Front Matter

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1 Edited by Kate Fleet Frontmatter More information

the cambridge history of TURKEY * Volume I of The Cambridge History of Turkey examines the rise of Turkish power in Anatolia from the arrival of the first Turks at the end of the eleventh century to the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. Taking the period as a whole, rather than dividing it along the more usual pre-Ottoman/Ottoman fault line, the volume covers the political, economic, social, intellectual and cultural history of the region as the Byzantine Empire crumbled and Anatolia passed into Turkish control to become the heartland of the Ottoman Empire. In this way,the contributors to the volume engagewithandemphasisethecontinuitiesoftheeraratherthanits dislocations, situating Anatolia within its geographic context at the crossroads of Central Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. The world which emerges is one of military encounter, but also of cultural co-habitation, intellectual and diplomatic exchange, and political finesse. This is a state-of-the-art work of reference on an understudied period in Turkish history by some of the leading scholars in the field.

kate fleet is Director of the Skilliter Centre for Ottoman Stud- ies, Newnham College, Cambridge, and Newton Trust Lecturer in Ottoman History at the Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Cambridge University. Her previous publications include European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State (1999) and, as joint-editor, The Ottomans and Trade (2006).

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-62093-2 - The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1 Edited by Kate Fleet Frontmatter More information

the cambridge history of TURKEY Founding editor I. Metin Kunt, Professor of History, Sabancı University

The Cambridge History of Turkey represents a monumental enterprise. The History, comprising four volumes, covers the period from the end of the eleventh century,with the arrival of the Turks in Anatolia, through the emergence of the early Ottoman state, and its development into a powerful empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, encompassing a massive territory from the borders of Iran in the east, to Hungary in the west, and North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the south. The last volume covers its destruction in the aftermath of the First World War, and the history of the modern state of Turkey which arose from the ashes of empire. Chapters from an international team of contributors reflect the very significant advances that have taken place in Ottoman history and Turkish studies in recent years.

volume i Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 Edited by Kate Fleet

volume 2 The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603 Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet

volume 3 The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839 Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi

volume 4 Turkey in the Modern World Edited by Res¸at Kasaba

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF TURKEY

VOLUME I Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453

Edited by KATE FLEET

University Printing House, Cambridgeicb2 8bsi , United K ingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’ s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521620932

C Cambridge University Press 2009

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First published 2009 Reprinted 2014

Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc.

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 / edited by Kate Fleet. p. cm. – (The Cambridge history of Turkey ; v. 1) Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-521-62093-2 (hardback) 1. Turkey – History – To 1453. I. Fleet, Kate. dr481.b98 2008 956.1014 –dc22 2008035737

isbn 978-0-521-62093-2 Hardback

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Contents

·List of illustrations ix ·List of maps x ·List of contributors xi ·A note on transliteration xiii ·Chronology xiv

· 1 · Introduction 1 kate ﬂeet

· 2 · The Byzantine Empire from the eleventh to the ﬁfteenth century 6 julian chrysostomides

· 3 · Anatolia under the Mongols 51 charles melville

· 4 · Anatolia, 1300–1451 102 rudi paul lindner

· 5 · The incorporation of the Balkans into the Ottoman Empire, 1353–1453 138 machiel kiel

· 6 · Ottoman warfare, 1300–1453 192 pal´ fodor

· 7 · The Turkish economy, 1071–1453 227 kate ﬂeet

vii

Contents

· 8 · Art and architecture, 1300–1453 266 howard crane

· 9 · Social, cultural and intellectual life, 1071–1453 353 ahmet yas¸ar ocak

·Glossary 423 ·Bibliography 429 ·Index 482

viii

Illustrations

8.1 Plan of Bursa in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries page 275 8.2 ˙Ilyas Bey Camii, Balat (Miletus), plan and view of north façade 280 8.3 Yes¸il Cami, ˙Iznik, plan and view from north-west 282 8.4 Ulu Cami, Ermenak, plan and view of prayer hall interior along kıble wall 284 8.5 ˙Isa Bey Camii, Ayasoluk, plan and view from south 285 8.6 Sungur Bey Camii, Nigde,˘ plan and view of north portal 287 8.7 Ulu Cami, Bursa, plan and interior of prayer hall 289 8.8 ˙Ilyas Bey Camii, Manisa, plan and view of prayer hall interior 291 8.9 Uc¨ ¸S¸erefeli Cami, Edirne, plan and view of covering showing arrangement of prayer hall domes 293 8.10 Yes¸il complex, Bursa, site plan and view of south-west exterior of mosque 296 8.11 Hatuniye Medrese, Karaman, plan, view of portal and view of courtyard 299 8.12 Vacidiye Medresesi, Kutahya,¨ plan and view of courtyard and eyvan 301 8.13 Haliliye Medresesi, Gum¨ us¨¸, Merzifon, plan 303 8.14 Muradiye Medresesi, Bursa, plan 304 8.15 Hudavend¨ Hatun Turbesi,¨ Nigde,˘ general view 307 8.16 As¸ik Pas¸a Turbesi,¨ Kırs¸ehir, general view 309 8.17 Tas¸kın Pas¸a Sarayı, Damsa Koy¨ u,¨ Urg¨ up,¨ plan and general view 312 8.18 Issız Han, Ulubad, plan and general view of entry façade 315 8.19 Iskendername˙ , dated 819/1416 323 8.20 Muradiye, Edirne, detail of kalem is¸i 325 8.21 Konya carpet (t˙ıem 688), c.1300 330 8.22 Niccolo di Buonacorso, Marriage of the Virgin (c.1370), with Anatolian animal carpet 332 8.23 Animal carpet with struggling dragon and phoenix, c.1400 334 8.24 Proto-Holbein carpet from Beys¸ehir 337 8.25 Mihrab, Ulu Cami of Birgi 339 8.26 Yes¸il Turbe,¨ Bursa, general view of exterior 341 8.27 Mihrab and cenotaph, Yes¸il Turbe,¨ Bursa 342 8.28 Muradiye, Edirne, detail of dado 344 8.29 Minber bone inlay, Tas¸kın Pas¸a Camii, Damsa Koy¨ u,¨ Urg¨ up¨ 349 8.30 Kundekari¨ wooden door, Yes¸il Turbe,¨ Bursa 350

Maps

1 The Byzantine Empire, 1071 page xvii 2 Beylik Anatolia xviii 3 The Ottoman Empire, 1453 xix

Contributors

JULIAN CHRYSOSTOMIDES is the Director of the Hellenic Institute, Royal Hol- loway and Bedford New College, University of London and is Emerita Reader in Byzantine History at the University of London. Her books include Funeral Oration on his Brother Theodore: Manuel II Palaeologos (Thessalonike, 1985) and Monumenta Peloponnesiaca: Docu- ments for the History of the Peloponnese in the 14th and 15th Centuries (Camberley, 1995).

HOWARD CRANE is a Professor in the Department of the History of Art at Ohio State University. His books include The Garden of Mosques: Haﬁz Huseyin¨ al-Ayvansarayi’s Guide to the Muslim Monuments of Ottoman Istanbul (Leiden, 2000) and Risale-i Mi’mariyye: an Early Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Treatise on Architecture (Leiden, 1987).

KATE FLEET is the Director of the Skilliter Centre for Ottoman Studies, Newnham College, Cambridge and is Newton Trust Lecturer in Ottoman History at the Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge. Her books include European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State: the Merchants of Genoa and Turkey (Cambridge, 1999).

PAL´ FODOR is Head of the Department of the Early Modern Age at the Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He has published extensively on the military and administrative organisation and the ruling elite of the Ottoman state as well as on Ottoman political relations with Europe. His books include In Quest of the Golden Apple: Imperial Ideology, Politics, and Military Administration in the Ottoman Empire (Istanbul, 2000), and ‘Affairs of State are Supreme’: the Orders of the Ottoman Imperial Council Pertaining to Hungary (1544–1545, 1552) (Budapest, 2005), which he co-authored with Geza´ David,´ with whom he has also co-edited several collections of articles on Ottoman–European relations.

MACHIEL KIEL was Director of the Netherlands Archaeological Institute in Istanbul. He is Adviser to UNESCO for Bosnia-Hercegovina and lectures on Islamic Architecture at ˙Istanbul Teknik Universitesi.¨ He has also worked for eighteen years as a builder and stone cutter at the Dutch Service for Historical Monuments, thus combining academic study with work in the archives and practical experience in building. He has written extensively on the Ottoman Balkans and his books include Studies on the Ottoman Architecture of the Balkans (Aldershot, 1990).

List of contributors

RUDI PAUL LINDNER is Professor of History at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, where he teaches comparative medieval history and the history of astrophysics. He has published on the history of steppe nomads, early Ottoman historiography, medieval monetaryhistoryandthedevelopmentofastronomicalinstitutionsinthetwentieth-century USA. His books include Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia (Bloomington, 1983) and Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory (Bloomington, 2006).

CHARLES MELVILLE is Reader in Persian History at the Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge. His books include A History of Persian Earthquakes (Cambridge, 1982), which he c0-authored with N. N. Ambraseys and The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: a Historical Review (Cambridge, 1994) (with N. N. Ambraseys and R. D. Adams).

AHMET YAS¸AR OCAK is a Professor in the Department of History at Hacettepe Universitesi.¨ His work is on Seljuk and Ottoman social, cultural and religious history and his extensive publications include BabaˆılerIsyanı:Alev˙ ˆıliginTarihselAltyapısıYahutAnadolu’da˘ Isl˙ am-Tˆ urk¨ Heterodoksisinin Tes¸ekkul¨ u¨ (Istanbul, 2000), Osmanlı Imparatorlu˙ gu’nda˘ Marjinal Sufˆ ˆılik: Kalenderˆıler (Ankara, 1999), Osmanlı Toplumunda Zındıklar ve Mulhidler¨ Yahut Dairenin Dıs¸ına C¸ıkanlar, 3rd edn (Istanbul, 2003), Sarı Saltık: Populer¨ Islam’inˆ Balkanlardaki Destani Onc¨ us¨ u¨, (Ankara, 2002)andKult¨ ur¨ Tarihi Kaynagı˘ Olarak Menakıbnˆ ameler:ˆ Metodolojik Bir Yaklas¸ım (Ankara, 1997).

xii

A note on transliteration

OttomanTurkishhasbeentransliteratedusingmodernTurkishorthography,anddiacritical marking of long vowels has not been used for Arabic and Persian terms or names. Names have been given in their Turkish form except when in common usage in English. Where ﬁgures are more familiar under a different form, both forms are given.

xiii

Chronology

Seljuks 1063–72 Alp Arslan 1071 Battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert) 1081–92 Suleyman¨ I 1092–1107 Kılıç Arslan I 1107–16 Meliks¸ah 1116–56 Rukneddin¨ Mesud I 1156–92 Kılıç Arslan II 1192–6, 1204–10 Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev¨ I 1196–1204 Rukneddin¨ Suleyman¨ II 1204–5 ˙Izzeddin Kılıç Arslan III 1210–20 ˙Izzeddin Keykavus I 1220–37 Alaeddin Keykubad I 1237–43 Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev¨ II 1243 Battle of Koseda¨ g˘ 1246–48 ˙Izzeddin Keykavus II 1248–65 Rukneddin¨ Kılıç Arslan IV 1249–57 Alaeddin Keykubad II 1265–83 Gıyaseddin Keyhusrev¨ III 1283–4, 1284–93, 1294–1301, 1303–7 Gıyaseddin Mesud II 1284, 1292–3, 1301–3 Alaeddin Keykubad III 1307 Gıyaseddin Mesud III

Ilkhans 1253–65 Huleg¨ u¨ 1265–82 Abaqa 1282–4 Ahmad Teguder¨ 1284–91 Arghun 1291–5 Geyhatu 1295 Baidu 1295–1304 Ghazan

xiv

Chronology

1304–16 Oljeit¨ u¨ 1317–35 Abu Sa‘id

Beyliks Latter part 13th century Foundation of the beyliks ?–c.1324 Osman c.1324–62 Orhan 1326 Fall of Bursa to the Ottomans 1331 Fall of Nikaia (˙Iznik) to the Ottomans 1337 Fall of Nikomedia (˙Izmit) to the Ottomans c.mid-1330s Ottoman conquest of Karası 1344 Crusader force partially occupied ˙Izmir 1354 Ottoman occupation of Gelibolu (Callipolis) 1362–89 Murad I c.1369 Fall of Adrianople (Edirne) to the Ottomans 1371 Battle of Ç irmen on the Maritsa (Meriç) 1370s Ottoman conquest of Germiyan and Hamid 1380s Ottoman conquest of Teke 1385 Fall of Nisˇ to the Ottomans 1387 Fall of Thessalonike to the Ottomans 1389 Battle of Kosovo 1389–1402 Bayezid I 1389–90 Ottoman conquest of Aydın and Mentes¸e 1394–1402 Siege of Constantinople by the Ottomans 1396 Battle of Nikopolis 1397 Ottoman defeat of Karaman 1402 Battle of Ankara 1402–13 Period of internecine fighting among the Ottomans 1413–21 Mehmed I 1416 Revolt of S¸eyh Bedreddin and Borkl¨ uce¨ Mustafa 1421–44, 1446–51 Murad II 1422 Siege of Constantinople by the Ottomans 1430 Fall of Thessalonike to the Ottomans 1444 Battle of Varna 1444–6, 1451–81 Mehmed II 1448 Second battle of Kosovo 1453 Ottoman conquest of Constantinople

Byzantium 1071–8 Michael VII Doukas 1078–81 Nikephoros III Botaneiates

Chronology

1081–1118 Alexios I Komnenos 1118–43 John II Komnenos 1143–80 Manuel I Komnenos 1180–3 Alexios II Komnenos 1183–5 Andronikos I Komnenos 1185–95, 1203–4 Isakios II Angelos 1195–1203 Alexios III Angelos 1203–4 Isakios II Angelos and Alexios IV Angelos 1204 Alexios V Doukas Fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade 1204–61 Latin kingdom of Constantinople 1204–1461 Latin kingdom of Trebizond 1204–22 Theodore I Laskaris 1222–54 John III Doukas Vatatzes 1254–8 Theodore II Laskaris 1258–9 John IV Laskaris 1259–82 Mıchael VIII Palaeologos 1282–1328 Andronikos II Palaeologos 1328–41 Andronikos III Palaeologos 1341–91 John V Palaeologos 1341–7 Civil war in Byzantium 1347–54 John VI Kantakouzenos 1373–6 Manuel II Palaeologos 1376–9 Andronikos IV Palaeologos 1391–1425 Manuel II Palaeologos 1425–48 John VIII Palaeologos 1448–53 Constantine XI Palaeologos

xvi

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