University Microfilms, a XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

72-4U09

ALLONG, Albert Francis, 1936- HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE SCIOTO DRAINAGE BASIN.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1971 Geology

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company , Ann Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLTf AS RECEIVED HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE SCIOTO DRAINAGE BASIN

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Albert Francis /JLlong, B„SC

The Ohio State University 1S71

Approved by

Department of Geology PLEASE NOTE:

Some Pages have indistinct print. Filmed as received.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I sincerely appreciate the help given to me by my adviser, Dr. Wayne A, Pettyjohn, without which this study would not have been possible. It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the help and cooperation of Jim Schmidt and Herb Eagon from the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of water, and Stan Norris from the U. S. Geolog­ ical Survey, Water Resources branch. I am particularly grateful to Professors Pettyjohn, Charles Summerson and Richard Goldthwait for their editorial work and advice during the preparation of this report, and several of my fellow students and departmental staff for their technical help.

This investigation was supported by research funds and equipment through Dr. Pettyjohn, a Carman Fellowship, and a Friends of Orton grant.

ii VITA

January 29, 1936 . . Born - Trinidad, West Indies 1939 •••••••• B*Sc., St* Francis Xavier Univer­ sity, Antigonish, Nova Scotia 1959-1963...... Geologist, Dominion Oil Ltd, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies 1963-1965. * . . * . t Geologist, Alberta Research Council, Edmonton, Alberta 1965-1967...... Research Assistant, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin M.S., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 1967-1968...... Assistant in the Department of Geology, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio

1968-1970. Research Associate, Department of Geology, The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio 1970-1971. Carman Fellow, Department of Geology, The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field; Goclogy

Studies in Hydrogeology• Professor Wayne A* Pettyjohn Studies in odontology. Professors Charles H. Sommersou aud Gordon Everett Studies in Economic Geology. Professor Robert L. Bates TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... il VITA ...... iii LIST OF TABLES ...... vi LIST OF FIGURES...... vii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Purpose and Scope of Investigation . * • I Watershed Description and Size ...... 2 General Character of the Area...... 5 Basin Economy...... 12 Problems Related to the li&ter Resources of the Basin...... 15 Previous Investigations...... 16 II. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION...... 26 Introduction ...... 26 Field w o r k ...... 26 Laboratory Investigations...... 28 Interpretation procedure ...... 31 III. LATE TERTIARY AND PLEISTOCENE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS ...... 32

Introduction...... 3 2 pre-glacial Drainage System...... 32 Glacial Drainage System...... 3 4 IV. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY ...... 40 General Statement...... 40 Pleistocene Stratigraphy ...... 4 1 Soils...... 4 8 CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Page

V. BEDROCK STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE...... 49 General Geology...... 49 Bedrock Formations of Central and Southern Ohio ...... 51 Structural Geology ...... 56 VI. HYDROGEOLOGY ...... 61 Introduction ...... 61 Silurian-Devonian Carbonate Geo­ hydrologic U n i t ...... 63 Shale with Sandstone Layers Geo­ hydrologic Unit - Ohio Shale...... 103 Mississippian Sandstone Aquifers.... 110 Unconsolidated Sediments Geohydrologic Unit - Sand and Gravel...... 124 T i l l ...... 152 VII. SURFACE WATER IN THE SCIOTO B A S I N ...... 167 Introduction ...... 167 Flow Characteristics...... 167 Surface-Water Quality and Its Rela­ tionship to the Surficial Geology • • 162 VIII. AVAILABILITY OF WATER IN THE SCIOTO BASIN . 189 Introduction...... 189 Surface Water Resources...... 190 Surface-water Quality...... 192 Ground-water Resources ...... 192 Aquifer Systems...... 193 IX. SUMMARY ...... 200 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 207

v LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Counties Wholly or Partly Included in the Scioto River Basin...... 4 2. Length, Gradient and Drainage Areas of the Major Watercourses in the Scioto River B a s i n ...... 7 3. Scioto Drainage Basin, Economic Resources. . 13 4. Aquifer Test Data at Hilliard, Franklin County...... 69 5. Ground-water Quality in the Silurian- Devonian Carbonate in the Scioto Basin. . 94

6. Ground-water Quality in the Ohio Shale in the Scioto Basin. 108 7. Ground-water Quality in the Mississippian Sandstones in the Scioto Basin...... 123 8. Sieve Analyses of Sand and Gravel in the Channel Deposits of the Scioto Basin. • • 130 9. Ground-water Quality in the Pleistocene Drift in the Scioto B a s i n ...... 162 10. Relationship between Base Flow and Rock Type in the Scioto Basin. 181 11. Reservoir, Location, Drainage Area and Capacity in the Scioto River Basin. . • • 191

vi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Outline of the Scioto River Basin...... 3 2. Average Annual precipitation in the Scioto Basin...... 10

3. Average Annual Temperature in the Scioto B a s i n ...... 11 4. Distribution of Natural Resources in the Scioto Basin, ...... 15 5. Ground-water Investigations Gompleted in the Scioto Basin...... 18 6. Constant-head permeameter...... 30 7. Teays Drainage System in the Scioto Basin. 33 8. The Deep Stage Drainage System in the Scioto Basin...... 34 9. Configuration of the Bedrock Surface in the Scioto Basin ...... 35

10. Pre-glacial and Inter-glacial Channels in the Scioto Basin...... 39 11. Drift Thickness in the Scioto Basin. . . . 42 12. Profile of Terraces in the Scioto Valley . 44 13. Location of Major End Moraines in the Scioto Basin...... 46 14. Stratigraphic Column in Central Ohio . . . 50

15. Structure Cross Section...... 57

vii FIGURES (continued)

Figure Page

16. Bedrock Geology and Trend of Joint Systems in the Scioto Basin ...... 60 17. Schematic Diagram of the Silurian- Devonian Carbonate Geohydrologic Unit . 64 18. Silurian-Devonian Carbonate Isopach under the Scioto Basin...... 66 19. Time-Drawdown Plot of Hilliard Rail Road Well lf Test 1...... 71 20. Time-Drawdown Curve of Hilliard Rail Road Well 1 ...... 72

21. The Silurian-Devonian "Big Lime" Section in Allentown* ...... 74 22. Ground-water Level in the Silurian- Devonian Carbonate...... 78 23. Static-water Level in the Silurian- Devonian Geohydrologic Unit in the Scioto Basin...... 80

24. Schematic Diagram of Subsurface Inflow from One Drainage Basin into Another. • 84

25. Schematic Diagram of Induced Seepage from a Surface Stream...... 64

26. Areas of Significant Pumpage from the Silurian-Devonian Carbonate in the Scioto Basin...... 88 27. Schematic Diagram of the Ground-water Flow Direction in the Western Half of the Scioto Basin...... 69 28. Flow Duration Curve of the Olentangy River at Stratford...... 92

viii FIGURES (continued)

Figure Page

29. Static-water Level in the Ohio Shale in the Scioto Basin...... * * 105 30. Distribution of Mississippian Rock Facies in the Scioto Basin ...... 112 31. Step-Test, Hocking State Forest...... 115 32. Static-water Level in the Mississippian Aquifers in the Scioto Basin...... 117 33. Schematic Diagram of Leakage from the Mississippian Sandstones into Sand and Gravel in Buried Channels ...... 118 34. Brackish-Fresh Water Interface in the Berea Sandstone in the Scioto Basin • . 125 35. Isopach of Sand and Gravel in the Scioto Basin...... 127 36-a. Composition Plot of Samples Collected from Surface Exposures ...... 132 36-b. Composition Plot of Samples Collected from Test Holes at Piketon...... 132 37. Time-Drawdown Curve of Well N-l at Piketon Test Site ...... 134 38. Time-Drawdown Curve of Well N-l at Piketon Test Site ...... 136 39. Time-Drawdown Curve at Piketon Test Site . 137 40. Static-water Level in the Pleistocene Drift in the Scioto Basin ...... 142 41. Schematic Diagram Showing Induced Recharge. 145

ix FIGURES (continued)

Figure Page

42• Till Thickness in the Scioto Basin • • . • 153 43. Ground-water Conditions in Till* ...... 155

44* Most Suitable Solid Waste Disposal Sites in the Scioto Basin ...... 157

45. Stream Hydrograph of Whetstone Creek near A s h l e y ...... 159 46. Flow Duration Curve of Whetstone Creek near A s h l e y ...... 160 47. Flow Duration Curve of Little Scioto River near M a r i o n ...... 170 48. Stream Hydrograph of Paint C r e e k ...... 172 49. Flow Duration Curve of Paint Creek near Greenfield...... 173 50. Stream Hydrograph of Tar Hollow creek at Tar Hollow State P a r k ...... 174 51. Flow Duration Curve of Tar Hollow Creek at Tar Hollow State Park...... 175

52. Stream Hydrograph of Scioto River at H i g b y ...... 176 53. Flow Duration Curve of Scioto River at H i g b y ...... 178 54. Stream Hydrograph of Deer Creek at Williamsport...... ••••• 179

55. Stream Hydrograph of Big Darby Creek at Darbyville...... 180

56. Ground-water Sources in Sand and Gravel in the Scioto Basin ...... 195

x FIGURES (continued)

Figure Page

57. Ground-water Sources in the Silurian- Devonian Carbonate in the Scioto B a s i n ...... 176 58. Ground-water Sources in the Mississippian Sandstones in the Scioto Basin...... 198 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Purpose and Scope of Investigation

This report presents & comprehensive study designed mainly to describe the hydrologic properties of a large drainage basis and relate them to its geologic character. Its purpose is basically fourfold: 1) To examine the stream-flow hydraulics, ground-water flow patterns and water quality of a basin 2) To determine what relationships exist between hydrologic properties, water supply potential, and water-qualiiy problems of the basin 3) To determine the relationships between the rock units and their hydraulic properties 4) To formulate the findings in such a way that future problems arising from ground-water development, waste

disposal, and industrial or recreational development can be anticipated.

This investigation covers the entire Scioto River drainage basis. Increased industrial and municipal water demands and available hydrologic data make this basin well suited for such a study.

1 2

Previous investigations in the Scioto River area differ in magnitude from this study because this report describes the entire basin and provides the information necessary for realistic development and management of water resources.

Watershed Description and Size

The Scioto River basin, which drains southward into the Ohio River, .is the principal watershed of central and southern Ohio. A continental divide marks its northern limit, the resistant rocks of the Allegheny Plateau form the eastern boundary, and the western edge is a pre-glacial divide accentuated by the addition of moraine material

(Fi9. 1). The basin is roughly rectangular measuring approximately

130 miles long and 50 miles wide. It includes part or all of thirty-one counties (Table 1)• Columbus, Chillicothe, Marion, and Delaware are the major cities in the basin.

The basinal topography results from the slight eastward dip of Silurian and Devonian carbonate bedrock and differ­ ential erosion of Devonian shale along its north-south axis. However, the relief is modified by glacial drift in the northern three-quarters of the basin. In contrast, the southern part of the basin, which is unaffected by glacia­ tion, except in the major tributary and main stream channels, is rugged and hilly. It is also cut mainly in 3

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**ILI4 TABLE 1 COUNTIES WHOLLY OR PARTLY INCLUDED IN THE SCIOTO RIVER BASIN

^ Land Area in Basin °ounty (Per cent) Adams 23.0 Allen 0.7 Auglaize 3.2 Champaign 19.2 d a r k 4.4

Clinton 16.6 Crawford 22.0 Delaware 100.0 Fairfield 39.5 Fayette 99.9 Franklin 100.0 Greene 4.0 Hardin 51.0 Highland 46.4 Hocking 36.3 Jackson 36.5 Knox 1.1 Licking 6.6 Logan 27.0 Madison 98.8 Marion 79.6 Morrow 66.1 Perry 1.1 Pickaway 100.0 Pike 90.4 Richland 0.6 Ross 99.8 Scioto 40.3 Union 100.0 Vinton 29.2 Wyandot 0.3 5

sandstone and shale rather than carbonate. The Scioto River valley and the mouths of the major tributary valleys are filled with sand and gravel.

General Character of the Area

Surface Drainage The Scioto River, the main stream in the drainage basin, is about 231 miles long, one.of the longest tribu­ taries in the Ohio River basin. Its average gradient is about 2.3 feet per mile, but it flows on bedrock between Delaware and Columbus, where the gradient is closer to five feet per mile. The stream rises near Kenton and flows along the distal margin of the Wabash Moraine down to its confluence with the Little Scioto River near Marion. The Scioto then flows due south through Columbus to Portsmouth where it empties into the Ohio River. The major tributaries to the Scioto River are post­ glacial, and their directions are controlled by morainal ridges. The headwaters of the streams are parallel to the ridges but they cut across them, near the main stream. The resultant near-parallelism of the channels makes a striking north-south pattern. In the unglaciated part of the basin, the Scioto River valley is slightly narrower and is filled with outwash. The main tributaries (Sunfish and Scioto Brush creeks) flow in similarly sand and gravel-filled valleys where they 6

approach the Scioto, Their headwaters occupy deeper channels because of differential erosion of the sandstone, conglomerate and shale bedrocks. The conglomerate and sandstone form the cap rocks responsible for the high relief• The major tributaries have an average gradient

ranging from 5.5 to 9.7 feet per mile. Their average length is approximately 65 miles, and, together with the

Scioto, they drain about 6,510 square miles, or 16 per cent of the State of Ohio. The major streams, their lengths and gradients are listed in Table 2, The basin is well drained, except in the northern part where small marshes dot the landscape. There are no natural lakes, but sink holes in the northwestern part of the basin store surface runoff temporarily. The Scioto River marks the basin's long axis, which descends about 200 feet in elevation from north to south. The short or east to west axis across the southcentral part of the basin is even steeper; the total relief is almost 300 feet between either of the basin's edge and the Scioto River.

Relief The basin has two distinct geomorphic provinces: the till plain in the north and central part, and the rugged, nonglaciated Allegheny Plateau in the south. 7

TABLE 2 LENGTH GRADIENT AND DRAINAGE AREAS OF THE MAJOR WATER COURSES IN THE SCIOTO RIVER BASIN

Length Gradient Drainage Area Stream in in Feet in Miles Per Mile Square Miles

Scioto River 230.8 2.3 6,509.9 Big Walnut Creek 74.2 7.0 556.7 Darby Creek 78.7 6.8 556.6

Olentangy River 88.5 5.5 536.3 Mill Creek 37.8 6.2 185.5

Deer Creek 67.1 7.6 408.4 Paint Creek 94.7 5.6 1,142.7

Salt Creek 45.4 9.7 553.4 Little Walnut Creek 49.8 9.4 280.7 Rush Creek 40.1 6.6 107.3 Alum creek 55.8 7.4 200.7

Data taken from Gazetteer of Ohio Streams , 1954.

The till plain, whose elevation ranges from 900 to 1100 feet, is relatively flat but locally undulating. The major streams form the most conspicuous topographic features; their channels are generally less than a quarter mile wide, fifty feet deep, and have very irregular flood plains. The Scioto River, however, flows in a bedrock channel that is both deep and wide north of Columbus* South 8

of Oolumbus the channel is bordered by a series of terraces cut into Pleistocene gravel* In the small tributaries draining the western half of the basin, rapids are prominent, as for example at Hayden Falls on Hayden Run* Hubbard and others (1915) suggest that their development is due to a hard layer in the Columbus Limestone at depths of

25 to 30 feet. Less conspicuous, but clearly discernible on the topographic map of the basin, are moraine ridges that loop across the till plain, giving it a garland appearance. Individual morains, however, may look like low-rounded knobs or high hills and ridges with a maximum relief of 50 feet* Karnes and eskers, although not common, are locally prominent in northwestern Delaware, southeastern Franklin and eastern Pickaway Counties. The local relief is gener­ ally less than 60 feet and the eskers may be as much as a mile long and 400 feet wide. The unglaciated part of the basin has a distinctly different topograptic setting. The bedrock is predominantly shale, which is protected locally from erosion by Berea and Cuyahoga Sandstones and the Sharon Conglomerate of Pennsyl­ vanian age. The local differential erosion causes the formation of a rugged, hilly topography with deep gorges which are largely filled with silt, sand and gravel. Climate The Scioto drainage basin lies between 38 degrees 45 minutes and 40 degrees 45 minutes North Latitude in the humid temperate region of Ohio, Two predominant wind directions, one from the northwest and the other from the southeast, account for most of the precipitation over the basin. Warm moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico are res­ ponsible for convectional thunderstorms--very intense, relatively short duration rain showers that occur mainly during the summer months. Schuster (1952) reported that there are on an average 40 to 50 such storms per year in the central part of the basin. Winds blowing off the Great Lakes cause cyclonic precipitation, which is not as intense as the former but lasts longer. Most of the snowfall in the study area are due to these winds.

The average annual precipitation in the basin is shown in Figure 2. Precipitation is most abundant— 42.5 inches per year near the Ohio River and least in Hardin County--34 inches. The decrease is gradual from south to north, except for a local anomaly in Franklin County where it decreases abruptly to 34 inches. The total snowfall, however, increases northward because of the moisture laden winds blowing off Lake Brie. The average annual temperature shows a uniform decrease from a high of 56 degrees F. in Portsmouth in the south to 50.5 degrees F. in the northern extreme of the basin (Fig. 3). 10

Explanation

Gontour shows Precipitation, in lnchea/year

lit*

f/ .v lap ted from : Hydrologio Atlas, Rept* 13*

2. Average Annual Precipitation In tVis Scioto 3aaln. cP Contour shows Temperature, In 75s Degrees F.

« •V l« a

A rt aptecl from * Hydrologio Atlas, Kept. 13.

l-’irure 3* Average Annual Temperature In the Scioto Basin# 12

Columbus is slightly warmer than the surrounding country and as a result, the isothermal lines are displaced to the north. Between 164 and 185 frost-free days per year occur in the basin; generally, the largest number is in the southern part.

Basin Economy

The Scioto drainage basin lies in a predominantly agricultural region and approximately 85 per cent of its acreage is farmed. The southeastern non-glaciated area

is mainly woodland, and the eastern lowlands are the center of sheep raising. The western half of the basin is in the 'Midwest corn belt* It also supports large dairy production

and livestock. Irrigation is not an important water use. The major mineral industries in the Scioto basin are the production of sand and gravel, and limestone for the

construction industry. Shale and clay for the manufacture of clay products and sandstone for building are mined in very limited quantities. Minor production of oil and gas is also a source of income in the basin. Table 3 lists the resources, location in the basin and their principal uses. Fig. 4 shows their locations. Most sand and gravel deposits are restricted to the stream valleys although some are found in the kame and esker areas in northwest Delaware, southeast Franklin and eastern Pickaway Counties. The other materials (limestone, 13

TABLE 3 SCIOTO DRAINAGE BASIN ECONOMIC RESOURCES OF THE BASIN (Other than Ground Water)

Resource Source Material Principal Use Location Sand and Outwash Paving and building Franklin Gravel Highland Hocking Madison Morrow Pickaway Pike, Ross Union Scioto Shale Bedford Put. Brick and tile Delaware Franklin Bedford and Ohio Sh. Brick and tile Marion day Lake deposit Brick and tile Madison Lake deposit Brick and tile and and lower bonding clay Scioto Kittanning

Sandstone Sharon Congl, Cement, foundry Pike sand, metallur­ Ross gical pebble Beuna Vista Dimension stone Scioto Limestone Columbus and Concrete, road Delaware Delaware Lst metal, flux Franklin stone, agricul­ Marion tural Pickaway Tyxaochtee Dol. Concrete, road Fayette metal, railroad Ross ballast, rip rap, union agricultural

Tymochtee it Hardin, Pike Guelph and Greenfield Dol. 14

TABLE 3 (conti nued)

Resource Source Material Principal Use Location Brassfield and Concrete, road metal, Highland Peebles Dol. railroad ballast, rip rap, agricul­ tural

Columbus and I f Madison Detroit River Lst

Oil and * gas Cambrian Dol. Fuel Delaware Morrow, Pike Hardin Marion Scioto

Data from Division of Mines Report, 1968.

shale and sandstone) are quarried from bedrock where the drift is thin or absent.

Manufacturing industries employ the largest number of people and most of the plants are located in the Scioto valley. Their products include paper goods, machinery and transportation equipment.

Problems Related to the Water Resources of_ the Basin

There are two types of problems in the Scioto basin with respect to water resources. The headwater region is poorly drained and there is little groundwater storage space available. As a result, problems are created by 15

Limestone

Sand and graval

Oil and Gas

v \

C*ia piv^tan

<1*

Fl^ire /*. Bi-jtrlbuti on of Natural Resourcea in th« Scioto Divoln* 16 flooding in the lower reaches of the basin after prolonged precipitation* Industrialization poses a second type of problem involving an adequate supply of potable water close to the point of use. Steady population growth results in an increasing demand for the generation of electric power, waste disposal, recreation and domestic use, all of which place heavy demand on the available water re­ sources . *

Previous Investigations

Introduction Investigations of the ground water in the Scioto basin extend back at least 100 years. The Ohio Division of Geological Survey and Division of Water have been the agencies most responsible for evaluating the water resources, but the U. S. Geological Survey, water Resources Branch and The Ohio State University have also provided some re­ sources and personnel to this end. Some of the most dis­ tinguished investigators include Orton (1874), Leverett

(1897), Hyde (1921), Westgate (1926), Stout (1916), Walton (1953), and Norris (1957).

Water-related investigations included the geologic properties of the various aquifers, the quantity of ground water in storage, the flow of several streams, and their water quality. The scope of the studies varies widely from very generalized hydrogeology of the entire basin to a very 17 exhaustive study of a single aspect in the basin hydro­ geology. Franklin and Madison Counties are the most com­ pletely studied areas. Other investigations include Ross,

Pickaway, Scioto, Pike and Delaware Counties (Fig* 5). In addition, the ground water potential of the basin has been evaluated by Deutsch and others (1966). During the last decade the number of articles concerned with hydrologic problems in the basin has greatly increased.

The investigations can be classified into three basic types: (1) those that are only a minor part in a general geologic evaluation and which provide information on the quality of ground water at a specific place; (2) those that set out to solve specific aquifer hydrologic problems; and (3) those that are general hydrologic evaluations of and in the basin but made from very limited data*

Early investigations of ground water in the Scioto basin are merely collections of data, reported in simple non­ technical terms. Later reports include greater detail, but generally are restricted by political boundaries. These latter reports evaluate the hydrologic properties of the aquifers in selected counties and villages* The latest in­ vestigations are concerned mostly with the total hydrology of the basin. Appendix E of the ,fOhio River Basin Compre­ hensive Survey" is an example of work completed in the last decade * 18

work done under the auspices of i Ohio Geological Survey Ohio Division of Water U.S.Geological Survey, Water Resources Branch

Uli)

k

net­

Figur-!* Ground-water Investigations completed in ths Scioto Basin* 19

Since the early 1900*s Federal and State agencies have collected information pertinent to the water budget of the State of Ohio* Precipitation and temperature data through­ out the basin are complete and evenly distributed. Stream

discharge has also been recorded in all the major streams since 1921 but, unfortunately, the locations of the stream gages do not correlate to changes in geologic conditions. In contrast, ground-water level fluctuations are seldom recorded. Static water levels are measured in the basin when a private or public well is completed. The water quality data from several wells tapping different aquifers and from surface streams have been determined and are now available in open-file reports.

Review of Investigations

Few investigations were made before 1900. The earliest reports were published by the State Geological Survey (1874

and 1878), which was authorized by the State Legislature to make an exhaustive and accurate record of the natural resources of Ohio. Orton (1874) and Winchell (1874) were the chief inves­ tigators in the area drained by the Scioto River. During these data collection years, Orton (1878) located, measured discharge and determined the water quality of springs from various bedrock units in Pike County. His correlations of the waters and their source aquifers and interpretations of 20 the ground-water potential of buried sand and gravel in Mad­ ison County are still valid today. Winchell (1874) located water wells in various counties, determined major aquifers and described the water's taste. He suggested, for example, that the "artesian Sulfur Springs" in Delaware County flowed from the "Waterlime," now called the "Big Lime."

This period of investigation ended with significant contributions by Leverett (1897) and Orton (1898). In his first work, Leverett (1897) mapped the surface drainage basins of the Ohio River. He provided the basin concept for subsequent hydrologic investigations, but unfortunately this concept was not used during the next half century. He also mapped the depth to the water table, the aquifer, and the water quality. He subsequently concluded that the hardest water was produced from the carbonate aquifer, and the softest from the Carboniferous sandstones. Orton

(1899) evaluated the "rock waters" in Ohio. He presented his results in summarized form pointing out the water sources and general conditions in the towns and villages of each county in the State.

Between 1900 and 1950, ground water investigations became a very integral part and in some, the most important part of geological reports. Hyde (1921) mapped the geology of the Camp Sherman Quadrangle--an area south of Franklin County, including all of Pickaway County--from a military standpoint. A major part of the investigation was concerned 21

with the depth to water, and from the data collected he

recognized the occurrence of a seasonal fluctuation of the ground-water level recharge areas, local flow patterns, and a relationship between base flow and bank storage,

Westgate (1926) classified springs in Delaware County on the basis of their water quality. He recognized the importance of iron bacteria in the precipitation of iron, and the increasing ion concentration in the water with increasing distance of ground-water flow and depth. Stout, La inborn and Schaaf (1932) examined brines collected from wells in the eastern half of the State and concluded that the salinity of the.water increases with depth. Stout, Ver Steeg and Lamb (1943) made the last of the general type investigations and were concerned mainly with the identification of the various aquifers and their potential for development. The scope and purpose of investigations during the 1950's were of limiteii extent. The Ohio Geological Survey, and the Division of Water began a program of reevaluating the water resources of the State, since discontinued but not before reports on Pike (1953), Scioto (1953), Jackson (1953), Ross (1954), Franklin (1958), and Madison (1959) Counties were completed. The physical properties of the aquifers, their hydraulic properties, reported yields and water qualities were investigated. The Division of Water 22

also has been responsible for several other projects, among which is a study of the dolomite aquifer underlying the

village of Ada, Hardin County. Aquifer testing led Walton (1953) to conclude that the ground water moved through a series of connected solution channels and fractures. He computed the coefficients of transmissibility and storage in the dolomite. The U. S. Geological Survey has worked together with

the State on numerous projects, and independently on many others, which are directly related to the water supply in the Scioto basin.

Norris (1957) investigated the permeable zones in the Big Lime, (1958) the significance of buried channels in Madison County, and (1965) the relationship between grain size and permeability in outwash. He concluded from these

studies that permeable zones in the Big Lime may result from either lithofacies changes or weathering along bed­ ding planes and joints, that the Minford Silt acts as a natural water softener for upward migrating water from the Big Lime, and that stratified sand and gravel behave as a single geohydrologic unit. Most Investigations made during the last decade' used

the basin concept, and are generally less restricted by political boundaries. Schmidt (1960, 1961, 1962) prepared reconnaissance "Subsurface Water Resources" maps of the sub­ basins within the Scioto basin. The maps are based on very 23

limited data and give an approximation of the ground-water potential, the depth to the static-water level, and a

description of the physical properties of the aquifers.

Reports by the Ohio Division of Water on the "Water in­ ventory of the Scioto drainage basin" (1963) and the "Avail­ ability of Ground Water for Industry" (1965) are based on similar data. Both types of reports are limited as to the applicability of their conclusions.

A comprehensive survey of the water resources of the Ohio basin, including the Scioto basin, by Deutsch and others (1966) is based mainly on base flow of the main streams. The investigators were able to define six areas of different yield potential. Ground water pollution by oil field brines in Morrow and Delaware Counties has been investigated and reported in three theses at The Ohio State University (Shaw, 1966; Boster, 1967; Hulman, 1970). These investigations are problem oriented as opposed to the general hydrogeology studies. Their results can be summarised as follows: Brines move downward from surface storage pits to the water table and eventually move horizontally to local discharge zones. The rate of contamination depends on various factors, but precipitation is particularly inportant once contamination has started. The contamination is not per­ manent, because it is flushed naturally by recharge. 24

Eastin (1967) investigated water quality in the Scioto and Olentangy Rivers at Columbus. He concluded that arti­ ficial contamination by oil-field brines may cause the presence of large concentrations of sodium and potassium, and that the difference in bedrock type between the sub­ basins does not affect the surface-water quality.

Additional unpublished investigations are kept in file by the Ohio Division of hkter and private gological

4 consultants in Columbus. Permission for using these data usually can be obtained from their owners.

Sedam and Stein (1970) mapped the depth to "moderately saline waters" (water with more than 3000 ppm dissolved solids) in Ohio. They indicate that the maximum depth at which fresh water is available in the basin, with few ex­ ceptions, is BOO feet. In reviewing the quality and avail­ ability of water in the Scioto basin, Pettyjohn (in press) notes that natural upward leakage from the bedrock causes local degradation of the quality. Many aquifer tests have been conducted by consulting firms for municipalities and industrial firms. Their results are as varied as the aquifers in which the tests were made. The data are not published, but may be re­ leased by the clients if they are approached. 25

Data Available

* t The collection of raw data is as equally important as problem investigation. State and Federal agencies measure stream flow, ground-water levels, precipitation, tempera­ ture and analyze the chemical quality of surface- and ground-water. Daily discharges of the major streams are published by the U. S. Geological Survey and records are continuous from

1921 to the present except for a break between 1935 and 1939. The Division of Water has measured water levels in selected wells since 1938, but only three records with Scioto basin are continuous. Precipitation and tenperature records are available from the U. S. Weather Bureau.

Summary The early investigators in the Scioto basin were con­ cerned mainly with the collection and publication of data from throughout the State. After 1920, however, the pub­ lished reports enphasized the interpretation and solution of water supply problems. The most recent reports go even further, by identifying the factors which locally affect the water budget of the basin. CHAPTER XI METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

Introduction

Evaluation of the hydrogeology of the Scioto Basin is presented in three parts: field work, laboratory work, and interpretation. The field and laboratory investigations involved relatively standard procedures. In contrast, put­ ting together all the data that are available and inter­ preting the ground-water potential of the basin is more difficult but more interesting.

Field Wbrk

The field work consisted of: 1) mapping and checking the joint patterns in the bedrock, as they are shown by Ver Steeg (1943), Kantrowitz (1959), and Westgate (1926) 2) checking the distribution of sand and gravel deposits and sampling where they are exposed. The sources of most of these latter data are Goldthwait (unpublished), Kempton and Goldthwait (1959), and Goldthwait and

others (1961) 3) Sampling and testing surface waters from throughout

the basin.

26 27

Generally, the joint patterns are well represented in the outcrops and locally in the western part of Delaware County the joints can be interpreted from the lineation of sink holes. Bedrock exposures are relatively few and far

apart in the glaciated portion of the basin, and the best exposures are observed in quarries or stream beds and along road cuts. The limestone is restricted to the western half of the basin and the sandstone and shale to its eastern and southern parts. The main purpose for mapping the joint orientation was to determine the presence of or absence of any relationship between it and the ground-water flow direction. Sand and gravel on the surface in the basin are less widespread than the bedrock carbonate or sandstone and shale. They are largely restricted to the major stream channels in the southern part of the basin with rare exception and to relatively small areas on the plains in northwestern Delaware, southeastern Franklin and eastern Pickaway

Counties. A total of 52 spot and composite samples that were taken are assumed to represent the silty sand and gravelly sand fractions of the outwash, particularly the channel deposits in the basin. One hundred and eighty drill-hole samples collected earlier by the U. S. Geological Survey from a test site at Piketon in Pike County were compared with the surface samples in an effort to correlate then 28

with each other and their coefficients of permeability as were determined from aquifer tests and with a laboratory constant-head permeameter*

Surface-waters, mainly from springs issuing from bed­ rock, were sampled and tested with a Hach chemical kit. Ionic concentration of silica, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate and nitrate were measured in milligrams per liter. In addition, temperature, specific conductance and dissolved oxygen were measured by a Y.S.I. Telethermometer, an RB 3 SOLU bridge and a Dissolved Oxygen meter (Model 85, Delta Scientific Corp.) , respectively. The information collected in the field supplemented published as well as unpublished data in files of the U. S. Geological Survey. Some of the water quality data were useful in establishing relationships between aquifer proper­ ties, flow patterns, vertical leakage, and discharge zones.

Laboratory Investigations

The permeability of the sand and gravel was determined by measuring the rate at which water flows through a sample of known volume under a constant head, using a modified form of Darcy*s law: where: K is the coefficient of permeability in gallons per day per square foot Q - flow in gallons per day L - length of the sample in feet A ~ area of the sample in square feet t = length of time in days h = difference in head, in feet, between the top and bottom of the sample Gg « temperature correction (Johnson, 1963)

A constant-head permeameter was used to determine the

coefficient of permeability. The sand and gravel were packed in the instrument (Fig. 6), and water allowed to flow through it under a constant head. The water was pre­ viously de-aired because if present, the air tends to decrease the permeability of the sample by being trapped in the pore spaces. By measuring the volume of water flow­ ing through the sample in a given time period, the coef­ ficient of permeability could be calculated with the modi­ fied form of Darcy's law outlined previously. Following determination of permeability, the sample was dried and sieved into gravel, sand and silt (and clay) fractions and its composition plotted on a triangular dia­ gram. In addition, lines of equal permeability were drawn 30

Ah

^U&tw supply

fi r*E, i Tt/TT/urs/s* t?A/tjr/frr * J e ^

Ki^ire Constant - head Porraoameter

( Modified from : A* I.. Johnson, 1963) 31 across the plot to show the relationship between the com­ position and the permeability (determined in the labora­ tory) of the sample. Others have used this approach in which the grain size distribution is related to the per­ meability. It is applicable in this study in the absence of more widely distributed aquifer tests.

Interpretation procedure

Aquifer characteristics and thickness, depth to bed­ rock and static-water levels were mapped. Ground- and surface-quality, as well as stream flow, data weze used to interpret the quantity and quality of available ground water, flow direction, and areas of contamination. The maps were subsequently used to evaluate the land-use potential for solid waste disposal• CHAPTER III

LATE TERTIARY AND PLEISTOCENE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Introduction

Although preexisting drainage systems in the Scioto basin were mapped by Tight (1903), they were not identified as separate systems until 1934 (Ver Steeg and others). Stout and others (1943) revised the patterns and distribu­

tion of tributaries outlined by these earlier workers (Pigs 7 and 8). More recent work by the writer indicates that relatively shallow, north- to south-trending channels are present in Delaware and Marion Counties, and in Hardin

County (Fig, 9), There is evidence that the two major systems, the older Teays and the Deep Stage, were established, one after the other, to glaciation in central Ohio, The other less well-known systems, however, are not dated but were developed before the last period of glaciation.

Pre-glacial Drainage System

The earliest recognizable drainage network that flowed through the Scioto basin is the Teays system, which flowed from the south to the northwest, and finally west (Pig, 7), The Teays River entered the watershed east of the Scioto

32 33

Explanation Channel, arrow shows the direction of flow

roveport 81 ver

m ites

L Marietta River

Adapted fro:a : Stout and others, 1 9 0 .

Teays River

Flrqare 7. Teays Drainage Sy3tem In the Scioto Basin. 34

Possible ICE Ex I Explanation

Possible Ioe front during channel development

Channel, arrows show direction of flow.

Newark River

miles

Adapted from: Stout and others, 1943,

Figure 8. The Deep Stage Drainage System in the* Scioto 3asin 35

u

Explanation

j A ® Contour Interval 50 foot.

> | i^* n \ i r / ,/ -. sOQ^_ * ^ (^k „ja ;V i (j //> 1^

/ipi^ihs M i

y ^ * A ,

,v/ i y -'>•-;/ > i > 4

m ^ d & i w

v

lali trM 0«4l ^ Will# (Tv*. * ^ r,P yp ViM tn

i ) r i.-Od \ \ ido > w k >

F* trove 9. Cc i^iguration of the Bedrock surface in the Scioto Basin* 36

River at Portsmouth and flowed out through Madison County*

Its only large tributary, the Groveport River, flowed east to west across Franklin County and joined the Teays in the vicinity of London in Madison County*

The stream characteristics varied from place to place, but the gradient seems to have been controlled, to some extent, by the nature of the bedrock* Norris and Spicer (1958) reported that the main channel was relatively m flat and shallow where it was cut on shale and sandstone bedrock and its channel depth ranged from 200 to 300 feet

below the upland surface* In contrast, in carbonate areas it was deep and wide, about 400 feet deep and 3000 feet wide, at its narrowest point in Madison County* The main

channel was probably in a mature stage of development in this area, with a gradient of about 1*6 to 1*7 feet per mile* The Teays River originated in the Piedmont Plateau of western North Carolina and adjacent areas* The channel is filled with a silty clay, the Minford Silt, whose source is metamorphic rock* Locally at the bottom of the channel, there is a fine sand deposit. Many workers suggest that the pattern and direction of flow resulted from the original topography* Tight (1903, p* 61), *however, noted that "the basin was drained in the direction opposite" to the regional dip, implying that there may have been some structural con­ trol. 37

Glacial Drainage System

With the onset of glaciation over central Ohio, the established drainage was disrupted. Ice dammed the north- westerly-flowing Teays River, causing its sediment load to be deposited at first in the stream channel and later over the small divides. During ice retreat, meltwater proceeded to cut a main channel due south from Columbus to the Ohio River. This main channel and its associated tributaries conprise the "Deep Stage" or "Newark System" (Pig. 8).

The main channel of the Newark system is about two miles wide, relatively straight, and at least 200 feet be­ low the flood plain of the Scioto River at Portsmouth. Stout and others (1943) estimated that its gradient was about 23 feet per mile from Franklin County to its mouth in Scioto County where it emptied into the Ohio River. Its channels are filled with sand and gravel outwash and are in turn buried by Illinoian and Misconsinan tills in Ross County. This condition suggests that development of the Deep Stage system was prior to Illinoian time. The bedrock topography beneath the glacial drift (Fig. 9), as shown by more than 1400 drill holes, contains two other major preglacial channels in addition to those shown by Stout and others (1943). The longest channel trends north through Delaware and Marion Counties and joins an unnamed channel shown in the "Ohio Water Plan Inventory Report Number 22" (1970, p. 8). 36

The valley, which averages two miles in width, seems to

have been cut by a northward flowing preglacial or inter- glacial stream* A second valley, called the Hardin Channel, cuts across southwestern Hardin County* Its average width is also about two miles, but unlike the other valley, it is filled with at least 100 feet of sand and gravel. Its relationship to other channels mapped in the area by the Ohio Division of Water (1970, p. 8) is not clear, but its presence is well documented* The bedrock topography in the southern part of the glaciated basin is indicative of a more complex Deep Stage System than.is shown by Stout and others (1943)* The Grove- port River, of the Teays System, is not reflected in Frank­ lin County, but a major tributary may be present in Ross County, flowing from the northeast* Figure 10 shows all the channels cut into bedrock in the Scioto basin. The present Scioto River and its tributaries owe their positions to earlier drainage systems and to ntorainal ridges in the glaciated part of the basin* Between Columbus and Marion, the Scioto River follows the channel of an earlier system. Similarly, Olentangy and Alum Greeks are located in channels of the Deep Stage in their lower reaches. The heads of most of the tributaries owe their initial direction to the orientation of the morainal ridges. 39 Explanation

L Possible Ice front during Deep Stago development

1 Deep Stage Channels

Teays Drainage Channels &

Hardin Channel

Other Channels &JLJI .4> HI

= f

Figure 10. Pre-glacial and Intor-glacial Channels in the Scioto Basin. CHAPTER IV PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY

General Statement

The Geological Survey of Ohio has undertaken mapping projects and published general reports on the Pleistocene geology of areas within the Scioto basin since 1874. The * early reports are very general and serve only as corner­ stones for later investigations. The later reports identify more exactly the ages of the deposits. The glacial map of Ohio by Goldthwait and others (1961) shows the extent of Wisconsinan and Illinoian glaciation, and the distribution of the Wisconsinan end moraines, outwash, kames and eskers. The areal extent of other Pleistocene depots, such as the Minford Silt, bedrock channel-fill and pre-Wisconsin drift, are buried and cannot be shown on a surficial geology map. Recent investigators (Totten, 1969; Goldthwait, 1969; White, 1969) have defined several tills of Wisconsin age on the basis of Carbon 14 and mechanical analyses. Only the gross characteristics, however, and thicknesses are re­ quired for evaluating the ground-water potential of the basin. Drill holes examined in the course of this investi­ gation reveal that the total drift thickness of drift ranges from less than 2 5 feet in Delaware county to more

40 41

than 400 feet in Madison County. Figure 11 shows that the

drift thickness in the Scioto basin is irregular. It averages about 35 feet in the northern part of the basin, 150 feet in the central part, and about 50 feet in the southern glaciated part. Generally, the edges of the basin is covered by a thicker deposit. When conpared with an outwash isopach map covering the same area, it is noticed that the major portion of the drift consists of outwash.

Plei stocene Stratigraphy

Minford Silt This is the oldest unconsolidated deposit in the basin. It is a dark gray, soft and highly plastic, finely laminated, silty clay that fills the Teays channel in the southwestern and southern parts of the basin. "When moist, the material will peel easily and smoothly along planes" (Sout and Schaaf, 1931, p. 667). At the bottom of the chan­ nel, a fine quart2 sand may be locally associated with the silt. -

Pre-Illinoian Drift

Pre-Illinoian drift has not been mapped as such in the Scioto basin. However, in Franklin County and along the Scioto River, sand and gravel are buried by Illinoian till. 42

Explanation

(>1 0 0 feet thick

75 to 100 feet

50 to 75 feet

25 to 50 feet

< 25 feet thick

V ;«fe: SfS:.< • V V.-S1 )• ; ■ \ ■ ('■' ■■■■n .-.vvV..- v-vv.vv; y • c nv??^ ■ ■; ** v/.\'V/ v';.

. C u n g l ^ J-| I V s

ftall Irwn 0*1* SinliW fll Wet**

T ‘X n u- l { ~* -•*■-•- Y ? T V-^-4 Y r V i 1 ..

\ D . U

* r A i ^ « lift

Flj^ure 11* Drift Thickness in the Scioto tlanin. 43

Illinoian Drift

A belt of patchy and weathered ground moraine (iden­ tified as the Danville* which is approximately 225*000 years old) trends northeast to southwest across the basin through Ross and Highland Counties* Other pre-Wisconsin end moraines in Crawford County were described by Totten (1969)* Kempton and Goldthwait (1959) identified two Illinoian terraces in the Scioto basin by their soil profiles and ele­ vations* The terraces* which extend in a southerly direction from a point east of Chillicothe to the Scioto County line* are composed of relatively coarse sand and gravel. Figure 12, a modified version of Goldthwait's unpublished diagram, shows profiles of four terraces along the Scioto River* the highest of which is Illinoian in age.

Wisconsin Drift

The Wisconsin drift is well preserved and can be described from a hydrogeologic viewpoint by the landforms* their composition* and distribution. Till covers about 60 per cent of the Scioto basin area. It commonly fills depressions on the bedrock sur­ face and is locally protruded by the bedrock. When freshly broken* the till is a tough blue-gray clay which changes to yellowish brown on weathering and which contains rock frag­ ments and sand. The till is characterized by a dolomite to limestone ratio greater than one* and a significant hard u oiid rm RP dt t Upb. Handout Unpubl. it, a w th ld o R.P,G from Modified -- Xl,*i: Tl,s*;*iioIn lr,c*tiT:, X - - X nir. n »;i ; » .n I .» r i in - - I rt tU tr J — f C GLUM B U S ••

C ir e l» v l* lt , , lt l* v l» e ir C . * r. RFL o TRAE i te COO VALLEY SCIOTO the in TERRACES of PROFILE ! oni. x* tx 1!.iotn^ir. Mc

in «x»

UJ —1 o uJ _ a o 1 iue 12 Figure lioa Glaciation G Illinoian

X Ul y h- O U -i X _i 1- I C 13 to 2 cr t- 0 a. BO ft. 'BOO GOO A & 45

rock content. Based on 715 analyses, Goldthwait (1969) concluded that the till contained between 10 and 40 per cent sand, 30 and 50 per cent silt, and 15 to 40 per cent clay. Most boulders are igneous and metanorphic--

but the pebbles in the till are locally derived linestone and shale. The largest boulder observed is 12 feet by 6 feet by 4 feet in Delaware Oounty (Westgate, 1926, p. 9 0 ) . Sand lenses are irregularly distributed in an overlain by * the till. The lenses are similar in all respects to

outwash deposits. Ridge-like belts of till vary in width from less than a mile to nore than two and a half miles as they loop across the basin (Fig.-13). Totten (1969) concluded that the belts in the northern part of the basin are almost all composed of two subridges, separately by a zone of poorly- drained undulating ground. The more soutnern subridge is always the higher and more pronounced as it rises sharply from the surrounding low relief till plain. The ten major end moraines that stretch across the basin are distinct and separate from each other by ground moraine. The end moraines merge with each other along the edges of the basin.

Kames and eskers are sparse and occupy only small areas but they are important as a source of sand and gravel and 46

and Moraine

mil es

/

’m Adapted from : Glacial Map of Ohio — I 316. T. Rooen^reen, 1970. J • Gregory* 1956.

Fltnno 13., Location of major rind Moraines in the Scioto Basin. 47 water. They form knobs and ridges that stand above the till plain although most are covered by a thin veneer of till. The GLrcleville esker extends from a point south of the junction of the Scioto and Big walnut Rivers to CirclevilXe. Segments range from a half to more than two miles long, a quarter mile wide, and sixty feet high. Ice contact de­ posits adjacent to the esker cover a wide area, locally more than one square mile, with a relief of 50 to 110 feet. Kame and esker deposits in eastern Pickaway and Dela­ ware Counties cover much smaller areas (two and ten square miles, respectively). In eastern Franklin County, the eskers are strung out from Gahanna in a southeasterly direction for about eight miles. Outwash is the most important of the Pleistocene de­ posits from a ground-water viewpoint. The outwash is porous and permeable and at certain locations, such as in the major stream channels, its recharge potential is relatively high. Outwash along the convex margins of the end moraines is just as thick and more widely distributed, but it is not as good a producer as the channel located deposits. A minor deposit within the drift is composed of lake clay. These lake clays are well laminated and silty. Deposits are neither extensive nor thick. They are mined in Madison and Pickaway Counties and Crawford County. 48

Soils

The major soil types in the Scioto basin reflect their parent material, but variations are common because of local changes in topography, drainage and climate. They can be subdivided into four basic families:

1) A glacial-limestone soil that covers most of the western half of the basin, it is developed on the lime-rich

Wisconsinan till. It is light colored, leached of most of its carbonate to 20-40 inches depth, and has a generally low permeability. 2) A glacial-sandstone and shale soil is restricted to the area east of the Olentangy River. Generally, it has less organic matter and lime and is less fertile than

the glacial-limestone soil. 3) A residual sandstone and shale soil covers most of the unglaciated southern part of the basin. This soil has a moderately high permeability even with a little clay and a tendency to erode easily. 4) A soil developmed from calcareous, stratified sand and gravel on flood plains and terraces. It is light colored, well-drained and its moisture holding capacity is moderate. This soil (of the Fox Series) is slightly to medium acid and requires lime. The characteristics of the various subdivisions in each family of soils are explained very carefully in "Our Ohio Soils," 1958. CHAPTER V BEDROCK STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE

General Geology

The Cincinnati Arch is the most important structural

feature affecting the geology of central and southern Ohio. Its axis strikes slightly east of north and trends along the western margin of the Scioto basin. The bedrock forma­ tions strike slightly east of north and dip about one-half degree (25 to 30 feet per mile) to the southeast. Conse­ quently* the oldest exposed bedrock* Silurian carbonate, crops out in the western part of the basin and the youngest, Pennsylvanian sandstone* in the eastern part. The dip is alternately steepened and reduced locally.

The following discussion and stratigraphic column (Fig. 14) of the rocks underlying the Scioto basin are based on both published reports and field observations. The lithologic character* thickness and distribution of the rocks as far as they affect the basin hydrology are the points of interest* and are consequently covered in detail at the expense of other information.

49 5 0

Cuyahoga Fia. Sunbury Shale W)V) Berea Sandstone Bedford Shale

d Ohio Shale Total thickness 700 feet - e o> c Xlentangy- -S hale w w v QV W Delaware Limestone v— -- ^ ^ J l o l u m b u s Lime stone Detroit River.*" Bros Islands ^p." c .2L Niagaran Gp« .3 t/> Osgood Shale Brae afield Dolomite

Cincinnatian Shale jTotal thieknesa 1 2 0 0 feet -

,dc ■‘5 te Trenton XI$ i_ O Black River Dolomite Max. Thickness 1350 ft Chasy

St Peter Ss locally present

wvi Knox Dolomite Total thickness 900 feet - co XJ3 oE o Conasauga | t. Rome /Shale Total thickness 500 feet - g Snady i ___ Mt Simon Sa Max. Thickness /*50 feet W W v "V^A/ V W W . ^ /VvVtA/ A / W V W V VVV V 1 Basement Complex Figure l/». Stratigraphlc Colum i in Central Ohio. Baaed on i I. Herman Vance Well, Delaware Co. 2. W.L. Calvert, 1963. 3. C.H. Summer son, personal ocmmun.i cation 51

Bedrock Formations of Central and Southern Ohio

Cambrian

The Cambrian rocks underlying the Scioto basin are

subdivided into several formations* of which the basal unit* the Mt. Simon Sandstone* is probably the most important as

a potential reservoir. The Mt. Simon Sandstone is a clean* rounded* frosted* fine to medium* locally coarse-grained quartz sandstone* with accessory minerals which include

pyrite, anhydrite* dolomite and sodium chloride. In addition to being cemented* it is laminated and as a result* its porosity and permeability vary from place to place. The porosity* determined from a core taken outside the basin at Mansfield* ranged from 17.5 to 3.8 per cent, and its coefficient of permeability from a maximum of 82 md/ft

(horizontal) and 80 md/ft (vertical) to a minimum of 0.1 md/ ft (horizontal or vertical). Drill-stem tests* however* indicate that the average permeability of the formation is between 19 and 25 md/ft. Injection pressures also support this relatively high permeability (Well Completion Report of Empire Reeves Steel, Division of Qrclops Corporation). The Mt. Simon Sandstone is widely distributed below the land surface in the basin* and its thickness ranges from 100 to 450 feet.

Approximately 300 to 500 feet of shale lie on the Mt. Simon Sandstone. The shale behaves as an aquitard between 52

the porous sandstone in the bottom and the overlying carbon­ ate reservoirs. The shale appears to thicken eastward, although locally variable.

The uppermost Cambrian sediments are dolomites, which together with contiguous dolomites of Ordovician age, range from 200 to 900 feet thick. The entire section of Cambro- Ordovician dolomite, known as the Knox Dolomite, appears to thicken in a westward direction. It produces minor oil and gas (in the northeastern part of the basin) and brine.

Middle and Upper Ordovician

Middle and Upper Ordovician sediments are dominantly shale and carbonate, except for the basal part, the St. Peter Sandstone. The latter is a well sorted sandstone; is generally thin and may be locally missing. In the Herman B. Vance well, Delaware County, it is 60 feet thick. The carbonate, mainly dolomite (Trenton, Black River, and Chary Formations) ranges from 500 feet thick along the western boundary of the basin to 1350 feet under the eastern margin. The overlying shale is a thick (up to lOOO feet) series of gray calcareous beds with layers of bioclastic limestone. These beds are referred to as Cincinnatian, and together with the basal Silurian sediments, separate the underlying dolomite from the Silurian and Devonian carbonates. 53

Silarian

The Silurian section in the Scioto drainage basin is predominantly dolomite, composed of the Niagaran and Bass islands groups and the Brassfield Limestone, The latter (Brassfleld Lst.) varies from a porous sandy dolomite at its base to a fossiliferous limestone at its top. Its thickness ranges from 25 to 55 feet. It is, however, separated from the other overlying dolomites by a relatively

thicker formation, the Osgood Shale. Consequently, it is

not considered as a part of the Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifer in this report. The Niagaran Group (or Niagaran Dolomite) crops out in the southwestern part of the basin. In' the study area, its thickness is relatively uniform, about 200 feet, and it is relatively pure dolomite. Its porosity is increased by weathering. The overlying Bass Islands Group, in con­ trast, contains lenses of gypsum and anhydrite randomly distributed in the dolomite. The solubility of the gypsum

and anhydrite in the ground water increases the permeabil­ ity of this unit significantly above that in pure dolomite. Its thickness ranges up to about 400 feet.

Devonian

The Devonian rocks consist mainly of carbonate over- lain by shale. Locally, the Hillsboro Sandstone is present in irregular patches from a few inches to 4 feet thick, 54 and in solution cavities down to several feet in the under­ lying Silurian dolomite* Its composition and character are similar to the St* Peter and Mt. Simon Sandstones (Summer- son and Swann, 1970).

The carbonate formations consist of the Detroit River, Columbus and Delaware Limestones. The Detroit River is relatively pure limestone which pinches out in the eastern and central part of the basin. The thickness of the Columbus and Delaware Limestones, in contrast, remains rela- viely uniform where they are present, about lOO feet and

35 feet, respectively. This section of Silurian and Devonian carbonates above the Osgood Shale up to and including the Delaware Limestone is called the Big Lime by water-well drillers in the State. In this report, it is referred to as the Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifer.

The uppermost Devonian shales subcrop in a band ten to twenty miles wide parallel to the north-south axis of the basin and the Cincinnati Arch. The lowest unit, the Olentangy Shale, is bluish gray and relatively soft, massive, and calcareous. It contains limestone concretions and pyrite, and pinches out in a southerly direction. Overlying this unit is the Ohio Shale--a fissile, black, and arenaceous deposit— whose lower part is characterized by the presence of symmetrical, calcareous, ferruginous concretions. The shale thickens to the north and east. 55

Schmidt (1954) estimates 270 to 300 feet in Ross Oounty, Smith and Schmidt (1953), at least 350 feet in Pike Oounty; Schmidt (1958) about 450 feet in Franklin Oounty; Westage (1926) about 650 feet in Delaware Oounty; and Oonrey (1921) estimated at least 1500 feet at Mansfield.

Mississippian

In the Scioto basin, the Mississippian deposits are subdivided into four formations in addition to the upper part of the Ohio Shale. The Bedford Shale lies on the Ohio (shale) and it reportedly thins in a southerly direction from a maximum of 90 feet in Delaware County (westgate, 1926)• The formation also changes gradually to a siItstone towards the south. These Devonian and Mississippian shales (Olentangy, Ohio and Bedford) behave as a seal which pre­ vents any mixing of waters between the Mississippian sand­ stones to the Devonian carbonates. The Berea Sandstone, which lies on the Bedford Shale, varies from a moderately cemented, fine-grained sandstone in the northeastern and central parts of the basin to a siltstone in the south. As with other Mississippian deposits, its distribution is limited to the eastern edge of the basin and the area south of the Wisconsin glacial boundary. The average thickness of the Berea Sandstone is 55 feet, not taking into account the deposit in the southern part of the basin where it is indistinguishable from the Bedford Shale. 56

The Berea Sandstone is separated from the Cuyahoga Formation by the Sunbury Shale which is a thin fissile, black, bituminous deposit. In the Scioto basin, the Cuyahoga Formation distribution is limited to the extreme eastern edge and the southern part of the basin, and only three of its seven facies are represented. The Cuyahoga Formation is discussed further in Chapter vi in the section on the Mississippian sandstones. The Logan Formation varies from a yellow to gray shaley sandstone at its base to a coarse sandstone inter - bedded with fine sand in the middle, and to a thinly-bedded, well-cemented, fine-grained, gray sandstone and shale at the

top. These facies are not directly related to the hydro­ logic conditions in the basin, and are present only in Jackson County above the water table.

Pennsylvanian

The Potsville Formation is present only in Jackson Oounty in the Scioto basin. Its basal member is the Sharon Conglomerate, a poorly cemented and open-textured deposit. This formation has no direct bearing on the hydrologic conditions existing in the basin.

Structural Geology

Regional Structure

The Scioto basin lies on the eastern flank of the

Cincinnanti arch. Figure 15 is a generalized cross-section hoc U1- ® n ' , . t/V> 400 “7 too OfccOviCM*

Ml

OASKncifr oMPiik

□ 0 » t I 4 » «

(AMD OUVft A & ftilMft** 1171 UN|$10« EZZ3 CftVtTAUMf Figure 15 Structure Cross Section

MikSPONlAJMt m MLMWAK - «*Oe C* 58 of the central part of the basin* The strata, nearly horizontal, have an estimated regional dip of less than a half degree to the east, even though there are several minor warps, particularly in the carbonate*

Joints

Jointing is the most widely distributed structural feature of the exposed bedrock and probably greatly affects the flow direction of ground water* The .joints are almost vertical and, although many may have a slightly curved pattern), they strike in one of two prominent directions, northwest to southeast and northeast to southwest. Kantrowitz (1959) noted that in Fayette, Highland, Pickaway and Fairfield Counties, the major joints strike N 45 to 70° E and the minor systems strike N 40 to 50° W* Ver Steeg (1944) mapped similar directions in Delaware and Marion Counties in the north and Ross and Pike in the south (N 25 to 80° E and N 25 to 80° W). Recent observations during this study confirm the regional pattern in Delaware, Union, Logan, Madison and Franklin Counties. The abundance, distribution and size of joints seem to be related to lithology* Jointing in the Ohio Shale is extensive, but discontinuous* They trend north to south, northeast to southwest and northwest to southeast. The joints in the Devonian and Silurian carbonates are better developed and solution has enlarged them. Figure 16 shows 59 the distribution of the bedrock and associated jointing in the basin*

There are numerous sedimentary structures in the bed­ rock, but they are of little direct importance to the regional flow of ground water or characteristics of the different aquifers* 60

Explanation

Joint orientation

C a rb on N Shale-

olom ite

Devon 9 Carbon fites miles

cvon

Fen nsyl van ian Fm.

Flcuro 16. Bedrock Geology and treiid of Joint Sygtema

in’ the Scioto Basin. CHAPTER VI

HYDROGEOLOGY

Introduction

Chow defines a geohydrologic unit as an ,Taquifer or a combination of aquifers and confining beds that comprise a framework for a reasonably distinct hydraulic system" (1964, pp . 4-10). Based on this criterion, the sedimentary deposits to the base of the Silurian are rocks underlying the Scioto basin and these are divided into three geohydro­ logic units: 1) The lowest unit of the section is the Silurian-Devonian Carbonate bedrock*

2) The middle unit is composed of shale with sandstone layers, and 3) The uppermost unit is unconsolidated drift* The Silurian-Devonian carbonate bedrock is the most extensively distributed geohydrologic unit in the basin. It underlies the entire basin, but bears fresh water only in the western part. The water is stored in solution cavities developed along bedding and j’oint planes, in porous sandy dolomite, and in permeable zones created by solution of gypsum and anhydrite lenses in the dolomite*

61 62

The Berea Sandstone and the lower part of the Cuyahoga Formation (the sand facies) of Mississippian age make up the sandstone aquifers. The basal aquifer is the Berea Sand­ stone. It is underlain by a group of shale formations:

the Bedford, Ohio and Olentangy Shales which act as a seal between the carbonate and the standstone.

The sandstone deposits are cemented by clay and iron and, as a consequence, their primary permeabilities are relatively low. There is also an apparent lack of water

circulation at depth in the Berea, which is probably res­ ponsible for the poor water quality downdip in the forma­ tion. The lower part of the Cuyahoga Formation which is

present in the basin is recharged mainly from the surface and the water quality is good. Water from the shales, particularly the Ohio, is neither plentiful nor pleasant

tasting, and its production is confined to relatively shallow depths where the units subcrop beneath the drift. The unconsolidated drift can be subdivided further into sand and gravel, silty clay and till. Bach of these deposits behave differently with respect to ground-water hydraulics, and, in addition, the sand and gravel form

three partially independent, widely distributed aquifer systems. Their potentials fox development are controlled mainly by their recharge characteristics. In contrast, silty clay deposits, such as those present in the pre-glacial Teays valley, are very poor aquifers because it is not possible to 63 economically produce water from them. Till is also gener­ ally hard and impervious except where it is weathered and jointed or contains a high percentage of sand. It yields very little water and most o f that is of very poor quality.

Silurian-Devonian Carbonate Geohydrologic Unit

Introduction

The Silurian-Devonian carbonate is composed in descend­ ing order, of the Delaware and Columbus Limestones, and locally the Detroit River Limestone, all of Devonian age. These limestones lie on the Bass Islands Group and the

Niagaran dolomite of Silurian age. The Limestone section has been called the Materlime on account of its "known hydraulic qualities" (Minehell, 1874, p. 329), but it is now called the "Big Lime" by well drillers. The Osgood Shale forms a basal seal against upward migrating waters to the carbonate. Its thickness is relatively thin and variable under the basin (35 feet thick in Kerman E. Vance Well, in Delaware County) but when combined with the Ordovician shales the section is fairly thick (1200 feet maximum) and for all practical purposes, it is a seal. It separates the Big Lime from the Lower Ordovician and

Upper Cambrian dolomites (Fig. 17).

Distribution

The Silurian-Devonian carbonate bears fresh water (con­ taining less than 3000 mg/I of total dissolved solids) only 64

TiXL

D ol avaiV® Li m e ato n e ^ ------X Columbus Limoatone

Detroit River ~i_ Baa3 Islands Group SILURIAN-DEVONIAN l- / c a r b o n a t e : u n i t .

Jf Niagaran Dolomite / T ~ r ~ J T Z Osgood Shale

Brassfield Dolomite /

Cincinnatian Shale

Figure 17* Schematic Diagram of the

Silurian - Devonian Carbonate

Geohydrologic Unit. 65

in the western part of the basin, an area of approximately 4000 square miles. Based on the records of 27 drill holes and the work by Owen (1970), the section averages about 300 feet thick along the western margin of the basin and thickens eastward at about ten feet per mile (Fig. 18).

Hydraulic Properties

The quantity of water in storage and its rate of move­ ment through the Silurian-Devonian carbonate are controlled by the aquifer porosity and permeability and the local hydro­ static pressure. Water circulating along the bedding planes, Joints and unconformities in turn increases the porosity and permeability significantly.

The Niagaran Group is composed chiefly of dolomite, which has a relatively high primary porosity and permeability.

Summerson and Swann (1970) note that sandy lenses are present throughout its upper part (60 feet-). The Bass Islands Group, which lie on the Niagaran, contains lenses of gypsum and anhydrite (c. H. Summerson, personal communication; Bownocker, 1920, p. 220) that are more soluble in the ground and are randomly scattered in the formation, consequently it is expected that both the permeability and porosity of this unit would be significant locally. The uppermost part of the unit is mainly limestone. These three lime­ stones, the Detroit River, the Columbus and Delaware) are generally very fine grained, but Jointing and subsequent Explanation •: . -v / / U f*

A : ;v fiirti: V fly / f i ^ Fresh-water bearing

3 ti ^ ;l r w p ? Contours show the f e p f l i i l thickness of the v A / v - .m \ i ’r Silurian - Devonian 00 — ^

k m m M : k w ^ v A t .-A A''-^ i-A. -:V •• ’ •;; •• }.-. ) / i U* } Eastern Limit of the /JpVlJ-v S/--v S [ !'.’:> n ’ -S'.’.v > rA: •: • :yo fresh-water aquifer.

d m ^ 4 \ ' V / * * ' V y P \ I >

v, ^ J n \ V

(«ta r w r o*ie Ml water

__2 IS U S> h«t In «•*•»

a f *uoiio

PfcQ DMaarMWi ttfl 8

Figure 18. ,Silurian - Devonian Carbonate Isopach under the Se.ioto Maain. 67

weathering have created enormous caves locally. In addi­ tion, the upper 50 feet of the limestone (and where missing,

the underlying dolomite) are weathered where the bedrock was exposed during preglacial time and the permeability was increased by solution. When the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is considered as a single geohydrologic unit, its permeability can be classi- field as anisotropic, which increases proportionally to the intensity of weathering and jointing. It could be sub­ divided into three parts based on the distribution and nature of the permeable zones: 1) A weathered upper 50 feet of fractured rock 2) Solution channels formed by the removal of anhydrite

and gypsum lenses 3) Sandy zones, which are relatively widespread in the lower part of the unit. Norris (1956) described the "Newburg Zone" as an

"impure, porous dolomite" containing "lenses of sandstone." Some investigators suggest that the Newburg lies on the Niagaran dolomite, while others note the presence of a series of porous lenses at different levels both above and below the top of the Niagaran. Quality variations and the information outlined above seem to suggest that the name "Newburg zone" is applied to a zone (or part thereof) composed of sand lenses on and in the upper part of the 68

Niagaran dolomite, and permeable lenses in the Bass Islands Dolomite.

Potable water in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is present under both water-table and artesian conditions. The former occurs over relatively small areas, where the carbonate is exposed or covered by a very thin veneer of glacial drift. In contrast, the drift is relatively thick where the water is stored under artesian conditions. Leverett (1897) was the first to record artesian wells in the "Big Lime*.1 He noted that two water wells, approxi­ mately SOO feet deep at Plain City, flowed for at least

two years with a head twelve feet above the land surface (about 5.2 psi). At present, water levels in the vicinity of Plain City are below ground level indicating a decrease in hydrostatic pressure over the last seven or eight decades•

Aquifer testing of the ftBig Lime" has added information from which the coefficients of transmissibility and storage have been determined; and even though the results are only applicable locally because well hydraulics in the limestone depend on the number and attitude of the fractures or solution channels, the position of the water level relative to the producing sone in the well and the well design, they are used in conjunction with the geologic and water- quality information in evaluating the hydraulic properties of the unit. The results of two aquifer tests, one at 69

Hillard in Franklin County and the other at Allentown in

Allen County* were used herein to show also local differ­ ences in the water bearing capacities of the unit. The water in both areas is under artesian pressure. The data listed in Table 4 were collected by Paul Kaser^ of the Ohio Division of Water* during an aquifer test at Hilliard in 1958.

TABLE 4

AQUIFER TEST DATA AT HILLIARD* FRANKLIN COUNTY

Rail Road Well Diameter 10 inches Depth 233 feet Cased to 74 feet Discharge 180 gpm Static Water Level at 28.5 feet Time in Depth to Time in Depth to min W.L. min W.L. io 51.41' 93 66.01* 15 53.36 100 66.64 20 54.93 130 66.57 25 56.20 150 69.80 30 57.64 175 70.68 35 59.03 198 71.40 40 59.80 225 72.27 46 60.48 251 73.41 50 62.02 285 74.83 57 62.57 375 75.58 60 63.02 400 76.69 70 64.23 450 77.33 81 64.93 500 78.48 550 78.93 70

The Jacob and Theis methods were used to calculate the coefficients of transmissibility and storage. On a time-drawdown plot, using the Jacob method, the transmis­

sibility determined is 3000 gpd/ft and the storage coeffi­ cient is 0.0012 (Fig. 19). When the same data are plotted on a Theis type-curve, the calculated transmissibility is about 2100 gpd/ft and the coefficient of storage is .0021 (Fig. 20).

The relatively low transmissibility value is probably due to the well intersecting abnormally few permeable lenses. The coefficient of storage, however, reflects the regional artesian condition. Kaser (unpublished report, Ohio Division of Water, 1963) calculated a coefficient of storage of 12.1 from the same data, which he explained by induced leakage from the Scioto River. The water quality, however, did not reflect the surface source when pumping increased; the mineraliza­ tion increased in the water. From its depth, the well appears to have penetrated the Oolumbus and bottomed in the Bass Islands Group.

The other aquifer test (at Allentown) outside the basin area, along its northern boundary, was conducted by

the Ohio Division of Water and the U.S. Geological Survey. The test was made in the "Big Lime" in a well 365 feet deep,'12 inches in diameter, and cased to the top of the unit at a depth of 21.5 feet. Figure 21 shows the penetrated Drawdown in feet iue 9 Tm-rwonPo o iladRi odWl 1 Ts 1. 1, Test Well Road Rail PlotHilliard of 19. Time-Drawdown Figure rri 10 ne in T

in minutes X I 0 X 1 ■r*

h / *T^: 2 ,5' x 10 Drawdown ih "* feei . iue2. ieDadw uv fFlir alRa el 1. Road Well Rail of Filliard Curve 20. Time-Drawdown Figure •*U * 1 ’ * ’'TOO * 1 • * ' •*1U ^ ■ ' t ' t i i ■ ' Mth point 'Match ie n minutes. in Time t ____ - ) ■ i ■ ) - ) . ..t r . , * I * II * I ;-:ji41T:H j ] T i; 4 * ) * * I 4 1 ■i ■ ! ■; _ J TT | . : lOOC ’ • : ■ ' ■• . T. -m A .2? \-.m* - //^-6 * i / / 4 6 X . / 0 O * i J L i O p ^pl * Hlir Rail -Hilliard \.ZiX Zt.93T ( M 1 M > M ( 1 iIi 4 M /<0 1/^*1 .1.,. 1/^*1 &.WQ*). : z ..

*10000' od e! - We*! Road !: ' ! ■ 1 ■ i ! ■I - t - f ;I ■ ! i I -l-^rr v ! r rt 1— *— ;' ( : i : t ; ■; H iri ■■Til ■ • [

fc>>1 73

and pumped section of the "Big Line" as it is recorded on gamma ray, self potential, resistivity, temperature and caliper logs. They Indicate that the "Big Lime" has several permeable zones, both above and below the top of the Niagaran Dolomite. Calculations of the coefficients of transmissibility and storage made in a shallow observa­ tion well 5000 feet away from the pumped well (by Norris, unpublished) were 8700 gpd/ft and .0003, respectively. Step test In the pumped well gives a specific capacity of 2.2 gpm per foot of drawdown (corrected for well loss after 24 hours). Eagon (unpublished report, Ohio Division of Water) calculated a transmissibility value of 7000 gpd/ft, from a residual drawndown— * • plot. t' The transmissibility values of 7000 and 8700 gpd/ft are reasonable, and they correlate with the specific capaci­ ties, such as 2.2 gpm/foot of drawdown, calculated by Eagon and Johe, 1970, for wells of similar transmibbility in the

"Big Lime" in northwestern Ohio. Walton (1953) calculated the coefficients of trans­ missibility (T) and storage (S) in the Niagaran Dolomite underlying Ada in Kardin County, a few miles outside and northwest of the basin edge. The well was drilled on the north side of a bedrock high which is bounded by preglacial channels to the north and southeast. He interpreted his results (T of 126,000 and S of .00029) as representing an intensive network of interconnected solution channels, in DI1-TK BUGJ Ik'.Z 5'JXPACE. 1b Ta*t 37o 100 0 a Fl^uro »‘1. Tit* SliurIa.r.-T)»vonian Bi^ Bi^ Tit* SliurIa.r.-T)»vonian »‘1. Fl^uro lin*-h*lf cl a n a l l A , n w a t n ^ l l A f a h t u a a l la c f l * h - * n i l Alt t « * L *f* J : • 11 - ?t - } W - t ? - 1 1 ( y a a r u i l a a l f a l a a O £• : bJ L*ff£*d ^hia D In 15 - P r a t a A f a -Ian l v Dl a i h ^ i l l a C an. at. e par Lac a L r a l p Sel * a L Tact:. c a L y t l v t t a l a a S C » L . t a P f l a C * a L GaAna. vl. oan- l W) Lac »p,f® ia apaau 40'/ ' 0 4 u a a p a i-a* ® f , p » c a L )/ W lj - n a o rv/lr.. t u a S d a a ^ a C “ L i B I O ai-aaa ai-aaa O I B i o nN&aa ru )> TornGroup Ni&garah Top 3ass Islands Group Islands 3ass Top UiL, ill* a > » 7 3 » >L ft j C*i«d t a 21 ft( L U . 1 2 Inch. Inch. 2 1 . U L ft( 21 a t Ca. IJ. jbq eto in Section 74 75

which the water was stored under artesian conditions and

the presence of a recharge zone. The specific capacities average 0.375 gpm/ft of drawdown per foot of penetration. In a regional ground-water survey, the Central Ohio

project presently (1971) being conducted by the Ohio Divi­ sion of Water, transmissibility values of the "Big Line" in Logan and Hardin Counties were calculated to be 10,000 and 12,000 gpd/ft, respectively (unpublished data). In the sane wells, the specific capacities were 4.36 and 11.42 gpn/ft of drawdown, respectively. The difference between the specific capacities reflects the extent, size and inter­ connection of the solution channels. The results indicate that the solution channels are more extensive in Hardin County. The Silurian-Devonian carbonate unit can be subdivided into two parts mainly on the basis of transmissibility, geologic information, and the assumption that the major factor responsible for the wide diversity of transmissibil- ity values in the carbonate unit is the presence of solution channels developed both prior to glaciation and during the present cycle of erosion. 1) The areas which border the Teays main channel and the Scioto River. Transmissibility values should average

greater than 1 0 , 0 0 0 gpd/ft. 2) Elsewhere in the basin the Transmissibility depends chiefly from the shallow weathering of the carbonate 76

local permeable zones at depth and it should be con­

siderably less than 1 0 , 0 0 0 gpd/ft* This subdivision is not to be confused with the division proposed by Norris (1957)* He divided the "Big Lime" on the basis of the hydraulic p^qperties (which partially correlate with the geologic formations) into the followi ng:

1) A weathered upper part, locally with a maximum thickness « of 50 feet* It ordinarily yields between 5 and 10 gpm

but no more than 2 0 0 gpm. Its specific capacity based

on short acceptance tests averages about 2.3 gpm/ft of drawdown• 2) A zone below the weathered upper part, in which the yield "does not Increase appreciably" except if per­ meable zones are encountered* 3) Permeable lenses at depth, that yield between 450 and 500 gpm, and have specific capacities greater than

lO gpm per foot of drawdown. Both divisions are valid. Unfortunately, the presence of permeable zones in unit 2 of Norris' division, which are probably due to the solution of gypsum and anhydrite in the Bass Islands Group, is not predictable* Furthermore, they are not particularly widespread, but when present, the local hydrologic conditions may be significantly different from the adjoining areas. 77

Transmissibility values between 5,000 and 10,000 gpd/ft are interpreted as the average for a section of the Silurian-

Devonian carbonate which is not extensively weathered nor contains many gypsum-anhydrite lenses. In the areas ad­ jacent to preglacial channels or in areas of present day ■ . ♦ natural discharge, the permeability will naturally be in­ creased significantly.

Ground-water Movement

Ground water moves through the Silurian-Devonian carbonate in respeee to gravity locally and generally hydrostatic pressure. Where the aquifer is unconfined, flow is gravity controlled and the velocity depends on the permeability. Flow velocity varies from free falling in sink holes and cavernous areas above the water table to very slow in small fractures. In contrast, under confined conditions, the water moves from areas of high to low pres­ sure, which in the Scioto basin is generally eastward or down dip along bedding planes, joints and unconformities. Ground-water levels in wells in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate in Marion and Fayette Counties have been recorded since 1946. Figure 22 is an example of the data recorded in Fayette County. The short term fluctuations result from barometric pressure changes, loading by heavy objects, sudden heavy precipitation and local pumping, but these fluctuations are relatively unimportant. The annual cyclic DEPTH TO WATER. IH FEET, BELOW LAMO SUHFACF 2 5 9 1 9 4 9 1 1950 1953 i H lv1 10' Elev:1C & epiJ3,i epiJ3,i & Glacial log Well catd Oi Dv o Wier ite W of Div. Ohio : m o r f Acfapted 6 5 9 1 ound- cr ee m he l i - n ria ilu S e th m level r tc a -^ d n u ro G Devoni an car bonate. car an Devoni dpr T\Tp jdspcr drift 0 &\ 7& _ gur 22. re u ig F 7 -70' ehfet 5 1363 5. Tech.flept. 1959 Fo-I i960

*4 00 79 fluctuations and gradual lowering of the static-water level, however are significant in the water-resources evaluation of the basin.

The water level rises steadily during the major period of recharge, March to June, and declines during the re­ mainder of the year. The seasonal fluctuation averaged three feet during the seventeen-year period of 1946 to 1964. At the same time, the static-water level in both Fayette and Marion Counties has dropped an estimated two feet. Assuming that the storage coefficient of the carbonate averages .00025 and that there is an annual change in water level of three feet based on two widely separated observa­ tion wells in Marion and Fayette Counties, the net annual change in volume of water in storage is at least 2 0 0 0 acre feet in the Scioto basin. If it is assumed that the decline of two feet is regional, then the volume of water lost from storage is approximately 1 2 0 0 acre feet over seventeen years. At the end of the next 50 years, if recharge and discharge remain unchanged from that during the last 2 0 years, the ground-water level would decline about 6 feet and the head will be 2 . 6 psi less. A static water-level map in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate, shown in Figure 23, is based on the records from more than 700 wells. Unfortunately, not all the wells penetrate the entire section, nor tapped the same zones. In addition, the records were collected throughout several ?. xr l anatIon if / t i Contour Interval 50 feet

Flev. above Sea Level L_f S U Generalized direction Vj of grnund-water flow

LTO^Vted [\\N

> / I - J {-irLm Eaat-srn limit of oubcrop area-

l i f f i ' i i

t » T s 3 I 5 kWhS?*"

r k A ' ' \ > t \ v -Wr\ Xr , I ■ ^ ? A i < L r \ ? e*il t r ^ m on.e * ? < a... a ut u a> ,U. >> W M in »eet

A » I

f*a ftewtdeii H ’t Fi.^ure 23. Statlc-vater Level in the Silurien-nevonian ” “ Geohydrologic Unit in tne Scioto Hasin. 81

years and seasons. Errors in interpretation, however, axe hopefully reduced by using a 50-foot contour interval. The nap also shows the generalized regional ground-water flow pattern. Most of the ground water flows from recharge

areas west of the basin generally eastward to the Scioto River valley. The direction of flow is parallel to the major joint direction, which in the Scioto basin strikes northwest to southeast in the carbonate (Fig. 23). In the northcentral part of the basin, changes in both flow pa­ ter n and joint direction confirm the conclusion reached above. The flow and joint orientation change from north­

west to southeast to an east to west direction. Caswell (1969) and Norris (1970) noted similar conditions in other

parts of the State in limestone. The rate of flow through the Silurian-Devonian carbon­ ate under average conditions is estimated to be about .06

feet per day, and is based on the static water-levels, an

average gradient of 1 0 feet per mile, an estimated coef­

ficient of permeability of 1 0 gpd per square foot, and a porosity of 5 per cent. The aquifer test at Allentown indicated that flow increased substantially within 3LOO feet of the discharging well to 0.3 feet per day.

Recharge

Recharge to the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is derived from several sources. Precipitation and interaquifcr 82

leakage are the most uniform and widespread. Underflow, in contrast, contributes water only along the basin's western margin. Influent seepage from streams is seasonal and is limited to small areas adjacent to the channels. Septic tanks, waste-disposal wells and brine evaporation pits provide only slight amounts of recharge and then only at a few scattered locations. Direct recharge from infiltration of precipitation into the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is not uniformly dis­ tributed, mainly because of the variable thickness of overlying drift. In Delaware, Union, Marion and Hardin Counties the drift is thin or locally missing and, as a result, recharge from the surface should be greater than in other areas where the drift is thick. Recharge through intcraquifer leakage occurs naturally throughout the extent of the aquifer in response to differ­ ences in head between the aquifers; it is also induced by pumping. Under favorable head conditions, the greatest amount of recharge to the carbonate occurs where the over- lying drift is sand and gravel. Westgate (1926) noted that in hand-dug wells in areas where the drift is thin the water flows on the subcropt surface of the "Big Lime" rather than into it. Natural leakage from the underlying formations is evidently very minor and is marked by high ion concentra­ tions of sodium and chloride in the water. The thick Cincinnatian Shale acts as a seal to vertically migrating 83

waters. The amount of leakage to the "Big Lime" is increased where the head in this aquifer is sufficiently reduced by pumping below that in the glacial drift or where the under* lying shale has been penetrated by abandoned unplugged oil wells and tests. Leakage is induced from the drift in significant quantities, but there is no evidence that the same occurs from rocks underlying the Silurian-Devonian carbonate unit. Underflow into the Scioto basin occurs along the west­ ern margin especially between Belle Center and Jefferson­ ville. Figure 24 is a schematic diagram of such a condi­ tion. The quantity of water flowing into the basin from the west is about 3.0 mgd, which is estimated from a modi­ fied form of Darcy's equation (see Schicht and Walton, 1961, p. 10 )«

ft = TIL in which Q is the underflow in gpd T is the coefficient of transmissibility of the carbonate in the basin (8000 gpd/ft)

X is the hydraulic gradient, 1 0 feet per mile and L is the width of cross section through which flow is occurring in miles ( 1 0 0 miles). The underflow is not identified in the basin as such, mainly because variations in the water quality are not

enough on which to base any identification. RAIN CI/UD3 Surface drainage divide Precipitation Evapotran 3plrati on Till

nfiltrat

Carbonate

Arrows show direction of ground-vater movement

FIgure 24. Schematic Diagram of subsurface inflow from one drainage basin to another*

Quarry River

W.T,

Pum

W ater Table before pumping

Figure 25* Schematic Diagram of induced seepage from a surface stream. 85

Influent stream seepage recharges the "Big Lime" where it crops out in stream channels in Delaware, Franklin and Pickaway Counties and where it is induced by near stream puaping* Minor natural recharge by this means is seasonal and occurs mainly during floods• At Rathbone quarry in Delaware County, ground-water withdrawal has reversed the hydraulic gradient where the stream was previously effluent. The quarry floor is presently sixteen feet below the river level and in order to keep it dry, the quarry operators estimate that they pump about 50,000 gpd, of which a part is due to influent stream seepage (Fig. 25). No doubt else­ where induced infiltration of surface water sources to the Big Lime provides additional water to storage.

Septic tanks and shallow disposal wells are responsible for some recharge to the Silurian-Devonian carbonate, particularly in areas where the drift is less than 25 feet thick. Contribution from individual units or wells is in­ significant, but when many are in operation over a small area, their effect could be important• A private dwelling with four occupants discharges about 400 gpd or 146,000 gallons of sewage annually. Infiltration of oil-field brine from holding ponds also provides local recharge. In Delaware and Morrow Counties shallow wells in drift and alluvium are contaminated by brines recovered from oil exploration holes. Shaw (1966), Boster (1966), Hulman (1969), and Pettyjohn (in press) docu­ 86

mented the movement of the brine in the shallow aquifers. In Delaware County, the till cover over the "Big Lime" is relatively thin and here would be the only place in the basin where it is probably affected by such waste disposal. The amount of recharge by septic tanks and evaporation pits is negligible.

Effects of Recharge The various recharge processes do not affect the ,TBig Lime" equally, but they sure all important in one respect or another, Storage is generally increased by recharge, Precipitation‘and interaquifer leakage from the glacial drift affects the largest area. Induced infiltration is more restricted; it increases the storage adjacent to the streams and replenishes that in areas of large withdrawals. Septic tanks and waste disposal wells add to storage only in wide* ly scattered rural areas. The second effect of recharge is a change in the quality of water. Infiltration from precipitation directly on the carbonate or through a thin drift cover usually con­ tains between 0,1 and 3.6 mg/1 nitrate concentration from rotted vegetation or animal waste. Interaquifer leakage from the underlying bedrock is negligible, and from the overlying drift, it has no quality effects. Recharge from influent streams tends to improve the quality and, at the same time, reflects the surface water with a lower mineral concentration. Recharge from septic tanks is recognized by 87

the presence of coliforra bacteria, and brine holding ponds

also deteriorates the water quality by increasing the con­ centrations of sodium and chloride ions.

Discharge

In addition to artificial discharge, natural discharge from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate occurs largely through underflow, interaquifer leakage, effluent streams and springs, and evapotranspiration. Approximately 6.8 mgd were punpted from the Silurian- Devonian carbonate during the years preceding 1963. No doubt, this total increases yearly, as the industrialisation of the basin increases. Figure 26 shows the location and quantities of significant pumpage, which includes Marion, Kenton, Marysville, Hilliard, Delaware and Plain City. Small villages, rural homes and active limestone operations with­ draw smaller volumes from the carbonate throughout the western half of the basin. The quantity of water leaving the Scioto basin by under­ flow through the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is undetermined, but suspected to be insignificant. Westage (1926, Fig. 27, p. 120)* implied in a schematic diagram that the hydrostatic pressure in the unit increases down dip in the eastern part of the basin, and the ground water is forced into the over­ laying drift and eventually discharged in the surface streams, rather than leaving the basin by underflow (Fig. 27). 88

Explanation

Wajor area of pumping Number la pumpige In tngd.

Adapted from : Ohio Olv. of '.Vater, Kept, of Inv. No. 17, PI. 16.

Firm re 26. Areas of si ;nlficant pumpage frertThe Silurian-Hevoninn carbonate in t o 3oict.o 'laaln. Flrwre 27. Schematic Diagram of the ground-uater flow direction in the western half of the Scioto Saain* 90

Evapotranspiration from the Silurian-Devonian carbon­ ate is relatively minor, because its outcrop area is small and evaporation is restricted primarily to small ponds that reflect the water table in the quarries. Less than 10 acres are estimated to be covered by ponded water in the basin, and the annual evapotranspiration ranges from 24 to 26 inches. Evapotranspiration losses from the unit probably does not exceed 25 acre-feet per year• Springs issue from several places in the State from the "Big Lime," however none in the Scioto basin can be classified as large discharge. 1'Mineral springs" at Delaware, Mineral Springs, Big Springs and Fountain Park in the western part of the basin are seasonal. The waters are characterized by a strong hydrogen sulfide odor and when evaporated leave a sodium chloride residue (Westgate, 1926)* Water from the spring at Ohio Wesleyan University, however, on evaporation, leaves a yellowish color residue which tastes bitter rather than salty. The taste suggests that the residue may be iron sulfate. These springs are believed to originate at considerable depth in the Si luri an- Devonian carbonate. Other springs which flow from the top of the "Big Lime" discharge potable water. Leakage from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate to the overlying Ohio Shale is minor, mainly because the Ohio Shale is an inpervious unit except where it is thin, weathered 91

and fractured along its western edge. On the other hand, leakage into streams and the overlying sand and gravel aquifer accounts for the largest natural discharge from the "Big Lime." In Delaware County, the drift is relatively thin and the carbonate is exposed in the Olentangy River. The flow duration curve of the Olentangy River at Stratford shows a base flow of .05 cfs/square mile (Figure 28)• The large discharge from the "Big Lime" is further confirmed by increased mineralization of the water in the shallow drift aquifers.

Effects of Discharge

Changes in water quality and ground-water depletion are the two major effects of discharge from the "Big Lime." Locally, the water quality deteriorates with increasing discharge. This change is probably the result of induced recharge from gypsiferous beds. Natural discharge into the overlying drift increases the mineralization in both the shallow ground-water reservoirs.

Storage in the Silurian- Devonian Carbonate

Ground-water storage in the Silurian-Devonian carbon­ ate is limited to open fractures, solution cavities and permeable sandy lenses. The distribution of the porosity is haphazard within stratigraphic units. 92

w Olentangy River at Stratford.

Base ;OVJ

Figure 23, Flow duration curve* 93

Norris (1967) suggests that the largest volumes of

ground water are stored in the permeable lenses, which

are normally the deepest, and the least in the upper weathered part of the carbonate. The total volume of water in storage is estimated to be about 2.1 million acre feet.

Chemical Quality of Water

Ground water in the Big Lime is characterized by a high total hardness, which commonly exceeds 400 mg/1. The water quality seems to be closely related to the local bedrock composition, the quality of recharge water and the length of the flow path. Table 5 lists the concentration of significant minerals in water from wells in the Silurian-

Devonian carbonate. The total hardness in ground water from less than 500 feet deep in the Big Lime ranges from 250 to 2080 mg/1, but generally it is about 500 mg/1. The major part of the total hardness is non-carbonate and is due predominantly to high sulfate concentrations. The hardness increases towards the center of the basin and seems to be a function of distance traveled through the aquifer from points of recharge to points of discharge, and also to the subunit of the carbonate from which the water is derived. The concentration of dissolved solids in ground water from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate ranges from 250 to 2750 mg/1. The water quality data indicate that the lowest 94 TABLE 5

GROUNI>-WaTER quality in the silurian-devonian c a r b o n a t e in IN THE SCIOTO BASIN (concentrations in tng/1)

Im UM Prctabll •10* '* C* ** III t t o , (0 01 n ToUl La ft a^^lfar 4 H>r*M1 »

c* Co 11 U 71 1.7 JT* 3 t 9 3°5 . Clu Libufg SlliLrlii •.9 1.3 m (2 34 T.f 350 536 : m u -11 4 : ■

x T Orleuif hckiw/ C< ftinnnlin 12 0.6 150 41 27 2.4 3«6 ?34 9.5 7.-1 ..A • * J35 Orlwt &*ta1u 15 0.4 134 a 35 34 3*9 2J9 23 ea 213 UlHUaiport ttH 111. 12 0.6 69 37 116 7.5 *50 IB 11 32* 103 VI11 Uw port D«m I#l, 1) 1,6 554 1X 34 3.4 340 ; n-c 40 :

Jhiliii, PrKfillU Co. h*« 1*1. 11 0.1 106 39 10 2.6 426 n 2.5 4*4 *29

*3 BuMJi Dmalu 463 130 : lyo 1743. 13CJ Dutau Ocvotiw 11 0.1 10J 39 12.6 424 1117: 3-5 5:0 4*5

W ftniTt Citj hu III* 11 0.3 1«4 7* 32.6 306 5*3 2.1 irr.9 1715: -: 4&0 Cr«T* Citj Ball III, 10 0.4 «* 124 91 5.1316 if 5 64 " 7U77j-'irLS: :

XX) Gr«f^ Cltj Dunmlm u 10 0.6 166 74 32 3.2 306 5* ; *, t *45

B2 Rtjrda( fruillii taaiu 13 3.2 157 ;» 24 0.3 450 167 3 617 4*2 17) Hillurt IWtalW 13 0.J 105 44 U 1.9 442 102 2 500 *43 17) Oh tott «*H Omata 8.4 J,6 42 63 4« 4.7 >>5 124 3 469 336 121 Om*T IrliMiM iii. 1 6 *9 17 1.2 23* J7 2.9 269 2*4 07 Bufirt 1 Ml III, 9,6 0,6 540 194 61.9 354 1235 6* ii ;3 315a:: "■ VTT’TT’T!? 260 lUifirt T Ml 111, 13 1.2 254 139 74.2 454 942 :3» Ill* 1*5 311 Unwtt 7 Bin 111, 12 0,6 71 34 11J.1 542 65 11 5-:> : 317

190 LtiWtO T Demin U 3 206 62 49 3.7 I 517 ■ ■■ 11.0 t i l 107 Ujiwrtk Nwaiiii i * . > 461 166 2*.3 \ y . - s ■ 1-.14 3.7 1.

aso ibrtOtAtlii Bui tiludi ».j: 1.6 330 120 33.1 390 r itr? 11 l« t :• 1>33 im Gru6rl«v 814 M l 1*1, 13 | 0,9 135 47 12,0 371 229 14 662:1 930

flHuot Gotiti tinalu ’*! . 2 . } 101 41 W.9 43* f 75 3.3 *62 *26 I wo fcrtt Cvlwkw JUurlu ii i o.e 472 136 49.2 334 I 1415 49 350 North Colntu Bin III. 11 j 0,1 64 26 --'7.9 <66 ! 114 6.a :57t::| 270

1*> Berth Coliabu* lul 1*1, *1 _ 371 101 4S.3 3*9' U

287 Co1u 8h IMI III. ii 0.4 322 101 60.4 330? «S4 X m: 125 Soitt Mata la** 1*1, 14 :. 4. J 1J1 54 - 2i,6 4001 232 27 • 716 i 552 : 214 Coliata Bu* 1*1* u .. I.e.240 79 121 393: |■(37: -.142: I 625- ■

245 Cftlkiita M m lil. 11 0.7 : v 141 •1.2 293? 1X3) 153 --iUf! 1360 :

228 Coliata* Bail 111. 12 0.1 ■ j * 149 •0.4 310 j US 63 2!*u; 5610 300 Geluafcta 7 PmnUa 15 0.4 266 106 52.5 430: ■ -?;c 65 irlfSi; -U5a: 200 Culata t Baronial 16 o.o 215 69 66.9 336, 5,7 4« 11.; 6.-.J : ■ 200 Cilttstaa 7 {ifrnlu 17 0.2 196 74 92.7 462': :;-3i: 72 ii: '**5 : 180 Col uabua * DuaaUi _U 0.1 *14 113 50.1 369 an 71 : I6i/.*' \>li

159 South CcliaLu* f OvVAllltail 12 1.2 231 11 29.« 336 5,* * H’.7; 912 J JfiO C,ili*abm T Drrvilia 13 I.Cj 260 67 65. J 3.2 735 66 1^«[- Xlvj TABLE 5 — ContlnuM

,DV hi .tuMUea ,h .0 . e .16 T°t*l “ 0. 1 .»* .6 K 4 .01 u t iqiU for HtrdnM* icc Coloabu* Dwontia 12 o.t 17b 60 44.7 292 ' )■ 942 C)

too Bu£jrnui Cfwrftrl 9»toa1m 1* ;.T 173 46 27.7 442 i ■■ j 2.3 796 t; u 26) kfl7m h»Mla 0.1 107 94 76 430 i ■' ■■)1 10 666 469 ‘

t tu-lrs, IkrtaB Os.Nfodta 7 0.1 29 12 133.4 36 y j \ » 620 122 joo tut Hirlaa b«i IiLudi 17 0.3 10) 41 H.» 396 123 1 477 426 300 M(«, ILirdla Co. SllurUA 16 120 30 29 *4 160 12 564 420 10) IkMo, tWrlM HtfaliA 7.) 1.0 116 36 11.1 412 120 3.3 51) 446 145 Wooditoet, " lau til. 13 0.9 97 37 11.3 446 39 1.6 441 416 too North L**Itburg Ban 111. 17 2.3 ?1 45 9 446 46 1.6 459 43)

Z S > B*-1 f-int-lM t B**i III, 13 0.2 9b 34 6.9 362 T > # 419 3S6 2 JO Dlpfli, Uni CO fiO« Ban III, 19 : ?.V 364 209 64.2 456 9.6 2490 irj ; 16) Bmi ZiI, 10 1.0 1)0 65 42.3 294 <32. 6/1 1120 . .9 2 4 .-.: J1J Cq Slluflip 11 ii 77 7.) 350 65 1 377 350

3 J 0 Pevill, C ),B«ia 1*1, 11 1.2 233 96 32.2 462 . - tiJ9 7 1220

392 2 bl. 9 of Bua liL 0.3 357 1)1 66 440 12 2)00 ; 11.10:.: tVi : .C :: u 2 Ad, W *f t Dtvula 21 13 270 166 36.2 7 1650 1 0 *c D^liwra bll lil. U 0.4 H7 70 67,6 442 15 932 tb6 L. , . to 4 ali I *f T Dmftla 1) 1.0 293 176 3»-3 540 7 1640 1470 :.

223 lilt tiiliwt ' Bui lil. H 1.1 39) 1)7 49 3)5 i :a. 4 2160 n.jo IT) m h«U t Bmi lil 12 2» 93 24 506 442 9 972 .tie - >* IE fwiU lul III. 233 100 23 315 «C 6 994 174

y - o i«hi«7 BUarU4 13 110 39 11.3 376 1)0 3 494 440 3» lihlij Sllarlu It 130 44 13 42) 170 3 566 ! {10

200 Hltfn;, Hidlio) C« Silurlu 19 0.4 74 37 7.6 371 33 4 336 t n

ax South lolOK SU-atIu 12 0,9 ttt 37 64.7 4)4 257 1 741 3« 179 South 9ol« 811 tfiii U 2 12) 52 64.1 476 4-4 766 7)0 Mt StorlJjog 3U*rlii It 1 .B 101 40 27.) 44) 120 2.6 5)4 446 . It) 3«UJJ* Bi*« M, It '.5 100 40 19 476 59 1.2 4* 414 3C0 fl#lh Cltyt tUlioi Bui III, 14 9.1 124 46 61J 414 :: k it 14 7)1 ;; ‘ >7 m ftlllA City SUurU* 11 0.7 HJ 32 22.9 420 : t’ii; 12 724 a ) : 365 u r^itu 1 MlurXu 10 2,3 73 4t <4 414 111 36 359 377 ate Utft Bui lil. 13 0.3 96 30 26.6 440 120 .12 540 450 too )»Mt ^rflTNtt Bui lil. 7*7 -).? 104 44 23.5 426 129 327 440 30 i>nu^ Uvoalu 6.3 O.t 119 52 29 324 60 22 404 ; 917 305 loodofl fen M, 7.6 .'If?. 63 39 36 406 90 10 465 367.

tb* V.S.G w l^lul tim V t *4t« I m w o w t r u l l . 96

concentrations are present along the basin's margin. This condition is probably due to the fact that the margin is a major recharge area, and also the composition of the aquifer is dolomite with sandy lenses. The highest concen­

trations are generally in the central part of the basin where the wells bottom in and produce water from the Bass Islands Group. This subunit of the "Big Lime" contains

lenses of gypsum and anhydrite and the waters* high dis­ solved solid contents are due to high sulfate and calcium concentrations. Similar high concentrations of dissolved

solids are also found in Union County, in wells pumping from the Bass Islands Group. Sulfate concentrations locally exceed the safe limit of 250 mg/1.established by the U.S. Public Health Service (1962). Maximum concentrations, as much as 1835 mg/1 occur in Franklin and Delaware Oounties and have two effects, namely, it causes the water to taste bitter and it acts as a laxative on those not accustomed to drinking it. The water locally is sulfurous, and contains high concentra­ tions of bicarbonate and calcium ions. Hem (1959, p. 123) suggests that such a condition is indicative of bacteria action on sulfate. Drillers' reports note that it is not unusual that shallow wells in Morrow and Crawford Oounties produce hydrogen sulfide-xich waters. The lugh sulfate concentrations are nearly always found in waters associated with the Bass Islands Group of the "Big Lime." Locally in 97

Delaware, Franklin and Pickaway Oounties high concentra­

tions are also present in the Columbus Limestone* The high sulfate concentrations in the Bass Islands Group probably indicate the presence of gypsum or anhydrite in the unit, whereas in the Columbus Limestone, its presence may reflect leakage from the underlying Bass Islands Group* Iron concentrations averaged about 1*7 mg/1, although they range from a minimum of 0*02 mg/1 to a maximum of 9*9 mg/1* The high iron concentrations seem to be associated mostly with wells receiving water from the Niagaran sandy zones, to a less extent from the Bass Islands Group, and very rarely from the Columbus Limestone* These wells do not necessarily produce the most mineralized waters, and the source of the iron is unknown. The average concentration of bicarbonate in waters from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is about 400 mg/1* They range, however, from 300 to 690 mg/1 and appear to be unrelated to the subunit in the carbonate from which the water is derived or to their locations within the basin* The ratio of calcium to magnesium in water from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate averages about 2*5 to 1, in spite of variations in the composition of the aquifer* The calcium concentrations range from 20 to 550 mg/1 and the magnesium from 10 to 200 mg/1* The largest total concentra­ tions generally occur in water from the Bass Islands Group, which seem to be indicative of more soluble rock in this 98

subunit, chiefly gypsum and anhydrite. There is also an increase of the total concentration of calcium and magnesium in the central part of the basin over that along the outside perimeter. This latter condition probably reflects the increasing distance between the points of recharge and dis­ charge.

Several other minerals are present in relatively small concentrations, but are important because their effects are significant and their presence reflects the history of the water*

The total concentration of sodium and potassium varies within wide limits, but generally is about 50 mg/1* Large concentrations in West Lafayette (Madison County), Williams­ port (Pickaway County), Marion (Marion County) and Columbus occur together with relatively large chloride concentra­ tions at depths greater than 150 feet in a few areas. The water with high sodium and potassium concentrations re­ sembles the "blue lick waters'* of Stout and others (1932)* Chloride concentrations range from a trace to 150 mg/1 in water from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate* Generally, however, its concentration is about 15 mg/1, much less than the limit of 250 mg/1 on potable water set by the U* S. Public Health Service (1962)* The largest concentrations are found in Franklin County, at depths greater than 100 feet* 99

Fluoride is present in all waters from the Silurian-

Devonian carbonate* Usually Its concentration is less than the recommended maximum limit of 1.5 mg/1 set by the U* S. Public Health Service (1962)* The largest concentrations (between 2*5 and 1.4 mg/1) occur in the wells penetrating the Bass islands Group in Orientv Grove d t y and Columbus*

Nitrate concentration is generally significant only in water from very shallow wells, regardless of the subunit producing the water* The maximum concentration measured is about 4 mg/1, which may be indicative of contamination from fertilizers, rotted vegetation and animal wastes*

Relationship between Water Quality and Length of1 Flow Path

The mineralization in the water from the Silurian- Devonian carbonate increases gradually but not uniformly as the west to the east distance across the basin increases. Deterioration of qualixy, however, is not entirely a result of distance of travel; it may be also due to leakage from other subunits of the carbonate aquifer*

Location Fe Ca <■ Mg Na + K HCO^ Cl S04 DS Hardness

West Ba­ sin Margin 1*5 150 25 400 IO 200 500 450 Central Basin 1.5 300 50 400 30 600 IOOO IOOO 100

Relationship between Water Quality and Depth

Stout and others (1932, p. 18) recognized the deteriora­ tion of the water with increasing depth, but their investi­ gation was concerned largely with depths greater than 500 feet* There are some indications that there is a more com­ plex relationship between water quality and the subunits in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate. Wells which penetrate down to the base of the Bass Islands produce more mineralized waters than the very shallow wells completed in the upper part of the Columbus Limestone. On the other hand, water from the deeper wells which penetrate the Niagaran Dolomite do not produce water of noticeably more mineralization.

Locally at London (Madison County), West Lafayette (Madison

County), Washington C.H. (Fayette County) and northeast of Columbus, the water from the deep'wells in Niagaran Dolomite is of better quality-than water in the overlying Bass Islands Group. These quality characteristics suggest that the water deteriorates markedly with depth into the Bass Islands Group, and then to a lesser extent in the Niagaran Dolomite, In Franklin County, the water from several depths was examined and the results listed below represent the most common concentrations: 101

Depth Ca+Mg Na+K h c o 3 Cl so4 DS Hardness

100* 250 50 300 35 450 900 800 mg/1 100-200 275 75 400 75 475 11O0 600 200 400 50 325 35 800 1800 1200

Many factors are responsible for the deteriorating water quality with increasing depth, but the most inportant seems to be the composition of the aquifer.

Summary

The Silurian-Devonian Carbonate in the Scioto basin stores an estimated 0.2 million acre feet of water. Most of its recharge comes from infiltration of precipitation and underflow through the western margin of the basin. On a regional basis, the ground water flows at a rate of about 0.06 feet per day towards the Scioto River, where it is discharged in significant quantities by interaquifer leak­ age and stream seepage* Pumping at scattered locations throughout the western part of the basin is also responsible for major discharge from the carbonate unit. The water quality in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is characteristically very hard. It varies from subunit in the section to subunit and from place to place within the basin. The Bass islands subunit produces the most mineralized water of the units; its water contains high concentrations of sulfate. The water is also more mineral- 102

allzed in the central part of the basin, where the distance

between the points of recharge and discharge is greatest.

Shale with Sandstone Layers Geohydrologic Unit Ohxo Shale

Introduction

The Ohio Shale is the major part of a thick shale com­ posed of the Bedford, Ohio and Olentangy formations. It is brittle, black, and interbedded with thin siliceous layers. It is intensely fractured and along the fracture traces it is commonly stained reddish brown by iron. The fractures trend in all direction, but two sets are prominent--north­ west -southeast and northeast-southwest. They are generally high angle, and do not cut more than a few feet of rock

in any one direction. Pyrite, silica and alumina are scattered throughout the shale.

Distribution

The Ohio Shale lies on the soft plastic Olentangy Shale, and it is overlain by the Bedford Formation. Potable water production from the shale is restricted to the upper­ most ten feet where fractures have been opened by weather­ ing in the area of outcrop or subcrop under the drift, approximately ten to twenty miles wide running the length of the basin. 103

Hydraulic Properties

The porosity and permeability in the Ohio Shale are relatively low and variable in spite of severe fracturing and weathering of its upper few feet* Richard Fidler (unpublished memo— U.S. Geological Survey, 1971) estimated that the average permeability is about 1 gpd/ft2 * This value seems to be appropriate in view of the many dry holes and the limited production from the wells*

There are very few records of wells in the Ohio Shale. Those available indicate a maximum yield of 4 gpm, but roost wells can be pumped dry. Only the upper part of the section is penetrated by wells, consequently the coeffi­ cients of transmissibility and storage can not be computed; however, the amount of water in storage, specific yield and coefficient of transmissibility were estimated from the drillers' reports. Assuming that porosity is 2 per cent, the water in storage in the upper ten feet is approximately

19 million acre feet (area is 960,000 acres; thickness is 10 feet). If the specific yield is 1 per cent, then approximately 19,000 acre feet of water may be available to wells in the Scioto basin.

Ground water Movement

Ground water appears to move in response to gravity and pressure changes along Joints and bedding planes in the upper ten feet in the subcrop area. The absence of well 104

records prevents the calculation of recharge and discharge volumes, but there is enough data from which to Interpret a piezometric surface.

Static-water levels indicate that the ground water in the Ohio Shale flows westerly in the northern part of the basin and southeasterly in Ross, Pike and Scioto Counties (Pig. 29), generally toward the surface drainage channels. The flow patterns and major joint orientation are similarly parallel to each other suggesting that the flow directions may be partially controlled by the joint patterns.

Recharge

Precipitation, interaquifer leakage and infiltration from surface bodies are the sources of recharge to the Ohio Shale. Even though a rough estimate of the total amount is not practical, the sources can be interpreted from the water quality. Precipitation ranges from 43 inches in the south to 34 inches in the north and the overburden thins southward; consequently, recharge from precipitation should be greater in the south. This interpretation seems to be supported by less mineralized water in the south. Natural recharge occurs also when water leaks into the shale from the overlying drift or the underlying car­ bonate bedrock. Recharge from the drift seems to be 105

EVt;'! «in rtlon I 7 \ iLf/ i > ; \ | i ) Contour Interval 50 foot

j'j ^ ^ ev* aV,ove Sea Level (vAIL. •* If I it, -jj Generalized direction of gpcund-witer flow

r.

PWMM Limits of subcrop - area* fi V s i f r ' *r ■ w A ‘V i ^ \ _ \ \ r \ ; ~ \

o/ ,^'‘'4-a-tr j •/ f *-1 i J' • v i*-*• *■ W / j ) \

bit Nttt Om* b *•»!** l| Mltr i V\C^V# *s v***-

W \ \ l \ I 10 f t< IQ M »•*«» M t k r K i A.f Ml'WO <

Fi njr>~» 29 « Ststic-vatar Level in the Chio Shale in the Scioto 3isin. 106 widespread as opposed to a spotty distribution from the car­ bonate. The recharge water from the drift is trapped in the upper few feet of shale, and its quality is less miner­ alized than that from the carbonate. The latter is generally highly mineralized, and characterized by high concentrations of Ca, Mg and so4 .

Effect of Recharge

The major effects of recharge to the Ohio Shale are related to its water quality. If the recharge from above is relatively rapid, the water quality is Improved. On the other hand, the quality of recharge from the underlying bedrock is .highly mineralized, and its addition causes seme deterioration of the water already in storage.

Discharge

Water is discharged from the Ohio Shale naturally and by pumping. The quantity of discharge is unknown, but be­ lieved to be very minor when compared to discharges from the major aquifers in the basin. Underflow, evapotranspira­ tion, springs, interaquifer leakage, effluent stream seepage and artificial withdrawal account for most of it. Springs issuing from the shale are marked by iron deposits. Leakage from the shale into the overlying drift is minor and re­ stricted to the relatively narrow band above the subcropping shale. Artificial withdrawal is minor. Wells are commonly 107 dry and continuous pumping of the aquifer generally leads to its complete dewatering in a relatively short time.

Chemical Quality of Water

Data on the quality of water from the Ohio Shale are relatively few. ' The concentration of dissolved solids, particularly sulfate and iron in the water, is so high that the water has a bitter taste (from the sulfate) and stains utensils yellowish-brown• The high concentrations are probably due to the low permeability and the minerals present in the shale. Locally, however, mineralization of the water may increase from mixing with water migrating upward from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate, as for example at Delaware. The major constituents in the water are listed in Table The hardness of water from the Ohio Shale is mainly permanent. It commonly exceeds 1 0 0 0 mg/1, due to high sul­ fate and chloride concentrations. In the southern part of the basin, the water is of better quality and probably is due to recharge by infiltration. Most of the water from the Ohio Shale can be considered slightly saline according to the classification established by the U. S. Geological Survey (Winslow and Kister, 1956). Concentrations of total dissolved solids range from 300 to 3000 mg/1, but are more commonly greater than IOOO mg/1. TABLE S.

GROUND - WATER QUALITY IN THE tSlIO SHALE IN THE SCIOTO 3ASIN Concentrations in mg/1.

Depth L o catio n SiO, Fe Ca Mg Na K HCO, so4 C l DS T o ta l in f t . Hardness

51 Lewis Center, Dels. 11 ilpli! ii6? 151 :2oa; : ^ 265 1900 11 ::::

65 Pow ell 16 528 201* 23 6 .6 385 i7 u 0 78 nco ;i i ' (r 90 W esterville 86 26 WM iiH ii 16 ?60

60 Central College, 15 MM 378 119 ii* a .3 182 i 1010 11 1 6 0 0 - ' 1 ^ 3 0 : 1 : rrsnK xinv o # 80 East Hoover Res. 10 0 .3 67 31 :3 3 5 ' 13 118 11 IKO

50 Westerville, Dela* 16 0 .3 293 110: IB1 1 1 1 L32 90U 7 .5 ie ili 75 Renoldsburg, Frankli:i 8 .9 0.1* U l 18 aa 7 .2 :700:: ” 390 ICO 1J6S:

55 Ashville, Pickaway 22 mm 101* 55 30 a.7 255 238 56 639 a86 ? U mi* north of 10 0 .3 183 68 WM 16 36 h 12 105C) 737 —Waverley, Pike Co. 70 Londonderry, Ross Co• wu 160 286 S i 10 S i ; 11*60 5a 25:30 . r15?0 •

Analyses by the U. S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Branch. 109

The sulfate concentrations at various locations, with few exceptions, are far greater than the recommended maxi­ mum limit of 250 mg/1 set by the U* S. public Health Service (1962) for drinking water, it ranges from 10 to well above 1500 mg/1 and most likely it is indigenous in the black shale. Locally, however, where the shale is very thin, the waters contain hydrogen sulfide, in addition to other salts and may be leaking from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate• Iron concentrations are generally very high and the waters are unfit for domestic use without treatment, mainly because of the staining effect. Bicarbonate concentrations, are relatively low. They range from 250 to 10 5 0 mg/1, but commonly are less than 600 gm/1. The total concentration of calcium and magnesium seems to be less than 300 mg/1, except in areas of leakage from the underlying Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifer. Water from the Ohio Shale, with rare exceptions, contains relatively high concentrations of sodium and potassium. Of the samples examined, the combined (Na + K) concentration ranged from 20 to 780 gm/1. The shale, through ion exchange, is probably the major source of the sodium and potassium. 110

Relationship between water Quality and Flow Path Length

The source and rate of recharge to the Ohio Shale appear to be factors that affect the water quality. Where the drift cover is thin or absent and recharge is due mostly to precipitation, the total dissolved solids content is relatively low and the hydraulic gradient of the static- water level is steeper than in areas where the drift cover is thick* In contrast, recharge from the underlying Silur­ ian-Devonian carbonate increases the concentrations of calcium and sulfate in the water •

Mississippian Sandstone Aquifers

Introduction

The Mississippian aquifers consist of a series of interbedded sandstone and shale beds sandwiched between the Pleistocene drift and the Ohio Shale. The Berea Sandstone in the lower part and sandstone members of the Cuyahoga Formation in the upper section are the more important aquifers. The Berea is a si It stone in Scioto County, but a fine­

grained quart2 sandstone in the rest of the drainage basin. The Cuyahoga Formation also has more than one facies (seven) of which three are represented in the basin area (Holden, 1954): 1) The Granville facies, which is a thin-bedded, sandy shaft in the northeastern part of the basin Ill

2) The Hocking Valley facies in the east-central part. It is a fine- to coarse-grained, locally conglomeratic sandstone interbedded with arenaceous shale 3) The Henley facies is present in southeastern Ross and most of Scioto Counties. It is chiefly a shale of variable thickness.

Distribution

The distribution of the Mississippian rocks in the Scioto basin are shown in Figure 30. Hie Berea Sandstone subcrops in a north to south trending band, about two miles wide along the eastern edge of the basin. Its average thickness is less than SO feet (pepper and others, 1954, PI. 3). In Delaware, Franklin, Fairfield and northeastern Pickaway Counties, the Cuyahoga Formation is predominantly sandstone, the Black Hand facies, but in Adams, Scioto, Pike and Ross, it is shale.

Hydraulic Properties

Where the Berea Sandstone and the lower part of the Cuyahoga Formation are saturated, they are, however, relatively low-yielding aquifers with low permeabilities. Most of the potable water pumped from the Berea is from the thinly-bedded, jointed and weathered upper few feet. In northern Ohio, Rau (1969) calculated an average coeffi­ cient of permeability of 60 gpd/sq. ft. Values range from 112

-J /

/yJ( Granville I — J//J || J \td . it n O’h N L '" I f e*Is £ ^-'K ^^^Hlsckih^ tfaKtev!] ; k^K W v Ar7f»lf f i v y ~ v \ "i\ sue-,?^p vt^^' > s _.- i'luvy J H W C A t,.;< i/,'-> U -v {ipAt'^x y jk \

X) V T ^ V ~ £ f ■ U : " K V f \ / Henley ^v/, // -' A.; < XX / M i (/v facdes^Y''?^ I 7 i: P I 3

^ f c t - y a j .k / ^ * x x 4 f f W

H p ' A X - < J ' •' . h i f r iJ ,^.Os '■M** -t 'A\- L^—~' ■. \ ~~~ S "V I' 1 \ / * ’„ >;>>;■ - '~X) N~vr r) N---V- ... v y r

3V<£ -' (;f V - £ . K V t o w (hit 0+1't4ft* * / A K w ^ P v \ , :- v •/' '-\ Y 5 — •(.-(?< W > H ■ \ r ..Kl ll_ to W*4 (* n|C||

. p y - — A ; * r AiLONd

t-iyf'«/ *h1» DiUWlit* 1*71

P u n i re 30* Distribution or Missiveippian Hock Facies ‘ in the Scioto Basin. 113

27 to 134 gpd/sq. ft.; however, possible leakage from the underlying Cussewago Sandstone casts some doubt on the reliability of the highest values.

The Berea Sandstone gradually changes facies to a siltstone in a southerly direction but fracturing and weathering within the subcrop area probably increase the per­ meability and account for locally high yielding wells. Rau (1969) calculated that of 655 wells, the coefficients

m of transmissibility ranged from 1,100 to 6,700 gpd/ft. In the Scioto basin, the values should be much less because both the permeability and thickness of the sandstone have decreased. The average yield in northern Ohio is about 18 gpa in wells that penetrated an average of 30 feet of Berea. Schmidt (1961) estimates that the average yield in the southern part of the Scioto basin is less than 5 gpm.

Locally, yields are considerably higher where the aquifer is overlain by thick sand and gravel or is recharged by a

* stream. In Franklin County, the average yield is 17 gpm. The large difference between the yields from north to south confirms a decrease in permeability. The specific capacity of wells in northern Ohio averaged 1.5 gpm/ft of draw down over 24 hours. In the Scioto basin, it should be less, but exceptions may result from weathering and jointing in the subcrop area. Several short-term aquifer tests were conducted in the

Cuyahoga Formation outside the Scioto basin. The results 114

indicate that the water is stored under artesian pressure, and that the initial production probably comes from the upper weathered zone of the aquifer.

In bedrock, bore holes are not cased and when the aquifer is composed of a series of sand and shale layers, as the Cuyahoga is, the test data reflect the local condi­ tions. Nevertheless they are used to familiarize the reader with possible hydraulic conditions. An aquifer step-test was conducted in 1962 at the Hocking State Forest in Hocking County by the Ohio Division of Water. The specific capacities range from .24 to .52 gpm/ft of draw down. During pumping, the initial specific capacity of .36 increased to .52 and then gradually de­ creased to .24 gpm/ft of drawdown (Fig# 31). Hie anomalous initial increase is probably due to differences in permeabil­ ity between zones in the aquifer. A 24-hour constant rate test of the Cuyahoga at Lake Hope State Park in Vinton County, also outside the basin, indicated a specific capacity of .05 gpm/ft of drawdown (Open file report, Ohio Division of Water). In general, the data collected outside the eastern edge of the Scioto basin suggest that the aquifer permeability is very low under its best aquifer conditions. 115

Specific Capacity .1 .3 .5 .7 7TT

260

270

2CO EP

290

300

320

c JC ■ t [ ■ ; ■■■i ■■ }■- a -■;■■■■ - - --i------i— Hi ' i , I ■ :]. L - _i _ —1-1i>-i-Jii 'TI.bj in minutes !*' 1 < -I I1 ft 31* Step - Test of Well in i'ocklng State Forest in Ki 3 a .1 s slppian Sand a ton e. X16

Ground Water Movement

The Ohio Division of Water has established several observation wells to monitor the water levels in the State. Of these, one, Well F-2 in Fairfield County, is drilled into the Cuyahoga Formation in the Scioto basin. The records indicate that the water is stored under artesian pressure, and there is an annual water-level fluctuation of about two feet. The records also indicate that as a result of waste-water disposal on the surface, the static-water-level in the buried sandstone rose about three times that caused by natural recharge. The static- water level probably responded both to overloading by the saturated till and local recharge.

The static-water level in the Mississlppian sandstone aquifers are shown in Figure 32. The ground-water flow pattern changes from place to place and the effect of structure, one-half degree eastward dip and east-west joint pattern, is apparently not as pronounced as it is in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifer, in Fairfield County, the ground water flows from the sandstone aquifers into the buried channels (Fig. 33) and in the rest of the basin, it flows toward the surface streams. 117

Explanation

L L A M d T i f t Contour Interval 50 foot

" Vs- <1 A Elev. above Sea Level N ,,MV\ Generalizod direction ®roun^”wa^or

?-AE=:V— I*-' — -ia.-J _I *r, p . *rf jA

M ~ v ‘" lrfeeftern lin&t iLfrJ'?I IZ'T jr*C, .r'iV tfo y^ £ T f / t ' rleslppxan AySfpr/A *;V K \ • / I

1 1 — \ ; Ti**w v \ i r I * V M \ v \/*'pj5frA-i L_ a V/.^vV A ^ A 4 —x j > i"f f y v A A i / — 1~ 7 \ ^ I J /-f-SS

r - w s A ^ a m r < X

Tj"** j* ad* i

A-V AUCWO V „ -H Nv£v-/ '^J') / * » ’1

Firtire 32« Statlc-vater Level In the Mlssisaippian Aqulfera In the Scioto Bayin. "Till

Sandstone

Arrows show direction of groand-vater movement

Figure 33. Schematic Diagram of leakage from the

Mlssissipplan Sandstones Into the sand

and gravel In burled channels- 119

Recharge

Natural recharge to the Mlssissipplan aquifers is roost abundant in spring, mainly because precipitation is the major source. Interaquifer leakage, influent stream seep­ age and underflow are minor sources of natural recharge. Induced and artificial recharge to the sandstone occurs in scattered areas, but their total contribution is unknown. Infiltration through the overlying drift is signifi­ cant, particularly in the central part of the basin where the drift is mainly sand and gravel and the aquifer itself

is a sandstone. Except during flood stages, most streams as gaining types where they flow across the exposed Mississip­ pi an sandstones, consequently recharge is negligible. In contrast, static-water levels reflect a continuous recharge to the ground water by underflow through the Mississippian sandstone aquifers. Assuming that T is lOOO gpd/ft I is 20 feet per mile and L is 130 miles the calculated volume of underflow providing recharge is about 2.6 mgd. Pumping from the sandstones induces recharge from the drift, from deeper aquifers, and possibly from streams in

the vicinity of the wells. The quantity of recharge induced depends largely on the shape of the cone of depression and, in contrast to natural recharge, the amount is minor. 120

Artificial recharge of Mississippran aquifers in the Scioto basin is strictly accidental and local. At Pickerington, waste-water is spreao on the lanu surface ana alluw^a to

inxiltrate. An observation well in the area of disposal shows a rise in water level immediately after spreading.

Pi scharge

Pumping, effluent stream seepage, interaquifer leak­ age, underflow and evapotranspiration are the major means of discharge from the Mississlppian aquifers. Major pump- age is limited to Franklin and Fairfield Counties, where the aquifer is mainly sandstone. In the southern and north­ eastern parts of the basin, the aquifers are shaley and, or silty, and consequently are used when other sources of water are inadequate. The total quantity withdrawn is unknown, but is estimated to be less than 0 . 6 5 mgd. Although the permeability of the sandstones is very low, significant quantities of ground water are discharged into the streams in the southern part of the basin. The volume varies from intermittcn'in Tar Hollow Creek to 0 . 0 1 1 cfs/square mile (0.007 mgd/square mile) during the low flow periods in Sunfish Creek.

Static-water levels indicate that the Mississippian aquifers discharge water to the overlying drift in the buried channels. Leakage to other aquifers seems very unlikely because the aquifers are underlain by the very thick section of shale. 121

Underflow from the Scioto basin through the Mississip- pian bedrock occurs through the south rim of the basin. Approximately 0.02 mgd flows into the Ohio River, assuming that Transmissibility is 100 gpd/ft Hydraulic gradient is 10 feet/mile, and

the width, through which the water flows, is 20 miles. Discharge also occurs by evapotranspiration. The Ohio Division of Water estimates that approximately 26 inches (about 1 million acre feet) per year discharge into the atmosphere.

Effects of Discharge

Discharge from the Mississippian aquifers decreases the volume of water in storage. Observation wells show a declining water level from July through January, as well as & continuous lowering due to pumpage since the beginning of ground-water usage. The quantity of water taken from storage by pumping, however, is not equivalent to the gallons of water produced because water is induced from the oontiguous aquifers as the head in the sandstone decreases. Discharge into the overlying sand and gravel from the Mississippian sandstone may also affect the water quality in the sand and gravel. Leakage from the Berea is prob­ ably responsible for the increased mineralization reported in Sunfish and Crooked creeks. 122

Chemical Quality of Water

The Mississippi sin Sandstones have two significantly different chemical types of water within the Scioto basin* One is fresh water, i.e., dissolved solids concentration is less than 1 , 0 0 0 mg/1* The fresh water is very hard but of very good quality* The second type if brackish to saline (dissolved solids concentration ranges from 1,OOO to 6 |OOO mg/1) and the water is characterized by chloride « in excess of 40 mg/1 and significant sodium and potassium* The chemical constituents most abundant in the water are listed in Table 6.

The total hardness of the fresh water averages about 350 mg/1. Most of it seems to be due to bicarbonate* In comparison, the total hardness of the brackish water is due chiefly to high concentrations of of chloride and, or sulfate. The maximum hardness recorded was 1580 mg/1 from a well in Ross County. Most of the samples tested contained between 350 and 450 mg/1 of total dissolved solids* The exceptions, how­ ever, have concentrations in excess of 1 0 0 0 mg/1 with an extreme of 6250 mg/1. The high concentrations are due chiefly to sodium, calcium, sulfate and chloride* Sulfate is not normally a problem in water from the Mississippian sandstones. Concentrations range from 10 to lOO mg/1 except locally where the water is brackish* High concentrations may be derived from the black, carbonaceous TABLE 7

GROUNtKvMTER QUALITY IN THE MI33I3SI1TUN SANDSTONES IN

THE SOIOTC BASIN (Concentrations in rag/l)

, D*|PtJ *)ullir 3i0j r. Ct Hi JU I Cl Dfl foUl ill fk “ ft fiir-loop*

50 Gullet, Crawford C*6 thott 1* 0.6 74 25 20 j.9j y n »7 25 35* 288 JO Nail 146*1- tj Ci^tho|t 15 0.3 10* 32 19 3.0; 460 31 12 *23 591 t— 50 Ht U 1 M &•!*• 19 %.? 1*1 50 12 2 i S10 132 9 6*1

240 Ch*at«rtlll* S*TH 16 0.1 1*8 0., 2CO U i * *30 •9 6.5 >16 * *01 6 ftl* £ of Gal m m B*r*t ;.v ‘ 360 32 7.6 3*9 82 jtuabury filTM 18 1*5 67 2? 11 1.2 406 25 6 380 336 60 U»iUrrtll* 8*t m 10 5. A 64 24 46 6.9: 400 19 2.5 3/3 25ft 75 lUrlw 0*r** 13 lid 12C 150 li 591 3*9 1411 l*ii1 666 ‘ ■ . *87 4 nt* tft of t 12 t-1 82 2S 12 6S 3 361 320 Umc^atar, FairfioM 122 Guyahof* 17 " .1 72 32 2* j.e 40* 32 3 393 315

% o Sugar Hi-ot* 0tr«t 6*7 M 30 11 2 2." B6 1* 37 151 120 67 Central Collef* fiort* 19 : .5 69 26 16 2 257 98 *•3 36* 279

28 How Ut4iv, rranil La Ci^iifaoy* 9.3 0.2 82 35 7. J 962 37 2.8 379 3*ft *0 Xoi>ildifurf Cg/tiicfi 19 1.0 19* 41 28 4TO >2 1.9 *96 *12 55 Nw Aibti/ 8*1-** 12 0.9 50 33 24.7 9* 102 *0 371 260 67 M*U Alban/ B*r*t 19 2.3 69 26 10 257 196 2*3 362 279 77 G*6*nnt BtlH 1/ 0.8 80 32 46.9 271 37 7.5 330 *3 Jltroa 22 0 t 130 49 46+ 3 *96 230 5.2 718 526 575 Old »*a Cato 5.8 69 ;25 J.9 130 160 3 >;s 275 66 3- k1* V of Nalajn- 8 art* 12 251 iTO ■83.7 *39 r*16 1 1..C# 913 , ICO ►Urlca TVp 7 192 1^69 27 160 :23 4 vi Ts'rtO 76*

150 ■| &la V of Login I 1* » 122 7 291 :36 * V / 7 26} 1U 2 m ±. SK of Lofcaa ? 18 3.6 A > 12 6.6 6C 62 10 1TO 115 SCO 3 fci. NE of Lcen^ t 9 11 13.? 157 342 !2.2 76 m J 20 2*V Hu*f Vln-Uo C-j. f 12 1.0 69 25 4.3 244 176 2.5 y & ) 4 v y ? 7 ■*. v or >4o f 362 j16 91 43a £4 6 hi ■ N of L»|Aii *14/oho ft 9.7 10 5-5 2.6 50 |6.» 2 67 48 ais Hid* tut/ Hill• Gij/ihoft H 0.A U 1 16 10 .6 UC 159 * 1.3 160 68 fcrUnbuth 6*1 235 >38 I 398 j1.2 )J" J t. 0 60 UUho, Mi* Co Rv m 1 L' ’■ H i f185 75 | 5*8 j 1*10 0,5 *' ‘J 114) » E*pJ*o, *c!uto Co. i0.9 ■ i r;SM 3 ;*i 163 » 7 *1. E. of k m '. . j ;*4 ! 37 105 ■tfl I , PrltndaMp 8*r«* 0.3 3:0 ,22} *tO * i AnaJjtM ty til* D. 3* Gcolofiotl 3uivv/f Wtlar An«o\ire*« Hrtrtub, 124

Sunbury Shale which separates the Berea from the Cuyahoga or the underlying Ohio Shale. The brackish to saline waters from the Berea are

suspected to be connate because there is no evidence that interaquifer leakage from bedrock occurs and their quality correlates with brines from the Berea in other parts of the State. Since the depth to the brackish water varies from place to place in the basin, its presence is inter­ preted (Fig* 34) as the up dip extent of such water in the Berea Sandstone. The brackish water is present within two to 15 miles of the Berea subcrop, at depths as shallow as 60 feet.

Unconsolidated Sediments Geohydrologic Unit Sand and Gravel Introduction

The unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits in the

Scioto basin form the most important of the aquifers. They supply the largest volume of relatively good quality ground water. Deposits are classified on the basis of their dis­ tribution as channel deposits or lenses, both of which are very porous and permeable and have large storage capacities. The water in the various deposits has a uniform quality, except where it is diluted or effected by recharge. 125

Err.J-1 rtijm

Brackish water

n. Western toour^iary^ ^ s Jo f the / f — ♦ ' T ; -l..lSf:./;^ v-,-

Updlp extent of brack!sh-water in the Berea Sandstone. T O ^ v ? VS/P v s\ rt > ' ^ \\

'■•'vVX / V w------. - > " . . -J-:;:;i .... u>’.. “ :-:::V 0 |«K lem Qn»e 0mt*e* ■* »e**r •*r £ 4 J

M l u M / : f A U _ 4 \ r DM

Figure 34. Brackish -Fresh writer interface in the Berea Sandstone in the Scioto Basin* 126

Description

Deposits vary from well-sorted and stratified sand and gravel to silty clay. Spot and conposite samples from the sand and gravel deposits, analyzed in this investiga­ tion, contained about 3 per cent clay and silt and 16 per cent gravel in addition to sand. A chemical analysis of the silty clay, known as the Minford Silt, shows that it is enriched in Si02, A1203, Fe2°3» Mg), Na20 and KgO (Lamborn and others, 1938). The Minford Silt is well laminated and plastic.

Distribution

The thickness and distribution of the sand and gravel and silty clay in the Scioto basin are shown in Figure 35. The channels of the various drainage systems were the focal points for the thickest accumulation. Other thick deposits are associated with the end moraines, in contrast, rela­ tively thin deposits lie under the plains in the northern part of the basin. The bedrock channels criss-cross each other as well as the present drainage system, but they are separable by the nature of their fill material. The Minford Silt is as much as 80 feet thick, although it averages between 20 and 40 feet. Its importance as an aquifer, however, is minor because only the thin basal quartz sand associated with it produces water. The Deep Stage and Hardin channels 127

Explanation

> 5 0 ft.

/*w,Tsi -■*

m ^ s m

m m

f g m M M m

at Wilt*

JP

mm HU J ' ^ Flgur«__25* Isopach of Sand and Gravol in tha Scioto Basin* 128 are filled with sand and gravel, whose thicknesses vary considerably, as for example, in southeastern Franklin Oounty it exceeds lOO feet.

The present drainage system contains the thickest sand and gravel deposit in the basin, which represents out- wash from several glaciations and recently deposited alluvium. It is about 85 feet thick in the Scioto River valley between Columbus and the Ohio River, Paint, North

Fork, Deer, Darby, Little Darby, Alum and Big Walnut Creeks and the Olentangy River also contain sand and gravel in the lower parts of their channels. Some lens type deposits are actually wedge-shaped, with the thickest part of the wedge present along the distal margins of the end moraines. Generally, all the deposits are embedded in the till. The greatest accumulation of sand and gravel extends across the central part of the basin, through Madison, Franklin, Pickaway and Fairfield

Counties; its distribution, however, is controlled partly by channels and the location of the ice front.

Hydraulic Properties

The channel deposits along the present drainage lines are classified as watercourse aquifers. The permeabilities in exposed sections in the upper part of the aquifer between Columbus and Portsmouth have been determined with a con­ stant-head perinea ter in the laboratory, and the lower part 129

of the aquifer at Piketon among other places by testing in wells. The composition of samples taken from outcrops is listed in Table ® • Most of the 52 samples analyzed con­ tained between 30 and 95 per cent sand, 5 and 7 0 per cent gravel, and less than 5 per cent silt and clay* The samples are representative of single sedimentary units. They are plotted on the basis of their composition on a triangular diagram (Fig. 36a). Samples obtained from test holes at Piketon were also plotted on a triangular diagram (F*ig. 36b) • These samples contained from 5 to 95 per cent sand, 5 to 95 per cent gravel, and less than 5 per cent silt and clay. The samples were collected for every 5 foot interval in 11 holes to depths of about 85 feet. A comparison between the plots of sanples from the surface exposures and the test holes shows them to have similar compositions in terms of particle sizes. Conse­ quently, the watercourse deposits are interpreted as relatively uniform bodies at depth and throughout their areal extent. Laboratory determinations of permeability have several drawbacks due to disturbance of the sample, the size of the sample, and the results resemble more closely the horizontal permeability than the vertical. Neverthe­ less, permeability determinations are made in the laboratory and the results used because differences in permeabilities 130

TABLE B

SIEVE ANALYSES OF SAND AND GRAVEL IN THE CHANNEL DEPOSITS OF SCIOTO BASIN

Sample . Clay Gravel Permeability No. Location (per cent) (Per cent) (gpd/sq. ft.

1-A Pike Co. 2 11 675 2-A •t ii 1 1 900 3-A it - 62 2800 4 -A ii ii 0.1 58 430 5-A tt ti 2 24 200

6 -A » it it 8 38 80 7 -A M it 0.1 40 400 8 - A tl it 95.0 • 9 - A Scioto Co. 1 53 1200 1 0 -A Pike Co. Trc. 1 660 11-A ti ii 5 trc. 70 12-A Ross Co. 7 .5 25 13-A II ii Trc. 7 1145 14-A II ii 1.6 2 680 15-A II ii 1.5 12 830 16-A ft •t 3 17 680 17-A II ii 38.4 .2 4 18-A II ti 15 7 12 19-A Highland Co. 20.8 - 8 2 0 -A ii it it 4.3 1.2 100 21-A ti •i it 1.1 60.8 2000 22-A Pickaway Co. 1 .5 450 23-A ii n n - 16.1 1200 24-A it ii ii 2.3 37.1 200 2 5-A ii it ii 6.3 10.3 110 26-A it it it 2.0 5 270 27-A ii ii n 1.8 1.7 150 28-A Marion Co. 2.7 1 400 29-A it it 1.7 1 500 30-A it •i •6 12.6 585 131

TABLE 8 (continued)

Sample Clay Gravel Permeability No. Location (Per cent) (Per cent) (gpd/sq. ft.

31-A Marion CO. .5 lOOO 32-A i t t t 1.4 4.2 100 33-A t t t i 3.1 1 260 34-A i f t i 2 7.1 260 35-A t* t t 1 37 700 36-A Union Co. 3 11. 6 300 37-A t i i i 4 2 180 38-A Logan i i 1.5 5 210 39-A Union i i 3.5 49.8 925 4 0 - A i t i i 2,8 11 145

4 1 - A t i i i 1.2 62.8 1500 42-A i i i i 1.5 21 200 4 3 -A i t i i 2 . 4 66. 4 3 000 4 4 - A Madison Co. 1 - 475 45-A • i i i .2 18 800

4 6 - A i t n 2 5 380 4 7 - A t i n Trc. 45 900 4 8 -A Franklin Co 4 5 220 4 9 -A • i i i 2 . 5 7 300 5 0 -A i i t i 3 3 2 1 5

5 1 -A i i i i 8 2 IS 5 2 -A Morrow Co. Trc# 3 985 132 ■SAIFI

(JRAVEL , SILT FI"ur« j&a. Composition Plot of samples collected from surface exposures.

3AND

/ / ’/ './ sAAA/ v/ /-.V -v/-v.-vA/w - / \/\ i ^ A ;'\ 7 ^ / \ 7\ 7\7v w \ A

y ^ V - V V v' V V \ 7 V \7 a /.\/.\A r.HATEL SILT FI."u.re 36b. Cc.-apoultJ.on Plot of cinples collected from Te3t h o l m \t Pike ton. 133

can be detected, results correlated, and projected to areas where other data are lacking*

Permeabilities determined in the laboratory on outcrop samples ranged from 25 to 3000 gpd/sq, ft, and average

about 550 gpd/sq, ft* The permeability appears to be related to the distribution of the various size fractions, for example:

1) The presence of more than 3 per cent silt and less than 3 per cent gravel in sand correlates with a laboratory permeability less than 200 gpd/sq* ft* 2) Permeabilities increase with an increase of the gravel fraction

3) The values of permeability determined in the laboratory are apparently less than the values determined by pump­ ing in the field*

Nottis and Fidler (1966) concluded from their studies that permeability values of samples taken from a bailed well were one-quarter the average calculated from field data, and the permeabilities of samples collected by auguring were even less.

Of the many field tests conducted along the Scioto River on the watercourse aquifer, results from the Piketon area are presented in this report. The aquifer in the test area is composed of sand and gravel approximately 90 feet thick, overlain by a sandy clay. Figure 37 is a time- drawdown plot on log-log paper. It represents the drawdown t, t:F w O < 'C ios D row d' j T ^ f e c t i v e Coefficient Storage of e v i t c e f ^ T j •C- l|> — w .1 **.— — *♦ ik t ^ L i ii U-* W3.r:er 3 W I 1. ; > > ;: r 4,fi . i 0" ‘ ' : ? : : I *? — t ' : ' 1 ‘ " 0 ' i I . i f , 4 ; — r f ' t ____ f t,yf . rtdk ' 4s „i»uArr 4as y ' Vrhtjd^kx '. Ufutt,%y.f

/ • X f / / Match pci fit - «. «. - fit pci Match ! - ;j ; ■ ■ :'• ;■ : : : ; : ■:' ■■ ! - «»c ■!* Time-DrawdownCurve of N-lWell Piketonat Site. Test r~22900 Ix ;i. x • - -30.0229 - ()4J 2 22,900 l\i 1. f '114.6 Qvf K « t t « » ; . . pA : i - i I ' : gpdAt t conditions exist Rafter exist conditions I H > > ■ / * A x / jjo ...... ___ »(" x.*oszf p f *9 A . A. V 2693 x. U>QL .r,): . ie i minutes ' in ' Time ,r«r. * ; -t s*? -t s*? jffi&Y-r/w3*\ * gur 37. re u ig F . . . > ■ > S^h-22000 1x x. ioft . -7. . — V 7 . x

j. is : ;f; ;f J : : ’ -’JiJLJ 752.> A [ • A ; = 7.5229. > i ■■ : : A■■■* : - Lr t * ' ■ 00. 0 &0 I t * >H.6 . H > T . . ! :' . ■ . 1 1 : : i ' ■ 5.U ■ . !. ; i ' : Ut._ ■ Untr.>_ L : >'_ ------; . ; minutes. - ► - I k . , - . ■'22,000 2693-x 4 ■ ; i . ■’ ■- ■■■• ; , f- i i i X I x 0 0 0 1 X Madipit t i point atd 'M < 1 t T * * » T t 1 < 1 1

gp>'ft ■ 100 i > * i * 1 - I I 4(*t \ C t tJ 4 ‘ i * i i i < • 1 < J « * » * « • .. J* ..

, .i* T

I 134 135

in an observation well 10 feet from a well, which was pumped at a rate of lOOO gpm for nine days. The coeffi­ cients of transmissibility, storage, and permeability, and the specific yield of the aquifer, were calculated from

the plot by using the nonsteady-state water-table type curves (Prickett, 1964). The coefficient of transmissibil- ity of 22,000 gpd/ft and a storage coefficient of 0.022 were calculated. The permeability of the aquifer therefore is about 340 gpd/sq. ft. T and S were also calculated from the same data

plotted on semi-log paper (Figure 38) using the Jacob method. The results (Coefficient of transmissibility of 366,000 gpd/ft and storage coefficient of 0.005) are significantly different from those determined with Prickett’s curve mainly because boundaries develop before a steady-shape condition is established* The plot indi­

cates that recharge and discharge boundaries were estab­ lished after two and 100 minutes, respectively. A distance-drawdown plot (Fig. 39) was also used to evaluate the aquifer. A coefficient of transmissibility of 220,000 gpd/ft. and a storage coefficient of 0.014 were calculated. The transmissibility is indicative of a per­ meability of about 3000 gpd/sq. ft. Norris and Fidler (1966, 1969) computed an average transmibbility for the aquifer at Piketon of 215,000 gpd/ft. from much more data. They estimated a permeability to In fe^t A s - 0.72 ft. 0.72 - s A 1 -Pm P - T T - 264. - Q T =T t = T S 0 - 1000 gpm 1000 - 0 r - 10 ft. 10 - r minutes - 0.00007 t o 70 r~ 4790 AS Time in minutes in Time 10 *.«« .i'•ll*,* H, - * , * J.l-l ' • i « :*«.(« = 377,000 = P

P 85 x P = a a lTr 33. Fl.Ture a 377,000 gpd/ft 377,000 a 3700 .00007 x 377,000 = = 264 x 1000 x 264 = 5.5 4790 0 1000 100 85 X 0772

10 -3

100 x

- 4400 gpd/sq ft. gpd/sq 4400 -

136 Drawdown in feet 3 1 5 s a t = minutes = 1000 t -52 Q - 5.28 T r - ft. - 560 r ~ gpm 1000 3 o = ft = 2.4 t T - 4790 r 4790 AS y n — f)istancefeet in .14 = = 220,000 x 1000 x 220,000 = gpd/ft 220,000 - 1000 x 5.28 = iue 39* Figure 4790 x 560 x 560 x 560 x 4790 130- 771 -10-30-

137 138

horizontal flow of 3300 gpd/sq. ft., and after trying several methods (the reader is referred to the original paper), they determined a vertical permeability of 365 gpd/ sq. ft. by "a simple, graphical approximation method utilizing drawdowns at the top and bottom of the aquifer" (Norris and Fidler, 1966, p. 1). The vertical permeabil­ ity agrees with the value determined with Prickett'a curve, which indicates that from a recharge-discharge viewpoint, the most acceptable results are determined with the nonsteady-state water-table type curves. The watercourse aquifers were tested in several other places. In southeast Columbus along the Scioto River, Ranney Water Systems, Inc. calculated a coefficient of permeability of 5750 gpd/sq. ft. (unpublished report, City of Columbus). Along the Scioto River in Ross, Pike and Scioto Counties, the Ohio Division of Water (1965) reports transmissivities ranging from 75,000 to 322,000 gpd/ft. Permeability coefficients range from 2000 to 4600 gpd per square foot, and average 3253 gpd/sq. ft. These values no doubt refer to horizontal flow through the aquifer.

The hydraulic properties calculated from well testing are more reliable than the laboratory values. The Jacob method of solving for T and S give results which correlate best with the data already collected by various agencies. These results (an average coefficient of permeability of 3300 gpd/sq. ft. for the watercourse aquifer) represent 139

horizontal conditions. In contrast, the use of Prickett’s curve appears to give the transmissibility values as it affects recharge and withdrawal from the aquifer. The average permeability coefficient to vertical flow through the watercourse aquifer is estimated to range between 300 and 400 gpd/sq. ft.

As previously noted, the channel deposits include those buried by drift in three major drainage systems.

Silty clay'and locally a basal quartz sand fills the Teays valley. Previous investigators have reported sand and gravel in these channels; however, in this investigation, such deposits above the main body of silt are interpreted as outwash with completely different hydraulic properties.

There are no test wells or data available by which the hydrologic properties of the silty clay can be evaluated, but drillers' reports imply that although the silty clay is saturated, it is not a reliable source of water. The sand and gravel in the buried bedrock channels have hydraulic properties that are essentially similar to

the watercourse aquifers except storage under pressure in the buried channels. More than one-half of the glaciated area of the basin is underlain with five feet or more of saturated sand and gravel. The deposits are not uniform or continuous except for that underlying the central part of the basin, as out­ 140 lined earlier. The sand and gravel form isolated lenses or stringers that are relatively permeable, and of variable thickness and are haphazardly distributed through­ out the till.

Their hydraulic properties are variable, because depths to the lenses, the nature of the confining materials and the heads in the underlying bedrocks vary. Their potential as a source of water is also variable, as it depends largely on the size of the body and its recharge characteristics. Where the sand and gravel is shallow or exposed such as in Delaware, Franklin and Pickaway Counties, water is stored under watertable conditions and may even be perched above the normal watertable. In contrast, artesian conditions exist in the buried deposits. When small volume bodies are puaped continuously for a long time span, however, they are dewatered and watertable conditions prevail. Transmissibility and storage coefficients determined from aquifer test data indicate that the buried lens-like deposits are less permeable than the channel deposits. This condition is exemplified at the London Fish Hatchery in Madison County. Four wells define a fine to medium- grained sand and gravel deposit about 12 feet thick, over- lain by approximately 20 to 35 feet of gray sandy clay. Based on withdrawal at a constant rate for periods of 24 hours, the coefficient of transmissibility calculated 141

ranged from 27,000 to 300,000 gpd/ft., and storage coeffi­ cient ranged from 0.0003 to 0.0007. The lower transmis­ sibility values are believed to be closer to the true

transmissibility mainly because they were determined from a distance-drawdown plot. Results obtained from a time- drawdown plot is considered unreliable because the data

collected during the early part of the test when a steady shape may have developed are few. Test data from other isolated aquifers also indicate lower coefficients of transmissibility for lenses of sand and gravel than for the watercourse deposits. At the London Prison farm, the estimated permeability ranged from lOOO to 1250 gpd/sq. ft. (Norris, 1959). At New Vienna, in Clinton County, the coefficient of permeability of buried sand and gravel ranged from 400 to 1100 gpd/sq. ft. (Schaefer and Kaser, 1965).

Ground-Water Movement

Ground-water levels in the sand and gravel aquifers fluctuate daily due to local artificial withdrawal, barometric pressure changes, and loading. Long-term fluctuations correspond to the annual recharge-discharge cycle, and progressive lowering of the watertable locally is most likely due to pumping.

The static water-level in the sand and gravel is shown in Figure 40. From a regional viewpoint, the ground 142

r ^ W Explanation

Contour Interval 50 foot

\ |\ 1 V.\. \L A t V rE le v . above SSea Level < - j ^ 4 A - r \ % ft"\r-r-* ■‘/ / S \ i ^JiV m \ ( a r) / (General*zed d ire c tio n f* \ !/* / ty^-\ if=A( L \j V \ li j 'jOf ground-yater flow

y x , m n f o m w

m i r “

/Vfh 2A? :> S - 4 ^Vl < v V Xb 9P A) >) v ^ i T r -J 3 Vv\-

n ^ S ' Ji S IK y . A ' w v>'-*"V # r

K£ g z > f s f ~ H 'C i^T V V rf \ 1 t—kJ --.a . -'•/ : ^v) <

a id it VM I* »*«* < N.-CT-yf4 ^

i : / 1 ; — / Figure 40. Static-vatsr level in the Fleistoeene Drift ' in the Scioto 3aain. 143

water seems to flow from the basin edges towards the Scioto River in the central and southern parts of the basin* The flow appears to move directly towards the buried channels locally and along these channels towards

the Scioto River* Along the northern boundary, however, the flow is northward out of the basin*

In the watercourse aquifer along the Scioto River, the water moves towards the stream channel* At Piketon, Norris and Fidler (1969) reported that the ground-water gradient ranged from 5 to 10 feet per mile under natural conditions. The flow velocity through the aquifer is cal­ culated to be at most 1.0 feet per day* The gradient is reversed during floods or withdrawal through wells*

Recharge

All recharge to the sand and gravel aquifers has its original source in precipitation, but the route by which it travels to the various aquifers varies significantly in importance. The watercourse aquifers are recharged naturally by infiltration of surface runoff and precipitation, inter­ aquifer leakage and occasionally by influent streams* Locally pumping by industrial, municipal and domestic users has induced recharge* Hie induced recharge is most im­ portant because it is present where it is needed most* 144

The annual water-table fluctuations in the Scioto River watercourse aquifer indicate a storage increase of about 250 acre-feet per square mile of aquifer, based on

the assumption that the two feet fluctuation observed in

widely scattered observation wells is representative of the entire aquifer• Recharge directly from precipitation occurs mainly during the spring months and could hardly account for the

increased storage. Surface runoff from the uplands on both sides of the stream valleys is a majjor source of recharge. The water infiltrates into the sand and gravel along the edges of the valleys as it moves towards the stream channels. Seepage from streams into the watercourse aquifers occurs naturally only during floods. The volume of recharge from this source depends largely on the stage of the flood and its duration. In short, the recharge is significant but highly variable, interaquifer leakage is the most reliable source of natural recharge, particularly to the Scioto River watercourse aquifer. Based on the static- water levels in the various bedrock aquifers, and the base flow of streams flowing over the individual aquifers, it is concluded that the carbonate leaks the largest volume of water and the Ohio Shale the least. Recharge is induced as a result of pumping. Figure 41 shows the reversed flow pattern that develops after pumping. Norris and Fidler (1969) estimated that at a Well

Watcr *«•

✓

v / Water Table after pumping.

Bedrock Channel Fill (sand and gravel)

Arrows point in the direction of ground-vater flow.

Fipure hi. Schenatic Diagram showing Induced Recharge 145 146

pumping rate of lOOO gpm after nine days, the unit infil­ tration rate from the Scioto River was about 95,000 gpd per acre* This apparently low infiltration rate is due partly to a low permeability of mud, organic debris and silt less than a few inches thick on the bottom of the stream channel* At Piketon the stream bed permeability was about 27 gpd per square foot; the flow velocity from the stream to the pumping well 460 feet away was about 4.6 7 feet per day*

The aquifers in buried channels axe r e c h a r g e d mainly by interaquifer leakage and subsurface inflow* Static water-levels in the various aquifers indicate that water drains from the Mississippian sandstones into the Deep Stage tributaries in Franklin and Fairfield counties, from the

Big Lime in Madison County into the Teays valley, and from the overlying drift locally* The rims of the Scioto basin are cut in several places by pre- and inter-glacial channels, which serve as conduits through which water flows in and out of the basin* Water levels in the Deep Stage are indicative of inflow conditions through Franklin and

Fairfield Counties* In southern Hardin County, the water seems to flow into the basin through the Hardin channel* Buried sand and gravel lenses are recharged naturally by infiltration through the overlying till and by vertical leakage* The rate of infiltration through the till is very low, consequently the volume of recharge over a fixed 147

period of time is greater in the lens with the largest surface area. The volume of leakage from the bedrock is unknown. Bedrock leakage occurs where the head in the outwash is lowered below that in the bedrock, or where the bedrock is faulted and the ground water has a naturally

higher potential in the bedrock than in the drift. Re­ charge by subsurface inflow is interpreted along the

eastern and western edges of the basin from the static-water levels. They also indicate that there is stream seepage in Logan Oounty. Artificial recharge to the outwash is minor; it re­ sults mainly from building dams, irrigation practices, septic tanks and disposal of waste water on the surface.

The volume of recharge by these means is relatively small and widely scattered.

Effects of Recharge

The effects of recharge depend .v on the hydrologic properties of the unit being recharged and the source and

volume of recharge. Under natural conditions recharge to the watercourse aquifer maintains a relatively uniform quality and quantity of water in storage. The watercourse aquifers act as filters through which the ground water moves on its way to the surface streams. On the other hand, induced recharge may have a very pronounced effect on the water quality, e.g., the aquifer at Piketon. As the 148

quantity of induced recharge is increased, the water hardness and alkalinity are increased; the chloride and sulfate concentrations fluctuate daily but remain rela­ tively constant* The quality of water in the watercourse aquifer being recharged reflects its source, the surface stream*

Recharge to buried channel deposits also seem to have no other effects except to maintain the quality and quan­ tity of water in storage* In addition to the quality and

quantity effects, the life of an aquifer is greatly enhanced by the presence of a recharge source*

Discharge

The unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers discharge most of their excess storage to streams, underflow, inter­ aquifer leakage and purapage. Norris and Fidler (1969) estimated a discharge into the Scioto River of 1*8 mgd per mile of valley length. The base flow in other streams fed by watercourse aquifers is about *025 mgd per square mile* Pumpage from the watercourse aquifers, not including water used by the mining industry, is at least 55 mgd* Municipalities and industries are the main users, most of whom are located along the Scioto River* Artificial withdrawal and underflow are responsible for most of the discharge from buried channel deposits. 149

In southeastern Franklin and western Fairfield Counties, about 1 mgd were withdrawn from the Deep Stage tributary channels (Ohio Division of Water, Rept. of Invest. No. 17, 1963). It is estimated that about 2 mgd flow out of the basin in Hardin County through the buried channel, which is about two miles wide, contains 100 feet of sand and gravel with a coefficient of permeability of 2000 gpd per

square foot, and hydraulic gradient of 5 feet per mile. At least a similar quantity of water leaves the basin through the water course aquifer through Scioto County. Discharge from the buried lenses of sand and gravel seems to be predominantly by effluent stream seepage, interaquifer leakage and artificial withdrawal. Norris and Fidler (1969) estimated that 80 per cent of the water pumped during testing at Piketon was intercepted while on its way to the stream from buried outwash in the uplands. Leakage to the underlying bedrock accounts for significant discharge at widely scattered points throughout the basin. Leakage is particularly prevalent where the receptive aquifer (the Silurian-Devonian carbonate in the western part of the basin and the Mississippian sandstones in the eastern part) is weathered and fractured.

Effluent stream seepage occurs where streams flow over outwash lenses or bodies. The quantity of discharge varies from body to body, and the total discharge is unknown be­ cause the base flows are not exclusively from the sand and 150 gravel even in those cases where such deposits form the major fraction of the stream banks. Small industries and rural households withdraw signifi­ cant quantities of water from buried outwash bodies, mostly located in the western part of the basin*

Effects of Discharge

Discharge from the unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers has three major effects: 1) The water in storage Is decreased* If the aquifer is relatively small, rapid discharge tends to lower the ground-water potential. Since ground-water use has been instigated, the static-water levels have

gradually declined* 2) The water-quality changes. Generally the water becomes more mineralized as the volume of discharge increases. There are occasions, however, when increased discharge

increases the rate of circulation and improves the water quality*

3) Recharge is induced* In watercourse aquifers, the induced recharge source is the adjacent stream and the resulting ground water reflects the quality of the surface water* in contrast, discharge may lower the head in the aquifer below that of an adjoining carbon­ ate or sandstone acquirer whose water then infiltrates into the shallow aquifer* 151

Storage in the Sand and Gravel Aquifers

The watercourse aquifer in the Scioto River valley is about lOO miles long, 1 mile wide and about 50 feet of the unit is saturated. Assuming a porosity of 30 per cent and a specific yield of 20 per cent, the volume of water in storage is estimated to be about 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 million gallons, of which 200,000 million gallons are available to wells. The watercourse aquifers of the basin together also store a similar volume. Storage in the buried channels is estimated at 2 2 0 , 0 0 0 million gallons; however, the ultimate yield is a function of the recharge characteristic of the individual channels. Exclusive of the channel deposits, the sand and gravel bodies with a total pore space estimated at 12.8 million acre feet probably store the largest supply of at least 3.3 billion gallons* Specific capacities of wells in sand and gravel vary considerably and range from 1 to 120 gpm per foot of draw­ down. In the watercourse aquifer in the Scioto River valley, it averages 45 gpm per foot of drawdown after 24 hours (Ohio Dept, of Natural Resources, 1965). 152

Till

Introduction

The till in the Scioto basin is a homogeneous mixture of gray, massive clay (except where it is weathered brownish gray and becomes blocky) and unsorted sand, pebbles and boulders. It covers about 5,000 square miles of the basin,

but its water-bearing potential is limited by its low per­ meability.

Distribution

The till thickness is very irregular, as shown in Figure 42. The end moraines, which loop across the basin, are reflected by a thickness increase. The central and sides of the basin are covered by an average of 80 to 100 feet of till. The maximum reported is 293 feet in Madison County. The thickness over the remainder of the basin aver­ ages about 25 feet.

Hydraulic Properties

Norris (1963) estimated from laboratory experiments that the till permeability ranges from .001 to 1 gpd/sq. ft. However, these values increase with increasing sand content, weathering and jointing in the till. 153

m & m , Errlpnatlon h “ > 7 5 feet thick

50 to 75 feet 1H?1 [ > ^ 3 a / " i t e 25 to 50 feet M :.v a a

m m m r n ^ .

^ 0

• i l l tr m m 0 * < i

> -d »

F 411.0*14?

fcB frilfrtem itlt Figure /7. T ill thickness in the Scioto Basin* 154

Ground-Water Movement

(land-dug wells in till get most of their water from sand stringers or from a zone that encompasses the basal till and the weathered top surface of the underlying bed­ rock. Figure 43 is reproduced from Westgate (1926) and

shows ground-water occurrence in till. Wells A and B are fed by sand stringers and their yield is directly propor­ tional to the thickness and permeability of sand penetrated. Well C receives its water from the contact zone between the till and carbonate bedrock. Although wells in the till commonly reflect water-table conditions, the enclosed sand lenses act as conduits through which the water flows under artesian pressure. Water trapped in small sandy lenses may be above the regional water table, and will then represent a perched water table in the till. In addition to short-term fluctuations after heavy rains, the ground-water level rises and falls annually. Records taken over a ten-year period indicate an average local annual fluctuation of seven feet in Well Dl-2 in

Delaware County, which is measured by the Ohio Division of Water. The water level is always changing because the till acts as a holding and distribution station in the hydrologic cycle. In thick till deposits, however, the water table fluctuations are less pronounced, and the depth to water may A C B

~~ Water Table _ .

Till

Sand

Limestone

Figure 43. Oround water conditions in Till

From : L. G. Westgate, 1926, p* 119» Fig. 26 156 be more than 50 feet. Gy using the till thickness and depth to water maps, the areas most suitable for solid waste dis­ posal were mapped (Fig. 44). These areas are underlain by till in excess of 50 feet thick and the depth to the water table is at least 45 feet.

Recharge

Precipitation is the only major source of recharge to the till in the Scioto basin. Locally storage is increased by surface ponding, dams and septic tank use. The Ohio Division of Water (1964, p. 38) reports "Response to pre­ cipitation is immediate; during the recharge season the water level has been known to rise 10 feet within 48 hours during and following the occurrence of two inches of pre­ cipitation." Artificial recharge is accidental, generally over a small area, and the quantity is minor. Natural recharge by vertical leakage from the bedrock probably occurs, but the low permeability of the till tends to restrict it.

Effects of Recharge

The effects of recharge varies depending on the quality of recharge and the local nature of the till. In very clayey till, chemical and biological contaminants are re­ moved from the water. 157

f

KsElftraMca ? [ } ? i

V.. Vo ■ • > ■ ■ sr*> Most Suitable Sites li H \:^l'-v-M-.Ti ~ J (Till thickness + 50 ft, ( V ‘tj .1 " ’pA) Depth t o water table ^ O v : ■: ■ri •' ) i ♦ 45 ft. ) i N S v -^i'A ry i Vr^i ) - 7 a Acceptable Sites t /• irf. (-v P (Till thickness + k5 ft, I ? f Depth...... to water table (f\] !■■'’ '-)-- - \ .-r^\0r ■■'■ rr1 * 30 rt" *

% ■ 1 ° ^ H ;■ :• R Q

c v v i v v '

\\ 1■' ■ —1 C \ l\ V I I ‘‘ 1 - /' 7 > " : 7 S ) Oi> )

j;

■ « V' x 3 '•> \ , ? V/\ kill lf*n 0*H« |I4«|IM ^

A L- A " \ ^ i A 1 A S < • W V >, rW1 I , 1 ;/,

n nit iiwwm nn - • V / Figure kk- Moot suit ole sol!:i waste dlopoaal sites i n th e S cio to rt.au In* 158

Discharge

Much ground water is lost from the till by evapotrans- piration. Norris (1969) estimated that approximately 1.24 mgd/sq. mile goes into the atmosphere. Leakage into streams also accounts for major discharge. The base flow of whetstone Greek near Ashley is an example of flow originating from predominantly till. The stream hydrograph (Fig. 45) indicates significant runoff after precipitation due to the low permeability of the till. A flow-duration curve of the same stream (Fig. 46) shows a base flow of about 0 . 0 4 cfs per square mile (.025 mgd). The till

drained by the creek is approximately 25 feet thick, which suggests that the till discharges about .001 mgd per square mile per foot of till thickness either directly to surface streams or to underflow and interaquifer leakage. Other discharge from the till, such as pumpage, is insignificant; dug wells are usually shallow and recharge is slow during dry periods. The till is used as a source of water only by rural households, and when other sources are unavailable.

MEffects of Discharge l l ^ B ■■Ilf*. ■

Locally, discharge from the till leads to the formation of travertine around springs. The ground water is highly mineralized, and due to temperature and the release of carbon dioxide on the surface, deposition of calcium carbon­ ate occurs. M {!■' t ( d Whetstone Creek near Ashley _ I : i

; iv If. Discharge J . - '-i \! .M : i'A i frecio, in ; ’ I ' I \ f 4 i ! ! I ■ j : " 1 in cfs/sq 100 e : " i 'II". ! \, j \ inches mile ' t I'M ij :• VIV [■ HI : v\ j \ ' ' v A A . yj a 1 A1i Iv t - -; d'-.t \ . :v \ \ \ | -

kb i ..i II® , I u I 1 1 '! M ,

Figure 45. Stream Hydrograph of Whetstone Creek near Ashley. 160

Whetstone Creek near Ashley

Figure 46, Flow Duration Curve of Whetstone Creek, 161

Chemical Quality of Water

Drift in the Scioto basin has two significantly different waters that are characteristic of their sources. The sand and gravel produces a good quality, but very hard water, which hardness is due to the high concentrations of calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate. Water from the till is

even more highly mineralized, and often contains signifi­ cant concentrations of sodium, chloride, sulfate and nitrate ions.

Other variations in the water quality occurs locally, resembling water from the underlying bedrock aquifer, by its high concentrations of calcium, magnesium and sulfate. This mineral assemblage is indicative that leakage from the underlying carbonate bedrock to the sand and gravel occurs or that the drift contains unusually high concentra­ tions of gypsum or celestite rocks.

Contamination from the surface may also a f f e c t the water quality. In Morrow and Delaware Counties, water from relatively shallow depths contains high concentrations of chloride, A surface source is suspected mainly because oil-field brines are stored in evaporation pits dug in the till.

Table 9 lists the concentrations of dissolved solids in the ground water. The hardness in the water is generally temporary, due almost entirely to calcium magnesium bicar- 162

?,\W 9

GROU ND-Vf AT EH QUALITY IN THS PTttlSTOCENE GRIFT IN T:!E SCICTO BASIN (Concentrations in mg/l)

a* 1 3tUl r*t>u JiKlllU JtCj c* Ml *0, “4 a i* n MwAa—

ioo Qi.nlvrril)#. Qrmaal 13 2 : 7* 1* 16 1.7 396 96 2 3*3 317

11 Bl. tor tin t*9 t*ft 1*1 62 90 3 J t 316 226 94 477 479 ia Cardinjtofl Qnrtl 12 2 166 37 3* 2.1 960 136 1»4 o. |*t •>i | al. n of Crml 13 •1 32 1* 1.1 6*1 *1 14 470 616 har loo. Harlot t Till 3 0*2 17 12 111 3.1 2 14;'. tit 171 *6 Knlehi Hardin OlI Crtnl 12 177 76 66 3.7 39* 6!>7 : 10 759 toe laoaitBaad Qnnl W 0*3 113 67 27 1.7 36* 126 10 t-4 6*1 too KachanIcaturf Crml id , 7* 3* 3.6 1.9 jet 60 69 333 in Wo* trill* fintal 1* 0.2 76 30 7.3 1.3 3*1 13 397 327 m HituU * Cnaal id 1*2 70 60 9.6 62* 24 374 371 « HuBhvjrl«wif*t «ft Onnl IS f: 10 2T0 133 63 3-* 3» 1030 1 1»3J " » X*n**ff«ld firml • 73 31 6.1 1.6 3>6 66 7.9 3*7 3>0 1 print* Till 13 M 16* 39 11 2.3 37* 332 7 f-3 623 ' Hllbonx, £*1m t » m i 11 o*t 227 121 171 16 610 ;««. 367 : u Povall Criaal id ; T-d H* *3 1* *. a 470 470 11 ■'vjrr *11.'■

*o Itrlltlrt u 25 :m 110 67 6.9 990 713 »9 1)7“ 11» :: a* QlntaJip Cim fimal a> 0.3 33 73 17 31 63* 12* 7.1 961 430

ta tala** Craial 1* V 161 <0 11 1.* 3» . M 6 7H! : 647 to Cflliaten, fruUlI 0r*?cl 13 2a 106 30 1.1 1.3 6*3 69 7.9 622 3*3 » ttluahtf fclTfl IT t.t 11* 67 H 2.3 6S3 1*4 It 96* 68*

* Groradtj Gram! *•3 U3 *3 *.6 11 a 16 30 26 190 73 1 JO ttmf CJtr Cnv*l 13 3*V 163 1* r 2.6 330 J*4 1 *13 977 Moworth firml U L 2-d 113 3* 7.6 1.* 60* 101 7 432 43* *3* UcVlKlH fimil *1 1*3 >07 <• 6.7 1.8 636 1J 3.7 611 3*7 117 MttrlHf hlrfli d Cntil It 1-3 *7 Id 36 13 3M 9* * 617 33* S1 Romi Nltlt Craral 1* 2*1 71 11 3.9 1.2 2*6 *7 7 **3 193 39 tttdif* UU finnl 17 M 71 1* 9.B 1 all 17 9.9 319 1*6 *9 U i w m U t, N±rfl«Id Grand 11 73 26 7.* 1 363 ao 9.9 3*9 216 7* Lowtoo, ttdlM 0*anl '3 j76 33 3* 1.1 6*2 1 606 339 17* M* finnl 17 13 36 30 M 696 96 34 663 3*9 16* iMrtM Oraral 17 o.a 76 6. *3 1.1 663 67 * 907 61* S» Mall* Grata! « 1 T 102 63 19 1.3 691 to 4 676 63* 11* SmUk lain firml 7 > 2.7 r7* 3i 63 376 1X> 2.2 901 31* V Kt J tarlint finnl 1 f 30 6 324 34 2.* 330 313

w U*at U hjttu Sud *.*: -'•>!36 37 6* 396 71 21 66* W7 ?« UhI J*ff*r*4* firml 13 i10* 67 1* 676 77 12 969 671 30 CflTll U 0.6 [76 90 36 690 73 34 ■)!+)': 669 71 tjjw»rfort Antal 1) ?.;■ ii« 47 36 926 *6 1.9 r;i 66* 110 leadn Crmaal 17 i107 6* 33 1.3 669 76 ) t 931 660 *1 Lartoa Uranl 16 j >6 36 33 1.3 66* 39 1.6 451 33* 1 •a* ttntfQt Grtral n 33 39 1.«| 663 43 1.1 667 366 "I 1 163

TA3I.E 9 — Continued Depth Location Aquifer sin Fa Ca ne Ha I HCO SO Cl DS Total In ft. Hardnasa

88 Ebumerilla, Boat (o Drawl n 0.9 70 26 1*3 1 276 to 7.5 317 262 100 CbUllcotn* Or its 1 6.5 0.3 7.5 11. 32 2 .1i 26 85 13 166 76 75 5 Ml* north of Q n n l 18 2 .U 79 liO 6.5 1.5 m e 15 2 372 362 130 Circle vlllt Granl 19 7.6 IX 32 S.6 1 .1* 36B 51 11 1*15 3d 67 6 ad. aouth of Granl 12 1.9 63 32 2.6 l.li 3B0 33 1.2 351* 338 56 Comercial Point Granl 11 1.1 98 35 3.3 0.6 366 71 7 US 3B8 130 Darbyrllla Oranl 7.7 90 30 3.3 1.1 3S6 58 6.6 371 31*7 90 Rut Oranl IS 3.1 113 1*3 29 2.2 5Ui 71 5-1 551 1*60 90 Harrisburg Granl 11. 2.3 13S 1*0 1*0 2.7 390 25k 2 665 502 60 F i n Point* Uasal lit ' 5.1* 232 50 31 2.7 391* £20 0.9 1057 766 7 Pit*ton, Plk* Co. Granl .13 :'e.3 IX 29 3 l.S 356 67 5 396 365 es Pikatoo Granl 11 lt.3 111 31 2.7 1.1 W*o 52 5 1*35 60S 1*0 Sargaot* Qranl 9.* 0.6 97 31* 2.2 1 390 58 U.5 399 382 80 Vanrlay OraTal B 0.7 37 13 5.5 1.3 166 12 6 169 11*6 ho Hillsboro, Highland Granl 11. ' L i 6* 31 93 l.li 33** 26 6 316 269 50 Laural-rilla, Granl 13 o.s 9 B 30 12 7.5 366 51 16 1*20 366 77 Friendship, Scioto Granl 12 0.2 52 16 It.9 1.1* 205 23 10 222 196 i M l f M i by th* D. Gaologlcal Surymj, Water Raaourcaa Kranob. 1 6 4

bonate. The most common concentration of total hardness falls between 250 and 400 mg/1, but it may exceed 1050 mg/1 locally. Hardness greater than 400 mg/1 consists of sulfate, calcium and magnesium ions, and occur in Hardin, Logan, Delaware and Franklin Counties. The hardness of water from the till is permanent, generally due to sulfate and chloride ions* The difference in hardness between the two waters is probably caused by the presence of larger quantities of gypsum and calcium carbonate in the till fraction of the drift.

The average concentration of dissolved solids is about 450 mg/1. At Berkshire in Delaware County, Rushsyl- vania in Logan County, and Five Points in Pickaway County, however, concentrations increase to more than 1000 mg/1, which makes the water slightly saline by the U.S. Geologi­ cal Survey classification. These slightly saline waters are interpreted as due to leakage from the Silurian- Devonian carbonate geohydrologic unit. Sulfate concentrations are generally less than 100 mg/1• Locally in Delaware, Logan, Hardin, Pickaway and Franklin Counts* es, the concentrations exceed 200 mg/1 and are accom­ panied by increases in calcium. The mineral assemblage suggests that vertical leakage from the bedrock occurs in these areas. Iron in water from the drift is nearly always a problem. Its average concentration is about 2.3 mg/1, or about 2.0 165 more than the recommended maximum limit for potable water. Occasionally the concentration may change in one well depending on the depth from which the water is recovered (personal communication with Fred Klear, local consultant). The source of the iron is unknown, but it seems to be the result of many factors, including leakage from bedrock, and the presence of iron-reducing bacteria. The total concentration of calcium and magnesium aver­ ages about 145 mg/1 in water from the sand and gravel, but it increases where there is leakage from the bedrock, particularly the Bass Islands Group of the carbonate unit. Bicarbonate concentrations normally range between 350 and 450 mg/1; it increases locally where the aquifer is re­ charged with water from the carbonate bedrock. Both sodium and potassium are minor constituents in the water. Locally, however, they are present in signifi­ cant quantities together with chloride ions. The high con­ centrations appear to be the result of contamination from oil-field brines (stored on the surface) or of leakage from the bedrock.

Relationship between Water Quality and Aquifer

Wateas from the sand and gravel aquifers are charac­ terized by their mineralization, except where they are affected by recharge from the bedrock or contamination from artificial (or induced) recharge. Concentrations of all 166 dissolved minerals are generally within the limits set up for safe drinking water, except for the concentration of iron.

Relationship between Water Quality and Flow Path Length

Induced recharge from streams into the watercourse aquifers tends to dilute the mineralization in the water in the aquifer, thus improving the water quality. This condi­ tion suggests that the mineralization increases in the water as it moves through the aquifer for long periods of time. However, there are no observations which confirm this relationship throughout the basin because the local water quality may be affected by recharge from the bedrock or from the immediate environment.

Relationship between Water Quality and Depth' ~~

The water quality is not indicative of any relationship between it and depth in the drift. Water from the surface till, however, is more mineralized than that from the sand and gravel. CHAPTER VII

SURFACE WATER IN THE SCIOTO BASIN

Introduction

About one-third of the precipitation over Ohio (approx­ imately 396 million gallons per day) flows into surface streams. The stream flow depends primarily on precipitation but its availability throughout the year is dependent on the bank storage and ground-water discharge, that is, the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers adjacent to the stream. Most of the streams are perennial, except for a few small tributaries in the southeastern part of the basin. The water quality reflects the surficial aquifers, except where artificial contamination or vertical leakage from the buried bedrock affects it. The main streams are major sources of water for municipal, industrial, recrea­ tional uses and power generation.

Flow Characteristics

The objectives of the analyses of stream flow, using hydrographs and flow-duration curves, are primarily to evaluate the storage capacity of the surficial aquifers. The data used are taken from "Water Resources Data for Ohio,

167 16B

Part I, Surface Water Records, 1965," "Flow Duration of Ohio Streams, Bull. 42 and 31" and the "U. S. Bureau of Climatology Monthly Reports."

Floodi no

Major floods in the Scioto basin are most commonly caused by heavy rains of long duration in the late winter and early spring when the ground is still frozen. Only occasionally are snow-melt and freezing temperatures important factors. Small floods, however, may occur from thunderstorms during late spring and summer. Two of the biggest floods in the study area (in 1913 and 1959) resulted from exceedingly heavy precipitation in the northern-half of the basin. Generally the flood discharge Increases gradually down streara--the mean annual flood along the Scioto River valley has an approximate discharge of 7000 cfs at Prospect, 14,000 cfs at Dublin, 24,000 cfs at Columbus, and 50,000 at Chillicothe (Ohio Division of Water, 1959). It may last from one to 11 days, during which time it may peak several times, e.g., during the 1937 flood it peaked four times. Alvord and Burdick, Columbus-based consultants, estimated that the 1913 flood discharge at Columbus would have been "15 to 25 percent greater— 160,000 to 175,000 cfs instead of 140,000 cfs without natural storage" (Ohio 169

Division of Water, 1963, p. 53). This estimate seems very

high, mainly because above Columbus, significant basin storage is limited to the carbonate aquifer. Data from the average flood indicate that the flow per square mile at Columbus is greater by 5 per cent per square mile than at Dublin to the north and Chillicothe to the south. The decrease in flow is interpreted as the result of re­ charge to the watercourse aquifer south of Columbus. It Is estimated from the similarity of the deposits throughout the watercourse aquifer that another S per cent of the total discharge is stored between Chillicothe and Ports­ mouth. Watercourse aquifers in other valleys also are recharged during flooding.

Base Flow

The Little Scioto River at Marion flows across a thin deposit of outwash and till. The stream hydrograph shows

significant flow immediately after heavy precipitation and for sometime after. Occasionally, the flow is too small to measure. The flow reflects a relatively small permeable aquifer whose storage capacity is insufficient to provide discharge to the stream through the year. The flow- duration curve of the same stream indicates a very low base flow (Fig. 47).

Whetstone Creek near Ashley flows on relatively thin till. Its hydrograph (Fig. 45), however, shows the Discharge in cfs/ sq mile Figure 47. Flow Duration Curve 'of Curve River, Duration Scioto Flow Little 47. Figure Little Ucioto Ucioto Little River River near Karion near 170 171 presence of significant ground-water discharge. A flow- duration curve confirms the presence of a moderately good aquifer (Fig. 46). The apparent conflicting data are the result of thick sand and gravel buried beneath the head­ waters of the creek. A similar condition is reflected by the flow duration curve of the Scioto River at La Rue.

The Olentangy River at Stratford flows on the carbon­ ate bedrock. A flow-duration curve shows a high base flow and drill hole data confirm that the carbonate is a major source of ground water. Geologic evidence indicates that Paint creek at Greenfield and in the area drained by its tributaries flows over relatively thick till. A stream hydrograph indicates that the aquifer permeability is relatively low (Fig. 48).

The flow-duration curve shows a significant ground water contribution (Fig. 49)•

Tar Hollow creek throughout most of its lengh flows on sandstone. A stream hydrograph at Tar Hollow State Park shows that the major part of the stream flow is runoff following precipitation (Fig. SO). The flow-duration curve also indicates very little ground water contribution (Fig. 51). These data seem to suggest that the sandstone aquifer is only slightly permeable. South of Columbus the Scioto River flows over rela­ tively thick outwash. A stream hydrograph (Fig. 52) from 'It '■<( »’l * r l~fl~ - Paint Creek near Greenfield

Discharge fecit). in cfs/sq 5 Inches rail-e XXX>

100

Figure 48. Stream Hydrograph of Paint Creek. 173

„ Paint Creek near Greenfield.

I 0 M 0 » 0 * 0 1 > I T':i'! n ^p p r:

tr

iH

oo: A.F.A

Figure 49. Flow Duration Curve of Paint Creek, ar Hollow Creek at State Park

Discharge in 1 ^Precip cfs/sq : in mile i inches

4l ttLli

Figure 50. Stream Hydrograph of Tar Hollow Creek. Discharge in efs/sq mile Flgure 51. Flow Duration CUtVe of Tar Hollow Creek, Hollow Tar of CUtVe Duration Flow 51. Flgure t — Tar Hollow Creek at Tar Hollow State Park- State Hollow Tar at Creek Hollow Tar 175 Scioto River at Higby

Bischarge Becip. in 10000 in inches cfs/sq| mile ’

100C

Figure 52. Stream Hydrograph o_f Scioto River, 177 the gaging station at Higby indicates significant bank storage, and the flow-duration curve (Fig. 53) shows a considerable ground-water contribution to the stream flow. Both curves confirm the presence of a very permeable wide­ spread aquifer.

Hydrographs of Deer Creek at Williamsport (Fig. 54) and Big Darby at Darbyville (Fig. 55) are similar to that of the Scioto. The correlations suggest that the shallow aquifers In both stream valleys are similar to that in the Scioto River valley. Flow duration of several other streams in the basin indicates that alluvium may be a major source of ground water, for example, Little Salt Creek. A review of the base flows in several streams draining the basin leads to the following conclusions; 1) The base flow of Scioto Brush creek and Sunfish Creek

indicates that the Mississippian sandy shales in the southwestern part of the basin are the least permeable aquifers

2) Where the carbonate bedrock is exposed, it is a major source of water to streams. 3) The streams flowing over sand and gravel have a signifi­

cantly greater base flow than those draining till or sandstone bedrock. Table 10 lists the various streams, their base flow at specific points, and the dominant rock type drained. Discharge in cfs/sq mile 1 C ig.ure Ei qi i H t i tn r Sci o Hi at Hi y b ig H t a r e iv H OitHttHi to io c S tint irf 1-1

J • 2 ,J> Flow duration Curve of Scioto River. Scioto of Curve duration Flow A#F«A ft 178 .Deer Creek at Williamspor t ______11 ■ ■■ > ^ ». ; f \ /' \ fl Pu f ii \ , ( m \\ ■Hi : : . . Discharge in 100 cfs/sq ; ■ \ nite li AiVi|::

■ ■— - ].. 7-1-^ IQ r

_ , — - "I - "'1 : ; :• i • ■ ; ..

Figure 54. Stream Hydrograph of Deer Creek. Big_ Darby Creak at Darbyville

Discharge! Precip in in cfs/sq 00 !■ inches mile

Figure 55* Stream Hydrograph of Big Darby Creek. TABLE 10

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BASE FLOW AND ROCK TYPE IN THE SCIOTO BASIN

Approx. Base Flow Dissolved- Stream in Reck Type Sediment Load cfs/sq. mi. in Tons/Day Scioto River in Hardin Co. 0.027 Thick outwash under head 1.44 Little Scioto at Marion 0.018 Thin outwash 0.28 Whetstone Creek at Ashley 0.037 Thin till Paint Creek at Greenfield 0.012 Thick till Tar Hollow Creek 0.01 Sandstone

Sunfish creek 0.011 Sandstone Scioto Brush Qreek 0.016 St andstone 1.30 Alum in Delaware Co. 0.009 Ohio Shale Olentangy River at Stratford 0.05 Columbus Limestone 10.10 Alum creek at Oolumbus 0.028 Outwash

Scioto Kiver at Higby 0.084 Ihick outwash Deer creek at Williamsport 0.038 Thick outwash 12.28 Big Darby Creek at Darbyville 0.038 Thick outwash 21.26 Scioto River in Scioto Oo. 0.086 Thick outwash 668.25 Big Walnut Creek 0.043 Outwash

Walnut Creek 0.085 Thick buried outwash Salt Creek 0.044 Cutwash and alluvium 8.77 Pigeon Creek 0.41 Alluvium and outwash Little Salt Creek 0.020 Alluvium 181 1 8 2

Surface Water Quality and Its Relationship to the Surficial Geology

Introduction

The quality of surface water varies from exceptionally good in Salt and Scioto Brush Creeks to very poor in Sun- fish Creek. Except for local contamination in Alum and

Whetstone Creeks and the Olentangy River, waters from the several tributaries reflect the surficial aquifers in their mineral assemblage and degree of mineralization.

The water quality is evaluated by the concentrations of chlorides, dissolved solids, sulfate, iron and hardness. The classification used is taken from Schmidt and Gold- thwait (1958, p. 57) and is as follows:

Soft O to 55 mg/1 equivalent CaCOj Slightly hard 56 to 100 mg/1

Moderately Hard 101 to 200 mg/1 Very Hard More than 200 mg/1

Evaluation by Subbasin

The Little Scioto River flows along the southern margin of the Wabash moraine, draining the relatively small area between it and the St. Johns moraine in the northeastern part of the basin. The water is very hard, as much as 364 mg/1, but of relatively good quality. Dissolved solids concentrations range to B50 mg/1 during low flow at approxi­ mately .002 cfs per square mile. The water drains from 183

outwash between 5 and 25 feet thick locally underlying the stream in Marion county* Rush, Bokes and Mill Creeks are easterly flowing

tributaries to the Scioto River in the northwestern part of the basin. Their channels run along the margins of end moraines except locally where Rush Creek crosses the

St* Johns moraine southwest of its confluence with the

Scioto, Waters from Rush and Bokes are generally of good quality with sulfate concentrations of less than 175 mg/1, and with dissolved solids of less than 420 mg/1, The water is very hard, due mainly to calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate ions. Rush Creek whose base flow is about

•0076 cfs/ sq. mi., is fed mostly by a buried outwash less than 25 feet thick that is distributed under most of its course through Logan and Union Counties, Bokes Creek, on the other hand, occasionally has no measurable flow and its basin surface is characterized by a thin till and local exposures of carbonate bedrock. Water in Mill Creek is more highly mineralized than that in Bokes or Rush Creeks*

It is very hard, ranging from 275 to 425 mg/1 equivalent

CaCC>3 . The main source of the water is believed to be buried sand and gravel in the till along the Logan County line and in the Marysville area*

The Olentangy River flows from north to south across

Broadway and Powell moraines and the intervening till plain.

Its major tributary, Whetstone Creek, rises in the moraine 184 area of Mt. Gilead and discharges into the Delaware reser­ voir. The low flow in the Olentangy River ranges from .021 cfs per square mile at its head to .015 cfs per square mile close to its confluence with the Scioto. Its water quality is very good but deteriorates down stream as dis­ solved solids increase to 500 mg/1 and sulfate increased to about 150 mg/1. Pettyjohn (in press) reports a chloride concentration of 190 mg/1 (six times the average concentra­ tion) in Whetstone Creek and a corresponding increase of dissolved solids to 730 mg/1. The hardness ranges from 175 to 400 mg/1. Thick outwash deposits to the east and north of Mt. Gilead arc probably the sources of the high base flow, but the poor water quality downstream may be due to oil-field brine disposal. Alum and Big walnut Creeks flow southwesterly for several miles along the distal margins of the Broadway and

Powell morains, respectively. Both streams turn abruptly to the south and flow almost parallel to each other and Black

Lick Creek across the till plain. They eventually join in southeastern Franklin County where they enter the Scioto from the east. The base flow of Alum Creek in Delaware

County is .009 cfs per square mile (open file report, U. S. Geological Survey)• The water quality is character­ ized by a dissolved solids content greater than 650 mg/1, a maximum sulfate concentration of 150 mg/1 and a hardness of at least 400 mg/1. It is suggested that the Ohio Shale 1 8 5

may be the major source of the base flow and is responsible for the high sulfate concentration and low flow. Petty­ john (in press), however, has concluded that the poor quality may be due to artificial contamination by oil­ field brines. .In Columbus, where the base flow in Alum Creek is .028 cfs per square mile, it is derived mainly from sand and gravel in the stream channel. Its quality is much

« improved, with the hardness showing a maximum of 300 mg/1, dissolved solids 400 mg/1, and chloride reduced from 120 to 40 mg/1. The base flow in Big Walnut Creek above Hoover Reservoir is about .016 cfs per square mile. Its quality closely resembles water from buried outwash, a very hard, calcium-magnesium bicarbone type water. Walnut Creek flows east to west across Fairfield and southeastern Franklin Counties and then southwesterly to its junction with the Scioto. Its base flow is relatively high (.085 cfs per square mile) and its quality is similar to water from buried outwash--very good with sulfate con­ centration less than 100 mg/1, dissolved solids content ranges from 400 to 450 mg/1, but it is very hard. Deer and Big Darby Creeks flow diagonally across the Scioto basin from Logan to Pickaway County. The two creeks drain about 15 per cent of the basin. Their valleys contain significant sand and gravel deposits, which are 186 believed to be the main source of their base flow. Their water quality is similar, generally very good, sulfate concentration is less than lOO mg/1, dissolved solids range from 300 to 450 mg/1 and chloride from 5 to 30 mg/1, but very hard, 250 to 350 mg/1, a calcium-magnesium bicarbonate type. Paint Creek and its tributaries drain approximately 1,143 square miles, or about 17 per cent of the basin. The area is subdivided by end moraines along whose margins the tributaries are located. They flow southeasterly down to the Wisconsin glacial boundary, where they converge. The creek then meanders back and forth across the boundary to the junction with the Scioto. The base flows in the various tributaries are rela­ tively low. However an increase in the main east to west channel correlates with the presence of sand and gravel suggesting that the increased base flow comes from the sand and gravel. Except within the city limits or immediately down stream of Chillicothe, the water is generally very good but very hard--typical of an outwash source. In the non- glaciated southeast part of the basin, Salt Creek and its tributaries form a dendritic drainage pattern. The base flows vary considerably from tributary to tributary. At Tar Hollow Creek, the channel is often dry; Salt Creek has a base flow of .044 cfs per square mile in its upper 186

believed to be the main source of their base flow. Their water quality is similar, generally very good, sulfate concentration is less than 100 mg/1, dissolved solids range from 300 to 450 mg/1 and chloride from 5 to 30 mg/1, but very hard, 250 to 350 mg/1, a calcium-magnesium bicarbonate type.

Paint Creek and its tributaries drain approximately 1,143 square miles, or about 17 per cent of the basin. The area is subd along whose margins the tributaries southeasterly down to

the Wisconsi ^ ^ ^ ^ H ^ t h e y converge. The creek then m the boundary to the junction

The bas tively low. channel corr<______r------of sand and gravel suggesting that the increased base flow comes from the sand and gravel. Except within the city limits or immediately down stream of Chillicothe, the water is generally very good but very hard--typical of an outwash source. In the non­ glaciated southeast part of the basin, Salt Creek and its tributaries form a dendritic drainage pattern. The base flows vary considerably from tributary to tributary. At Tar Hollow Creek, the channel is often dry; Salt Creek has a base flow of .044 cfs per square mile in its upper 187 part and .046 cfs per square mile close to its junction with Pigeon Creek. Pigeon Creek has a base flow of about •041 cfs per square mile, and Little Salt has about .020 cfs per square mile. The water quality also varies from very good with dissolved solids concentration less than 130 mg/1; it is moderately hard with a maximum equivalent of CaC0 3 of 120 mg/1 in Pigeon Creek and good but very hard in Salt Creek. The quality corresponds to the type of valley fill. The low flow in Salt Creek is derived from glacial material whereas in Pigeon and Little Salt, alluvium is the source. Sunfish and Scioto Brush creeks drain the southwestern non-glaciated part of the basin. The base flow of Sunfish Creek is about *011 cfs per square mile. The water quality in its headwaters is exceptionally good and soft, and the hardness increases down stream. Pettyjohn (in press) noted that the stream is subject to salt contamina­ tion, and the quality deteriorates locally (chloride con­ centration is greater than 800 mg/1, and dissolved solids are about 1860 mg/1).

The base flow of the Scioto Brush Creek is also low (.016 cfs per square mile) and its quality is also very good. Dissolved solids concentrations are less than 150 mg/1 and hardness ranges from 80 to 120 mg/1. Both streams drain Mississippian sandstone and shale, which accounts for the water quality being better than that of 1 8 8

streams in the rest of the basin.

The Scioto River flows east-southeast to its conflu­ ence with the Little Scioto River south of Marion. It

continues south across the till plain and through the end moraines (locally through carbonate bedrock) to Oolumbus. From Columbus to Portsmouth it occupies a channel cut in

an outwash filled valley. The base flow increases down stream from .027 cfs per square mile in Hardin County to .086 cfs per square mile in Scioto County. The water above O'Shaugnessy Reservoir is very hard (hardness ranges from 400 to 550 mg/1) and the quality is poor (dissolved solids concentration ranges from 690 to 720 mg/1). South of the reservoir, the quality improves markedly. The dissolved sediment load leaving the basin is estimated to be about 650 tons per day during low flow, or an average of .1 ton per day per square mile. The solution load distribution, however, is not uniform; the largest loads are carried by streams in the Paint Creek drainage system and by the Big Walnut-Alum Creek systems. The quality data indicate that, in general, the base flow derived from till or carbonate bedrock is of poorer quality than from the sand and gravel deposits. The best quality water, however, is derived from the Mississippian standstones, exclusive of the Berea sandstone, which may be the source of very saline water. CHAPTER VIII

AVAILABILITY OF WATER IN THE SCIOTO BASIN

Introduction

The water supply in the Scioto River basin comes from under-ground and surface storage. At present the over­ all supply is adequate and of a fairly good quality* Each source of water has its unique advantages and problems.

There are also advantages tc be gained by mixing water from the two sources. In the Scioto basin, surface water is normally less mineralized than the ground water, but it is more susceptible to contamination. It is available for recreation, waste disposal, and power generation, in addition to domestic and industrial uses. Dams play an important role in flood control. On the negative side, the temperature of surface water varies from season to season, remaining a few degrees above winter air tempera­ ture and 20 to 30° F* below during summer. Ground water is generally less expensive to use than surface water. The Ohio Division of W^ter (1962) estimated that ground water costs $106.00 per person served per year against a surface water cost of $111,00. Ground water is at a constant temperature between 52 and 56° F* and its quality is generally quite uniform. In addition, it is l i i Q 190 available at the point of use.

Advantages of mixing the ground and surface waters include the lower cost of the surface water; the ground water is diluted, but the quality and temperature are kept constant and the total supply available is increased.

Surface Wfrter Resources

Acceptable surface water is available in widely scattered areas in the basin. The distribution of reser­ voirs ensure storage of runoff from 2600 square miles in the upper basin, and from 260 square miles in the lower part. The reservoirs improve the surface-water quality by reducing the sediment load and by augmentation during low flow periods. Table 11 lists the reservoirs, their locations, approximate area drained, and their storage capacities. During periods of drought, only a few streams have significant flows. These few streams, however, have one common characteristic*-they are fed by discharge from watercourse aquifers, and except for Salt Creek in the southeastern part of the basin, they are all located in the central part of the basin. 19X

TABLE 11 RESERVOIR, LOCATION, DRAINAGE AREA AND CAPACITY IN THE SCIOTO RIVER BASIN

Stream Drainage Area Capacity Reservoir (Sq. miles) (Acre-feet)

Upper Basin

Hoover Big Walnut Creek 190 60,480

Delaware Olentangy River 381 132,000 O'Shaughnessy Scioto River, Delaware county 987 16,650

Griggs Scioto River, Franklin County 1,053 3,450

Lower Basin

Hammertown Lake Little Salt Creek 3.1 4,600 Madison Lake Deer Creek 57.2 594 Rocky Fork Rocky Fork Creek 115 34,100 Hargus Lake drcleville 6.5 2,800

White Lake peepee Creek 1O0 (est.) 3,735

Source: water Inventory of the Scioto River Basin. 192

Surface-water Quality

There are basically two qualities of surface water in

the Scioto basin. Streams draining the glaciated region are characterized by very hard water that is of good quality with dissolved 'solids ranging from 300 to 700 mg/1. In contrast, the water draining the non-glaciated, Mississip­ pi an sandstones and shales, is only moderately hard (locally soft) and of very good quality. Deutsch and others (1966) reported that approximately 85 per cent of the organic waste discharged into the lower basin comes from industries at drclevllle, and municipali­ ties, mainly Columbus, contribute about 60 per cent of the wastes in the upper part of the basin. Consequently, the water quality may be undersirable locally, particularly

down stream from municipalities.

Ground-water Resources

There sure three major aquifer systems in the Scioto River basin. Unconsolidated sand and gravel (in stream

valleys, buried bedrock channels and lenses embedded in

the till) make up the principal aquifers. The Silurian- Devonian carbonate is the second most important reservoir underlying the entire basin, but the variation of water quality with increasing depth limits the production of potable water to areas where it subcrops beneath the drift. 193

The third system is composed of Mississippian sandstones, along the eastern edge of the basin*

Aquifer Systems

Sand and Gravel

The largest ground-water supplies in the Scioto basin are derived from the sand and gravel deposits, especially those deposits located along the present drainage channels, the watercoux se aquifer s. These watercourse aquifer s are relatively permeable (field observations average 3000 gpd/ sq. ft* to horizontal flow) and thick, and recharge is induced from the adjacent streams, when they are pumped* The average specific capacity of wells in the deposit is about 45 gpm/foot of drawdown. Other sand and gravel deposits of significant thickness in buried bedrock channels or embedded in the till are less productive due to a lower permeability and an apparent lack of rapid recharge* Such deposits form a 15 mile wide band across the central part of the basin, extending from Madison through Pickaway and

Franklin to Fairfield County. Thin lenses of sand and gravel randomly distributed in the till are the least important of the sand and gravel type aquifers* Their reliability as a source of water depends most on their recharge potential, which indirectly is controlled by the area of the surface through which recharge occurs. 194

Figure 56 shows the distribution and relative yield

characteristics in the sand and gravel. The Scioto River valley south of Columbus, Walnut Creek in Franklin and Fairfield Counties, and the Scioto River in southwestern

Hardin County are the areas of highest potential yield. The eastern part of Morrow County and a band which trends

diagonally across Madison and Pickaway are the areas of intermediate yield, having sand and gravel deposits of more than 50 feet thick. The remainder of the glaciated

basin yields negligible supplies when compared to the watercourse aquifers.

Silurian-Devonian Carbonate

Silurian-Devonian carbonate is the principal aquifer in most of the western part of the basin, well test data indicate that the aquifer potential is variable. The interpretation shown in Figure 57 is based on the trans­ missivities computed from well tests, presence of recharge and discharge zones, the results of Eagon and Johe (1970) in northwest Ohio (adjacent to the Scioto River basin), and the distribution of early Pleistocene drainage system. The stippled area is equivalent to zone 1 of Eagon and Johe. The specific capacity of wells in this area is believed to range from .027 to 1.84 gpm per foot of draw­ down per foot of penetration, and yields should exceed 500 gpm. The apparently high potential is interpreted as the . 1 9 5

Ecrlanatlon a Highest Yielding Areas

Internedlate Yielding Areas

Lowest Yielding Areas

\

,« si «ei«r

Figure 56* Grouni-water sources in Sand and Gravel in the Scioto Sasin« Ftnire 57. Oround-water sources in the 31 luridn- Tinvoni:in carbonate in the Scicto Basin* 197 result of more subsurface weathering in the areas adjacent

to the pre-glacial channels and present discharge zones. The remainder of the aquifer in the basin corresponds to Eagon and Johe zone 2. The specific capacity of wells range from .0091 to .136 gpm per foot of drawdown per foot of penetration. In general this part of the aquifer is buried by relatively thin drift or is overlain by thick sand and gravel; consequently recharge to the aquifer is relatively abundant. Assuming that the correlation to zone 2 is correct, the wells in this part of the aquifer should yield between 150 and 600 gpm.

Mississippian Sandstones

The ground water potential of the Mississippian sand­ stones is variable in spite of its generally low permea­ bility. The factors mainly responsible for this condition are the lithology of the unit, the total thickness of sandstone penetrated and the local recharge potentll.

Figure 58 is based on the lithofacies of the Cuyahoga Formation and the presence of sand and gravel overlying the aquifer. The least productive, the shaley area will generally yield between 3 and 5 gpm. On the other hand, yields in wells in the sandstone average about 17 gpm 'V4fi«VI0; Highest Yielding Areas

- £ f > is Intermediate Yielding Areas

Lowest Yielding Areas □

I W ^WSgTERN.^

MIS

V

*

Mlt live 4>■# qf «4t«r

_ i p

t r Aiuwc

*•* 0 frutda1# i9Ti jure 5#. Ground-vater sources in the Mlssiesiupian Sandstones in the Scioto Basin- 199

(maximum reported yield is 90 gpm). The third area out­ lined is an intermediate yielding area, based on the presence of the sandstone facies with a predominantly thick till cover. CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY

The significant ground-water reservoirs in the Scioto basin include the Silurian-Devonian carbonate, locally called the "Big Lime," the Berea and Cuyahoga Sandstones of Mississippian age, and unconsolidated sand and gravel of Pleistocene age. The water from each aquifer system is more or less distinct and can be recognized by its chemical quality, notwithstanding local mixing and variations. The Silurian-Devonian carbonate subcrops beneath the glacial drift in the western half of the basin, where it is the roost important aquifer. The permeability and com­ position within the carbonate vary, depending on the geologic formations which make up the "Big Lime locally.

In the central part of the basin, the uppermost subunit is the Columbus Limestone, whose porosity and permeability are limited to open joints and solution channels extending down to a maximum depth of 50 feet below the weathered surface. Deeper in the section, in the Bass Islands Group, the permeability is increased locally by the presence of gypsum and anhydrite lenses in the dolomite. The under­ lying formation, the Silurian Dolomite, contains sandy

2 0 0 20 1

patches through which water moves* The overall permeabil­ ity of the carbonate is increased by a network of inter­

connected solution channels adjacent to the main preglacial valleys and in those areas of present natural discharge. The ground-water regional flow direction in the Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifer is downdip and parallel to the major Joint orientation. It flows from the western edge of the basin towards the Scioto River at a rate of about 0.06 feet per day under natural conditions. Recharge to the carbonate is chiefly from infiltration of precipi­ tation and underflow through the western rim of the basin, and to a lesser extent, it is induced locally by puropage from the aquifer. In contrast, ground-water discharge

from the carbonate occurs by seepage to streams, leakage to the overlying drift and pumping. The water from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate is

characteristically very hard, mainly due to high concentra­ tions of calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate ions, and locally sulfate. Significant iron concentrations also occur along the western rim of the basin and at Waldo, Delaware County. In general, there is an apparent increase in mineralization, particularly sulfate, of the water towards the central part of the basin in Delaware and Franklin Counties, which corresponds to water derived from the Bass islands Group. The water from the deeper

Silurian rock, the Niagaran Dolomite, appears to be less 2 0 2

mineralized than that from the overlying Bass Islands Group or Columbus Limestone, but it is often mixed with

them except where the Niagaran subcrops beneath the drift. Of the interbedded sandstone and shale of Mississip­ pian age, only two sandstones are important aquifers, the

Berea and Cuyahoga reservoirs. They are b

quartz sandstones that change laterally to a shaley sand­ stone and silt, and are separated from each other by a thin

black shale. The overall coefficient of permeability is very low but storage is increased by local Jointing and weathering.

The ground water in the sandstones flows from cast to west, and discharges locally into the buried channels cut into bedrock in the eastern part of the basin, infil­ tration from precipitation and underflow are the major sources of natural recharge, and a lesser quantity is induced in scattered areas by pumping. Discharge from the sandstones occurs mainly by seepage to streams, leakage to the sand and gravel overlying the unit in the east- central part of the basin, and by pumping.

There are two chemically different waters in the

Mississippian sandstones. The potable water in both units is generally of very good quality although locally very hard. In addition to potable water, the Berea Sandstone contains brackish to saline water downdip from the area of its subcrop. The brackish to saline water is recognizable 203

by its high concentrations of chloride, sulfate and iron. Unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits are the largest source of ground water in the Scioto River basin. Deposits are normally stratified and well sorted, occur in channels or are embedded as lenses in till. The thickest deposits are found adjacent to the Scioto River south of Columbus, in the buried channels in southeastern Franklin County and buried by till in a band looping across * the basin from Madison through Pickaway to Fairfield County. Considerable variation exists between vertical and horizontal permeabilities in the deposits and between deposits in channels and in lenses. In comparison to other aquifers in the basin, however, the sand and gravel are much more permeable and porous. The channel deposits, specifically the watercourse aquifers, are the most per­ meable, having an average permeability to horizontal flow

of about 3000 gpd/sq. ft. and a vertical permeability of the entire unit between 300 and 400 gpd/sq. ft. Ground water in the drift flows towards the Scioto

River from the basin edges, except from the northern rim where it flows northward. Recharge occurs by infiltration of surface runoff through the till, leakage from the under­

lying bedrock, influent stream seepage during floods, and locally induced from surface sources. The watercourse aquifers have the greatest recharge potential of the sand 204

and gravel aquifers and are major sources of ground water in

the basin. The buried sand and gravel lenses have a lower recharge potential which has an immediate effect on the small reservoir by causing it to be dewatered. Discharge from the sand and gravel aquifers occurs mainly through discharge to streams, underflow, pumpage and leakage to the underlying bedrock.

The water quality in the sand and gravel is generally good, but very hard due to high concentrations of calcium,

magnesium and bicarbonate ions. Locally upward leakage from the Silurian-Devonian carbonate aquifer increases the

mineralization, particularly the concentration of sulfate.

Iron concentration, a local problem, may also have a

source in the Silurian carbonate or the Ohio Shale. Contam­

inants from a surface source usually contain nitrate and

chloride. Unlike the basin's aquifers, the Ohio Shale and till fraction of the drift are relatively impermeable and yield very little water. In the Ohio Shale, water is stored in open joints and it flows towards the Scioto River, in a southwesterly direction. Its water quality is characterized by a very high content of dissolved solids mostly sulfate, chloride and iron. The water is commonly saline and bitter.

The till is recharged mainly by infiltration of pre­ cipitation, but it acts as a holding and distribution station in the hydrologic cycle and the water is discharged 205

predominantly by evapotranspiration and seepage to streams and adjacent aquifers. Water stored in the till is gener­

ally more mineralized than that in the sand and gravel. Base flow in the streams of the Scioto drainage basin

reflects very closely the surficial geology and the ground water quality in the shallow aquifers. Stream flow over the glaciated part of the basin has a rather uniform quality, which is distinctly different from that over the non-glaciated area. The water draining the drift is very hard; its quality is generally very good, but deteriorates locally from the addition of high calcium, magnesium and sulfate ions originating in the underlying Silurian- Devonian carbonate and Ohio Shale. In the nonglaciated area, water from the Mississippian sandstones and shales discharging into the stream is of good quality, and varies from soft to moderately hard. The concentrations of cal­ cium, magnesium and bicarbonate is significantly less than in the streams draining the glaciated area. The surface waters are generally less mineralized than the ground water, except where they are locally contaminated, and the

Scioto transports from the basin an average of 650 tons per day of dissolved sediments during periods of low flow. The base flow in the streams are also indicative of the ground water potential of the shallow aquifers. Generally the presence of permeable channel fill deposits, such as a watercourse aquifer, is indicated by large base 206 flow, in contrast, an aquifer with a low permeability or one that is thin has only a minor base flow. Stream-flow data confirm the presence of watercourse aquifers in the lower reaches of the large tributaries and the Scioto

River, and they also indicate that the deeply buried aquifers contribute relatively minor amounts of water to the stream flow. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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