129 political roots of, 244–246, 250–252, 264–267 Ulema, 248 poor governance and, 256–257 United Against Terrorism (UN poverty and, 252–256 Report), 64 priority alignment and, 264–267 United Arab Emirates, 25 public support of, 251–252 , 92 recruitment for, 5–6 Consolidated List of Financial self-radicalized cells and, 240 Sanctions Targets in the UK and, self-starter groups and, 240, 242 210 self-sufficient cells and, 160–161 Europol and, 199 social dynamics of, 250–252 Libya and, 90, 102–110 suicide logic of, 246–247 London bombings and, 160, 240, superterrorism and, 18, 243–244 243 weapons of mass destruction Madrid bombings and, 217 (WMD) and, 123–147 (see also technical assistance fund and, 36 Weapons of mass destruction United Nations Counter-Terrorism (WMD)) Committee (CTC) and, 27–28, 33 Terrorist Working Group (TWG), United Nations, 1 228n59 Annan and, 10–11, 18, 23–24, Thailand, 26 36–37, 111, 238, 247, 258–261, Thatcher, Margaret, 91 264 Theater nuclear forces (TNF), 84 asset seizures and, 208–212 Torture, 8 Chapter VII of Charter of, 23, 51, Total, 107 67, 104 Trade Expansion Act, 87 Common Position and, 208–210 Transparency, 32 consolidation efforts and, 66–71 Treaty of Amsterdam, 191 Counter-Proliferation Committee Treaty of Nice, 201 and, 3, 16 Treaty of Rarotonga, 140 Counter-Terrorism Implementation Treaty of Tlatelolco, 140 Task Force and, 11 Index 331 counter-terrorism strategies and, 2–3 role of, 2–3, 9–11 duplicated efforts in, 13–14 Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel Economic and Social Council on Threats, Challenges and (ECOSOC) and, 68 Change, 10–11, 33, 44–45, 58, General Assembly and, 27–28, 238 52–54, 73–75 U.S./European differences over, 8–9 International Convention for the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Committee (CTC) Terrorism and, 53, 146 Analytic Support and Sanctions international law strengthening and, Monitoring Team and, 42–43 51–76 Annan on, 23–24 Libyan sanctions and, 9, 103 civil liberties and, 37 Madrid Summit and, 10–11, 18 as committee of the whole, 23–24 Non-Proliferation Committee and, compliance criteria and, 32–33 237 consolidation options and, 66–71 Protocol of the United Nations coordination and, 41–44 Transnational Organised Crime Counter-Terrorism Executive Convention and, 217 Directorate (CTED) and, 3, 9–10, relevance of, 2–3 13, 24, 32, 36, 42 Resolution 242 and, 154n50 defining terrorism and, 44–45 Resolution 338 and, 154n50 developing countries and, 28, 37–39 Resolution 487 and, 142 duplication issues and, 61–62 Resolution 687 and, 141 enforcement issues and, 45–46 Resolution 731 and, 103–104 evaluation criteria and, 32–33 Resolution 748 and, 9, 103–104 expanded staff of, 26–27 Resolution 883 and, 103–105 Financial Action Task Force (FATF) Resolution 1054 and, 9 and, 31–32, 39 Resolution 1192 and, 121n92 financial mechanisms and, 31 Resolution 1267 and, 9, 13, 41, as forum, 27 57–58, 210 future options for, 74 Resolution 1373 and, 27–29, 144, G-8 countries and, 35, 39 146, 208–216 (see also United Greenstock and, 42 Nations Counter-Terrorism implementation challenges and, Committee [CTC]), 29 30–33 Resolution 1377 and, 33–34 increased membership of, 29 Resolution 1390 and, 41–42 information sharing and, 29, 34 Resolution 1456 and, 260 international cooperation and, Resolution 1526 and, 67, 160 24–26, 39–41, 55 Resolution 1535 and, 9, 13, 26–27 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Resolution 1540 and, 3, 10, 13, 16, and, 32, 35 24, 27, 42–43, 56–57, 142–147 investigations and, 24 Resolution 1566 and, 10, 13, 24, law enforcement and, 32, 37 28, 43, 58–59, 69 measuring progress of, 29–30 Resolution 1617 and, 13, 67 member state obligations and, 23 Resolution 1624 and, 80n27 mixed record of, 24–28 Resolution 1673 and, 56–57 money laundering and, 25 332 Index

United Nations Counter-Terrorism Global Programme Against Money Committee (CTC) (cont.) Laundering (GPML) and, 60–61, Organization of American States 68–69 (OAS) and, 40 international law and, 59–61 overlap issues and, 41–44 9/11 and, 60 performance standards and, short-term solution limitation and, 31–32 71 primary function of, 24 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Resolution 1373 and, 8–9, 12–13, Committee (CTC) and, 35, 39 19, 23, 27–40, 55, 61–62, 67, 72 United Nations Policy Working Resolution 1377 and, 33–34 Group on Terrorism, 244, 259 Resolution 1535 and, 26–27 United States, vii–x Resolution 1540 and, 27, 42–43, Al-Qaida leaders and, 240 62–63, 67–68 anti-Americanism and, 245 Resolution 1566 and, 28 asset seizures and, 211 revitalization of, 26–27 Bush (George H. W.) and, 83, sanctions and, 24, 33, 41–46 100–102, 113–114 Security Council and, 26–27, 30, Bush (George W.) and, 3–4 (see also 33, 54–55, 103 Bush, George W.) short-term solutions and, 72–73 Carter administration and, 84–86 site visits and, 25–26 Clinton administration and, 107, state reports and, 25–26, 29 114, 138 streamlining efforts and, 63 Cooperative Threat Reduction as switchboard, 24–25 (CTR) and, 133 technical assistance and, 33–39 defining terrorism and, 207 transparency and, 32 detention issues of, 8 UN Charter and, 23, 28 embassy attacks and, 51, 160, uneven leadership in, 26–27 243 United Kingdom and, 27–28 European arrest warrant (EAW) and, United States and, 8, 27–28, 33 196 UNODC/TPB and, 35, 39 fatwa against, 126t5.1, 248 United Nations Development “go it alone” approach of, 6–7 Programme (UNDP), 36, 60, 75, Guantanamo and, 8 257–258 hegemony and, 248–250 United Nations Economic and Social Helms-Burton Act and, 106–107 Council (ECOSOC), 68 increased Arab involvement of, United Nations Global Programme 248–249 Against Money Laundering Iran-Contra scandal and, 95 (GPML), 60–61, 68–69 Iran hostage crisis and, 52, 84–85 United Nations High Commission for Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) Refugees, 75 and, 106–112 United Nations Office on Drugs and Iran Sanctions Act (ISA) and, 107 Crime/Terrorism Prevention Branch Israeli support by, 249 (UNODC/TPB), 13–14, 27 law-enforcement approaches and, consolidation issues and, 68–70 1–2 future options for, 74 Libya and, 83–114 Index 333

multilateral approach and, 98–114 U.S. General Accounting Office National Intelligence Council and, (GAO), 115n18, 179n5, 180nn10, 131 12, 16 National Intelligence Estimate and, U.S. House Armed Services 5 Committee, 241 Pakistan and, 248 U.S. National Intelligence Estimate, Patriot Act and, 260 5 political priorities for, 264–267 USS Cole, 160 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives U.S. Senate Select Committee on (PNIs) and, 134, 138 Intelligence, 128 Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) U.S. Sixth Fleet, 86, 89–90 and, 142–143 U.S. State Department, 13, 101, 105, Reagan administration and, 83–92, 242, 253 96–98, 130–131 UTA flight 772, 9, 51, 99–101, SALT II Treaty and, 84, 130–131 111–112 (see also Weapons of mass Uzbekistan, 140, 264 destruction [WMD]) secretive approach of, 8 Vatican, 108 9/11 Commission and, 160, Voice of America, viii 241–242, 267 von Hippel, Karen, 5 technical assistance and, 36 torture and, 8 Walt, Stephen M., 4 unilateral approach and, 102–105 Waxman, Henry, 242–243 United Nations Counter-Terrorism Weapons of mass destruction Committee (CTC) and, 27–28, 33 (WMD), 9, 62, 67–69, 244 United States Institute of Peace, Al-Qaida and, 15–16, 124–131, 237–238 146, 244 Uniting Against Terrorism: biological, 244 Recommendations for a Global black market and, 131, 133 Counter-Terrorism Strategy (UN Center for Nonproliferation Studies Report), 11, 18 and, 139 University of Maryland’s Center for Chechen separatists and, 131 International Development and chemical, 125, 144, 244 Conflict Management, 254 Convention on the Physical Uranium, 16, 87, 129 Protection of Nuclear Materials Urbanization, 255 and, 144 U.S. Central Intelligence Agency Cooperative Threat Reduction (CIA), 5, 87, 115n15, 207, 217, (CTR) and, 133 240, 257 cyberterrorism and, 149n18 U.S. Defense Department, 249 defining, 123–124 U.S. Department of the Treasury, Egypt and, 141 211 fissile material for, 125, 128–130, “Uses of Military Power, The” 132t5.3, 143, 153n42 (Weinberger), 97 G-8 countries and, 143–147 U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation global approaches and, 142–146 (FBI), 199 Gulf War and, 141 334 Index

Weapons of mass destruction terrorist networks and, 123, (WMD) (cont.) 125–128 International Atomic Energy Agency Treaty of Rarotonga and, 140 (IAEA) and, 73, 129, 139, Treaty of Tlatelolco and, 140 141–142, 145, 153n42 vulnerable locations and, 130–133 International Convention for the Weapons of Mass Destruction Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Commission (WMD Commission), Terrorism and, 146 123 Iran and, 141–142 Weinberger, Caspar, 97–98 Iraq and, 142 Weiss, Edith Brown, 162 Islamic ideology and, 126t5.1, 131 Weldon, Curt, 138–139 Israel and, 141 Whitehead, John, 90 Khan and, 131, 133 White House, 5–6, 238, 253, Libya and, 83, 143 259–260, 266 Madrid bombings and, 217 Whytock, Christopher A., 15 NATO and, 140 Working Party on Terrorism nonproliferation committee and, (External Aspects) (COTER) 56–57 (European Union), 228n59 North Korea and, 129, 142 World Bank, 36 nuclear effects and, 124 Financial Action Task Force (FATF) Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and, 169, 171, 175, 179n5 (NPT) and, 129, 140, 145 poverty and, 254 nuclear smuggling and, 132t5.3 World Customs Organization nuclear weapon-free zones (NWFZs (WCO), 32, 39 and), 140–141 World Policy Institute, 207 Pakistan and, 131, 133 World Summit, 58, 69 Palestine and, 141 World Trade Organization (WTO), Pelindaba Treaty and, 140 107 portable, 133 World War II, 4 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) and, 134, 138 Yacoubian, Monica, 237–238 Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) Yeltsin, Boris, 134, 138 and, 142–143 radiological, 244 regional approaches and, 140–142 Resolution 687 and, 141 Resolution 1540 and, 144–147 Russia and, 129–140, 143, 151n35 SALT II Treaty and, 84, 130–131 9/11 and, 125 Syria and, 142 tactical nuclear weapons (TNWs) and, 125, 133–140, 151n35, 152n37 Taliban and, 125