The Potential Benefits to the Australian Defence Force Educational Curricula of the Inclusion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems Debbie Fiona Hohaia, Master Professional Studies (Aboriginal Studies) Bachelor Education, Diploma Teaching, Diploma Management, Diploma Human Resources, Diploma of Government This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Indigenous Knowledges and Public Policy, Charles Darwin University 18 January 2016 Declaration I hereby declare that the work herein, now submitted as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Charles Darwin University, is the result of my own investigations and does not reflect the views and opinions of the Australian Defence Force, the New Zealand Defence Force or any extant policy. All reference to ideas and the work of other researchers have been specifically acknowledged. I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis has not already been accepted in substance for any degree, and is not being submitted in candidature for any other degree. I acknowledge that the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (developed by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australian Research Council and the Australian Vice Chancellors Committee, March 2007) has been adhered to. The work in this thesis was undertaken between the dates of December 2012 to December 2014 and in no way reflects the advancements that have been made by various elements of the Australian Defence Force and the cultural diversity initiatives, which have been embedded within the last 18 months. Full name: Debbie Fiona Hohaia Signed: Date: 18 January 2016 Page I Acknowledgements There are many people who have contributed and participated in this research. Firstly, I would like to thank all of the participants, the organisations and the communities who gave willingly of their time and experience. The hospitality and openness of the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) in providing accommodation and access to NZDF learning environments, in particular the Marae(s) (Māori meeting place), and personnel was especially helpful, as was the support and encouragement provided by commanders of the NZDF including Commander James Gilmore, Colonel Peter Wood (and staff), Lieutenant Colonel David Harvey, Lieutenant Commander Rob McCraw, Lieutenant Commander Ian Marshall, and the then NZDF Chief of Defence Force, Lieutenant General Rhys Jones. Gratitude is also extended to commanders of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) including Brigadier John Frewen, Colonel Deborah Bradford, Lieutenant Colonel Paul O’Donnell, Lieutenant Colonel Kate McVay, Squadron Leader David Banham, Lieutenant Commander Rodney Newbold, Chief Petty Officer Tony Thomas, Major Stephen Murcott, Major Jon Lotu, Major Marty Alsford, members from the Regional Force Surveillance Unit, Norforce, and members from various military establishments in the Northern Territory. Thank you especially to Warrant Officer Class One George Carruth who provided the initial point of contact with the NZDF. Without their interest in the topic, this research would not have occurred. Special mention and appreciation must be awarded to: the NZDF Māori Cultural Advisors, Warrant Officer (Class One and Two) Jerald Twomey, George Mana, Jack Rudolph, Tamaterangi Andrew, Douglas Wallace, and Padre Captain Kevin Herewini; the Māori Education Officers and Marae managers, Mr Mark Simpkins, Mr Steve Bethal, Sergeant Pita Royal, Petty Officer Kelly Kahukiwa and Page II Petty Officer Andre Taikato for their valuable experience and hospitality, and to the instructors and members of the Māori Cultural Groups for their in-depth knowledge, passion and commitment towards Indigenous Knowledge education. I would also like to thank the NZDF administrative staff, and the Australian Defence Force Human Research Ethics Committee for their helpful assistance. The utmost respect and gratitude, however, must be awarded to the Indigenous Elders who contributed to this study, in particular from the NZDF: kaumatua(s) Mr Eru Brown, Mr Rawiri Ahuriri, and Reverend Bert McClean; from the Otago Marae Mr Hoani Langsbury (and staff); and from Darwin and Galiwinku, Elcho Island, elder(s) Mr James Gaykamangu, Mr David Munyarryun, Mrs Rosemary Gundjarranbuy, Mrs Doris Yethun and Mrs Janice Dilmiyarri. These Elders, in particular, gave generously of their time, knowledge and wisdom. It is through their humble guidance and multiple perspectives of viewing and existing in the world that I was able to complete this project. My great appreciation is extended to Moana Tane and Kalusi Vuqa who kindly introduced me to some of the Elders. I would also like to thank my supervisors Professor Steve Larkin, Mr Greg Williams, Dr David Bennett, and Dr Merrilyn Wasson. Dr Bennett and Dr Wasson were personally responsible for helping clarify my ideas and setting me on the path of this incredible journey. Thanks especially to: Steve, for his insight into Indigenous sovereignty matters and issues surrounding Indigenous Knowledge education; Greg for the countless hours of discussion and help in making me question my own values and challenging my work from different perspectives; and David for his never- ending belief in me, particularly staying positive when I had more questions than answers (which was often). I am grateful to them all, as without them, this journey would have been near impossible. Page III To my special friend and mentor, who helped plant the seed of this research, Major Richard Irvine, I would like to say a personal thank you, and also to his contact, Dr Robert Hall who kindly provided much of the background reading. To my fellow PhD students Nia, Kevin, Lisa and Lorraine, thank you so much for the pep talks, cups of tea, shared readings, laughs, insights, emails and phone calls of encouragement; your work is so important, and my sincere appreciation goes out to you all. And lastly, to my whānau and whānaunga Ian, Evan, Rhys, Ben, Jess, Samuel, Michelle, Rose, Mikayla, Susie, Margaret, Margie, Derek, Thalea, Moana and of course my many beloved mokopuna. This research is dedicated to my father Putara Charles William Tokotaua (Hohaia) o Ngati Maru Wharanui Iwi me Ngati Ruanui Iwi, and my koro and kuia: Charles Te Kikiwa Hohaia, me Himene Hohaia (nee Te Rangi-I-runga/Ru) o Orimupiko Marae, Opunake, Taranaki, Aotearoa. Page IV List of publications Aspects of this study that have been accepted for refereed publication: Hohaia, D 2015, In search of a decolonised military: Māori cultural learning experiences in the New Zealand Defence Force, in Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, 2015, full refereed paper. Page V Abstract In colonised countries such as Australia and New Zealand, Indigenous peoples are working hard to reclaim their systems of knowledge and have them recognised and included in every aspect of contemporary society. The centralisation of Indigenous Knowledge in military curricula can play a fundamental role in contributing to broader educational and societal change. In the context of a Western military establishment, the relationships that exist between Indigenous and non- Indigenous people are crucial in order to understand the complexities involved when and embedding Indigenous Knowledge systems in educational practice. As the military is the largest government institution in both Australia and New Zealand, the need to better understand these relationships is important. Moreover, the interests of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) are similar in that both groups have previously identified the need to maintain strong relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities. However, the interests and experiences of each group in this study differed markedly, as each country has different socio-political goals and experiences related to colonisation. In the case of the NZDF, the centralisation of Indigenous Knowledge in military curricula has taken considerable time and has not occurred without many challenges. Despite the difficulties and differences, various lessons and benefits can be shared with the ADF, as signposts of exploring how and to what extent Indigenous Knowledge is acknowledged and valued within military educational practice should the ADF choose a similar path. This study demonstrates that while there are diverging and differing interests, the underlying issues that affect Indigenous and non-Indigenous relationships and the centralisation of Indigenous Knowledge systems in the ADF and NZDF, irrespective Page VI of their differing locations, are complex. This thesis explores some of the complexities in order to understand the benefits. A qualitative research approach using interviews, focus groups, observations and surveys with ADF, NZDF and remote Indigenous community members in the Northern Territory was utilised to provide a rich, triangulated picture of some of the challenging and rewarding aspects. This study demonstrates that embedding Indigenous Knowledge in ADF educational curricula can contribute significantly to an overall improvement in members’ military learning experience, and an enriched organisational culture. ADF and community members identified a range of benefits that would result from centralising Indigenous Knowledge systems in military education. While many of the benefits identified by ADF and community members aligned, such as the perceived improvement in respect and understanding, the experiences of NZDF participants