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Than One Way to Catch a Frog: a Study of Children's

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Than One Way to Catch a Frog: a Study of Children's More than one way to catch a frog: A study of children’s discourse in an Australian contact language Samantha Disbray Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics University of Melbourne December, 2008 Declaration This is to certify that: a. this thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD b. due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all material used c. the text is less than 100,000 words, exclusive of tables, figures, maps, examples, appendices and bibliography ____________________________ Samantha Disbray Abstract Children everywhere learn to tell stories. One important aspect of story telling is the way characters are introduced and then moved through the story. Telling a story to a naïve listener places varied demands on a speaker. As the story plot develops, the speaker must set and re-set these parameters for referring to characters, as well as the temporal and spatial parameters of the story. To these cognitive and linguistic tasks is the added social and pragmatic task of monitoring the knowledge and attention states of their listener. The speaker must ensure that the listener can identify the characters, and so must anticipate their listener’s knowledge and on-going mental image of the story. How speakers do this depends on cultural conventions and on the resources of the language(s) they speak. For the child speaker the development narrative competence involves an integration, on-line, of a number of skills, some of which are not fully established until the later childhood years. The study in this thesis investigates the development of reference tracking in a complex and dynamic language setting. It investigates the language and language development of Warumungu children. The Warumungu central are Indigenous Australians, whose traditional country is in northern Central Australia. Most Warumungu live today in the township of Tennant Creek. Younger people no longer develop full active proficiency in their heritage language, Warumungu, but speak a contact language, Wumpurrarni English as a first language. This contact variety is characterised by substantial variability. In addition to Warumungu and Wumpurrarni English, children learn Standard Australian English, as this is the sole language of instruction in school. i The study describes properties of Wumpurrarni English, in particular nominal expressions, used for tracking reference. These are contrasted with descriptions of the most documented and neighbouring creole variety, Roper River Kriol, and with Standard Australian English. It is demonstrated that in Wumpurrarni English, the marking of new versus given referents on the noun phrase is not obligatory. However a number of structures, such as left dislocation and emphatic subject chaining are used to mark discourse prominence. Repetition of topics, clauses and elements of clauses are stylistic features of a ‘good story’ in Wumpurrarni English. The study investigates the ways that Warumungu children of different ages introduce, maintain and switch reference, and how, across stretches of their narrations, strategies for managing reference are used. These investigations reveal developmental differences across the age groups in the study, which resonate with studies of children’s narrative competence in other languages, illustrating general cognitive and linguistic development. In addition, some children chose to narrate in a speech style more English-like than they normally use. This set of narrations reveals interesting findings about differences between Wumpurrarni English and Standard English, children’s perceptions of these differences, and insights into the additional cognitive load that speaking in ‘English’ represents. ii Acknowledgements Many people have contributed to this thesis. I am foremost indebted to the families in Tennant Creek who trusted me to work with their children and to learn about the languages they learn and speak. To preserve their anonymity I will not name them. Betty Morrison Nakkamarra (BM) worked as the Indigenous researcher throughout the Aboriginal Child Language Acquisition (ACLA) project. During this time and in the decade I have worked in Tennant Creek, BM has acted as my language teacher and guide to relationships and history. I express my deep gratitude to BM and to many members of her family for sharing many stories of growing up and working on the stations on the Barkly. I also express my sorrow for the loss of her mother, a wonderful storyteller. I acknowledge J.J. Jampin, a generous teacher and friend. His passing in 2008 is a great loss to his family and community. I am grateful for the help on this project and the friendship over many years of the following people: Sandra Morrison Nangala, Ronald Morrison Jungarrayi, Annie Morrison Nangala, Kevin Morrison Jungarrayi, Rosemary Plummer Narrurlu, Dianne Stokes Nampin and Trisha Frank Narrurlu. I am grateful to Judy Nixon Nakkamarra, Noelene Nelson Nakkamarra and their dear mother and sister who passed away during the years of this project. My thanks also go to Edith Graham Nakkamarra and Rose Graham Namiiki, who have sadly lost their daughter and sister. There are others in Tennant Creek who have provided invaluable assistance with this thesis. I am grateful to the staff at the language centre, Papulu-Appar-kari and at Nyinka-Nyunyu Culture Centre for logistical help and involvement in discussions about language in Tennant Creek. Alan Murn and Meg McGrath provided me with valued friendship and luxury accommodation during my long field-work trips. They were generous with many insights into the non-Indigenous and Indigenous worlds and iii their intersection in the town and region. Kim Webeck of the Central Land Council was also valuable in this regard. Anthropologist, Kimberly Christen at Washington State University, was generous both in sharing research and enthusiasm about Tennant Creek and in her encouragement with this thesis. My thanks go to Patrick McConvell, Jane Simpson and to my thesis superviser, Jill Wigglesworth for the opportunity and privilege to work on the Aboriginal Child Language Acquisition project. All three brought years of scholarship from different fields to the project. My debt to Jane Simpson cannot be overstated. Jane’s readiness to share insights about Warumungu, Tennant Creek and Australian linguistics over many years has made her an invaluable teacher. As an informal supervisor Jane has given up her time, always with sharp insight into language analysis and the logic of composition. I have enjoyed the friendships formed with my peers on the ACLA project, research assistants Felicity Meakins and Karen Moses. I couldn’t have asked for better PhD compatriots. Felicity’s untiring sense of discovery and probing enquiry in exploring contact languages was infectious. She generously shared her flat, dinners and ideas on my many stays in Melbourne. Karen inspired me with her passion for children’s language and the importance of this work for education practice. Dr Carmel O’Shannessy, University of Michigan, whose study at Lajamanu set the stage for our investigations in the ACLA project, has contributed to my understanding of modern language settings and language varieties in remote Indigenous Australia. I have valued her work and our discussions about investigating complex contact environments. My debt to my main supervisor Jill Wigglesworth is great. Jill’s clear guidance in every aspect of developing a thesis and unfailing patience have been crucial. Her research on children’s narrative motivated my interest in this field and her guidance allowed me to explore it new ways. Barb Kelly, my associate supervisor, whose ill- health prevented her from following my thesis through all its stages, offered insights into the discipline of child language acquisition. Her encouragement was valuable. iv At the University of Melbourne I would also like to thank Dr. Rachel Nordlinger. During my stays in Melbourne, Rachel made time to discuss my many stumbling blocks and sympathised with conundrums about balancing the demands of work, study and family. Also in Melbourne, I am grateful to both Birgit Hellwig and Carmen Dawuda for many fruitful discussions and generosity with accommodation. At home in Alice Springs I have many people to thank. Living in a town with a disproportionately high number of anthropologists, lawyers and linguists, I am particularly lucky to have a great network of friends who share a passion for research, community development and Indigenous language and culture. For rich discussions about our respective projects, languages and politics, and for good humour and friendship over many years, I am enormously grateful to Margaret Carew, Gail Woods, Dr Inge Kral, Jenny Green, David Moore, Susan Moore, Dr. Myf Turpin, Josie Douglas, and to my colleague Angela Harrison. I thank Josie Douglas and Charles Darwin University for making it possible for me to have an office at the Alice Springs campus during 2006 and 2007, getting me out the isolation of my house and my pyjamas. I also thank my dear friends Jane and Glenn Marshall for all of their insights and support, Jane, in particular for proofreading chapters of this thesis. My thanks go to Margaret Carew, who also has been a critical and constructive reader of chapters and papers over the course of this project. A thesis is an all-consuming pursuit, and without the support of my family I could not have managed it. My parents Marlene and Terry Disbray have throughout my life shown unconditional faith in everything I have done. I realise my good fortune and thank them both, in particular for the many school holidays my son Jonas has spent with them. My parents-in-law in Germany, Sigrid Hauff and Hartmut Geerken, inspiring scholars both, have also spent time with Jonas, making it possible for me to attend conferences and to write. And finally, my husband Olaf Geerken and son Jonas have endured and enjoyed my many, and often long absences, both physical and mental.
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