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Himalayan Linguistics Issues in the Historical Phonology Himalayan Linguistics Issues in the historical phonology of Gauri Jingpho Keita Kurabe Tokyo University of Foreign Studies / JSPS ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is two-fold: (a) to argue that Gauri Jingpho, an underdescribed dialect of Jingpho spoken by small populations in hill tracts east of Bhamo, Burma (Myanmar), belongs to the Southern group within Jingpho dialects despite its superficial similarity to the Northern group; and (b) to provide phonological developments and a notable retention of Gauri phonology. This paper classifies Gauri into the Southern group within Jingpho dialects on the basis of irregular phonological developments in which proto-final *-k and proto-prefix *n- dropped in some specific lexical items, and on the basis of not having all the four phonological innovations which all the Northern dialects share. This paper will show that the phonological similarities between Gauri and Northern dialects are due to shared retentions or parallel innovations occurred independently. This paper also provides phonological developments in Gauri, which can be summarized as follows: *ph- > f-; *kh- > h-; *-k > -ʔ; *-k > Ø (sporadic);*-a > -o/*w- or *ʔw-＿ (sporadic); *-a > -e/*y- or *ʔy-＿ *-t or *-n. This paper also shows that Gauri is well preserves Proto-Jingpho medial *-r- as -r-, which has irregularly developed into -y- in some Jingpho dialects, on the basis of comparative evidence. KEYWORDS Jingpho, Gauri, Tibeto-Burman, Classification, Sound change This is a contribution from Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 14(1): 1–19. ISSN 1544-7502 © 2015. All rights reserved. This Portable Document Format (PDF) file may not be altered in any way. Tables of contents, abstracts, and submission guidelines are available at http://escholarship.org/uc/himalayanlinguistics Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 14(1). © Himalayan Linguistics 2015 ISSN 1544-7502 Issues in the historical phonology of Gauri Jingpho1 Keita Kurabe Tokyo University of Foreign Studies / JSPS 1 Introduction Jingpho (Singpho) is a Tibeto-Burman language belonging to the Jingpho-Asakian ( Jingpho- Luish) branch of Tibeto-Burman (Matisoff 2013). It is mainly spoken in Kachin and northern Shan State of northern Burma (Myanmar), but there are also speakers in western Yunnan in China and northeastern India. While the exact number of speakers of Jingpho is unknown, estimates range between 630,000 (Bradley 1996) and 940,000 (Lewis et al. 2014). Jingpho is used as a lingua franca in northern part of Burma and spoken not only by Jingpho people but also by peoples whose native languages belong to different branches of Tibeto-Burman (TB), such as Lhaovo/Maru (TB: Burmish), Lacid/Lashi (TB: Burmish), Zaiwa/Atsi (TB: Burmish), Bola/Bolo (TB: Burmish), Lisu (TB: Loloish) and Rawang (TB: Nungish). Jingpho is also reported to be spoken by some Khamti Shan (Tai-Kadai: Southwestern Tai) and Rumai Palaung (Austroasiatic: Palaungic) speakers. The aim of this paper is two-fold: (a) to argue that Gauri Jingpho, an underdescribed dialect of Jingpho spoken by small populations in hill tracts east of Bhamo, Burma, belongs to the Southern group within Jingpho dialects despite its superficial similarity to the Northern group; and (b) to discuss phonological developments and a notable retention in Gauri phonology. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 outlines the Jingpho dialects and previous studies on them. Section 3 provides previous and updated information on Gauri Jingpho. Section 4 presents a brief synchronic description of Gauri phonology. Section 5 discusses the genetic position of Gauri within Jingpho dialects. Section 6 provides phonological innovations and a notable phonological retention in Gauri. 1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 20th Himalayan Language Symposium held in Singapore, July 16-18, 2014. I would like to express my gratitude to Professor James A. Matisoff and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. My fieldwork was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for JPSP fellows (Nos: 24-2938 and 26-2254) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). Himalayan Linguistics, Vol 14(1) 2 Jingpho dialects 2.1 Previous studies on Jingpho dialects Studies on Jingpho dialects can be divided into three main categories: (a) identification of dialects; (b) description of individual dialects; (c) classification of dialects. Hanson (1896: 6) is one of the early studies of Jingpho, which identified three dialectal divisions in Jingpho. Hanson (1907: 385) divides Jingpho of Burma into three divisions, which he calls Jinghpaw (or southern Kachin), Hkauri (those under Chinese influence), and Hkahku (up-river or northern Kachin). Kuhn (1896) also identified some dialectal varieties within Jingpho based on a comparison of numerals from previous descriptions. Leach (1954: 44–5, 57–8) divides Jingpho dialects into normal Jinghpaw, Gauri, Tsasen, Duleng, Hkahku, and Htingnai, noting that all dialects are more or less mutually intelligible. Nishida (1960: 4) notes eight dialect divisions in Jingpho, which include Chingpaw, Myitkyina Chingpaw, Bhamo Chingpaw, Gauri, Tsasen, Duleng, Hka-hku and Htingnai, noting that their details are still unknown. Liu (ed. 1984: 2) identified three dialect divisions within Jingpho of China, which are Nkhum, Shatan and Kauri. Matisoff (ed. 1996: 37) summarizes previous studies, dividing Jingpho dialects into Bhamo, Duleng, Tsasen, Hkauri, Hka- hku, Htingnai, Jili, Nhkum, Shidan and Darung. Morey (2010) divides Singpho of northeastern India into Turung, Numhpuk, Diyun and Tieng, noting that these divisions are recognized by Singpho speakers themselves. Standard Jingpho (Hanson 1896, 1906, Manam 1977, Maran’s MS, among others) and Nkhum (Dai et al. 1983, Liu ed. 1984, Dai and Xu 1992, Dai 2012, among others) are two well described and documented dialects of Jingpho with grammars and dictionaries. Jingpho dialects of northeastern India (Singpho) such as Turung and Numphuk are also described and documented to a considerable extent (Needham 1889, Das Gupta 1979, Morey’s MS a and b, Morey 2010). Recent researches on Duleng, Shang and Dingga, which are divergent but previously undescribed, provide new data to Jingpho dialectology (Yue 2006, Kurabe 2012, 2013a, 2013b). Recent researches on previously underdescribed or undescribed Jingpho dialects enable us to investigate Jingpho dialects from the perspective of historical linguistics. Kurabe (2013c, 2014a) provides a preliminary classification of some Jingpho dialects on the basis of phonological and lexical innovations, dividing Jingpho dialects into Southern and Northern groups with the latter being further subdivided into Northeastern and Northwestern groups. 2.2 Jingpho dialects Figure 1 shows the distribution of Jingpho dialects known to date based on previous studies and my field research. Note that many of the Jingpho dialects are located in the northern part of Burma, especially in Kachin State. As can be seen, the Jingpho-speaking area spreads from northeastern India through northern Burma into southwesternmost China, lying to the north of the equator approximately between the 23rd and 27th degrees of north latitude and between the 93rd and 98th degrees of east longitude. 2 Kurabe: Issues in the historical phonology of Gauri Jingpho Abbreviations of Jingpho dialects DG = Dingga KK = Khakhu TI= Tieng DL = Duleng NK = Nkhum TN= Thingnai DP = Dingphan NP = Numphuk TR= Turung DY = Diyun SD = Shadan TS= Tsasen GR = Gauri/Khauri SH = Shang JL = Jilí SJ = Standard Jingpho Figure 1. The distribution of Jingpho dialects It should be noted that the degree of endangerment of Jingpho dialects depends on the particular dialect, ranging from stable to definitely endangered and even to extinct. That is, although the standard dialect of Jingpho is widely used by both native and non-native speakers, most of the 3 Himalayan Linguistics, Vol 14(1) other dialects of Jingpho are losing their speakers. The Jilí dialect (language) of Jingpho became extinct in the 1800s, leaving only a quite short wordlist (Brown 1837: 1033). 3 The Gauri dialect 3.1 Gauri and their speakers Gauri is a Jingpho dialect mainly spoken in hill tracts east of Bhamo, Burma, known as the Gauri hills. According to my consultant, the Gauri speaking villages in Burma include Prang Hkudung, Man Dau, Hkarawm Kong, Manda, Ka Daw, Lamai Bang, Bumwa, Ma Htang, Jahkai and Loi Ming. Figure 2 shows these locations. Liu (ed. 1984: 2) notes that Gauri is also spoken in the Longchuan and Yingjian counties of Dehong Dai-Jingpo autonomous prefecture, Yunnan province, although speaking population in China numbers only a few dozen people. Although Hanson (1906: 172) notes that Gauri is generally pronounced Hkauri, speakers of modern Gauri as well as of Standard Jingpho call them only Gauri [ɡàurì]. We will thus use the name Gauri to refer to this dialect throughout this paper. Figure 2. The Gauri-speaking area Gauri and Standard Jingpho are mutually intelligible to some extent although the speakers of Standard Jingpho sometimes find it difficult understanding Gauri. Phonological differences between Gauri and Standard Jingpho will be discussed in Section 6. Gauri has been known since the work of Olaf Hanson, a Swedish-American Baptist missionary who worked for the Kachins in northern Burma from 1890 until 1928. Hanson (1906: 172) describes Gauri as follows: “[Gauri is] A large clan of the Lăhpai tribe, inhabiting a score or more villages due east of Bhamo. The Gauris, or as the word is generally
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