Introduction : Modernity Beyond Salvage

Notes

Introduction : Modernity beyond Salvage

1. For more on Crusoe as a “sole survivor,” see Stafford 56–82. For a discussion of Defoe’s pioneering role in the development of adventure fiction, see Cohen 59–98. 2. For a concise discussion of the post-apocalyptic aspects of postmodern thought, see Germanà and Mousoutzanis, “Introduction” 3–4. 3. For a discussion of postmodernity as “one moment within the long history of modernity,” see Felski 60. Beck also suggested this understanding of postmodernity in the 1980s when he wrote, “[T]he counter-modernistic scenario currently upsetting the world—new social movements and criticism of science, technology and progress—does not stand in contradiction of modernity, but is rather and expression of reflexive modernization beyond the outlines of industrial society” (11). 4. For an analysis of salvage in contemporary apocalyptic culture that is focused more exclusively on political economy, see Evan Calder Williams’s call for the development of a “salvagepunk” movement in Combined and Uneven Apocalypse (14–71). Interestingly, Williams and his collaborator, China Miéville, disavowed this “attempt to think lost social relations via relations to discarded objects” a year later at the launch for the book, claiming that as a social formation salvagepunk had already been co-opted by capitalism (Williams 62; Williams and Miéville). 5. Wagar defines “secular eschatology” as “a worldly study of world’s ends that ignores religious belief or puts the old visions to use as metaphors for modern anxiety” (4). Wagar’s chronology of this modern form of apocalyptic narrative begins somewhat later, with texts of the early nineteenth century, including Cousin de Grainville’s The Last Man: Or, Omegarus and Syderia, a Romance in Futurity (1805) and Shelley’s The Last Man (1826). 6. This claim gains support from Germanà and Mousoutzani’s recent observation that “one of the most distinctive aspects of contemporary understandings and representations of the apocalypse is their relationship with modernity” (4). 7. According to Aldiss, “The essence of cosy catastrophe is that the hero should have a pretty good time (a girl, free suites at the Savoy, automobiles for the taking) while everyone else is dying off” (294). Mick Broderick has identified a similar, if broader, trend in science fiction cinema. Broderick traces an increas- ing movement toward “highly reactionary” plot lines in post-apocalyptic films, 174 Notes

beginning in the 1950s and intensifying dramatically by the 1980s. According to Broderick, these films “articulate a desire for (if not celebrate) the fantasy of nuclear Armageddon as the anticipated war which will annihilate the oppressive burdens of post(modern) life and usher in the nostalgically yearned-for less complex existence of agrarian toil and social harmony through ascetic spiritual endeavors” (362). 8. Although all of these texts have enjoyed at least some critical attention, no study has yet been produced that examines this complete corpus and its collective engagement with postmodern poetics and politics. 9. A number of critics, including Leigh, Berger, and Heffernan, focus primarily on major writers, including Thomas Pynchon, Toni Morrison, Don DeLillo, and Salman Rushdie, who include apocalyptic symbolism and allusions in their texts. Other critics, such as Rosen and Buell, consider both major literary figures and pop cultural depictions of apocalyptic events. Williams and Paik occupy the other extreme, looking exclusively at popular narratives and films. 10. Other important writers who have contributed to this literary trend include Will Self (The Book of Dave, 2006), Jim Crace (The Pesthouse, 2007), Marcel Theroux (Far North, 2009), Douglas Coupland (Player One, 2010), China Miéville (Railsea, 2012), Karen Thompson Walker (The Age of Miracles, 2012), Chang-Rae Lee (On Such a Full Sea, 2014), and Emily St. John Mandel (Station Eleven, 2014). 11. For an instance of Hoberek’s recent work on the influence of genre fiction on twenty-first-century fiction, see his review of Zone One, “Living with PASD.” 12. Post-apocalypse is the term of choice for Berger and Heffernan; “neo- apocalypse,” “crypto-apocalypse,” and “counter-apocalypse” are three of many terms Catherine Keller coins, and which I discuss in chapter one; “ana- apocalypse” is Laurent Milesi’s term, which is inspired by Thomas Pynchon’s novels, in which Milesi claims, “No, Apocalypse has not (yet) taken place— Now—it will (not) have (yet) taken place . . .; no apocalypse, but rather a (pre/post) ana-apocalypse, a necessarily constant rehearsal, repetition and working through of revelation between ‘to die’ and ‘to be reborn’” (224); Lee Quimby defines “ironic apocalypse” as “the dystopian view that history has exhausted itself,” and “[t]he irony is that we live on beyond morality or meaning” (xvi); Quimby explains that “one version of technological apocalypse regards technology as a threat leading to an inevitable end, but this mode is more often accompanied by the possibility of thwarting the trajec- tory of destruction” (xix); meanwhile, for Quimby “anti-apocalypse” is an “invocation to struggle against apocalypse, to know its logic, to say no to its insistence on an inevitable end necessary for a new order, its infatuation with doom, its willingness to witness cruelty in the name of righteous justice, and its belief in an elect with access to absolute truth” (xxii); according to Evan Calder Williams, “capitalist apocalypse is the possibility of grasping how the global economic order and its social relations depend upon the production and exploitation of the undifferentiated, of those things which cannot be included in the realm of the openly visible without rupturing the very Notes 175

oppositions that make the whole enterprise move forward” (8); eco-critic Frederick Buell explores “slow apocalypse,” which he explains “means that one has already entered (or perhaps is already well into) a time when [nature’s] limits have been breached and the risks from disequilibrium are rising” (105); and Richard Dellamora, after Jonathan Boyarin, characterizes “postmodern apocalypse” as “endtime-without-judgment” (5). 13. Jack London already anticipated this potential loss of global communication shortly after new technologies had made it possible. In his 1912 post- apocalyptic novella, The Scarlet Plague, his narrator recalls the effects of the sweeping contagion: “It was amazing, astounding, this loss of communication with the world. It was exactly as if the world had ceased, been blotted out. For sixty years that world has no longer existed for me. I know there must be such places as New York, Europe, Asia, and Africa; but not one word has been heard of them—not in sixty years. With the coming of the Scarlet Death the world fell apart, absolutely, irretrievably. Ten thousand years of culture and civilization passed in the twinkling of an eye, ‘lapsed like foam’” (20). 14. See, for instance, Randall’s discussion of We as an “anti-utopia” that captures “a sort of singular Bolshevik utopian rigor mortis” (xi–xii). 15. According to Zamora, “The resurgence of apocalyptic modes of thought and expression is a predictable reaction to social disruption and temporal uncer- tainty” (11). Similarly, Rosen observes, “Apocalyptic literature has traditionally been written to comfort people whose lives are, or who perceive their lives to be, overwhelmed by historical or social disruption” (xii). 16. For a fascinating overview of eschatological worldviews stretching from ancient India and China through prehistoric and classical Greece, see Wagar 33–41. 17. Atwood writes “I’d been clipping small items [about science] from the back pages of newspapers for years, and noting with alarm that trends derided ten years ago as paranoid fantasies had become possibilities, then actualities” (“Writing Oryx and Crake” 322). She continues that, after 9/11 took place midway through her writing process, she stopped working on the novel for a short period and considered writing gardening books instead, “But then I started writing again, because what use would gardening books be in a world without gardens, and without books? And that was the vision that was preoccupying me” (322). Mitchell, meanwhile, has observed that a major theme in Cloud Atlas is “predation,” stating, “Individuals preying on groups; groups preying on individuals; corporations preying on other branches within society; tribes preying on other tribes” (as quoted in Leith). He has also noted the novel’s interest in the fact that “[w]hat made us successful in Darwinian terms—our skill at manipulating our environment—now threat- ens to wipe us out as a species” (Mitchell, “The Art of Fiction”). In very different terms, McCarthy, in an interview with Oprah Winfrey, described imagining having a bleak vision of the future for his young son with “everything being laid waste.” Whitehead cites the importance of genre ﬁction in inspiring his conception of Zone One, explaining, “Growing up devouring 176 Notes

horror comics and novels, and being inspired to become a writer because of horror novels, movies, and comic books, I always knew I was going to write a horror novel” (Whitehead, “Colson Whitehead on Zombies”). 18. For a summary of how cyclical and linear eschatologies served as different vessels of social and political criticism, see Wagar 54. Rosen observes that, “The apocalyptic genre, at least in its religious incarnation, is usually written by and for the discontented, and often for a minority that is profoundly alienated by its powerless position” (xii). 19. For two compelling treatments of the intersections of postcolonial history and politics with current debates about how to avoid an environmental catastrophe from anthropogenic climate change, see Chakrabarty and Nixon. 20. Benét, who first published “By the Waters of Babylon” in the Saturday Evening Post in 1937 under the title “The Place of the Gods,” may enjoy little name recognition today, but Wagar argues that his “influence on post- war American speculative fiction was considerable” (164). Specifically, Wagar claims that among stories of the period that “envisaged long wars producing a gradual spiraling down of civilization to barbarism,” Benét’s story “had the greatest impact in America” (24, 25). 21. For discussions of pleasure and repetition in genre film and fiction, see Neale 461–462 and Holland.

1 The Mother of All Apocalypses in Margaret Atwood’s Oryx and Crake

1. Schüssler Fiorenza serves as a notable exception. For further discussion of this dialogue within biblical studies, see Vander Stichele 114–117. 2. As with every character and narrative element in Revelation, the perpetrators of the attack on the Whore can be read on several levels. In Revelation, it is “the ten horns which thou sawest upon the beast” that kill her (17:16). These horns are identiﬁed in Revelation 17:12 as “ten kings, which have received no kingdom as yet; but receive power as kings one hour with the beast.” For various interpretations, see Keller 76; Marshall 29; and Pippin 28, 67. 3. Although Keller is careful to specify that she is not offering “a metanarrative of apocalypse as the essential subtext of Western history,” the sweep of her claims at times suggests otherwise (9). For an equally fascinating discussion of an “apocalyptic pattern” that shapes Western history, but without a feminist emphasis, see Kermode. 4. For discussions of Oryx and Crake as an apocalyptic novel, see Bosco, Botta, Garrard, Hollinger, Snyder, Watkins, and Wolter. 5. The Whore of Babylon’s resurrection in new millennial post-apocalyptic literature is part of a longer literary tradition. She surfaces with remarkable frequency in apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic narratives stretching back at least to the early Romantic period. Steven Goldsmith detects relatively abstract versions of the Whore in Byron’s “Darkness” and The Last Man (272, 312–313). By the beginning of the twentieth century, however, more Notes 177

graphic reiterations of this figure begin to proliferate. Vesta in Jack London’s The Scarlet Plague and Julia in W. E. B. Du Bois’s “The Comet” are both rich and pampered women who have implicitly fueled the class and race tensions that have riven society in the two texts. E. M. Forster’s Vashti in “The Machine Stops,” is a less than human creature who both feeds and feeds on the apocalyptic “machine” that has undermined the integrity of human existence. In the “A Game of Chess” section of The Waste Land, Eliot’s unnamed, perfumed woman emblematizes the decadent threat of the modern woman. In Wyndham’s The Day of the Triffids, Josella, the notorious author of Sex Is My Adventure, again embodies the modern nature of femininity against which that text rebels. In Philip K. Dick’s “Second Variety,” Tasso is a robot prostitute who infiltrates the last human preserve in order to vanquish humanity at last. And T. Coraghessan Boyle’s Sarai in “After the Plague” is a vicious, even monstrous, figure, who embodies the most despicable aspects of a human race his story treats as deserving of extermination. 6. For a discussion of Atwood’s use of biblical material in The Handmaid’s Tale, see Filipczak. 7. For Atwood’s discussion of Oryx and Crake and The Year of the Flood as what she terms “ustopias,” see her essay “Dire Cartographies.” 8. For an alternative reading of the three as the Christian Trinity, see Dunning 95. 9. Here Levine is synthesizing scholarship by Marshall and Duff. 10. For an alternative psychoanalytic reading of the novel, see Hall. For a reading that explores the interpersonal dynamics within the text in terms of trauma theory, see Snyder. 11. Tolan has demonstrated Atwood’s recurrent interest in states of abjection in her novels, including Lady Oracle, Bodily Harm, and, most notably, Cat’s Eye, in which “[i]mages of abjection permeate the text” (194). 12. Oryx and Crake hints, and The Year of the Flood confirms, that the timing of Crake’s arrival and Sharon’s departure is no coincidence, as Crake facilitated her escape through his contacts with the insurgency movement “God’s Gardeners.” 13. Atwood continues to explore the relationship between contemporary prostitutes and the figure of the Whore of Babylon in The Year of the Flood. The second novel in the trilogy narrates the experiences of those outside the Compound walls during the same period from the point of view of two women, Ren and Toby, both of whom work as prostitutes for some periods of the narrative. As in Oryx and Crake, the women’s entries into prostitution are contextualized by larger familial and socioeconomic forces, which detach the act of prostitution from simplistic questions of morality. Both women suffer horrendous acts of sexual violence, and in her portrait of their victim- ization, Atwood again resists the gender conventions of apocalypse, refuting the apocalyptic tradition of presenting sexual violence as an expression of divine justice. 14. For a concise summary of these critiques, see Hall 180. 15. For more on Atwood’s relationship with Amnesty International, see Tolan 142. 178 Notes

16. Throughout her article, Hall helpfully delineates the ways Atwood’s subtle characterization of Oryx, who asserts herself through her laughter and her own ambivalent narration of her experiences within the sex trade, avoids the common error of presenting prostitutes as helpless victims or voiceless objects. 17. I am indebted here to Gayatri Spivak’s landmark essay “Can the Subaltern Speak?” 18. Deepening this irony, in The Year of the Flood we learn that Crake also bases his development of the Crakers on interviews he conducts with prostitutes at the bordello known as “Scales and Tales” (305–306). 19. For a discussion of various interpretations of Judith’s signiﬁcance, see Lucas 17.

2 “This Time Round”: David Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas and the Apocalyptic Problem of Historicism

1. Even mainstream modern science allows room for a cyclical understanding of time. As Gould points out, “The metaphor of time’s cycle captures those aspects of nature that are either stable or else cycle in simple repeating (or oscillating) series because they are direct products of nature’s timeless laws, not the contingent moments of complex historical pathways” (196). 2. According to interviewer Melissa Denes, “Growing up in Worcestershire with his older brother and artist parents, [Mitchell] worried constantly about the threat of nuclear war. . . . He had read all of John Wyndham’s ‘traumatic, disturbing’ books by the age of 12 and thinks that this, too, fed his apocalyptic streak” (“Apocalypse, Maybe” n.p.). 3. It must be said, however, that this initial impression of a cyclical structure is in some sense a decoy—or at least, a literary flourish rather than an index of cyclical temporality. Mitchell has indicated that Cloud Atlas was inspired by Italo Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler. As a young reader of that text, he had been frustrated by that book’s failure to return to the various stories it inaugurates, so he produced a book that offered completion of the stories it started (Mitchell, “The Art of Fiction”). While I will return to matters of form at the conclusion of this chapter, it is worth acknowledging that in the broadest sense the book reinforces endings rather than defying them. Although the stories are interrupted both by each other and by the central post-apocalyptic tale, and the second halves of each are presented in reverse order so that the first story ends last, beneath this shuffling, the book provides definitive resolutions to its various stories. Moreover, the events in the second halves of the stories are not affected by the apocalyptic events, much less caused by them, a fact that undermines the sense of continuity among the narratives that one might expect if cyclical temporality were being modeled. 4. While Eliade is careful to specify that he is referring to cyclical worldviews that predated the Greek notion of eternal return that was later explored by Nietzsche, he also articulates a connection between the Greek view and that of earlier cultures whom he refers to as “pre-socratic,” “traditional,” “archaic,” Notes 179

or “primitive,” suggesting that in both versions of eternal return, “The past is but a prefiguration of the future. No event is irreversible and no transformation is final. In a certain sense, it is even possible to say that nothing new happens in the world” (89–90). 5. Near the conclusion of The Myth of the Eternal Return, Eliade briefly dis- tances himself from nostalgia for cyclical ontology, introducing a Christian view that “the horizon of archetypes and repetition cannot be transcended with impunity unless we accept a philosophy of freedom that does not exclude God” (160). He explains that in a linear world, in which events cannot be mapped onto a creation myth, only the more abstract condition of ongoing belief, of religious faith, has the potential to give meaning to events. Yet, as Allen argues, there is considerable evidence that Eliade’s references to Christianity here allude to a “cosmic Christianity,” with greater affinities to the archaic religions he celebrates than “historical Christianity” in its more conventional sense (112–118). 6. For an extended discussion of the critical debates surrounding Eliade’s life and works, see Allen 225–231. For a thoughtful discussion of the ways Eliade’s critique of history could be understood as anti-semitic, see Miller 283–284. 7. Critics complain that Eliade’s use of the term history is often vague, blurred as it is with other issues associated with modernity. Allen remarks, “In his analysis of myth, reality, and the contemporary world, Eliade often lumps together and uses interchangeably such terms as political, economic, historical, temporal, materialist, historicist, positivist, and other aspects of the modern mode of being” (309). For a thorough analysis of Eliade’s use of terms such as “history” and “historicism,” see Rennie 89–108. 8. While Tyrus Miller concedes the “common ground” between Benjamin and Eliade, he points out that contrary to Eliade, Benjamin “leaned emphatically towards a critique of myth in favor of a messianic, theo-political Marxism” (284). Yet the resonances between the two thinkers’ work are striking. Of the encounter between “historicism” and “the thought of the eternal recurrence,” Miller writes, “For Benjamin, these two, antipodal modes of interpreting the historicity of experience in this period were . . . covertly interrelated. In their mutually canceling implications, they point towards a new, different form of historical thinking, writing, and acting, a practice of history that could shat- ter the continuity of historicist succession along with the continuum of mythic repetition” (294). Compare this to Allen’s characterization of Eliade’s thought: “Through the creative encounter with the archaic and nonWestern [sic] other, focusing on the terror of history and other existential concerns, modern culture will be renewed by rejecting major features of historical existence and by incorporating, in new creative ways, essential mythic and religious conceptions that disclose aspects of the universal human spirit” (307–308). 9. Allen locates Eliade’s affinities with postmodern thinkers in his view that we “must resist the tyranny and domination of the modernist idols of science, rationalism, and ‘objectivity’” (315). 180 Notes

10. See, for instance, Simon Malpas’s characterization of the postmodern subject as “a historically mutable structure that remains open to redefinition and transformation in the future” (79). One interesting exception to this ten- dency would be Judith Butler’s emphasis on repetition in her work on the performance of gender. 11. The opening image of the novel is Adam Ewing following the footprints of Henry Goose on Chatham Island, where his ship has been cast ashore by a storm. Later Autua will reveal that he lived alone on nearby Pitt Island as a fugitive until his “signs of habitation” gave him away (32). Robert Frobisher repeatedly takes refuge on a “willow-tree island” in a pond on the estate of Vyvyan Ayrs and must come ashore, soaking, after falling asleep and rolling in (63–64). Luisa Rey drags herself out of the water and onto a mainland beach after a hit man for the nuclear company drives her off the road as she attempts to flee Swannekke Island. At the conclusion of the post-Apocalyptic narrative, Zachry becomes the last of his tribe to survive in Hawaii, becom- ing yet another figure for Crusoe. While the book begins on Chatham Island and takes Adam Ewing to the Society Islands, as well, Hawaii is the island that recurs most often in Mitchell’s novel—it is the penultimate stop of Adam Ewing on his way home from Australia in “The Pacific Journal of Adam Ewing,” the home of Megan Sixsmith, the niece of Rufus Sixsmith, in “Half Lives: The First Luisa Rey Mystery,” the promised land where clones in “An Orison of Sonmi-451” are said to enjoy “Xultation” after their term of service is complete, and the setting of “Sloosha’s Crossin’ an’ Ev’rythin’ After.” The images of Hawaii in part evoke ideas of paradise—especially since Hawaii is where the significantly named Adam is restored to health at the conclusion of the novel. Yet islands also figure more ominously—there are references to Three Mile Island, and its doppelganger in the novel, Swannekke Island, is where the “HYDRA- Zero reactor,” a dangerous new nuclear power plant, is about to be con- structed. In general, Cloud Atlas also implies that islands represent isolation in the sense in which John Donne famously suggested. 12. The novel could be fruitfully analyzed for its representations of capitalism, colonialism, racism, power, religious faith, and community. Repetition occurs at every level of form and content in Mitchell’s work. As numerous critics have noted, several characters in Cloud Atlas, including Timothy Cavendish and Luisa Rey, appeared in Mitchell’s earlier novel Ghostwritten. Among the many recurrent motifs that surface in Cloud Atlas are blindness/ vision, climbing/falling, drowning, cannibalism, and poison. The novel is also dense with interwoven images and details that playfully connect one section to another. The musical compositions of Vyvyan Ayrs in “Letters from Zedelghem,” for example, are called “Matryosschka Doll Variations,” and “Society Islands,” names that self-consciously comment on the form and settings within the larger novel. Soap is used as a form of punishment in the Cavendish section and then recurs as the name of a compound of drugs and human flesh fed to fabricants in the Sonmi-451 narrative. Some of this Notes 181

repetition appears to be merely playful; so, for instance, Dr. Goose is the name of the conman who preys on Adam, while Dr. Egret is the name of the doctor who treats Ayrs. Yet much of the repetition of characters, themes, and imagery serves to reinforce the novel’s multidimensional celebration of recurrence. 13. Mitchell has credited Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs and Steel for his interest in these tribes and their unfolding relationship on Chatham Island (Mitchell “Q&A”). 14. The shift toward greater barbarity is in part indexed by the fates of the “Adams” that play roles in each. While the naïve and good-natured American Adam Ewing survives his voyage across the Pacific amid a band of vicious seamen, exploitive colonizers, and—most menacingly—Henry Goose, the Adam of the “Sloosha’s Crossin’” section is captured and enslaved by the Kona, a barbarian tribe, within the first two pages of the post-apocalyptic narrative. Likewise, while Adam Ewing grieves for a young boy who commits suicide after being sexually brutalized by the seamen, a similar case of male gang rape is treated as part of a wave of unanswered atrocities in the attack by the Kona. 15. With typical playfulness, Mitchell reminds us of their role as doubles partly through naming: Adam and Autua sail on a ship called the Prophetess; the ship on which the black clone Meronym visits Zachry and his tribe is called the Prescience. 16. Though the term “Cloud Atlas” is the title of a Frobisher composition (119, 408), and at another point refers to a tool for finding the coordinates of lasting happiness (373), it is twice used in relation to reincarnation (302, 308). 17. Adam Ewing is rescued by Autua, the tormented Frobisher commits suicide, Luisa Rey dodges a hired killer in order to expose the misdeeds of the nuclear power company, Cavendish collaborates with other inmates of the nursing home to escape, and Sonmi-451 endures a series of chases and car crashes en route to the construction of her historic Declarations. 18. Woods’s analysis of Benjamin emphasizes the degree to which Benjamin hopes that the messianic time produced by the overthrow of historicism will create an “unforeseeable, unprecedented transformation and an aleatorical departure from tradition” (117). Derrida, according to Woods, adopts Benjamin’s outlook, seeking “possible alternative trajectories for the present” (110). He explains that, in Derrida’s view, “The messianic is spectral (haunto- logical or beyond being), because it ushers in a radical otherness which cannot be appropriated by a conceptual violence within our existing systemic structures” (110). Such discussions raise questions that are beyond the scope of this chapter: Does “difference” imply “newness”? Must “the other” be new? 19. Of course, larger stories can also be a source of political disempowerment and personal harm, as Mitchell demonstrates in his first novel, Ghostwritten, where he explores the dangers of collective thought both in his depiction of a contemporary Japanese cult and in his sweeping portrait of the Chinese Communist Party. 182 Notes

20. Interestingly, in his well-known discussion of postmodernism, “Pluralism in Postmodern Perspective,” Ihab Hassan concludes his analysis of critical pluralism with an ambivalent meditation on belief, which he expresses in starkly apocalyptic terms: It may be that some rough beast will slouch again toward Bethlehem, its haunches bloody, its name echoing in our ears with the din of history. It may be that some natural cataclysm, world calamity, or extra terrestrial intelligence will shock the earth into some sane planetary awareness of its destiny. It may be that we shall simply bungle through, muddle through, wandering in the “desert” from oasis to oasis, as we have done for decades, perhaps centuries. I have no prophecy in me, only some slight foreboding, which I express now to remind myself that all the evasions of our knowledge and actions thrive on the absence of consensual beliefs, an absence that also energises our tem- pers, our wills. This is our postmodern condition. (204)

3 Friday at the End of the World: Apocalyptic Change and the Legacy of Robinson Crusoe in Cormac McCarthy’s The Road and Jeanette Winterson’s The Stone Gods

1. Chabon alludes to Stewart’s explicit reliance on Robinson Crusoe, and both Elizabeth Wells and M. Keith Booker offer readings of Stewart’s use of Defoe’s text (Booker 67–70). Paul Brians mentions the “Crusoe-like” resourcefulness of the characters in Alas, Babylon (260). Booker notes that “I Am Legend again contains numerous echoes of Robinson Crusoe in its depiction of the dogged attempts of Neville to build a life for himself, drawing upon whatever resources happen to be at his command” (84–85). 2. For a discussion of Atwood’s recycling of Robinson Crusoe in Oryx and Crake, see chapter one. Like Atwood’s novel, Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas opens with a scene on a beach, this time with a meditation on cannibalism. The novel also makes recurrent use of islands as both settings and symbols of isolation. In Zone One, Whitehead has his protagonist sleeping in trees during the zombie apocalypse, and the location of the eponymous Zone One, the island of Manhattan, resonates in interesting ways with Crusoe’s own island as a site of cultural reconstitution. As I discuss in chapter five, both Nailer and Mahlia can be read as Crusoe figures in Bacigalupi’s Ship Breaker novels. 3. See, for instance, the reviews by Donahue, Griffiths, Inskeep, and Holcomb. 4. The exceptions to this apparent disregard to matters of race and ethnicity are the subtle references to the Holocaust and American slavery. The former is invoked in the novel’s portrait of “a great heap of clothing. Clothes and shoes. Belts. Coats” in a house where victims are being cannibalized, as well as in the father’s observation that his son “looked like something out of a deathcamp” (107, 117). In the same episode, the father observes of the house that “[c]hattel slaves had once trod those boards bearing food and drink on silver trays” (106). Notes 183

5. Keller has explored a similar exchange of time for space in her discussion of Christopher Columbus’s comprehension of Hispaniola as New Jerusalem. She writes, “A new approach to space became possible: the symbolism of the new heaven and earth now reduces to geographic literalism. In this temporal inversion, the symbolic future has been remade as a literal past. To grasp hold of the mammarian axis mundi, he bends time backwards, translating it into his new, commodifiable space. This move expedited the ‘discover and acquire’ project. When the new heaven and earth lies ‘before’ in space rather than in a numinous spacetime, human control of space and what lies ‘in’ it gains force” (emphasis in original, 159). 6. In her fascinating book The Novel and the Sea, Cohen argues that the prac- tices of maritime craft were essential to the evolution of the novel. She claims that in Defoe’s text, “To achieve success, Crusoe calls on craft’s compleat competences, such as a knowledge of geography, arms, shipbuilding, and carpentry. He also exercises craft’s human traits, notably prudence, patience, protocol, embodiment, resolution, jury-rigging, and the pragmatic imagination” (61). Through this invocation of craft, she explains, “Defoe is revamp- ing the poetics of adventure. Trial by danger had been the basis of adventure fiction from its beginnings in classical romance. But there is nothing like Defoe’s linear, logical plot of problem-solving” (71). 7. As Markman Ellis notes, Crusoe “locates the origin of the practice of cannibalism in the plain monstrousness of the Caribs (that they are devilish, and have been abandoned by God)” (49). 8. In his interview with Oprah Winfrey, McCarthy reported that while staying at a hotel in El Paso with his four-year-old son, he got up in the night and looked out the window. He continued, “I just had this image of what this town might look like in fifty or a hundred years. I just had this image of these fires up on the hill, and everything being laid waste, and I thought a lot about my little boy.” 9. For instance, Dianne Luce has speculated that McCarthy first conceived of the novel’s setting and premise “perhaps not long after September 11th, 2001” (9), and Lydia Cooper has concurred that, “The apocalypticism of The Road seems to be a response to an immediate and visceral fear of cataclysmic doom in the United States after the terrorist attacks on 9/11” (221). 10. The reference to red scarves here calls to mind the traditional red and white shamaghs or headdress worn by Arabs, attire which was also worn by mem- bers of Al-Qaeda in their widely broadcast videos. 11. Jed Esty’s recent work on the way the bildungsroman sits at the “nexus between modernist aesthetics and modern colonialism” resonates with the colonizing dynamic that is evident in the relationship between the man and boy in The Road (2). Esty points out that “imperialism generally casts its subject peoples not as radically different, but as an underdeveloped or youthful version of their rulers, not quite ready for self-government” (16). For more on how Esty’s work sheds light on post-apocalyptic narrative, see chapter five. 184 Notes

12. O’Malley notes that “a number of critics have observed that the relationship of Friday to Crusoe that Defoe images is filial and pedagogic, with Crusoe taking on the parental duties of the childlike Friday’s religious education and displaying a kind of paternal affection toward him” (191). 13. Of the second day of his acquaintance with Friday, Crusoe reports, “As we went by the place where he had bury’d the two men, he pointed exactly to the place, and shew’d me the marks that he had made to find them again, making signs to me that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at this I appear’d very angry, express’d my abhorrence of it, made as if I would vomit at the thoughts of it, and beckon’d with my hand to him to come away, which he did immediately, with great submission” (151). 14. This scene also calls to mind the two in Robinson Crusoe in which he scav- enges European goods from the wreck of his own ship and, 23 years later, a foundered Spanish ship. 15. For other discussions of the importance of language and naming in Defoe’s novel, see McInelly; Novak; and Seidel 191 and 198. 16. For a fascinating discussion of the religious imagery with which McCarthy invests the boy, see Cooper. 17. Chabon comments on “The unnamed protagonist, whose thoughts are so often presented without third-person attribution that at times he verges asymptotically near to being the novel’s narrator.” 18. Julie Ellam observes that “Winterson’s turn to wider events may be inter- preted as one of many novelistic reactions to the loss of perceived certainty in the West following the 9/11 bombings” (226). 19. As Ellam notes, “buried treasure” is “a regularly-used Winterson motif for denoting the necessity of desire, and for also urging us to search for what we desire” (221). 20. Ellam writes: “If love is made central, there is the likely outcome that political concerns are either sidelined or are made intentionally or unintentionally reactionary. When the story is concerned with love, the outside world can become surplus and, even though The Stone Gods decries the waste that will lead to our collective deaths, it never quite manages to look further than the daughter’s continuing search for the mother or lover” (224). 21. Crusoe describes Friday as “a comely handsome fellow, perfectly well made; with straight strong limbs, not too large; tall and well shap’d, and, as I reckon, about twenty six years of age. He had a very good countenance, not a fierce and surly aspect; but seem’d to have something very manly in his face, and yet he had all the sweetness and softness of an European in his countenance too, especially when he smil’d” (150). He remarks later that “I was greatly delighted with him” and muses that his life with Friday was so pleasant and easy “that could I but have been safe from more savages, I cared not if I was never to remove from the place while I lived” (154). For queer readings of the dynamic between Crusoe and Friday, see Campana, Haggerty, and Turley. 22. While Eliade describes a return to origins via creation myths that is expressly impersonal, Winterson dwells here and elsewhere on a return to individual, personal origins as a means of liberation. Notes 185

23. For a discussion of the ways Winterson’s text engages with the mother as “the lost object of psychoanalytic theory,” see Ellam 221–222. 24. While the son’s bond with the father is more unequivocally framed in terms of modern Western values than Billie’s prelinguistic and deeply embodied connection with her lost mother, Winterson’s very choice to frame Billie’s experience of loss via the narrative of Crusoe underscores the modern notion of identity on which that sense of loss is predicated. 25. McInelly’s identiﬁcation of the modern novel’s emphasis on “the particulars of day-to-day experience” as a symptom of its colonial origins recalls claim that post-apocalyptic novels manifest an excessive preoccupation with the “details of everyday life” (“What’s the Matter” n.p.). The similarity in the two forms’ investment in such quotidian details may signal another avenue for considering the afﬁliation between post-apocalyptic and colonial narratives.

4 “Stop! Can You Hear the Eagle Roar?”: Zombie Kitsch and the Apocalyptic Sublime in Colson Whitehead’s Zone One

1. A common translation of the passage varies slightly from Whitehead’s, reading “The gray coating of dust on things is its best part” (Benjamin “Dream Kitsch” 236). 2. The category of the sublime is beginning to generate significant interest among scholars of apocalyptic literature. For new work on this topic produced since the writing of this chapter, see Horton, and Horner and Zlosnik. 3. For a detailed analysis of the role the Lisbon Earthquake played in the thinking of Burke and Kant, see Regier. 4. Wilton helpfully observes that whether the sublime is centered in an object or its observer was frequently obscured in the work of Burke and others, writing, “Often we are told, in effect, that a sublime object occasions sublime sensations in the observer—the word covers the whole range of ideas from the external phenomenon through the gamut of intermediary events and the sensations to the felt emotion” (29). 5. Neiman observes that “[t]he Lisbon earthquake was said to shock Western civilization more than any event since the fall of Rome,” a parallel which reinforces the sense in which the earthquake was viewed specifically as a threat to the modernity that had so recently restored conceptions of subjec- tivity and the State initiated in classical civilization (240). 6. While he does not elaborate on the point, Paley invites us to compare a painting like Michelangelo’s The Great Flood from the early sixteenth century to paintings of the biblical flood by James Jefferys (1775) and Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg (1790) to see a shift in visual register that also applies to more squarely apocalyptic images during this period (10–14). 7. Examples of this urban focus in post-apocalyptic literature stretch from Mary Shelley’s portrait of the collapse of London from plague in The Last Man, to the scenes of San Francisco erupting in chaos in Jack London’s 186 Notes

The Scarlet Plague to the devastation of Washington, DC, in Paolo Bacigalupi’s The Drowned Cities or the evisceration of London by nuclear war in Jeanette Winterson’s The Stone Gods. More flagrant still are the sublime scenes of urban destruction conjured in films like Independence Day, Deep Impact, The Day after Tomorrow, and 2012. 8. Interestingly, although The Road features a number of extraordinary passages set in urban environments, it is the one recent text that has not set its apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic events primarily in a metropolitan area. 9. While one might argue that plague itself is inherently less dramatic than other apocalyptic threats, I would point out that, starting with A Journal of the Plague Year by Daniel Defoe and The Last Man by Mary Shelley, the plague has frequently been characterized as a ferocious creature with a considerable sublimity quotient and a familiar undead aspect. Defoe’s narrator, for instance, writes, “the Plague rag’d so violently, and fell in upon them so furiously, that they . . . went to the Grave by Thousands” (123). He also characterizes the plague as “Death it self on his pale Horse” (224). In Shelley, the plague is “like a thousand packs of wolves, howling through the winter night, gaunt and fierce” (213). Later, Shelley writes, “Death, which had in our younger days walked the earth like ‘a thief that comes in the night,’ now, rising from his subterranean vault, girt with power, with dark banner floating, came a conqueror” (217). 10. Similarly, whereas the sublime is traditionally contrasted with beauty, Menninghaus observes that kitsch for Benjamin is “unadulterated beauty, a simple invitation to wallow in sentiment” (41). 11. Mark Spitz was a remarkably accomplished athlete, receiving seven gold medals in the 1972 Olympics. Yet in the text, the nickname “Mark Spitz,” which is assigned to the protagonist on the assumption that he cannot swim, evokes the kitschy celebrity persona of Mark Spitz more than his athletic accomplishments. 12. As Boulton demonstrates, the association of the ocean with the sublime stretches back to Longinus (xlvii). Burke continues this tradition, avowing, “the ocean is an object of no small terror” (58). 13. Titles in this vast category include, Astro-Zombies, Teenage Zombies, Revenge of the Zombies, City of the Walking Dead, Toxic Zombies, and Zombie Island Massacre. 14. Perhaps the most well-known expression of this analogy is Terry Eagleton’s claim that the “distinction between the beautiful and the sublime . . . is that between woman and man” (55). 15. For one interesting reading of consumer culture and death in DeLillo’s White Noise, see Wilcox, who argues that the inundation of “brand names and advertising slogans” that Jack Gladney and his family experiences “imply the evacuation of the private spheres of self” (348). 16. It is also the modernity of the dead who “flowed over London Bridge” before the “final stroke of nine” in T. S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” (62, 68), in a scene that is echoed later in Zone One, as Mark Spitz dreams of “step[ping] Notes 187

out to the sidewalk into the rush-hour stream of the dead on their way home, the paralegals, mohels, resigned temps, bike messengers and slump- shouldered massage therapists, the panoply of citizens in the throes of their slow decay” (108–109). Hoberek draws a similar parallel with an emphasis on Whitehead and Eliot’s shared investment in style (409). 17. The term “reconstruction” is redolent of the repressive treatment of recently emancipated slaves after the civil war. This reconstruction, like that one, is failing to take advantage of a potentially revolutionary moment. Mark Spitz is revealed to be black near the conclusion of the novel, and while Saldívar has offered a compelling reading of Zone One as a postrace novel, more remains to be said about the centrality of the motif of the reconstruction in Whitehead’s subtle treatment of race. 18. In describing the “extraordinary vogue” deluge images enjoyed in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Britain, Paley writes, “Involving by deﬁnition a divinely sent, universal catastrophe, employing by necessity the most powerful natural forces, the Deluge scene can make the transition from the natural to the apocalyptic sublime” (8). 19. I am indebted to scholar Michael Berthold for his insights about Quiet Storm radio programming and its relationship to Public Enemy’s work.

5 “The Raw Materials”: Petromodernity, Retromodernity, and the Bildungsroman in Paolo Bacigalupi’s Ship Breaker

1. For an unpacking of Bakhtin’s treatment of the relationship of the protagonist of the classic bildungsroman to “historical time,” see Moretti vii–viii; for an analysis of the importance of “national-historical time” in Bakhtin, see Esty 5–6 (emphasis mine). 2. Jimmy, Oryx, and Crake in Oryx and Crake and Mark Spitz in Zone One round out this line-up, but their coming-of-age precedes the apocalyptic event. 3. See, for example, Green’s and Denby’s reviews of The Hunger Games novel and film, respectively, for discussions of the narrative’s potential as economic allegory. 4. The young adult material I read for this chapter contains more graphic violence than most of the texts I discuss in the remainder of this book. What is markedly absent, however, is the sexual violence that is typical in adult post- apocalyptic novels. 5. Indeed, there are hints in the novels that all three depict events in the same future. As is typical of writers of young adult fiction, Bacigalupi omits from his young adult novels the sexual violence that is horrifically detailed in The Windup Girl. 6. For a rich and detailed account of the place of scavenging in the global economy, see Medina. 188 Notes

7. The relationship between the terms “scavenge” and “salvage” is a fluid and complex one. Throughout Ship Breaker, Bacigalupi idiomatically uses “scavenge” as a noun to describe the material that Nailer and his peers extract from their surroundings, only occasionally employing the term “salvage.” Legally, a distinction is sometimes made between acts of scavenging and salvaging. The California Integrated Waste Management Board, for instance, states, “Salvaging means the controlled removal of waste material for utilization,” whereas “Scavenging means the uncontrolled and/or unauthorized removal of solid waste materials” (2). In his authoritative treatment of global scavenging, Medina uses the terms interchangeably, perhaps to underscore his view that scavenging is a legitimate activity that eliminates waste. I have elected to use the term “salvage” in this chapter when referring to the materials that Nailer and others collect rather than “scavenge” in the same spirit (and to avoid confusion created by the nonstandard usage of the term “scavenge”). 8. The characterization of Richard Lopez also illuminates the degree to which Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is an intertext of Ship Breaker. Lopez bears a strong resemblance to Huck’s Pap, who is also a violent drunk. 9. In this respect, Tool could be read as the “Jim” to Nailer’s Huck Finn. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter, a longer reading of Ship Breaker’s debt to Twain’s novel could illuminate the ways American racial and frontier narratives figure in Bacigalupi’s vision. 10. The Patels could be read as reproducing an older set of socioeconomic condi- tions, in which a small class of indigenous people profit from colonial occu- pation. Yet the global sweep of the Patel’s wealth suggests a postcolonial realignment of wealth and power. 11. In the Whore of Babylon’s first appearance in Revelation, she is described as being “adorned with gold and jewels and pearls” (17:4). 12. Tool also seems inspired by the “armored bear” Iorek Byrnison, who plays a crucial role in Philip Pullman’s celebrated young adult novel The Golden Compass. Both characters are depicted as savage creatures of war but also gentle and loyal companions to the young protagonists. The parallel becomes especially marked in The Drowned Cities, where Tool, like Byrnison, eats the raw heart of the combatants he has defeated. The fantasy of taming and marshaling the power of such creatures, which possess both human and animal qualities, draws on mythic traditions while also gesturing to the possibility of future forms of modernity that combine older models of domination with new, posthuman, forms of sociality.

Conclusion

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abjection, 30, 35–36, 39, 41, 45, archetypes, 3, 25, 166–172; in Cloud 47, 51, 81, 177n11; cannibalism Atlas, 68–69, 71, 75; Eliade on, and, 83 59–61, 76; in Oryx and Crake, 43 Abrams, M. H., 10 Armstrong, Dianne, 83–85 Adorno, Theodor, 11, 124, 126 Arrighi, Giovanni, 19 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Atwood, Margaret: MaddAddam (Twain, 1884), 188n8, 188n9 trilogy, 25; modernity and, 13–14; Aldiss, Brian, 4 September 11 terror attacks and, Al-Qaeda, 163, 183n10 175n17. See also Oryx and Crake alternative modernities, 13, 18 Austen, Jane, 138–139, 152 Amnesty International, 43 Auster, Paul, 5 Anderson, M. T., 138 anti-apocalypse, 32, 40, 174n12 Bacigalupi, Paolo, 14, 23–24. See also apocalypse, 6–8, 19–20, 174n12, The Drowned Cities; Ship Breaker 185n7; abjection and, 36; Bacon, Francis, 39–40 anti-apocalypse, 32, 40, 174n12; Bakhtin, Mikhail, 137 apocalyptic sublime, 109–111, 113, Ballard, J. G., 4–5 131, 187n18; Book of Revelation Balzac, Honoré de, 138–139, 152 and, 14, 19, 28, 32, 109; Christian Barber, Benjamin, 43 concept of, 7–8, 10–11, 19, 21, Baudrillard, Jean, 11 28, 151; colonialism and, 100; Beck, Ulrich, 16–17, 164 counter-apocalypse, 30, 32–33, 43, Benét, Stephen Vincent, 18, 176n20 50, 52, 174n12; cryptoapocalypse, Benjamin, Walter, 5, 61–62, 71, 32, 36, 43; cyclical nature of, 58; 130–132, 150, 179n8, 181n18; on genre fiction and, 19–20; Lisbon kitsch, 23, 105–107, 113–114, 116, earthquake as, 23, 108–111, 118–121, 124–126, 134, 186n10; 185n5; modernity and, 10–11, surrealism and, 135 16–17, 108–109, 173n6; Oryx Benn Michaels, Walter, 15 and Crake’s treatment of, 6, 8, Berger, James, 4, 7, 11–12, 14–15 32–33, 35–37, 46, 48, 53; in bildungsroman, 23, 137–141, 145, post-apocalyptic fiction, 6–8, 21; 158, 166, 183n11; apprenticeship social criticism and, 14–15, 43; in, 155–156; definition of, 141; and the sublime, 109, 111, 113, Drowned Cities as, 160–161; 131; in visual art, 185n6 modernity and, 138, 145, 161; apocalyptic sublime, 109–111, 113, naturalism and, 148; Oryx and 131, 187n18 Crake as, 35; 202 Index bildungsroman—continued globalization and, 163; influence role of the city in, 153–154; of Robinson Crusoe on, 1, 182n2; Ship Breaker as, 139, 142, 145, post-apocalyptic section of, 67–71; 148–150, 152–155, 156, 158; predation in, 64, 74, 175n17; wealth concentration and, 152; reincarnation in, 67, 69–71, 169; young adult fiction and, 140–141 structure of, 56–57, 62–65, 72–74, Boyle, T. Coraghessan, 176n5 178n3; treatment of apocalypse in, Brown, Wendy, 5, 82 56; use of archetypes in, 68–69, 71, Buddhism, 70 75; Whore of Babylon in, 168 Buell, Frederick, 174n12 Coetzee, J. M., 78, 86 Burke, Edmund, 108–109, 133 Collins, Suzanne, 25, 138 Colón, Cristóbal, 44–45 Calderbank, Michael, 113, 132–133, colonialism, 18–19; bildungsroman 134–135 and, 183n11; development of cannibalism, 26, 85, 163, 167; the novel and, 102–103; Oryx cannibal as archetype, 3, 6, 167; and Crake and, 44–46, 53, 165; in Cloud Atlas, 55, 64, 182n2; Revelation and, 43–44, 47; The counter-cannibalism, 88, 91, 167; Road and, 84, 89, 95; Ship Breaker Friday (character) and, and, 188n10; The Stone Gods and, 85, 96, 184n13; in The Road, 94–95, 97–98, 100–101. See also 81–84, 91, 93, 95, 163, 182n4; in postcolonialism Robinson Crusoe, 28, 81, 83, 85, Columbus, Christopher, 44–45 96, 183n7; in Ship Breaker, 25, Condie, Ally, 138 159; in The Stone Gods, 99 counter-apocalypse, 30, 32–33, Cart, Michael, 140 43, 50, 52, 174n12. Castle, Gregory, 138, 141–142, 153, See also apocalypse 155–156 cryptoapocalypse, 32, 36, 43. Chabon, Michael, 1, 77–80, 88 See also apocalypse Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 164–165, 169–170 Dashner, James, 138 Chaos Walking series (Ness), 138 The Day of the Triffids (Wyndham, climate change, 24, 92, 164–165, 1951), 4, 176n5 169, 171 Defoe, Daniel, 1. See also A Journal of cloning, 3; clones as zombies, 167; the Plague Year; Robinson Crusoe in Cloud Atlas, 14, 56, 62, 66–69, DeLillo, Don, 119 71, 75 Derrida, Jacques, 61 Cloud Atlas (Mitchell, 2004), 22–23, Dick, Philip K., 4–5, 176n5 55–57, 62–76, 171, 180n11, Divergent (Roth, 2011), 138 180n12; “apocalyptic” aspects Dr. Bloodmoney (Dick, 1965), 4–5 of, 6; as bildungsroman, 137; The Drought (Ballard, 1965), 4–5 cannibalism in, 55, 64, 167, The Drowned Cities (Bacigalupi, 182n2; cloning in, 14, 56, 62, 2012), 140–141, 145, 160–161, 66–69, 71, 75; conception of 185n7, 188n12. See also Ship time in, 62–66, 72–73, 165; Breaker critique of modernity in, 14; dystopianism, 7–8, 143, 166, 174n12 Index 203

Easter Island, 94, 97–99 globalization, 2, 156, 163–164, 171; Eliade, Mircea, 55, 58–61, 70, 75–76, apocalypse and, 7; modernity and, 99, 178n4, 179n5, 179n7, 179n8 12–13 Elias, Amy, 75 Goodwin, Sarah Webster, 126 Eliot, T. S., 3, 11, 176n5 Gordimer, Nadine, 78 Ellam, Julie, 98 Greenberg, Clement, 113 Esty, Jed, 5, 24, 141, 147–148, 156, Group Phi, 73 158; on bildungsroman, 131, 138–139, 141, 148, 183n11 Hall, Susan, 41, 178n16 The Handmaid’s Tale Feed (Anderson, 2002), 138 (Atwood, 1986), 31 Felski, Rita, 13, 16–17 Hassan, Ihab, 182n20 feminism, 164; modernity and, 16, Heffernan, Teresa, 7–8, 10–12 98; in Oryx and Crake, 30, 33; Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 61 postmodernism and, 13, 98; Heise, Ursula, 7–9, 21, 185n25 in The Stone Gods, 98; Whore Hesiod, 12 of Babylon and, 50 Hinton, S. E., 140 Fiskadoro (Johnson, 1985), 5 Hiroshima: atomic bomb attack on, 11 Foe (Coetzee, 1986), 78 Hirsch, Marianne, 5, 137–141, Frank, Pat, 77 153–154, 158 Freud, Sigmund, 82, 85 historiographic metanarrative, 74 Friday (character), 18–19, 28, 78, 81, Hoban, Russell, 5, 22 85–86, 166–167, 184n12, 184n21; Hoberek, Andrew, 6, 80–81, 124, as archetype, 166–167; cannibalism 186n16 and, 85, 96, 184n13; Friday figures Holocaust, the, 11–12, 15, 182n4 in Oryx and Crake, 28, 46, 53; Horkheimer, Max, 124 Friday figures in The Road, 23, 80, Howells, Coral Anne, 33–34 84–85, 93, 98, 102; Friday figures Hunger Games trilogy, 25, 138 in Ship Breaker, 24, 159; Friday Hutcheon, Linda, 5, 74–75 figures in The Stone Gods, 23, Huyssen, Andreas, 125 93–94, 96, 98–102 Frye, Northrop, 32 illiteracy, 25, 169–170; in Cloud Atlas, 74; in Ship Breaker, 25, 142, Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar, 9–10, 155–157, 161, 165, 170–171; 12–13, 15–16, 18, 22 in The Stone Gods, 25 genetic modification, 167; in Oryx In the Country of Last Things and Crake, 14, 22, 33, 167; (Auster, 1987), 5 in Ship Breaker, 140–141, Irr, Karen, 168 149–150, 167; in The Stone Gods, 95–97, 164, 167 Jameson, Fredric, 5, 9, 13–14, 132 genre fiction, 19–21, 111, 175n11, Johnson, Denis, 5 175n17; post-apocalyptic fiction A Journal of the Plague Year as, 5 (Defoe, 1722), 4, 186n9 Ghostwritten (Mitchell, 1999), 181n19 Judith (biblical figure), 50–51 The Giver (Lowry, 1993), 138 July’s People (Gordimer, 1981), 78 204 Index

Kant, Emmanuel, 108–109 McInelly, Brett, 102–103 Keller, Catherine, 5, 10, MaddAddam (Atwood, 2013), 30 29–33, 35–37, 40, 43–46, 48, Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome 100, 176n3 (film, 1985), 79–80 Kermode, Frank, 10, 19–21, 57 Mandel, Emily St. John, 25 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 69 Markson, David, 5 Kirsch, Jonathan, 33, 40, 49–50 Marshall, John, 29 kitsch, 105–107, 186n10, 186n11; Matched trilogy (Condie, 2010), 138 as beauty, 186n10; Benjamin on, Matheson, Richard, 77 23, 105–107, 113–114, 116, The Maze Runner (Dashner, 2009), 138 118–121, 124–126, 134, 186n10; Medalie, David, 5, 78, 86–88, 91 cinema and, 116–118; femininity Medina, Martin, 144 and, 123, 126–127, 129–130; Medovoi, Lee, 19 mediocrity and, 133; and the Memoirs of a Survivor sublime, 23, 106–107, 113–114, (Lessing, 1974), 5 117, 129, 131–132, 135; zombies Menninghaus, Winifred, 113 and, 23, 118, 121, 123, 128, 132, metahistorical romance, 74–75 135; in Zone One, 23, 106–107, Miller, Walter, 58 112–114, 116–135, 165 Mitchell, David, 5, 72, 178n2; Korte, Barbara, 37, 43, 48 modernity and, 13–14. Kristeva, Julia, 30, 35–36, 44–45, See also Cloud Atlas 51, 83 Mockingjay (Collins, 2010), 25 modernity, 9–19, 21–25, 29; Lash, Scott, 17 alternative modernities, 13, 18; The Last Man (Shelley, 1826), 4, apocalypse and, 10–11, 16–17, 24, 186n9 108–109, 173n6; bildungsroman The Last Survivor (Pfeffer, 2006), 138 and, 138, 145, 161; bureaucracy Lawrence, D. H., 11 and, 124; climate change and, LeMenager, Stephanie, 139 164; colonialism and, 18–19; Leslie, Esther, 5, 105, 113–114, 119, critiques of, 14–17; cultural theory 129–130, 135 of, 18; destruction of Lisbon and, Lessing, Doris, 5 108–109; dystopianism and, 8; Lisbon: earthquake of 1755, 23, femininity and, 124; feminism 108–111, 185n5 and, 16, 98; globalization and, literacy. See illiteracy 12–13; indigenous groups and, London, Jack, 175n13, 176n5, 18; kitsch and, 106; Lisbon 185n7. See also The Scarlet Plague earthquake and, 108–110; Lowry, Lois, 138 narrative category of, 5; Oryx Lyotard, Jean-François, 8, 11, 111 and Crake and, 14, 52–53; petromodernity, 139, 145, Maccabean rebellion, 50 147–152, 154, 159, 171; McCarthy, Cormac, 14, 183n8. post-apocalyptic fiction and, 2–4, See also The Road 14–16, 18, 25; postmodernity McCulloch, Fiona, 98 and, 13, 16, 173n3; reflexive McGurl, Mark, 17, 111 modernization, 17, 173n3; Index 205

rejuvenated status of, 12–13; and, 163; Whore of Babylon in, retromodernity, 24, 139–140, 22, 34, 36–37, 39–41, 46, 47–48, 152–154, 157, 159–161, 170–171; 50–51, 168, 177n13 Revelation and, 29; Ship Breaker The Outsiders (Hinton, 1967), 140 and, 14, 140, 143, 145–146, 149, 154–156, 161; societal Paley, Morton, 108–109, modernization, 9–10, 16; 111, 113, 115, 131, 185n6, young adult fiction and, 141; 187n18 youth and, 23–24, 138–139; petromodernity, 139, 145, 147–152, Zone One and, 107, 119–120 154, 159, 171 Moretti, Franco, 5, 23–24, 138–139, Pfeffer, Susan, 138 141, 145, 148, 161 Piketty, Thomas, 24, 138–140, Mortimer, John Hamilton, 112 142–144, 152, 156 The Myth of the Eternal Return Pippin, 28, 119 (Eliade, 1954), 55, 59–60, 76, plague, 186n9 178n4, 179n5 postcolonialism, 5, 78–79; in Oryx and Crake, 30, 33, 41, 44, 46; Neale, Stephen, 25–26 in post-apocalyptic fiction, 18, Neiman, Susan, 108 23, 79, 103; in The Road, 79, Neithammer, Lutz, 62 90, 93; Robinson Crusoe and, neoliberalism, 124, 127, 138, 144, 171 78, 89; in Ship Breaker, 24, Ness, Patrick, 138 142–143, 188n10; in The Stone New Jerusalem, 7, 10, 33–34, 44, Gods, 94–95, 101. See also 151, 183n5 colonialism New Testament, 10. See also postmodernity, 13, 16, 165, 173n3, Revelation 182n20; Eliade and, 179n9; Nietzsche, Friedrich, 58, 65–66, 178n4 feminism and, 13, 98; modernity and, 13, 173n3; poetics of, 5; 1984 (Orwell, 1948), 8 post-apocalyptic fiction and, 2, 5; Oryx and Crake (Atwood, 2003), 1, postmodern narrative techniques, 22, 27–28, 30–53, 171; apocalypse 75; and the sublime, 111 in, 6, 8, 32–33, 35–37, 46, 48, 53; Pound, Ezra, 105–106 cannibalism in, 167; colonialism Public Enemy, 105, 107, 134 and, 44–46, 165; critique of Pullman, Philip, 188n12 modernity in, 14, 52–53; Friday Pump Six and Other Stories figures in, 28, 46, 53; genetic (Bacigalupi, 2008), 141 modification in, 14, 22, 33, 167; globalization and, 163; motherhood Quiet Storm, 134 in, 37–40, 42, 51; postcolonialism Quimby, Lee, 174n12 in, 30, 33, 41, 44, 46; prostitution in, 41–43, 49–51, 177n13, 178n16; reconstruction, 187n17 Revelation and, 8, 22, 28, 30, reflexive modernization, 17, 173n3 31–34, 40–41, 44, 46–49; Robinson Regier, Alexander, 109–110 Crusoe and, 27–28, 43, 52–53, reincarnation, 67, 69–71, 91, 118, 171–172, 182n2; War on Terror 146–147, 169 206 Index retromodernity, 24, 139–140, 152–154, postcolonialism and, 78, 89; The 157, 159–161, 170–171; Robinson Road and, 1, 23, 77, 82, 84–85, 86, Crusoe and, 166 88–89, 91, 98, 103; Ship Breaker Revelation, Book of, 10, 28–35, and, 159; The Stone Gods and, 77, 39–42, 49–50, 176n2; apocalypse 93–100, 103 and, 14, 19, 28, 32, 109; Rosen, Elizabeth, 10, 14, 174n9 colonialism and, 43–44, 47; Roth, Veronica, 138 discourse of gender in, 28–30, 37, 40, 47; motherhood and, 35–36; salvage, 3, 173n4, 188n7 Oryx and Crake and, 8, 22, 28, The Scarlet Plague (London, 1912), 30, 31–34, 40–41, 44, 46–49; 175n13, 176n5, 185n7; modernity prostitution in, 42; Whore of and, 4 Babylon in, 22, 28–30, 34–35, 39, science fiction, 25–26, 173n7; 46, 48–49, 168, 176n2, 188n11 post-apocalyptic fiction as, 5, 11 Riddley Walker (Hoban, 1980), 5, 22 secular eschatology, 4, 10, 58, 173n5 risk society, 16–17 September 11 terror attacks, 2, 82, The Road (McCarthy, 2006), 14, 175n17; post-apocalyptic fiction 79–91, 171; as bildungsroman, and, 12, 14, 82–83, 183n9. 137; cannibalism in, 81–84, 91, 93, See also War on Terror 95, 163, 182n4; civilizational clash Shelley, Mary, 185n7 and, 82–83, 91; colonialism and, Ship Breaker (Bacigalupi, 2010), 24, 84, 89, 95; compared with Mad 137, 139–160, 171; Adventures Max, 79–80; contrasted with The of Huckleberry Finn and, 188n8, Stone Gods, 92, 95, 102; critique 188n9; as bildungsroman, 139, of modernity in, 14; Friday figures 142, 145, 148–150, 152–155, in, 23, 80, 84–85, 93, 98, 102; 156, 158; cannibalism in, 25, Holocaust and, 12; postcolonialism 159, 167; father-son relations in, in, 79, 90, 93; referenced in Zone 148–149, 151, 157, 171, 188n8; One, 110–111; Robinson Crusoe genetic modification in, 140–141, and, 1, 23, 77, 82, 84–85, 86, 149–150, 167; globalization and, 88–89, 91, 98, 103; and the 164; influence of Robinson Crusoe sublime, 110–111; use of language on, 1, 182n2; literacy and, 25, in, 86–88; War on Terror and, 163, 142, 155–157, 161, 165, 170–171; 183n9; Whore of Babylon in, 168 modernity and, 14, 140, 143, Robinson Crusoe (Defoe, 1719), 1–4, 145–146, 149, 154–156, 161; 77–78, 103; cannibalism in, 28, neoliberalism and, 144; rebirth 81, 83, 85, 96, 183n7; colonialism in, 146–148, 169; retromodernity and, 18; Crusoe as archetype, and, 24, 139–140, 152–154, 80, 166; Friday (character) 157, 159–161, 170–171; Whore in, 18–19, 28, 78, 81, 85–86, of Babylon in, 168. See also The 166–167, 184n12, 184n21; lasting Drowned Cities influence of, 1–2, 23, 62, 77, ship breaking, 144 182n1; maritime craft and, 183n6; societal modernization, 9–10, 16 modernity and, 4; Oryx and Crake Sorensen, Leif, 107 and, 27–28, 43, 52–53, 171–172; Spengler, Oswald, 58 Index 207

Stafford, Fiona, 58, 62 Uglies (Westerfeld, 2005), 138 Station Eleven (Mandel, 2014), 25 Stenström, Hanna, 29 Wagar, Warren, 4, 10–12, 14, 58, Stewart, George R., 77 173n5, 176n20 The Stone Gods (Winterson, 2007), The War of the Worlds 91–103, 185n7; apocalyptic aspects (Wells, 1898), 4 of, 6, 8; as bildungsroman, 137; War on Terror, 2, 163–164. cannibalism in, 167; colonialism See also September 11 and, 94–95, 97–98, 100–101; terror attacks critique of modernity in, 14; Friday The Waste Land (Eliot), 3 ﬁgures in, 23, 93–94, 96, 98–102; Watt, Ian, 77–78 genetic modiﬁcation in, 95–97, We (Zamyatin, 1924), 8 164, 167; globalization and, Weber, Max, 124 163–164; love in, 97–98, 100–101, Wells, H. G. See also The War of 165, 184n20; postcolonialism and, the Worlds 79, 94–95, 101; reincarnation Westerfeld, Scott, 138 in, 91, 169; Robinson Crusoe and, Whitehead, Colson, 5, 14. 1, 23, 77, 93–100, 103; War on See also Zone One Terror and, 163; Whore of Babylon White Noise (DeLillo, 1985), 119 in, 168 Whitrow, G. J., 58 sublime, 23, 108–111, 185n2, 185n4; Whore of Babylon, 22, 168–169, aesthetics of, 109–111, 165; 176n5; in Book of Revelation, apocalypse and, 109, 111, 113, 22, 28–30, 34–35, 39, 46, 131; beauty and, 186n10, 186n14; 48–49, 168, 176n2, 188n11; elevation and, 115; kitsch and, imperial Rome as, 31, 49, 168; in 23, 106–107, 113–114, 117, 129, Oryx and Crake, 22, 34, 36–37, 131–132, 135; Lisbon earthquake 39–41, 46, 47–48, 50–51, 177n13; and, 108–111; masculinity in Ship Breaker, 153; in Zone One, and, 119, 131; mediocrity and, 23, 128 133–134; the ocean and, 116, Williams, Evan Calder, 173n4, 186n12; postmodernism and, 111; 174n12 zombies and, 111, 118, 131, 169; Williams, Paul, 79–80, 84 in Zone One, 14, 23, 106–107, Wilton, Andrew, 108 110, 116, 122–123, 125, 131–132, The Windup Girl 134, 135, 165 (Bacigalupi, 2009), 141 suicide, 170; in Cloud Atlas, 63, 71, Winterson, Jeanette, 5, 14. 181n17; in The Road, 83, 89; See also The Stone Gods in The Stone Gods, 93 Wittgenstein’s Mistress (Markson, 1988), 5 Taylor, Charles, 18 Wood, James, 57 Todorov, Tzetan, 25 world-system literature, 19 Tolan, Fiona, 41 Wyndham, John, 176n5 trauma, 11–12, 15, 135; in Zone One, Wynne, Brian, 17 124, 163 Turner, Tina, 79–80 X, Malcolm, 69 208 Index

The Year of the Flood (Atwood, 2009), and, 105–106, 119–120, 129–130; 30, 32, 177n12, 177n13, 178n18 critique of modernity in, 14; female young adult fiction, 23–25, 137–138, characters in, 126–130; genre 140–141, 187n4, 187n5. See also fiction and, 175n17; inspiration The Drowned Cities; Ship Breaker for, 14; kitsch in, 23, 105, 106–107, 112–114, 116–135, Zamora, Lois Parkinson, 10, 175n15 165; post-apocalyptic film and, zombies, 111, 119, 169, 186n13; as 117; as post-race, 187n17; Robinson archetype, 166, 169; gender and, Crusoe and, 182n2; September 11 127; kitsch and, 23, 118, 121, terrorist attacks and, 163; and the 123, 128, 132, 135, 169; and the sublime, 14, 23, 106–107, 110, sublime, 111, 118, 131, 135, 169; 116, 122–123, 125, 131–132, in Zone One, 23, 110–111, 114, 134, 135, 165; trauma in, 124, 116–119, 121–125, 127–133, 163; Whore of Babylon in, 168; 135, 164 zombies in, 23, 110–111, 114, Zone One (Whitehead, 2011), 23, 116–119, 121–125, 127–133, 105–107, 110–134, 171; Benjamin 135, 164