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Offset (Compensation) THÈSE Pour obtenir le grade de DOCTEUR DE L’UNIVERSITÉ GRENOBLE ALPES Spécialité : Sciences Économiques Arrêté ministériel : 7 août 2006 Présentée par Cristina BUGA Thèse dirigée par Pierre BERTHAUD préparée au sein du Laboratoire CREG dans l'École Doctorale Sciences Économiques LES POLITIQUES D’OFFSET (COMPENSATION). ENJEUX GÉNÉRAUX ET ÉTUDE DU CAS DE L’AFRIQUE DU SUD Thèse soutenue publiquement le 31 mars 2016 , devant le jury composé de : M. Joachim BECKER (Rapporteur) Maître de confér ences HDR à l’ Université de Vienne M. Pierre BERTHAUD (Directeur de thèse) Maître de conférences HDR à l’Université Grenoble -Alpes M. Michel ROCCA (Président du jury) Professeur des universités à l’Université Grenoble -Alpes M. Wally STRUYS (Rapporteur) Professeur des universités émérite à l’Ecole Royale Militaire de Belgique M. Christian SYLVAIN (Suffragant) Directeur des Compensations Internationales chez AREVA, Président de l'Association “European Club for Countertrade & Offset” M. Rédouane TAOUIL (Suffragant) Professeur des Universités à l’Université Grenoble -Alpes i La Faculté d’Économie et l’Université Grenoble Alpes n’entendent donner aucune approbation ou improbation aux opinions émises dans les thèses. Ces opinions doivent être considérées comme propres à leurs auteurs. ii iii À ma mère et à mon père, iv ii Remerciements Je tiens à exprimer ma reconnaissance envers mon directeur de thèse, Pierre Berthaud. Ses conseils avisés et son soutien m’ont permis de structurer mes idées et de progresser tout au long de ce travail de recherche. J’adresse également mes plus vifs remerciements aux membres du jury Joachim Becker, Michel Rocca, Wally Struys, Christian Sylvain et Rédouane Taouil pour me faire l’honneur de lire et d’évaluer cette thèse. Je remercie aussi chaleureusement Gideon Nieman pour m’avoir accueilli au sein du Département de Business Management de l’université de Pretoria et pour l’aide qu’il m’a accordé, afin que je puisse effectuer mon enquête de terrain dans les meilleures conditions possibles. J’ai également une pensée pour Jurie van Vuuren, Johan Vögel, Deon Rood et Marius Pretorius pour leurs précieux conseils de recherche ainsi que pour Jo-Anne Adams pour sa bienveillante présence. Mes remerciements vont également aux différentes personnes du laboratoire qui ont contribué chacune à leur manière à la bonne réalisation de ma recherche. Je remercie tout d’abord la direction du CREG pour le soutien apporté aux doctorants. Merci aussi aux enseignants chercheurs impliqués dans l’atelier doctorant pour leurs précieuses remarques et leurs conseils au fil des années. Toute ma gratitude va aussi à Cyriac Guillamin et Gilles Margirier pour la con fiance qu’ils m’ont témoignée dans les activités d’enseignement. Merci aussi à Christine Durieux, Michèle Dalès, Cécile Massit et Nathalie Bosse pour leur gentillesse à mon égard et leur bonne humeur. J’adresse également mes profonds remerciements à Jacques Poirot et Vincent Plauchu pour leurs conseils avisés et leur aide. Merci également à Florian Panet, Fiona Ottaviani et Gaëlle Despierre-Corporon pour la relecture attentive de ce manuscrit et leur disponibilité. Je tiens aussi à adresser mes chaleureux remerciements à mes amis les plus proches pour m’avoir toujours soutenu et aidé. Mariia, Chris, Olga, merci de tout mon cœur, vous avez été une source de réconfort et de joie durant ces années. Je souhaite bon courage aux doctorants comme aux nouveaux docteurs qui ont contribué à rendre ces années de travail, passées au CREG, particulièrement riches et sympathiques : Charles, Julien, Renaud, Thomas, Alassane, Salam, Donia, Ibrahim, Hicham, Elie. Enfin, selon la coutume je tiens à terminer en remerciant les personnes qui ont le plus contribué à cet ouvrage. Je pense très fortement à mes parents et à mon frère qui m’ont accompagné de leur amour, leurs conseils et leur soutien dans les moments les plus difficiles. Merci à ma mère, qui a su me transmettre sa force de caractère et sa persévérance indéfectible. Merci à mon père, pour avoir cultivé en moi le goût de la curiosité et de la découverte. Votre inébranlable foi en moi m’a permis de parcourir cet éprouvant chemin. Les pages qui suivent sont éga lement un peu les vôtres… vi En vii « Dans la vie, tout homme a des obligations doubles – envers sa famille, ses parents, sa femme et ses enfants, et envers son people, sa communauté, son pays. Dans une société civile et humaine, chaque homme a la possibilité de remplir ses obligations en acc ord avec ses goûts et ses capacités ». N. Mandela (1995), Long walk to freedom . « …mon but est noble. Je déposerai en toi un minuscule germe de foi qui donnera naissance à un chêne, à un si grand chêne qu’il sera ton refuge et que tu voudras te faire anachorète, car c’est ton vif désir en secret ; tu te nourriras de sauterelles, tu feras salut dans le désert ». F. Dostoïevski (1880), Les frères Karamazov . « - Malheureusement, cela m’est imposs ible, répondit le Maître, parce que je l’ai brûlé dans le poêle . - Excusez-moi, mais je ne puis vous croire, répliqua Woland. Cela ne se peut pas: les manuscrits ne brûlent pas. Il se tourna vers Béhémot et dit: Allons, Béhémoth, donne ce r oman ». M. Boulgakov (1967), Le Maître et Marguerite . viii ix Sommaire Remerciements ......................................................................................................................... vi Sommaire ................................................................................................................................... x Liste des Acronymes et Abréviations ................................................................................... xvi Liste des Figures, Graphiques, Tableaux et Encadrés ...................................................... xviii Introduction générale ................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPITRE 1 Les pratiques et politiques d ’offset ............................................................... 19 Section 1 : La nature de l’ offset ............................................................................................ 22 1.1. La spécification de l’ offset ........................................................................................ 22 1.2. La typologie des offsets ............................................................................................. 30 Section 2 : L’ offset , un instrument de politique industrielle « sur mesure » ........................ 38 2.1. L’ offset, une forme d’interventionnisme de l’État .................................................... 39 2.3. L’association entre obligations contractuelles rigides et incitations flexibles .......... 55 Conclusion du chapitre 1 ...................................................................................................... 58 CHAPITRE 2 Une évaluation de l’importance de l’ offset dans les échanges internationaux .......................................................................................................................... 59 Section 1 : Le poids de l’ offset dans le PIB mondial............................................................ 63 1.1. Les problèmes de repérage ........................................................................................ 63 1.2. Le countertrade dans le commerce mondial ............................................................. 66 1.3. Les offsets militaires dans le commerce mondial ...................................................... 69 1.4. Les offsets dans les marchés publics civils ................................................................ 73 Section 2 : Le rôle stratégique et politique de l’ offset .......................................................... 80 2.1. Le développement des législations de l’ offset ........................................................... 81 2.2. Les transactions d’ offset en tant que pourcentage du contrat primaire ..................... 84 Section 3 : L’intérêt des organismes internationaux pour l’ offset ........................................ 93 x 3.1. Les dispositifs de l’OMC en matière d’ offset ............................................................ 94 3.2. Les autres dispositifs institutionnels et financiers ................................................... 104 Conclusion du chapitre 2 .................................................................................................... 109 CHAPITRE 3 Les explications de la persistance de l’ offset dans le commerce mondial : cadres d’analyse .................................................................................................................... 111 Section 1 : L’analyse de l’ offset dans un cadre concurrentiel ............................................ 114 1.1. L’offset, un outil pour remédier aux barrières informationnelles entre les pays .... 115 1.2. L’ offset , un moyen pour favoriser les économies d’échelle dans les commandes publiques ........................................................................................................................ 118 1.3. L’ offset et les externalités technologiques .............................................................. 120 Section 2 : L’analyse de l’offset dans le cadre de la théorie néo-institutionnelle .............. 122 2.1. Le risque de sélection adverse avant la signature du contrat .................................. 123 2.2. Le problème d’aléa moral après la signature du contrat ......................................... 125 Section 3 : L’analyse de l’ offset dans
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