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OUDE TESTAMENT It also discusses the origin of these books, arguing for a Mosaic core that grew over time and was completed by HUBBARD Jr., R. L. and J. A. DEARMAN — Introducing Ezra. Rather than describing stories as either fact or fiction, the Old Testament. William B. Eerdmans Publishing they propose understanding biblical texts on a literary spec- Co., Grand Rapids, 2018. (23,5 cm, XXII, 540, includ- trum that spans from the factual to the traditional; they ing tables, charts and illustrations). ISBN 978-0-8028- reserve the Exodus and the resurrection of Jesus as historical 6790-2. $ 40.00. events. Chapter four covers Genesis 1-11, explaining its title, organization, and genre. A few other Ancient Near East sto- It can be challenging to find an introduction to the Hebrew ries are described generally, though the authors do not Bible textbook that matches the professor’s desired approach believe they are sources for Genesis, just likewise drawn and the needs of an institution. Is the class designed to intro- from rich Ancient Near Eastern culture. Chapter five covers duce students to the Hebrew Bible? Is it to help religious Genesis 12-50, calling its genre “family history.” As con- students better understand their scriptures and theology? text, the authors provide the history of the second millen- Is it for introducing scholarly methods to students already nium BCE; they concede that there is no direct evidence that familiar with the content of the Bible? Is it something in the patriarchs existed but suggest they are historical persons between? If so, where? because their names, customs, and lifestyle match the time Robert L. Hubbard Jr. and J. Andrew Dearman’s new text- period. Chapter six is on Exodus; the timelines and text men- book concentrates on preparing students for reading the Old tion both an early and a late date for a historical Exodus, but Testament in translation. It provides them with basic intro- a late date seems to be preferred. The Egyptian history of the ductions to aid them in understanding what they read. These period is provided and four routes and possible locations of introductions for each biblical book cover the origin of the Mt. Sinai are discussed, although the map provided only book, the historical and cultural background, the main liter- notes two possible locations for the mountain. The next two ary features and characters, and the structure of the book. chapters on Leviticus and Numbers are perhaps on the brief There is minimal discussion of theology or academic issues; side, but cover the major contents, such as: the festivals, the focus of a course using this textbook would be on reading sacrifices, holiness code, and the important narrative events the Old Testament in order to understand the content of the in Numbers. Chapter nine covers Deuteronomy, introducing books. the idea of the Deuteronomic history and the Josianic reform There are many features that make this a useable textbook. (here too is a brief paragraph on JEDP source criticism). It There are thirty-seven chapters, which can be easily divided covers the major sections of the book and, in order to illus- for a typical length semester. The chapters are mostly short, trate how the material has been edited, it contrasts the Deca- allowing students time to focus on reading the Bible itself. logue in Exodus with the one in Deuteronomy, it includes Each chapter has approximately seven study questions that tables comparing the slave laws in Exod 21 and Deut 15, and aim to make the student reflect on and interact with the bibli- comparing the festival calendars in Exod 23 and Deut 16. cal text; they seem very suitable for starting class discussion Part three covers the Historical Books. Chapter ten and assessing whether students actually did the reading. The describes this grouping, makes the case that these books illustrations are typically artworks or archaeological finds and cover God’s history with Israel, and addresses three major monuments related to the biblical book. There are also helpful issues: which books are preexilic and which are postexilic; maps, timelines, and tables. Each chapter has a short bibliog- how Chronicles reworks material for its early 4th century raphy of works mentioned and commentaries, and typically audience; and the location of Ruth (which is grouped by the include an article summarizing recent scholarship on the authors inconsistently as pre- and post-exilic). Hubbard and book. At the end of the book there is a glossary of terms Dearman’s approach to biblical history is to take the books (though terms defined in the glossary are not marked in the as story, so that there is both factual content and literary main text), a list of Hebrew transliterations, a subject index, shaping, since a historian uses literary features, selects which a scripture index, and an index of other ancient sources. facts to include, and “arbitrarily decides when the principle The book is organized into six sections: 1) Getting Started; of cause and effect link events together” (p. 113). Chapters 2) The Torah; 3) The Historical Books; 4) The Prophets; eleven through fifteen cover Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-2 Sam- 5) The Poetry; 6) Conclusion. Each major section has an uel, and 1-2 Kings, respectively. For each chapter, they dis- introductory chapter explaining the grouping and giving gen- cuss the origin of the book, the major themes, and interpre- eral information about the biblical books grouped under the tive issues (for example, in Joshua the archaeology of heading. Jericho, Ai, and Hazor is mentioned, Judges discusses the The first section has two chapters, the first of which intro- various interpretations of Jephthah’s sacrifice, and Samuel duces the book as a whole. The second chapter explains the discusses prior sources that have been edited). Chapter six- authors’ approach to the historical context of the Old Testa- teen introduces the Postexilic books, giving the major themes ment and defines the terminology used for the major eras of of the books and some information about Persian period Israel’s history. This chapter describes some scholarly Yehud. Chapters seventeen through nineteen covers 1-2 debates about chronology, and takes sides on some issues Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Esther, respectively, and are (such as the late date of a historical exodus), but does not of the same format. Some issues addressed for these books offer an overview of Ancient Near East history (this is cov- are: how Chronicles addresses a different audience than ered piecemeal in later chapters). Kings does, whether Ezra and Nehemiah relied on earlier The Second section deals with the Torah in seven chap- sources, and understanding Esther in light of racism, sexism, ters. The initial chapter describes the genre of the Torah and the holocaust as well as the question of whether the book and explains the terms “Torah,” “Pentateuch,” and “Law.” describes historical events. 169 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — OUDE TESTAMENT 170

Part four covers the Prophets. Chapter twenty, entitled kinsmen-redeemers are called “guardian-redeemers,” and “What is Hebrew Poetry” introduces how Hebrew poetry there are some unique names for offerings and sacrifices. differs from English poetry and describes parallelism based Most bewildering, though, is that in the chapter on Ezra the on Susan Gillingham’s work. Chapter twenty-one is “Who “Festival of Flatbread” is mentioned (which may lead stu- and What were the Prophets?” This chapter defines termi- dents to think pita before they think matzah or lavash), nology for prophets, summarizes the narrative material con- though in the chapter on Leviticus it is called the “feast of cerning biblical prophets, and describes their roles in Israel/ unleavened bread. Judah and the way they spoke and acted. It also describes the This textbook was written to meet the needs of the authors origin of the prophetic books, then defines eschatology and in their classrooms, and it will no doubt be welcomed by illustrates it with the example of Jerusalem. Chapter twenty- other professors who share their needs. Compared to other two covers Isaiah (the authors favor three Isaiahs); chapter similar textbooks, Hubbard and Dearman offer less theology. twenty-two covers Jeremiah (the various editions of the book Zondervans’ A Survey of the Old Testament and Eerdmans’ are mentioned); chapter twenty-four covers Ezekiel; and 1982 book Old Testament Survey both include chapters on chapter twenty-five covers Daniel (and discusses the Apoca- the authority or inspiration of the Old Testament, on theo- lyptic genre and the issue of when the book was composed logical hermeneutics, and talk about the significant theologi- or edited). The Minor Prophets are dealt with in groups based cal themes and contributions of the individual biblical books. on when Hubbard and Dearman believe the prophets were Compared with these textbooks, Hubbard and Dearman also active: chapter twenty-six covers Hosea, Amos, and Micah; include less discussion of the scholarly issues related to vari- chapter twenty-seven covers Zephaniah, Habakkuk, and ous biblical books. For example, the Zondervan text devotes Joel; chapter twenty-eight covers Jonah, Nahum, and Oba- several pages to the rational for the early versus late dating diah; and chapter twenty-nine covers Haggai, Zechariah, and for a historical exodus, whereas Hubbard and Dearman do Malachi. little to defend their stance. But some professors no doubt Part five is “The Poetry.” The first chapter of this part is prefer their text to give little theology or to avoid strong entitled: “What are the Wisdom Books,” and gives a defini- stances on scholarly debates so that the professor can teach tion of wisdom in the Bible, mentions wisdom in Ancient their own perspective in class. This textbook is suitable, then, Near Eastern literature, and gives the origins of the books in for classes where the students are to focus on gaining famili- this section. Chapter thirty-one covers Job, focusing mostly arity with the biblical text in translation outside of class, and on the outline and story of the book. Chapter thirty-two cov- where the professor wishes to teach theology and scholarly ers Psalms, noting the similarities some psalms have with debate in class without having to argue much with the per- other ancient hymns, giving descriptions of the five books in spective of their textbook. Psalms, and noting Gunkel and Mowinckel’s scholarly con- tributions (though little is done in terms of introducing gen- Pasadena, California Ben AUSTIN res or forms of psalms). Chapter thirty-three covers Proverbs 24 October 2018 and focuses mostly on the sections and sub-collections. Chapter thirty-four is on Ecclesiastes, which the authors * believe should be understood like other fictional royal auto- * * biographies from the Ancient Near East. Chapter thirty-five covers Lamentations and chapter thirty-six covers Song of MILLER II, R. D. — The Dragon, the Mountain, and the Songs, which is interpreted as literal love poetry and is glibly Nations. An Old Testament Myth, Its Origins, and Its referred to as “The Best Song Ever” throughout. Afterlives. (Explorations in Ancient Near Eastern Civi- Part Six contains only one chapter: “The Canon and Text lizations, 6). Eisenbrauns, University Park PA, 2018. of the Hebrew Bible/Christian Old Testament.” This chapter (23,5 cm, VIII, 402). ISBN 978-1-57506-479-6. $ 64.95. deals with a variety of issues (including: the ideas of scrip- ture, Bible and canon, and the transmission and translation One of the perennial problems of science is the dilemma of the Old Testament text) though the major focus is on vari- between unification and diversification. Miller’s interesting ous aspects of the canon of scriptures in Jewish and Christian book is permeated with this problem. On the one hand he traditions. describes a great variety of myth and myth-like text that con- This book has a few idiosyncrasies that are worth noting. tain the narrative of a dragon slain by a good hero using an While the authors are concerned enough about canon to impressive weapon in all their diversity. On the other hand, devote the longest chapter to it, they don’t treat the books he tries to bring this great variety into one basic pattern of canonically (Christian or Jewish) but according to a combi- which all the narratives are but local appropriations. More- nation of genre and chronology. They provide historical con- over, he tries to proof that all these dragon-slaying myths text in digestible pieces in the chapters where the information have a lineage that can be traced back to a Proto-European is most relevant and provide timelines and king lists to help basic form. Next to that he argues that although dragon- illustrate; but at times these tables and timelines provide slaying myths occur all over the world – from South America more detail (such as Assyrian kings) than is provided in the to Japan – the differences between these tales and the myths main text. Readability is aided by the total lack of footnotes, as known from the Ancient Near Eastern world are too big but this makes it difficult to discern why the authors took to assume a universal myth. various positions on scholarly issues and leaves students on Miller applies a methodology that is derived from the way their own to investigate matters more deeply. The authors in which linguists try to establish the ‘original’ language of offer some unique terminology, which no-doubt is pedagogi- groups of people. Comparative linguistics have developed cally useful, but may leave students at a loss when reading a set of tools by which to differentiate between ‘older’ and other sources. For example, the Judges are called “Heroes,” more recent elements in any given language. Historical 171 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXVI N° 1-2, januari-april 2019 172 linguistics has shown the ways and the why’s of adopting a realm of chaos par excellence. Here too, a mountain plays words from another language either as a direct loanword – an important role: Mount Zaphon in the north has about the e.g. ‘dike’ in English – or as ‘civilized stranger’ – for instance same function as Mount Ḫazzi in the Hurrian myth. Here too, the Dutch word ‘kelder’ having Latin roots – caldera, ‘cel- a weapon plays an important role: the bow of Baal created lar’, – that almost no native speaker is aware of. By applying especially by the smith of the gods, Kothar-wa-Ḫasis.ׄ In the a comparable model, Miller differentiates between ‘older’ Ugaritic myth, the defeat of the monster is not final: each and ‘more recent’ elements in any given myth and makes year Baal has to kill Yammu. Miller makes an interesting the reader aware of words and idioms that came from side remark on Lithanu/Lotanu/Leviathan. He does not con- elsewhere. strue this curling snake as a companion of Yammu, but rather His inquiry starts in India. The classical text with ancient identifies the two as one being. Miller adopts the fanciful roots in oral transmission, the Rig-Veda, contains many ref- etymology of the name of the serpent from Maria Modena. 2) erences to the myth of the deity Indra. This deity – con- She proposed to derive the name Lithanu/Lotanu/Leviathan nected with the clouds – slays with his thunderbolt the from a Semitic root LWY, ‘to wrap; bind’, with a reference dragon-like Vṛtra. His victory, however, is only temporal that the name of the dragon-like Vṛtra mentioned in the Rig- since Vṛtra, ‘the undying worm’, has to be crushed time and Veda has the same meaning. That root, however, is only again. Indra is typically cast in the role of a storm-god who attested in the Aramaic Achiqar with the meaning ‘to – by slaying the dragon – restores the order in the eartly accompany’. realm. The myth has a long afterlife in Hindu and Buddhist The piece de résistance of Miller’s book is an analysis of traditions although the name of Indra gradually disappears texts from the Hebrew Bible that contain elements of the from the stories. In a next step, Miller pays attention to the dragon-slayer myth. Here he analyses – but not in depth – Proto-Europeans, by which he means a population coming about a dozen Psalms. All the elements are present: a divine .inimical powers, a weapon, and a mountain ,יהוה ,from the steppes of Asia and speaking a forerunner of the warrior later Indo-Celtic languages. This populace and its culture The elements, however, are dispersed over the texts. Only spread over greater areas: from India to Ireland not only when read together, the Psalms can be seen as an example of depositing the Indo-Celtic language upon local population the myth. Intriguing is his remark on the ‘snake’ in Gene- in the Garden Story is not נחש but also delivering the basic form of the ‘hero-slays-a dragon- sis 3. In Millers opinion, the with a weapon’ myth. This myth has not been conserved in a snake, but the dragon Yammu, Illuyankas, and Ḫedammu original form since it was part of an oral culture, but deriva- in disguise. Miller goes at length to demonstrate that the tions can be found throughout the area from Ireland to India. dragon-slaying motifs in the Hebrew Bible are not adapted Miller then moves to the North, to the Hittite empire, from a Semitic model, but go back to Hittite and Hurrian where basically two languages were spoken in the second traditions. As an argument for his position, he is overinter- millennium BCE: the non-connected Hattic and the Indo- preting the tiny bits of evidence of Hittite or Hurrian pres- European Hittite. In that second language, the myth of Illuy- ence in Iron Age Israel. In my opinion, this exercise is far ankas was written. He was a dangerous, venomous snake from convincing. who threatened the order in the world by defeating the hero/ After paying attention to Greek traditions and some sec- storm god Tarḫuna. Through a list, the mortal Hupasiyas is ond temple Jewish texts, Miller arrives at the New Testa- able to lure Illuyankas out of his snake hole. One way or ment. Here he sees the myth in its various aspects played out another Tarḫuna is revived and kills the snake. Miller adapts in the life of Jesus from Nazareth. The dragon takes the form the idea of Calvert Watkins that the Illuyankas myth is an of the devil or an angry sea, but is defeated by Jesus. The Indo-European inheritance.1) Miller rejects all connections section ends in a sermon like allegorical interpretation in with the Hattic culture, which is rather easy since not much which Jerusalem is the mountain, the cross the weapon, and is known about the people who spoke that language. The sin the defeated monster. He connects this with a very pas- Hittite myth has a long afterlife in the neo-Hittite kingdoms toral remark. Modern theologians are inclined to construe up to Roman times. God the Father as kind and loving trying to put away all the Next, the Hurrians are discussed. The Hurrians were an difficult texts on the fiercely and powerful battling God who ethnic group speaking a language that is connected to later punishes. Miller correctly remarks that if God is stripped off Urartian. In the Bronze Age, however, the Hurrians lived of his might, he no longer would be able to defeat the under the rule of an Indo-Aryan elite as is evidenced for monsters. instance by the Aryan idiom in the famous horse-training Millers book touches many details from a variety of cul- texts. In the Hurrian Kumarbi cycle, a mythic tale is known tures. That sets him in a vulnerable position. Specialists from in which the storm-god Teshub takes revenge for his father the different fields will easily find weak spots in his argu- by killing the usurper harvest god Kumarbi. Later on, the ment. By way of a final remark, I do not believe that the son of Kumarbi, the snake Ḫedammu is slain by Teshub. dragon slaying myth was transported from the Proto-Indo- According to Miller, this tale is the Hurrian appropriation of Europeans of the Asian steppe via all sort of way-stations to the Hittite Illuyankas myth. In later versions, Ḫedammu modern times. In my view all these stories in their unique is replaced by the monstrous deity Ullikumi. The narrative is and different formulations appeal to a fundamental fear in then set on a mountain: Mount Ḫazzi in the north. mankind: the perennial problem of chaos and decay. The Under Hurrian influence, the myth was adapted in Ugarit in the narrative on the animosity between the storm god Baal and the proverbial chaos of Yammu, the god of the sea, 2) M.L.M. Modena, ‘Il tabù linguistico e alcune denominazioni del ser- 1) C. Watkins, How to kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poet- pente in semitico’, Acme: Annali della facoltà di lettere e filosofia ics, Oxford 1995. dell’Università degli studi di Milano 35 (1982), 173-190. 173 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — OUDE TESTAMENT 174 richness and the strength of these myths is in their diversity, 1) identify and translate texts; 2) describe the metaphor; no in their unity. 3) explore the relationship of the metaphor to other meta- phors in the Ancient Near East and in the Old Testament; Utrecht University Bob BECKING 4) analyze the rhetorical message of the metaphor. The pur- 3 October 2018 pose of his study is not a grand comparison but only to dem- onstrate the conceptual framework of trees/kings in the Ancient Near East. * The second chapter, “Tree Imagery in the Ancient Near * * East: Egypt and Mesopotamia,” begins with a short descrip- tion of the differences between ancient and current ecology OSBORNE, W. R. — Trees and Kings. A Comparative in the region. Next, Osborne compiles Egyptian evidence; he Analysis of Tree Imagery in Israel’s Prophetic Tradition tries to limit his evidence to the first millennium, but admits and the Ancient Near East. (Bulletin for Biblical he is using evidence from the New Kingdom all the way until Research, Supplement 18). Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, the Late Period. He first provides evidence of gods being 2018. (23,5cm, 224, 35 b&w illustrations). ISBN 978-1- associated with trees, particularly in connection with life- 57506-750-6. $ 39.50. giving properties, including: Nut’s common portrayal as In this book, William R. Osborne gathers and compares a tree, Thoth’s association with the dum-palm, Osiris’s coffin tree imagery from across the Ancient Near East in order to becoming a tree in Plutarch’s version of the myth, and contextualize and evaluate biblical metaphors depicting kings Amun-Re as the creator of the world and the tree of life. He as trees. His comparative approach is to examine the cogni- then shows how Pharaoh was associated with Horus and with tive metaphors at work in the imagery which allows for the the Nile flood’s fertilization of the land. He also discusses examination and comparison of the cultural and cognitive the išd-tree ritual, suggesting it “likely communicated the settings without speculation about historical processes of transference of the king into the realm of the gods” (p. 49). influence or causation between cultures or over time. It is His last piece of evidence in Egypt comes from Instruction a valuable resource for understanding the diversity and simi- of Amenemope, where the silent and the heated man are com- larity of tree imagery used in the Ancient Near East. After pared to flourishing and doomed trees. Osborne suggests an introductory chapter, two chapters survey tree imagery in there are two conceptual metaphors at work in the material: various ancient regions, then the fourth chapter examines tree A DEITY IS A TREE and A KING/WISE WORSHIPER IS A TREE. It is imagery in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, followed by a fifth unclear why the conceptual metaphor isn’t THE SOURCE OF chapter offering a summary and conclusions. THE BLESSINGS OF LIFE ARE TREES and that gods and kings/ The first chapter provides the rationale for this study as wise worshipers are just subsets of this same metaphor. well as an overview of relevant scholarship on biblical The section on Mesopotamian evidence begins with Assyr- prophecy, methods for comparing the Bible and other ian royal gardens and the significance of procuring trees and Ancient Near East sources, metaphors, and previous investi- timber. Osborne then discusses the mis pî ritual where a tree gations of tree metaphors in the Bible. The rationale for the is transformed into an idol. Next comes a discussion of study is that previous works on tree metaphors in the Old Gilgamesh and Enkidu’s battle with Ḫumbaba and their cut- Testament have focused on theological issues connected with ting cedars and returning them to Uruk. Then Osborne gives sacred trees, the tree of life, and the messianic implications examples from the Early Kassite period up to the late- of tree metaphors. This study, however, examines trees as Babylonian period of where a poplar, palm, and other trees metaphors for kings. Osborne gives three reasons for focus- represent a king or ensi, followed by discussion of e‘ru-wood ing on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel: 1) each book has sig- scepter incantations and kiškanu-tree and date palm incanta- nificant tree imagery related to royal ideology; 2) this tions. He draws further evidence from the Erra and Ishum imagery in these books has not yet been studied in their epic, in which the king of the gods compares Babylon to Ancient Near East context; 3) material in these books date a date palm, a pinecone, and an orchard, and from accounts to before, during, and after the Babylonian exile (he takes of the Court of the Palm in the second millennium palace of these books to have been largely in their final form shortly Zimri-Lim in Mari. after the life of their eponymous prophets; this view may be Osborne summarizes saying that trees were: 1) used in why he does not examine Persian material). His survey of rituals, purifications, and idol making; 2) associated with scholarship on comparative approaches divides the develop- kinship and royal ideology; 3) a symbol of political expan- ment of methods into three stages: comparisons based on sion in palace gardens; 4) part of the temple landscape and common human psychology, based on human experience, associated with the dwellings of the gods; 5) a valued com- and finally based on historical context and specific cultural modity for building palaces and temples. He then proposes interactions. The section headings here refer to trees, but the three conceptual metaphors: ABUNDANCE AND PROSPERITY IS subject matter has nothing to do with that particular issue. A TREE, A GOD IS A TREE, and A KING IS A TREE or A KING IS A The method this study follows is to compare and to contrast, TREE-FELLER. following William Hallo’s method. Osborne’s discussion of The third chapter, “Tree imagery in the Ancient Near metaphor scholarship covers most of the major developments East: Syria-Palestine and the Bible,” begins with an over- in linguistic scholarship but focuses mostly on the discussion view of the complexity of scholarly discussion of Asherah within Old Testament scholarship, including the issue of and sacred trees. Osborne shows how tree imagery changed interpreting iconography. He accepts Job Jindo’s suggested in the region in the Iron Age, and has an extended discussion conceptual metaphor that HUMAN LIFE IS HORTICULTURAL LIFE, of Pithos A from Kuntillet ‛Ajrud. Then he examines three and goes further to suggesting that there is a conceptual kinds of tree imagery within the Old Testament: Proverbs metaphor: A KING IS A TREE. His method of analysis is to: repeatedly uses the image “a tree of life;” the Psalms use 175 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXVI N° 1-2, januari-april 2019 176 tree imagery for the righteous and the wicked; and Song of tree imagery. Other passages suggest there was a shared Songs compares the lover to an apple tree as well as to metaphorical framework underlying the imagery. Regarding a cedar. He then moves on to discuss trees in narratives, such the mythopoetic features of tree imagery, Osborne suggests as the trees associated with Abraham, Jacob’s use of sticks the biblical prophets go beyond polemic and transform inter- in what appears to be an incantation, the sacred trees or nationally known images and apply them to YHWH and grove at Shechem, Jotham’s fable, and the trees procured by His future king. The book ends with suggestions for future Solomon for the temple and his palace. Osborne concludes research: Osborne wonders if the tree parables in Psa 1, that the three conceptual metaphors from chapter two can Jer 17:5-8, Ezek 31, Gilgamesh, and Amenemope grew out also be seen at work in Syria-Palestine and provides a table of wisdom circles associated with royal courts. Second, he for the various types of specific metaphors (without citations suggests more work needs to be done with tree imagery in of examples) derived from these conceptual metaphors. He the second temple period. Third, he thinks the time has come does not believe it is possible to develop a diachronic analy- to explore the relationships between different metaphorical sis of the imagery, but does not think it is necessary, since concepts in the Hebrew Bible. Finally he suggests more work the conceptual approach to metaphors does not require find- could be done to develop a typology of tree lexemes, figura- ing an Ur-myth or fixed narrative to understand the data tive associations, and rhetorical intent as an exegetical tool. (unlike what is required for the Myth and Ritual school). The appendix is the sort of typology his final chapter sug- The fourth chapter, “Trees and Kings in Isaiah, Jeremiah, gested for tree imagery. It is a catalog of tree imagery in the and Ezekiel,” studies the metaphors of each of these books three biblical books he examined. This catalogue includes in turn, beginning with Isaiah. The first section discusses the passages, tree lexemes, a description of the metaphor it is conceptual metaphor ARROGANCE IS HIGH, looking only at Isa used in, and the surrounding form or genre. While it includes 2:11-13 (though this conceptual metaphor is brought up references to “root” it does not include “seed” or “vine” again in relevant passages in the following section), then metaphors. there is a section on trees facing judgement with subsections This is a very helpful book, drawing data from a wide studying Isa 10:33-34; 9:13-14 and 19:15; 14:8, 12, 19; region to deepen our understanding of a biblical metaphor. 32:19; and 14:29-30. The last metaphor studied in Isaiah is This book has, however, a few issues. The metaphor scholar- of YHWH’s New Tree, which includes Isa 11:1,10 and ship surveyed in the introduction covers most of the major 53:2a. theoretical works but makes one error in definition and In the section on Jeremiah, Osborne widens his investiga- misses some scholarship that would have been useful. tion into metaphors of people as trees, finding three concep- Osborne conflates I. A. Richards’ and Max Blacks’ terminol- tual metaphors blended: SOCIETY IS A PERSON, PEOPLE ARE ogy for the parts of a metaphor saying: “The tenor referred PLANTS, and SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS ARE PLANTS. Trees repre- to the subject being communicated, and the vehicle was the senting people are planted and uprooted and burned in Jer symbol that was used. In other words, using Max Black’s 1:10; 11:16; 12:2a, and 12:14. Osborne also compares famous exemplar “man is a wolf,” man would be the tenor a few metaphors to other Ancient Near East ideas, namely he and wolf the vehicle.” (p. 17). But Black’s example is for his argues that Jer 2:3, 21, 27 relates to the building of Baal’s own terminology, where the focus is the word or phrase temple in the Baal epic, and that Jer 17:5-8’s image of trees being used metaphorically (wolf) and the frame is the rest of beside water and in the wilderness is similar to the compari- the metaphor (man), so that a given focus could be meta- son in Amenemope. Next he looks at images related to new phorical in one frame and literal in another. For Richards, growth and David, including Jer 23:5-6 and 33:15-16, and however, the vehicle is the symbolic element (here “wolf”) Jer 22:6-7 where the king is likened to cedars of Lebanon. and the tenor is what the vehicle represents or means (here The section on Ezekiel begins with an in-depth look at something like “fierce, hungry, a scavenger”). It is also the mashal in Ezek 17:2-24 and includes a comparison to the unfortunate that Osborne did not include the scholarship of Legend of Etana, which shares some elements (such as king, Gilles Fauconnier, whose work on mappings and integration tree, eagle, and net). Osborne then examines the vine which networks would have been very helpful to Osborne’s analy- represents the Davidic king in Ezek 19:10-14 which becomes sis of biblical passages that combine or play with multiple arrogant and so is brought low and burned, as is the forest in conceptual metaphors, such as Ezek 17. 21:3ab. Then the idea of the king being in the garden of the There are also a few issues in the minor arguments and gods is explored, looking at Ezek 31:1-9 in comparison to conclusions. For example, in chapter two Osborne suggests Isa 51:3ab and 60:13. The chapter concludes by noting that that the wise worshiper in Amenemope “metaphorically takes Job Jindal’s proposed conceptual metaphor in Jeremiah, that the form of the deity being worshiped” (p. 49), but this is not ISRAEL IS YHWH’S GARDEN, is also at work in Isaiah and adequately supported. There is no suggestion within the text Ezekiel, adding that it is up to God to plant, make grow, or itself that this is being implied, not only because the heated cut down and burn, depending on whom He wishes to give man is also compared to a tree, but because it’s not clear that power. all trees in Egyptian culture would be associated by default The final chapter summarizes each of the previous chap- with divinity. Another example is in his discussion of the mis ters in turn, then offers conclusions. First, Osborne suggests pî ritual where he says: “Similarly, after the ceremony the that the metaphor of the king as a tree shows how the office god is said to have been born in heaven instead of the forest unites the deity/ies (who plant the tree) with the population or orchard. However, these two planes of existence appear to (represented by the king and tree) in a given region. Next, merge together theologically in such a way that once the god following John Walton’s Comparative/Contextual Spectrum, has been made, the god can metaphorically be associated Osborne suggests some passages reflect a polemical inver- with the tree from which it came, which grew up in the realm sion of Ancient Near East imagery while also having of the gods” (p. 59). But he presents no evidence that this is a deeper awareness of conceptual associations of kings with the case. The ritual itself seems to serve the opposite 177 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — OUDE TESTAMENT 178 function: to disassociate the tree from the idol, which is why scholarship he dedicated to this topic. This is his tenth book the artisan declares he did not craft the idol and it is said that on the Samaritans. Pummer published the critical edition of the idol was born in heaven. It is this unwillingness of the many primary sources, such as Samaritan manuscripts, and pagan to admit the obvious fact that their idol is made from studied corpora like that of the works of Josephus and refer- a tree that is lampooned in Isaiah 44:9-20. ences in the Church Fathers on the Samaritans. Pummer also Another issue is the question of scope. This can be illus- worked on handbooks on the whole range of Samaritan trated in the title which is narrower than the subtitle, likewise studies. in the book the extra-biblical material is rather broadly about His first book, The Samaritans (Iconography of Religions, trees, whereas the biblical analysis of the major prophets is 23.5; Leiden: Brill, 1987) initiated Pummer’s synthesizing narrowly about metaphors of kings as trees, for the most part. presentation of Samaritan studies. The title of the present If the scope of chapter four had been wider, beside illustrat- work adds a new subtitle to the thirty-year-old title of his ing anti-idol rhetoric discussed above, earlier discussions of monograph: A profile. This shows that the author’s aim was sacred groves would have served interesting background not to present “a Summa Samaritana, nor an encyclopedia for prophetic rhetoric against them, such as in Isa 57:5; encompassing everything that can be said about the Samari- Jer 2:20; 3:13; and Ezek 6:13, which are only mentioned in tans,” but to write “a concise biographical and character passing in the conclusions. Similarly, the discussion of pro- sketch of the community as it developed throughout the cen- curing trees for royal building projects would have well illus- turies” (p. X). This profile displays “the main facets of the trated passages such as Isa 60:13-17 (which Osborne associ- history, religion, and life of the Samaritans in the light of ates with gardens and not building material for a renovated recent developments in historical, archaeological, philologi- temple) and the new temple in Ezek 41. Much of the discus- cal, and anthropological studies by setting forth the present sion of deities and trees in the Ancient Near East has little state of our knowledge and providing references that enables bearing on the discussion of tree metaphors of kings in the readers to pursue in greater detail questions of special inter- biblical material. est to them.” (p. X). Therefore, this book is a valuable read Even limiting the scope to metaphors in the biblical books, for both those who are simply interested in the Samaritans, Osborne at times moves beyond kings as trees, though not and for those specializing in the field as this work provides systematically. For Jeremiah he examines society as plants a fully updated, comprehensive account. and in Ezekiel he examines “treely vines” but does not The book contains thirteen chapters in a discursive order. examine similar images in Isaiah where Israel or Jerusalem The first six chapters discuss the sources and the historical is a vineyard (Isa 5:1-7; 27:2-5). Similarly he discusses situation of the information available on the Samaritans in God’s judgment on people depicted as trees being cut down Antiquity. Chapter seven deals with the history of the and burned, but does not discuss all the examples of this Samaritans from the beginning to the present day. Chapter found in the books under discussion (such as Isa 10:17-19), eight supplements the historical discussion with geographi- and he discusses God as a divine gardener and Israel and the cal and demographic data. Chapters nine to thirteen intro- other nations as His plants, but does not elaborate on this duce the holy and religious literature of the Samaritans of biblical theme to even mention passages in the major proph- today, including rituals and costumes, everyday life, and ets (again, Isa 5:1-7 is an example). The work would be also makes mention of the modern challenges this commu- stronger if the scope of Ancient Near East material and the nity faces. biblical material were both set to look at the metaphor SOCIE- The first step in presenting the Samaritans is the discus- TIES AND THEIR KINGS ARE PLANTS, and leave out the sacred sion of their identity. Pummer divided his first chapter into trees that do not bear on this. three subchapters, contrasting the traditional Samaritan view Overall it is a very helpful book full of textual and icono- with the traditional Jewish view on the identity or origin of graphic evidence to enrich our understanding of tree imagery the Samaritans. This point is important because the Samari- in the Ancient Near East. The approach of studying the tans claim that they are the original and true Israelites, and imagery as cognitive metaphors is helpful in suspending that the Jews left the shared community during the time of the question of causality or cultural transmission while trying Eli. These stories are documented in Middle Age Samaritan to understand how ancient peoples conceptualized the world documents, though the earliest chronicle, Tulida, did not they lived in. We need more works like this on other com- speak of a split. On the contrary, the Jewish view is based on mon metaphors found in the Bible and elsewhere in the 2Kings 17 which talks about importation of various foreign Ancient Near East to help us understand their conceptual ethnic groups replacing the deported northern Israelites. Con- worlds more deeply. sequently, the Samaritans are neither Jews, nor Israelites. This view is still held by the Israelite Chief Rabbinate today, Pasadena, California Ben AUSTIN as pointed out by Pummer. The native traditions of both of 6 November 2018 these two groups are very much in opposition to the scien- tific approaches of the 20th and 21st centuries. Pummer clas- sified two ways of scholarly approaches, the first represented * primarily by J. Montgomery, H. Kippenberg, J. Purvis and * * F.M. Cross who describe Samaritans as a Jewish sect. The second view describes Samaritanism as a form of ancient PUMMER, R. — The Samaritans. A Profile. William Yahwism. The latter view is represented e.g. by E. Nodet, B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, 2016. (23 cm, G. Knoppers, M. Kartveit, the reviewer, and Pummer him- XIV, 362). ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. $ 30.00; £ 19.99. self. He draws the conclusion that the “Samaritans are not The doyen of Samaritan Studies, Reinhard Pummer’s a sect that broke off from Judaism, but rather a branch of new book is the synthesis of the half a century work of Yahwistic Israel in the same sense as the Jews.” (p. 25). 179 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXVI N° 1-2, januari-april 2019 180

Chapter 2 discusses the possibility of a Samaritan presence excavated artifacts concerning the temple, and underlines in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament by reviewing the three that it was not the building of the temple, but rather its main texts: 2Kgs 17; 1–2 Chronicles and Ezra 4. Neither destruction that played the most significant role in creating these texts, nor other, less important passages contain any the division between Jews and Samaritans. He also favors the reference to later Samaritans, or to any anti-Samaritan ten- proposition that assumed the existence of a Yahweh temple dencies, as it was concluded by R.G. Coggins in the in the city of Samaria. He also describes the present situation mid-70’s. of the sacred places on the mount where the Samaritans of As a contrast, chapter 3 presents the New Testament’s pic- today perform Passover sacrifice, pilgrimage and other daily ture of the contemporaneous Samaritan community. Separat- services. Synagogues of ancient and modern times, diaspora ing Luke’s works and the Gospel of John, Pummer demon- and homeland are discussed in the next subchapter. The most strates how the authors used this group to highlight the important Samaritan synagogal dedicatory texts were found position of Jesus. Pummer also describes the unavailing on two inscriptions from Delos, the authors of which identify propositions suggesting Samaritan authorship of certain New themselves as “Israelites (in Delos) who make contribution Testament books as “not a fruitful avenue of research to pur- to the sanctuary Argarizein (= Mt Gerizim)” (p. 93). This sue” (p. 46). identification is the earliest self-designation of the Samari- The title of chapter 4 (Samaritans in Jewish Writings of tans. Excavated amulets and oil lamps preserved Samaritan Antiquity) is somewhat problematic, since the books of the script from the Roman-Byzantine period, and several ritual Hebrew Bible and the New Testament are also part of baths were discovered during the rounds of excavation at the Jewish literature of Antiquity. But the writings listed here Samaritan synagogue’s site. fall under the following subcategories: Apocrypha/ A short chapter (chapter 6) is devoted to the Samaritan Deuterocanonica, Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus and the Rab- sects. Pummer underlines that even though the Samaritans binic literature. The most interesting texts, Ben Sira 50:25- were always a small religious group, there were periods 26 and 2 Maccabees 5:22-23; 6:1-2 are analyzed, and when they further divided into subgroups. The most well- Pummer points out that the meaning of the texts depend on known sect, the Dositheans flourished circa in the 1st century the scholars’ understanding of the phrases that relate to CE, which was reflected in Patristic, and Samaritan Arabic the Samaritans. Pummer is very moderate in connecting the sources, though the texts are at times confusing. pieces of the Dead Sea Scrolls to the Samaritans. Neither Chapter seven summarizes the history of the Samaritans the words Gerizim, nor Joseph, nor Kuthim in the Scrolls can from the 2nd century BCE (Hellenistic period) to the present be verified with absolute certainty to refer to the religious day over the span of forty pages. Pummer divided this his- community on Mount Gerizim. The texts of the Pentateuch torical sketch into seven periods: Hellenistic and early in Qumran are discussed in another chapter. The works of Roman; late Roman and Byzantine; early Muslim, Crusader; Josephus are analyzed in detail in Pummer’s earlier mono- Mamluk; Ottoman and modern period. graph, here he summarizes the most important points. Con- The Samaritan community was always a small minority in tradicting the frequently presumed negative attitude of Jose- Palestine, but they also had a Diaspora in Egypt, in Damas- phus toward the Samaritans, Pummer states that Josephus cus and around the Mediterranean Sea. Chapter eight “attempts to enhance the positive image of the Jews by con- describes not only the geographical distribution, but also the trasting it with that of another, unreliable subject people of demographic situation of the Samaritans through the ages in the Romans, the Samaritans, and by painting an unflattering Israel and in the diasporas. We are informed how the histori- picture of them” (p. 55). Rabbinic writings became the focus cal situations influenced the rise and fall of the community, of present day researcher only in the past couple of decades how the 19th and 20th centuries led to the decision to abandon after a hiatus of more than half a century: L. H. Schiffman the tradition of endogamy within the Samaritan community and A. Lehnardt discussed Tannaitic and Amoraic texts on to open up to Jews in order to survive. The number of the the Samaritans. Pummer quoted Lehnardt’s article to high- Samaritans, compared to a century ago, has increased five light the problem of whether the “accounts about the Samari- times, and we can say that they survived. Pummer shares tans in the rabbinic sources” are “»constructs of ‘Rabbinic some interesting stories about intermarriage, ostracism, and mind’ or reflections of social reality?«” (p. 68). Only after about one famous female Samaritan media personality. careful analysis is it possible to derive historical information Nowadays, one of the most interesting topics of Samaritan from these writings. Studies is the Samaritan Pentateuch (chapter 9). The well- The most important chapter (chapter 5) is about the known textcritical value of the Samaritan Pentateuch is archaeological excavations. The excavations of Y. Magen on showcased by Pummer, even though its oldest extant exam- Mount Gerizim turned the previous doubts concerning the ples are from the 10th century. He introduces the properties existence of the temple of the Samaritans into certainty. The of SP that were known earlier, after the rediscovery of the temple had two phases, it was founded in the middle of texts of the SP in the Middle Ages, but he also points at the 5th century BCE and after 250 years, it was rebuilt in the the recent discussion of the role of the northern Israelites early 2nd century BCE. The temple was situated in the middle and the Gerizim community in the formulation of the Penta- of a sacred precinct, and there was also a city around it. teuch itself: “The close affinity between the Samaritan Pen- Burned animal bones, pottery, Persian and Hellenistic coins, tateuch and the Masoretic Text makes it likely that they go and Hebrew and Greek inscriptions prove the existence of back to a common text. This common text is dated by many this Samaritan center. It was destroyed by Johannes Hyrcanos scholars at the end of the Persian Period” (p. 207). Both Jews during his Samarian campaign around 110 BCE, and was and Samaritans experienced some theological changes later never restored, but the Samaritans developed a special on, which led to differences in their texts. Ancient transla- Gerizim theology as a result of their reverence of the place. tions and the script used by the Samaritan Pentateuch are Pummer discusses the Ancient texts, modern theories and the also discussed in this chapter. 181 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — VROEGE JODENDOM 182

The Samaritans had other religious and historical texts, but In sum, this book is not only a survey of previous and these are not as well-known as the Samaritan Pentateuch. recent research in Samaritan studies, but the author is also in Chapter ten lists the different genres of this literature com- dialogue with scholars and their views, engaging with them plete with a short introduction of each work. There are eight and responding to them, presenting new facts and develop- exegetical works mentioned, all were written in Arabic ments in the Samaritan community, concerning all subjects except the oldest, Tibat Mårqe, which was composed of Ara- of the field. Almost 110 years after Montgomery’s book on maic and neo-Samaritan Hebrew. Pummer provides a small the Samaritans, a new such type of reference work was excerpt of an 18th century Genesis commentary (of Meshalma indeed needed, which is exactly what Pummer provides. ibn Murjan), and an exegetical handbook (Malef) in English. Nine halakhic works are presented, most of them originate Károli Gáspár University, Prof. Dr. József ZSENGELLÉR from the 11th to 13th centuries, the others from the 17th to Budapest 19th centuries, all written in Arabic. A section of Kitab al- 12 October 2018 Kafi (11th c.) on taking interest is presented in English trans- lation. After a general description of the liturgical texts, the subchapter on the Samaritan chronicles comprises seven works in a chronological order. Linguistic works and folk- tales forms two other subchapters. Perhaps one of the most interesting, even if not discussed as Samaritan literature yet, source of information on the Samaritans are the collected is the category of the last subchapter: correspondence with European scholars. Here Pummer presents letters between scholars and Samaritans, previously known from collections or scientific works. All documents are complete with the information on the manuscripts, editions, translations, and descriptions in the footnotes. Under the title of Samaritan Rituals and Customs in chap- ter eleven, not only the major feasts such as Passover, Feast of Weeks, Day of Atonement, Feasts of the Tabernacles, but all the other smaller feasts are discussed, as well as the cus- toms of pilgrimage and circumcision, the ceremonies of the redemption of the firstborns and the completion of the Torah reading. The celebrations and ceremonies of betrothal and wedding, funeral and prayer complete the list. The chapter ends with a short outlook to Samaritan music and art. All these customs and rituals are still practiced today but origi- nated in ancient times. The chapter contains photos of pre- sent day celebrations. Pummer summarizes the situation of The Samaritans Today in chapter twelve: more specifically, how they look at their own identity and what kind of religious principles they still follow today. He does this summary according the for- mulation of four modern and four ancient principles. The community lives in two centers today: on the Gerizim (Luza/ Bethel) and in Holon (Tel Aviv). Pummer also describes their religious, social, demographic and economical situation in modern Israel and Palestine, and concludes: “today the Samaritan community is thriving as it has not thrived since the time of its greatest strength in antiquity […] At the same time, it has to be on constant guard no to be overlooked by the powers that be because it is so small” (p. 301). In lieu of an epilogue, in chapter thirteen Pummer medi- tates about the future of the Samaritans facing new chal- lenges of the 21st century Israelite society. For example, Samaritans trying to strike a balance between their ancient religion and identity and life in modern times, Pummer raises the question, “Will it be possible for future generations to go forward into the modern society, and at the same time pre- serve their tradition and their identity as Samaritans?” (p. 303–304). Pummer provides a re-assuring answer, putting the reader at ease, saying that “They have reinvented them- selves in the past and may well do so again in our time” (p. 304).