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Clitics and Agreement by Taylor Roberts BA (Spec. Hons.) Clitics and Agreement by Taylor Roberts B.A. (Spec. Hons.), Linguistics York University, 1992 M.A., Linguistics University of British Columbia, 1994 Submitted to the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology June 2000 © 2000 Taylor Roberts. All rights reserved. The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part. Signature of Author: ......................................................................................................................... Department of Linguistics and Philosophy March 10, 2000 Certified by: ...................................................................................................................................... Shigeru Miyagawa Professor of Linguistics and Japanese Thesis Supervisor Accepted by: ..................................................................................................................................... Alec Marantz Professor of Linguistics Head, Department of Linguistics and Philosophy Clitics and Agreement by Taylor Roberts Submitted to the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy on March 10, 2000 in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics ABSTRACT A phrase structure is developed for Pashto, the most important Indo-Iranian language for which this task remains to be undertaken. New data show that the placement, ordering, and interpretation of second-position clitics may be derived in the syntax by treating the clitics as agreement heads that identify null arguments in their specifiers. In contrast to previous accounts, the need for phonological operations is drastically reduced, being restricted to sentences containing only a verb (in which prosodic inversion applies as a last resort). In the course of investigating the role of clitics with respect to argument structure and syntactic derivation, several novel phenomena are uncovered that do not exist in better studied languages. Some of the features scrutinized include compound verbs, agreement, aspect, ergativity, word order (scrambling), possessor raising and dislocation, ambiguity, relative clauses, and overt vs. covert movement. Thesis Supervisor: Shigeru Miyagawa Title: Professor of Linguistics and Japanese 2 Acknowledgments It is a pleasure to acknowledge the many people who have contributed to this dissertation, first among them being my committee members: Shigeru Miyagawa, Ken Hale, and Wayne O'Neil. They have contributed countless ideas and suggestions, and exercised considerable patience with me as I pursued some unworkable dissertation topics. I've been very fortunate to have them as teachers and encouraging advisors. Thanks to the other professors from whom I have enjoyed taking classes: Noam Chomsky, Kai von Fintel, Suzanne Flynn, Morris Halle, Jim Harris, Irene Heim, Michael Kenstowicz, Jay Keyser, Alec Marantz, David Pesetsky, Roger Schwarzschild, and Ken Wexler. Thanks to the helpful staff of the department: Anne Cahill, Mary Grenham, Jen Purdy, and Bev Stohl. I am grateful for the fellowships and grants I have received from MIT, the MIT Working Papers in Linguistics, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (752- 96-0602). I am extremely fortunate to have had this support, and I do not take it for granted. This dissertation foolishly attempts to build on the work of Habibullah Tegey. Despite any leaps in understanding that the present work might seem to have made, Tegey's dissertation (1977) remains the best discussion of the most interesting phenomena in Pashto. His reference grammar (Tegey and Robson 1996) has been another essential resource. I was fortunate to have another dissertation on Pashto, by Farooq Babrakzai (1999), arrive in time for me to learn from. I am also grateful to both Tegey and Babrakzai for answering my questions by e-mail. The Pashtun linguist on whose good will I have depended most has been Jan Mohammad at the University of Arizona. His good nature in answering my many questions, and his skills as a linguist, have been instrumental in my completing the dissertation, as should be obvious from the frequency with which he is cited throughout. Needless to say, it has been very helpful to correspond with a linguist who can judge the grammaticality and ambiguities of my sentences and offer his own sentences in return, complete with pro when necessary. This dissertation would not have been as accurate or thorough without his help—although I would also like to absolve Jan of responsibility for any errors I might have made. I have been greatly encouraged in my research by the many e-mails and telephone calls from Pashtuns and Pathans around the world who have offered their help. Among those consultants who have worked with me in person and whose knowledge is reflected here are Abdul Aziz, Ghulam Isaqzai, Mohammad Mosa Karzai, Nabeela Khatak, Afnan Kundi, and Baryalay Malyar. Many thanks to Gaurav Mathur for his detailed comments on a draft of the dissertation, and for his last-minute help with proofreading. The linguistic and Indo-European knowledge of my office mate, Paul Elbourne, was helpful to me on many occasions. Rajesh Bhatt, Simin Karimi, and Barbara Robson have also been helpful with discussions of Pashto, and Elizabeth Cowper's syntax project meetings at the University of Toronto provided pleasant summer venues to present some of this material. And I thank Doug Pulleyblank for, among other things, writing and sharing a Word macro that has made example numbering so easy. I have been lucky to find many friends here, beginning with my classmates in Ling–94: Christopher Bader, Marie Claude Boivin, Gaurav Mathur, David McKay, Hooi Ling Soh, Luciana Storto, Fleur Veraart, and Susi Wurmbrand. I hope we can gather again someday. 3 Some other friends with whom I have shared many good meals, music, and—somewhat reluctantly—movies: Peter Kollner, Kevin and Pegge Bochynski, Tatjana Marvin, Jure Derganc, Daniel Harbour, Patrick Hawley, David Etlin, Ileana Paul, David Embick, Winnie Lechner. Some friends from UBC days who have been as steadfast as the North Shore mountains: Susan Blake, Henry Davis, Lisa Matthewson, Hamida Demirdache, Bill Turkel. I'll never forget the help of Ruth King and Barry Miller, my first linguistics professors. Aside from the linguistics I learned from them (which included my first exposure to Pashto in a Field Methods class), their encouragement gave me the impetus to continue my studies, which ultimately enriched my life by bringing me into contact with so many different- and like-minded people. Living in Cambridge has been a pleasure for the past five-and-a-half years, thanks to the manager of my building, Gloria Albertelli. My friend Frank Bohnec, with whom I have traveled thousands of summer kilometres, has been immensely helpful. María Cristina Cuervo and I have had an ongoing conversation about clitics for the last year or so—from the beginning to the end of writing this dissertation, and I thank her for her considerable help. Many of the ideas in here originate from our discussions. More valuable to me, though, has been her cheerful companionship, which has made the writing of this dissertation (and Life Itself) easy and happy. The people on whom I have depended most, and for the longest time, have been my parents, Erwin and Andrea, and my brother, Brent. My studious and pleasant life would have been impossible without them. I thank them and will always love them. 4 Table of contents Abstract........................................................................................................................................2 Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................3 Symbols and abbreviations ..........................................................................................................7 1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................8 1.1. Data...........................................................................................................................8 1.2. Phonology and orthography......................................................................................9 1.3. Word order................................................................................................................11 1.4. Nominal morphology and case .................................................................................17 1.5. Verbal morphology and agreement...........................................................................24 1.5.1. Simple verbs...............................................................................................24 1.5.2. Auxiliaries..................................................................................................29 1.6. Outline ......................................................................................................................31 2. Complex verbs .........................................................................................................................33 2.1. Aspect-driven asymmetries.......................................................................................33 2.2. Merger and clitic placement .....................................................................................35
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