UDC: 572. 02<22) Title: Insula: international journal of isl..
Cat. no: 211537 Date: 27 Feb 2014l \7-ï 25 nternationai Journal of Island Affairs International Journal of Island Affairs
1SSN1021-0814 Year 17 Nol May 2008
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Editer: Pier Giovanni d'Ayala n i Editorial Staff: Jenny Marday Mohamed-Nizar Larabi Two children in thé former lake Rodolfo (now Tïirkana) in Kenya - Photo by Folco Quilici Layout and design by Mohamed-Nizar Larabi
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-l' EDITORIAL by Pier Giovanni d'Ayala
DOSSIER: ISLAND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTS ? By Pier Giovanni d'Ayala Thé Chair of Sustainable Developnient by Francesco di Castri
. ustainabledevelopment is a conceptwith many addressingsustainable urbanization in Kiribati. Ethnographie Geographiesof Coffee Production in Papua New Guinea dimensions,with many définitions. bas been Thé unavoidable issue of Global Climate by WendyShaw 13 It widely usedand misusedduring thé last yearsat Changeis brilliantly, asusual, addressed by Béate Ratter. Sustainable Urbanisation in Kiribati such a degreethat meaningsseem to fade away towards nebulous semantic uncertainties. Policies promoting Cultural Héritage by Andrew East 23 and identity as developmenttools are examined by StevenA. Royle and Hui Min Tsei. Irish and Global Change,implications for Small Islands A common élément among ail those Taiwanese offshore islands are their case studies. by Béate Ratter 36 définitionsseems to be thé responsibilitytowards Another crucial issue as thé rôle of natureaad thé fùhu-e générations. Thé link between sustainable énergies in islands sustainable A comparative Pièce Looking at Cultural Héritage and Cultural Identity thé socio-economic dimensions of environment developmentis raisedby JustinA. Spenillo. and Policies to promote them, Taking Irish and Taïwanese offshore islands aad developmentissue usually recalled. About énergies furthermore, a short as our case studies. thé is paperaddresses thé hopesraised by a miraculous By Dr Steven A. Royle and Huei-Min-Tsei 47 There are in fact scarce indications on shmb thé "Jatropha Curcas", for thé excellent how to practically proceed order to insure biodiesel oil that can be extracted fi-om its seeds Keys to thé Development of Sustainable Energy Islands in sustainability to thé development of a whole at a reasonable priée. China, India or Brazil By Justin A. Spenillo 57 community and its territory. Thé more so if we are dedicating millions of hectars to Jatropha CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE speakof small islandsor small island developing plantations. Islands of course, depending on states.Just remind that development,any kind costly importedfossil fuel for their energyneeds Jatrophas Curcas, a Magie spell for Island Development of development requires always energy and are eagerto test thé Jatrophamiracle. Thé paper By Fier Giovanni d'Ayala 70 resources, and additionally a change in their reportsthé first resultsof a pilot project initiated YOUTH SECTION pattem of use.We know that ail thèseislands are in Haiti. Let's wait and hope for a successful oftendistinguished by limited resourcesand fragile outcome... By Jenny Marday économies... leaving us with thé open question Youth surprisingendevours are also duly Thé Richnessofwaste bin: Recycling ofCans ïn Lipari (Italy) 74 mark about thé chances of such islands to insure recorded on this issue.A subjecf that INSULA Volunteering in Pentecost Island (Vanuatu) 76 sustainability to whatever development process wishes to raise more often. Floating Garbage recycled into surprising art (Kiwayu Island - Kenya) 78 they may undertake. Our dialogue proceeds further with a contributions from H.E David Doyle and H.E SIDS NEWS - VOICES FROM SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES 80 Thèseare thé reasonswhy we wished to Mrs. Indira SavitreeThacoor-Sidaya, respectively International Perspectives and UN actions résumethé debate on ourjournal. Givenits subject, Ambassadors/Permanentdelegates ofSt Kitts and by H.E. AmbassadorofSt Kitts andNevis David Doyle, PermanentDelegate Nevis andthé RepublicofMauritius UNESCO. to UNESCO Paris thé discussionwill inevitably take a multifaceted to shape.A "shadow-theatre"so to speak,animated Théchallenges faced presently by thé SmallIsland contributors. DevelopingStates (SIDS) suchas climate change, ENSULA'S GUEST 83 by high level Thé lateFrancesco di Castriopens thé play éducation,health and many other sensitiveissues Interview with H.E. Mrs Indira SavitreeThacoor SidayaAmbassador of thé with a thoroughexamination théepistemological are at thé core of their action. Solutions can be thé Republic ofMauritius, PermanentDelegate to UNESCO Paris of and operationalshortcomings of thé sustainable found only through a dynamic partnershipwith thé internationalcommunity, organizations such BOOK REVIEW 85 developmentconcept. Wendy Shaw and Andrew East follow as UNESCO and thé civil societyrepresented by specializedNGO's suchas INSULA. ENSULA's PAGE 86 with two enlightening case studies: thé former with ethno-geographicalconsidérations on cofifee productions in PapuaNew Guinea, thé second A dialogueto be kept open...
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS thé level of environmental reflect thé sectoral organization awarenessare fairly acceptable, on thé United Nations and of Sustainability shouJd be but where ail thé signais thé govemmentaland académie understood and applied of social disruption are stmctures concerned,they do within a changing society emerging with ail their train not hâve any meaning in thé and within an open of marginalization, exclusion, real world. There is only one society racism and fundamentalism. sound development: it should By Francesco di Castri f Moreover, environmental be based first of ail on économie awareness may also coexist growth and on international Except for thé 'easy with économie stagnation and competitiveness, but it will solution' of using thé term récession, unemployment and never acquirethé conditionsof 'sustainable development' to thé appearanceofa new extrême sustainabilityimless ail thé other convey simple and shallow Francesco di Castri, tonner member ofINSULA, poverty within countries, as components of development messages, l hâve found was Director ofResearch at thé National Center ofScientific well as with thé progressive are equitably taken into it consistently difficult to Researchof France(CNRS) in Montpellier,and leader of thé loss of cultural identity, of thé considération. In addition, ail communicate more in-depth SCOPE/1CSU (International Council for Science) project on sensé belonging and thé thé différent économie sectors or action-oriented concepts Environment in a Global Information Society (EGIS) in Paris. of He bas been Assistant Director Général in of UNESCO, Paris, family stmcture. Thé conditions (agriculture, forestry, industry, to différent audiences, while Présidentof thé internationalresearch program DIVERS1TAS required for developmentto be tounsm,etc. ) shouldbemore and using this term in its most on biodiversily,and was member of théAcadémies of Sciences sustainable are not, therefore, moreintimately intenningled for common interprétation. It andRussia. He basauthored co-authoredmore than l ofltaly or gatheredtogether. rational landuse, at thé régional, bas been difficult with my 40 books and more than 500 scienlific articles. nationaland global level. university students, because § Finally, sustainable they find it more a sloganthan § development is an extremely a conceptthat canbe concretely scale-dependant process. debated and tested. It has been . b. .s an umbrella concept, very high in thé vaguenessofits ('through time') meaning of Particularly during periods difficult with industrialists, sustainable development has interprétation and fuzziness(l) sustainability. globalization(ô), thé when discussing thé need to 5 many dimensions, with many of its applications. Hundreds Nevertheless, if this of sustainabilityofa given country intemalize thé environmental définitions being proffered by (2;3;4) of définitions hâvebeen diachronic solidarity bas a sensé g or a given région can be dimension in production peoplefrom differentdisciplmary recorded, and thé numerous in healthy, prosperous countries, of achieved to thé détriment of thé processes,and to keep a social and professional backgrounds university chairs(5) on this it is almost meaningless in and interactive conviviality and resource-interests. At an subjectmay hâvequite différent countries where both environment sustainability of other countries or régions, for instance by within their own enterprises, in operationallevel, four interlinked contents and heterogeneous and development are pitifully products at order to reach thé culture of thé dimensions of sustainable targetsto be reached.One of thé dismpted. Thé people in those importing natural a low priée, thus leaving their enterprises.It basbeen difficult developmentcan be recognized reasons for thé success of thé tenn countries hâve little to pass on to i own natural resources almost too, in discussing with trade économie, environmental, social 'Sustainable Development' lies their futuregénérations, with thé û0 untouched(7). Sustainability unionists or farmers thé current and cultural. For development preciselyin thé fact that it canbe exception of their rich cultural should be, therefore, understood concem for high international to be sustainable in thé long- looselyused by différent people identity. and applied within a changing competitivenesswith no local term, there needsto be a balance and with différent objectives. Accordingly,sustainable and open subsides or to convince them that between those four dimensions. development can only be society within an society. environmental considérations In steering towards such goal, achieved at thé world-wide DIMENSIONS 0F arenot necessarilyat oddswith advantageshould be taken of level if thé foundations for an SUSTAINABILITY Inorderto overcome some improved job opportunities. thé positive aspectsofdiversity mfra-generational'synchronie' thèse misunderstandings,at Even some environmental and globalization, avoiding thé solidarityare establishedbetween of leastfrom a semanticviewpoint, groups fail to understand that exta-emes. In its original meaning, rich and poor, among countries United Nations institutions hâve thé maintenanceof a dynamic thé concept of sustainable and within any given country. organizeda sériesof conférences, cultural identity is thé best Among thé ill-defined developmentemphasized inter- In addition, thé term or launchedDécades, whereby cohesiveweb for development, magie words, most of them generational solidarity, that is 'sustainable development' expressions such as those of and that 'environment' is not popularizedby théRio Summiton to say our moral obligation to bas begun to hâve an almost environmentally sustainable sucha global andall-embracing Enviromnentand Development leave to thé new générations exclusively environmental development,socially sustainable concept that it can be conceived in 1992(such as 'global change', as good an environmentand as connotation. It is not unusual development,and so on, hâve been of everywherein an identical 'biodiversity', etc. ), that of abundant resources as those we to observe countries where thé coined.While thèseexpressions manner. "sustainabledevelopment" stands hâve found. This thé diachronic 'state of thé environment' and
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS It seems that this figurative To borrow from Holling, 'Thé ted by strong linkages, but présentationis easily caughtby future is notjust uncertain; it is also because l believe that we fïr- thé média - at least in certain inherently unpredictable'(12). are pointing towards a new developingcountries'where l hâve Among thé most likely human development, a new outlined it - and by thé public turbulences to be faced, thé Renaissance,where science and large(ll). occurrenceof extrêmemigration arts,nature and culture should by flows andof régionalwars stands necessityintimately interact as Admittedly, no one country at leastas high asenviroamental a whole (boxl)(13). Of course, or régionof théworld hasreached dégradation. we arefar awayjfrom thé simple or will everreach a perfectbalance l hâve chosen a concept of économie growth of thé four legs. Thé conceptis a Renaissance-style chair for wifh its intrinsic limit; économie dynamic one, a moving target.My my metaphor of sustainable growth and development are students and l find it intriguing to development.This is not only by no means synonymous. characterize différent countries of becauseit is a particularly robust ParaphrasingFrench philosopher thé worid accordingto thé position chair and its fours legs areuni- and states man André Malraux, of their four legs, not only on thé 'thé next century will be that thé principle of individual basisoffeelings andinstitutions but of spirituality or it will not responsibility and commitment, û0 also of hard data. For instance, if be'(17). will hâve to sail between two ? thé United Statesshows acceptable opposite yet complementary économie and environmental legs, GLOBALIZATION AND streams, that of globalization, thé socialleg is deterioratingrapidly, and that ofdiversity (figure 2, next e DIVERSITY ÛO particularly in thé large cities. page). To be at thé helm(18) will ? _i Something in thé «f similar is occurring mean frequently correcting _i France, with unusually high rates There is no doubt that course in order to finally reach a ?r i .d 'r. ^ of unemployment and of social we will be confrontée with movingtarget. But this is precisely, l z exclusion. Conversely, in several turbulence, extrême events, cybemetically speaking(19), thé 5 0 l (but not in ail) developingcountries bifurcations and dangerous 'artofgoveming'. G ^ z u with a very rapid économiegrowth, reefs in navigating towards a There is no reason to a long andunstable économie leg is sustainablehuman development. be afraid of globalization and out of balancewith a progressively Ourhehnsmenand hehnswomen, diversity as thé pillars of thé new weakeniûgenvironmental leg. mainly ourselvesaccording to development,to thé extentthat a
Figurel : A Rciiaissancestyle chair, witli its l'ourlegs strcngthciicd atits vciy base by strong In thé overall biosphère, ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD AND THE NEEDS FOR SUSTAINABLE linkagcs. as a metaphorol'sustainablc dcvctopmciit with ils tour componcilts- économie, DEVELOPMENT l cnvironmcntal.social and cultural. Thé othcr smallcr chair along thc tcxt illustralc dilïcrcnt and according to thé process of O! kind ofdiscquilibrium. globalization and of thé 'winners- Real stepstowards a more sustainableuse of free and not content with mediocrity (remark man'splace in thé schemeof things and man's .o naturalresources call for a new stageofhuman attributed to thé Renaissance historian of art, control over his own destiny. a fourth and indispensable loserssyndrome', thé économieleg FOUR INTERACTING development,with a much doser interaction Vasari).Thé Florentines were curious, intelligent - Representationally, thé portrait in thé dimension of development, is generally strengthened(except between nature and culture. Such a cultural and had, to a suprem degree, thé power of Renaissancewas thé story ofhow eyesceased FOUNDATIONS renaissancemight drawon someof théprecepts making tfaeirthoughts visible. to be linear symbolsand becameinstead light- than in isolation(9). in large parts ofAfrica and eastem and attitudes Ihat marked thé RenaissancePeriod -knowledge as well as learning were both reflecting and light-perceiving symbols. Not Sustainable Europe),environmental awareness (14;15;16) considered as a unity, thus integrating science onlywereindividual organs rendereddiflerently, and technology,science and arts, culture and but they were depictedin relation to eachother My main conclusionis development can then be is mcreasingas a whole in a number - Thé Renaissance(Renaître -to be bom again) entreprisetaken as a whole. as part ofa cohérentstructural whole. that discussions on sustainable figuratively représentéeas a ofcountries (eventhough often not was an âge afferment, a transitional movement - In comparisonwith God-directedarchitecture - Goodexamples ofintegrated régional planning in Europeancivilization betweenthé médiéval (Romanesque,Gothic,.. ), (hefamousbeginnings and management(in French, aménagementdu developmenthâve a working robust chair with four legs of translatée in to concrète results), and thé modem,marked especially by thé of Renaissancearchitecture (thé PazziChapel, territoire) appeared during thé Renaissance rationale only when thé four équivalentlength and strength thé social leg is likely to become revival ofclassical influence. dieOld Scristyof SanLorenzo) do not try and through(he planning vision ofColbert in France, because - Thé voyagesofdiscovery oftfae Renaissance impressus or crushus by size and weight. and thé régional developmentin thé Republic dimensionsofdevelopment (thé (figure l), each one of thé thé most enfeebled one of opened new and often contradictory ways Everythingisadjusted to théscale ofreasonable ofVenice from thé Dolomite mountains to thé économie,thé environmental, legsbeing - aloneand with its enormous social and geopolitical of thinking,and new andsomewhat stariing human necessity.They are intendedto makke coastallagoon under thé aegis of thé 'Magistrato horizons beckoned to (hose with a taste for each individual more conscious of his/her délie Acque'. thé social, and thé cultural) interactions - a mam component gaps,and thé cultural leg is under adventureand entreprise, will-power, daring powers,as a complètemoral intellectual being - A révolution in communication(Gutenberg's are discussed ail together of development.If one leg of thé threat of a world-wide blanket and freedomaction. Theyare an assertion of thédignity ofman printing press)played a critical rôle in opening -Unquestionably,thé Renaissancecoincided - Renaissancearehitects used simple geometrical new vistasm éducation,understanding and thé and in their interactions. thé chair is shorter or weaker uniformity of informationand of with thé first globalizationin thé historyof figuressuch as thé square and die circle, believed exchangeofideas. Environmentis better thought than thé others, there is no lifestyles. There remains a long humankind,going in hand witti a highcultural to hâvesome ultimate perfection applicable to diversity,as precursory and premonitory of thé théhuman body, in a waytfaat each guaranteed on, acceptée and acted on comfortable 'sitting-down' way to go to achievesustainable cun-ent pattems. thé perfectionof thé otfaer. in régional planning(8) as state,nor sustainability(lO). developmentin our biosphère. -Thé Renaissancewas marked by thé spirit - Perspectivewas used to achievea spacial of criticism,thé air ofmaking mind natiirally harmony,amore intense awareness ofspace, of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS dialectic synthesisis achieved of highly unstable situations économie diversification is thé Nonetheless, as an passiveloser(21). are intimately linked(24). between them. In both cases from social and geopolitical transformation extrême,a closedcultural identity Thé second is thé there are pluses if thé right point ofview. In thé long-term, There is no reason to and diversity that does not precautionary principle or NOTES AND REFERENCES position is taken, and minuses even thé situation of a winner be afraid of globalization and respectother value Systemscan diversificationpriûciple. Facing if there is a shift towards thé is uneasy and ambiguous if it diversity as thé pillars of thé lead- a fi-equentphenomenon of a non-linear and unpredictable l. Fuzzy,as applied to this sentence,bas simply a meaningof a semanticallyconfused, new development,to thé extent ofsurprises(22),many extrêmes. has to be surroundedby losers thé présenttimes - to exclusion, fiiture full ill-defmed andmisleading term. It doesnot refer As regardsglobalization, who hâve no more to lose, and that a dialectic synthesis is a discriminationand rejection, ail optionsofa genetic,ecological, to thé fùzzy logic so convincingly advocatedby whose behaviorbecomes almost achieved between them. In both social and cultural kind should R.Oldeman.it is quite appropriateand désirable thé good middle position thé way up to religions or ethnie to define sustainable development, in each will allow new openings and ineluctably desperate. casesthere arepluses if théright fundamentalisms. be kept alive. case and in différent cireumstances, within thé flexibility context and thé limitations of fuzzy logic and opportunities,mostly in économie In relation to diversity, position is taken, and minuses In conclusion, we Théthird is thé of technological fuzzy régulation. Indeed, a and cultural terms. It is mainly both biological and cultural, ifthere is a shift tàwards thé are obligea to accept thé principle. Suppleness,creativity total lack of définition would lead, in my view, and short time réaction to to contradictoryviewpoints being encapsulated throughthé globalization oftrade thé existence of différent extrêmes. fact that thé coexistence, thé of under thé same umbrella. Thé essential of thé andmarkets, and not only thanks evolutionary and historical interconnectedness and thé changeare thé main conditions concept 'fiizzy' is implicitly recognizedin this Chile, from a one-sided articlethrough expressions such as those intrinsic to international aid, that several identities (species, ecosystems, of global solidarity of éléments for maintaining and adaptive unpredictabilitylinked to increasedcomplexity, developing countries of South landscapes, human societies economybased on thé expert of having had différent historical potential and for choosing, in surprise-richscénarios, moving targets, attractors and unforeseenbifurcations. Open society (and a multiple a manner, America and SoutheastAsia are and ethniegroups) is at thé very copperto countrywith andevolutionary trajectories are prompt and timely open environment)means a Systemwith very C/2 experiencingunprecedented and foundationofdevelopment based export products derived from fhesine qua non condition - in fhe thé right courseof action when perméable or vaguely designed boundaries; comparative advantagesof confronted with thé unavoidable changing society (and changing enviromnent) rapid économiegrowth. And on qualityrather than on quantity. its long-temi- of reachinga viable implies that thé boundarieswith thé fiiture are thé prerequisitefor world-wide Creativity, originality, technical geographical and ecological and sustainabledevelopment of and sudden bifurcations in thé also fluctuating to a very large extent. Non- linearity suggestsdiscontinuities, as well as l location and use rich genetic solidarity is to know better,and expertiseand diversification of of fhebiosphère. Conversely, global years to corne. rejection of mechanisticprinciples suggesting to hold in high esteem,everyone productsare thé main éléments of resources (in terms of fruits, uniformity ( a kind of global Admittedly, most of that we are always guided by 'cause-effect'or § 'yes-no' relations.Holism and interdisciplinary C/2 a new development,not simply a vegetables,wine, forestry, fishery 'melting pot') or thé persistence our govemment,académie and else's cultures. unavoidably give rise to zones of shadow or ^ Nevertheless, excess quantitativepolicy oflow priées. and aquaculture products). In of exclusive and closed identities research institutions are not fitted overiap. In any event, thé door is open for a options are thé frwo extrême limits to be fruitfùl debate on thé ûizzy approach and on globalizationcan lead to cultural Inthis context,biodiversity canbe addition,keeping diverse -as yet- to face this stmctural ûizzy management. uniformity as well as to thé a formidable asset for économie openis thé only viable approach avoided. crisis by undertaking much 2. Thé following sources are among non- those that provide définitions and concepts appearanceofwinners and losers. development.A good example to our unpredictable and needed readjustments(23). In related to sustainabledevelopment and sustai- R Both thèse are at thé origin of thé paramountimportance of linear future. THREE PRINCIPLES somecases, thé only pragmatic nable resourceuse: (a) Pearce,D. ; Markandya, p solution would be their 'créative A.; Barbier, E.B. 1989. Blueprint for a green w Economy. Earthscan, London; (b) Sachs, I. Figure2:Pilotmg towards sustainable developmentbetween théopposite streams ofGlobalization and destmction'.As yet, only certain 1992.Transition stratégies for thé 21st century. Nature and Resowces,28 (l): 4-17. (e) Young, changesof courseare requisites for approachinga moving target, but thé heavy swells of thé There are three main parts of thé productive sector M. D. 1992. SustamableInvestmentaadResowce principles to achieve this goal show a high adaptive capacity Use.Equity, Envi'ronmental Integrity andEcono- and to prevent thé four legs of to thé new conditions, as an mie EBiciency.Man and thé Biosphèreséries 9. l UNESCO,Paris, andParthenon Publishing, Car- sustairiabilitybeing dislocated. indispensablerequisite for their nforth. (d) Oldeman,R. ; Parvainen,J; Stephan, however, thé K. 1994. Durabilité: les traitements forestiers. l Théfirst is théspecificity very survival; Naturopa75 : 15-9. Young. M.D.1995.Inter- û0 principle. It suggeststhat thé ethicalaspects are not necessarily generationalequity, thé precautionaryprinciple response to thé uniform forces présent their agenda. In andecologically sustainable development. Nature in andresources,'î\ (l): 15-28.(f)Munasinghe,M.; of globalization(20) should addition,public opinion-mainly Sherear,W. (Eds.). 1995.De&iingandMeasurmg a Sustainability.Tbe Bi'ophysical Foundations. Thé not be général one, based in thé already industrialized United NationsUniversity and thé Worid Bank, on world-wide idéologies of a countries- is not always ready WashingtonD. C. political or économie nahire. On 3. For some criticism on sustainable to accept thé painful change developmentand other related ecological con- thé contrary, responsesshould of mentality implicit to thé cepts, see: (a) Ferry, L. 1992. Le nouvel ordre écologique.Grasset, Paris, (b) BeckermanW. be as spécifieas possible,and growingunpredictability and thé 1995. Small is Stupid.Duckworth, London. adaptedto différent situations, broadeninghorizons in store. A 4. It is even more difficult to translate 'sustainabledevelopment' in other languages. partnership actorsinvolved, ciïcumstancesand contingencies. of ail For instance,in French développementdurable, It should be inspired by thé from thé individual up to thé soutenableor viable are often taken as synony- mous,while etymologicallythey differ conside- . %. ecological and économie transnational level of decision- + * -.. -j- +++. ». rably. îw nrswiNss iwmeaan comparativeadvantages of thé making, is thé ultimate solution 5. 'Chair' in English has a double wrrotucAi. Etîl meaningofa seator ofan académie(or pontifical) for sustainability, as well as , t4E^^ région, and by thé historical SOUD<»<^ xowNc ortKMts FUtW»vl chair. In French, thé first is called a chaisesmà thé n»»n»eiwruitE andcultural background of thé thé stimulus for a cognitive seconda chaire.Etymologically, ail thèsewords populations involved. It is thé democracy. Both targets - dérive from thé same Latin cathedra- a seat. only way to avoidbecoming a sustainability and democracy-
11 INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 6. For a discussion on thé causes, thé monumentalstudy ofGiambattista Vico (1668- ning'. -^ 19. Cybernetics, from thé Greek - signais,thé emergingproperties, théconsequenos 1744),Italian philosopher of culturalhistory, l -, and thé régulationsof globalization,see: di dealingwith thé new scienceof thé common Kubemètes=Vîot. Thereare typesofglobalization. Castri.F. 1995.1492-1992.Searchingforsignals natureand cycles of nationsand civilizations (De 20. two separated (spe- andconséquences ofglobalizations. Ln: Tumer II, uno umversi iurispriacipio et 6ne uno, Scienza Oneis when previously éléments B.L.: Gomez Sal, A.; Gonzales-Belnadez,F; di nuova).Other works consulted and drawn upon cies,markets, cultures) enter in contactfor thé first time. thé absenceofregulatory actions, Castri,F. (Eds.), Global Land Use.Aperspective include: (a) D'ancona, P. 1948. Umanesimo e In from thé Colwnbian Encowter, pp. 109-31. Rinascimento. Unione Editrice Torinese, Torino. phenomenasuch as thosespecies invasion or extinction,market collapse culturalassimila- C.S.I.C., Madrid. (b) Pope-Hennessy,J. 1966. Thé portrait in thé or secondglobalization 7. According to Oldeman (personal Renaissance. Thé A. W.Mellon Lectures in thé tionare likely to occur.Thé is whenunifonn forceswith planetarydimension communication),'thé sustainabilityof a région, Fine Arts, 1963. Thé National Gallery ofAn, (fi-eemarket, climatechange, unilatéral country,landscape, ecosystem, social System, WashingtonD. , C. BollingenFoundation-Pan- global 1969. information flow) act upon distinct éléments crop,wild plants,species.. is .a/fvaysteacbedat theon Books, New York. (e) Clark, K.. a evolutionary historical théexpense ofthe durabilityofsomething else'. Civilization: A personal view. British Broad- havinghad dififerent or This is, unfortunately,what happensat présent castingCorporation and JohnMurray, London. trajectory.An equalresponse to thoseforces in most économieand social relations and, to (d) Braudel,F. 1970.Civilisation Matérielle, would lead unavoidablyto winners and lasers, By Wendy S. Shaw, Susan May Inn and Gemma Smart gaps.Incidentally, bas someextent, in thébiological worid (butthere économieet capitalisme,XIe - XVIIIe siècle. aswell asto widening this are alsorelations ofmutualism, commensalism, Armand Colin, Paris. Tomel. Les Structures du ail too often bée, thé result of 'patemalistically oriented' international aid. symbiosis,coevolution, etc. ). This is alsoat quotidien:le possible et l'impossible(Pvlo\is! à thé very basis of thé regrettable'winners- in Englishby Collins underthé title thé Structure 21. Oldeman(personal communication) ABSTRACT losers'syndrome. However, why then speak ofEverydayLifê).Tome2. Les Jeux de l'échange suggeststhat thé speci'Sci'typnnciple might also of sustainabledevelopment of thé biosphère? (Publishedin Englishby Collinsunder thé title be called thé 'tailoring' principle. l fally agrée with thé rationale of such a suggestion.Thé Whylink thé concept of sustainabilitysomuch Thé Wbeels o f Commercé). Tome3. Le temps du with that of solidarity? In my view we hâve to monde(Published in English by Collinsunder thé difficultylies with thétranslation of 'tailoring' < .ofifeeis thé largesteamer of overcome this contradiction and to reach thé title Théperspective of thé World).(e) Clark, K. m otherlanguages (in French,faire sur mesure). 22. surpriseis usedhère in thétechnical foreign exchangefor PNG, and 'necessaryutopia' ofa woridwith asfew lasers 1981.Moments o f Vision.Jotm Murray, London. ÛQ as possible.According to thé dynamicviews (f) Gillard,L. 1990.Wheelers aad dealers of meaningof'surprise-rich scénarios', as opposed is produced by smallholders to thésimple projectioi» ofcurrent (rends. ofPrigogine(Prigogine, I. 1995.Le désordre RenaissanceEurope. UNESCO Courier, January ? See: 1996. challenge in thé highlandsof thé Eastem créateur.BIC. 27:71-5,Staune, J. 1995.Quelques 1990:32-5. 23. di Castri,F. Thé exemplesd'application des travaux d'Ilya 15. Thé comparisonbetween thé require- ofdevelopmentand environment in a globalized and Western Provinces, and ments for a new cultural mutation associated with world. Can institutions adapt?In: Hadley, M. Prigogine.BIC, 27:76-7), even thé trade relations Chimbu (Simbu). Although an ÛO betweendifférent enterprises are likely to be in sustainabledevelopment and thé Renaissance (Ed.), JntegratingConservation, Development G andResearch;ScientiGc Responses to thé Envi- realityor potentiallyof thépositive type 'I win, periodshould not be takentoo far.There were organic crop, récent research C^2 ronment-DevelopmentChallenge. Man and thé youwin'. aspectsof théRenaissance that would not be desi- bas identified that inadéquate 8. Thé équivalent French expression râblé or possiblein future human development BiosphèreSéries. UNESCO, Paris, and Parthe- ^ non Publishing,Camforth (in press). of aménagementdu territoireis bettersuited, (e.g. thé dependencein Renaissancecivilization pest control and deficiencies Uke Prof. because it includes also notions of capacity on a smallmmority, with thérenaissance touching 24. I would to thank warmly R. Oldeman for bis constructive remarks and in quality management hâve building,appropriate training and employment relativelyfew peopleeven in republicanFlorence or théUrbino ofFederigoand Guidobaldo; parti- suggestions. hinderedproductivity. This paper l opportunities,as well assome decentralization ofdecision-making processes. cipationwas higher than in théprevious Middle introducestwo large-scaleaction 5 9. See'El cuartocomponente del desa- Age times,but far removedfrom present-day rrollo actual', El Mercun'o,Santiago de Chile, 4 normsand aspirations). research projects that seek to 16. I hâve also chosen thé Renaissance May 1995. addressthèse issues by combining 10. Anadmittedshortcommgofthisfigu- becauseit is to a certain extent a symbol of a rative analogyis that it could inducea too static holistic and less simplified approach.Neverthe- scientific and ethnographie conceptofsustainability. Taking a moretechnical less,l would not like to give thé impressionthat researchtechniques. One project anddynamic viewpoint, thèse four dimensions l consider thé holistic approachas contradic- canbe conceivedas attractors leading to différent tory to théreductionist or analyticalone. Boih is concernedwith identifying bifiiïcations more or less distant from a stateof approachesshould be largely complementaryin bestpractice methods to control meta-equilibrium.See di CastriF. 1996.Facing a unitary view of sciences,including thé human l thé globalizationof a fracturedworld. New and socialsciences. Thé hierarchytheory - with a coffee pest (insect) known as its emergingproperties when passingfi-om one pattemsof internationalpartnersfaip. In: Hadley, Coffee Green Scale. Thé other &<2 M. (Bd.), IntegratingConservation, Develop- level of intégration to another - provides a ment and Research;ScientiSc Responses to thé framework to help interactions among and to researchproject is working with Enviroament-DevelopmeatChallenge. Man and preventdisintegration of différentdisciplines farmersto improvecoffee quality théBiosphère Séries. UNESCO, Paris, and thé and sectorsofknowledge (see:Allen, T.; Starr, ParthenonPublishing, Camforth (in press). T. 1982. Hierarchy.Perspectives for Ecological to redressthé décline through 11. See 'Una silla cuatro patas'. Las Complexjty.University of ChicagoPress. Chi- assessmentand improvement UltimasNoticias, Santiago de Chile,29 April cago.; di castri. F.; Hadley,M. 1988.Enhancing 1995. thécredibility ofecology: interacting along and of postharvest Systems,from 12. See:Hollmgs,C.S. 1994.An écologie acrosshierarchicalscales. GeoJoumal, 17(1): 5- storage to local processingand view of thé Malfhusian conflict. In: Lindhal-Kies- 35). In thé samevein, l am far fi-omrejecting thé slmg,Landberg, H. (Eds.), Population,Economie paramountcontributions of différentthinkers of crop transport.A prcmise to both Developmeat,aad tbe Envimmnent, pp. 79-103. thépast, even ifthey areapparently distant from researchprojects is thatfhe socio- Owford University Press,New York. thé current vision, as for Descartes (who was This text pulledby thé Journal indeed much less 'Cartesian' than it is usually cultural and économie contexts 13. Thécomparisonwith thé Renaissance Nature and ResourcesVol. 31 shouldbe takenas cautiously as it is put forward, said)and eventhé Frenchpositivist philosopher ofcoffeeproduction are intégral that is to say,a simple analogicalprocess with AugusteComte (1798-1857). They shouldallbe No.3,1995,is publishedin thé a considered in their historical context. to progressingthé aims of thèse ail its limitations. On more pessimistic vein, présentissue with thé kind Mine (Mine, A. 1993. !e nouveauMoyen Age. 17. Remark made by André Malraux otherwisehighly scientificand Gallimard,Paris) bas compared thé présenttime during discussionin Frenchtélévision. authorization of thé MAB 18. Thé équivalent word in French, technicalefforts improvelife with a new Middle Ages. UNESCO to 14. Thissamplingofsomeoftheprecepts gouvernail,evokes muchbetter 'thé art ofgover- in théremote highlands ofPapua and attitudes that marked thé Renaissance is New Guinea. a subjective,personal one, culled and adapted fi-om a handftil of Works on thé art, science and society of thé period. Thèseworks include thé
13 INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS INTRODUCTION growerslive closeto subsistencecia.gov/library/publications/the- Two species of CGS, Coccus access difficulties and so on). in this multiple-methods appro- and hâve little extra cash for world-factbook/geos/pp.html). celatus and Coccus viridis are Finally, in 2004, thé National ach hâve included site-scoping, Papua New Guinea technologicalinputs, from pest Compounding thé issues of présentbut théformer is thémost ResearchInstitute (NRI) publis- administration of a large-scale (PNG) is a postcolonial island control to management of thé unemployment,under-employ- widespread and damaging in hed thé results of a large-scale survey instrument followed nation. After various colonial crop after harvesting (Maika ment andpoverty is thé sporadic PNG (Murphy 1991).Currently, survey on thé main problems by in-depth inten^iewing, and encounters, PNG gained 2007). nature of income from coffee Integrated Pest Management affecting thé rural informai thé implementation of focus independence in 1975. Its production,which hasa variable (IPM) Systems,including thé sector.This report identified thé groups.Thé project bas benefited territory consists of numerous One conséquenceof thé timetable.At busy times, coffee use of biological controls, are main constraintsto rural produc- from thé research team's use of islands and roughly half of thé move away from large-scale cheny is harvestedand thé beans being developedand tested to tion ofoil palm, cocoa, coconut, Pidgin, which is widely spoken island of 'New Guinea' - thé other plantationsto smalUioldercoffee are then extracted and washed complimentor enhanceexisting rubber and coffee. According to in PNG. Other methods used half, West Papua, is currently productionhas been a déclinein and then packed by hand. Thé 'low-tech' practices.Thé other Manning (2007, 165): in thé ethnographie profiling part of Indonesia.Much of thé cofifeequality andfluctuations in crop is then carried to roadside researchproject aims to work include thé use of field notes PNG side of New Guinea is now quantity (Batt andMurray-Prior or village-basedbuyers on foot, with farmersto improve cofifee Thé main constraints as seen and field sketches, as well as thé home of its coffee industry, 2007). Apart from thé inability which is where another main quality through assessmentand by thé farmers themselvesare digital photography. Officiai which constitutes thé highest to afford inputs, another issue problem,coffee thefit, can occur. improvement of postharvest transport, 'opérations' (fées, and media-based materials hâve foreignexchange eamings withia bas been thé variation in lite- At other times, coffee cherries Systems,from harvestto storage materials, and so on), access also beengathered, and thé use ÛO thé agricultural sector. PNG racy rates,and thereforeuptake are simply stolenfrom thé trees. through to local processingand to services, skills and law and of discourseanalysis will trace provides approximatelyone per of written information. Howe- Coffee theft bas become a source crop transport. A promise to order. Interestingly tribal fig- fluctuations in thé political cli- ^ cent of thé world's coffee (Batt ver, this is changing because of instant cashgain for thieves, both research projects is that hting, which is generallyblamed mate and its impacts on coffee and Murray-Prior 2007). most school-agedchildren can and loss for growers (Maika thé socio-cultural and économie for much of thé failure in thé production.Thé final taskofthis parents 2007; Simbiken2006). contexts coffee production mral informai sector, amounted paper is to provide a foreword e now read, even if their of ûQ Contrary to many other cannot.Another major problem hâvebeen intégral to progressing to only 0.2 percent of thérespon- to methods proposed for thé ^ coffee-growing circumstances, with coffee growing is thé issue Thé problem of coffee thé aims of thèse otherwise ses in this [National Research dissémination of information where a legacy of colonialism of coffee théft which bas had theft is thé result of a range highly scientific and technical Institute] survey. abouthighly flexible 'best prac- has left a culture of plantation- impacted on grower household of factors including issues of efforts to improve life in thé tice' optionsfor control ofCGS l based production, PNG coffee incomes. Unemployment rates dispossessionand poverty, and remotehighlands ofPapua New So thé task of this paper is and post-harvest techniques. 5 is overwhelmingly produced in PNG are difficult to establish; apparentlysome old clan-based Guinea.More thana décadeago, to report on thé ethnographie Thé overall aim of this paper is 0 by smallholders in far-flung there is no consensuson percen- animosities(but seeNRI quote Waridow (1993, 2) identified componentsof thé twoACIAR- to demonstrate thé efificacy of highland locations. Most tages.Thé CIAWorld Factbook, on nextpage). More information that: funded coffee research projects combining scientifîc and eth- growers in PNG hâve what for instance, statesthat in 2004, needsto be gatheredto build a (describedearlier) that build on nographic researchtechniques are known as 'coffee gardens', unemploymentwas between 2 firmer picture ofthis issue.And There is little ethnographie existmg research.Most signifi- by foregrounding thé benefits small plots of land with as few and 80 per cent (this last figure although thé researchprojects information concerning thé cantly this paper identifieshow for this kind of 'action oriented discussed hère will not direc- explosivespread ofsmallholder associatedethnographie research research', which is sometimes l as 20 coffee trees.By virtue of applied to urban areas (www. thé remoteness and thé context cia.gov/library/publications/the- tly addressthé issue of coffee coffee production in thé 1960s has informed otherwise highly described as 'critical action xA ofits low-tech production, most world-factbook/geos/pp.html). theft per se, two impediments and 1970s [in PNG]. Précise scientificprojects by identifying geographies'(Pain 2003). There PNG coffee is now 'organic' Thé establishmentof suchfigu- to income génération can be dataconceming thé social orga- thé socio-cultural and socio- is a growing awarenessamongst by international standards.Thé res is somewhatproblematic for addressed.This paperintroduces nization of labor or proportion économie contexts within which researchersworking in thé field increasingdemands of thé global a range of reasons, including two researchprojects that are ofland allocated to coffee is not fheyproceed. In thé sectionsthat of 'development' that socio- market for organic produce remoteness of thé population, working towardsimproving thé available. Nor do we know how follow, l will first provide a brief cultural and économie contexts therefore holds promise for and therefore lack of access to overall conditions ofcoffee pro- smallholders décide to allocate backgroundto thé oncecolonial of agricultural initiatives need PNG's coffee industry (Bacon people and data about them. duction in thé PNG highlands. their resources and manage project of coffee growing in to be assessed.This paper seeks 2005; CAB International2005). However, regardless of thé loca- potentially competing désires PNG, and outline some of thé to demonstrate thé lucrativeness A fine balance exists, however, tion ofmany smallholdercoffee Oneproject is concemed [... ] coffee production [...] contemporaryissues for thé pro- of trans-disciplinarity,of com- betweenmamtainmgthe'pristme' growers - and their extemality with identifying best practice continuesto hâvea gréâtimpact duction of coffee in this remote bining disciplinary paradigms nature of PNG coffee and thé to thé orbit of census statistics methodsto control a particularly on their [highlanders] lives . .. highland setting. Then, l will to enrich thé research process. suitability of its current means - they arefar from unemployed. insidious coffee pest (insect) recourse to other sources of cash briefly describethé frwoprqjects Many scientists, and indeed thé of productionfor local growers, There is, however, widespread know as Coffee Green Scalc are,for many,nonexistent. and thé organizationsinvolved fùnding body involved in thèse thé local écologies of food and under-employmentand poverty. (CGS),which has been estimated in thé research. Following this, PNG coffee projects, thé Aus- coffee growing, and thé relative A 2002 estimate put 37 per to account for from ten to fift} And overall,this stateof théethnographie components of tralian Centre for International paucity of inputs to production cent of thé population of PNG percent of current crop losses mertia bas rcmained for thé usual thé researcheffort thus far will AgriculturalResearch (ACIAR), practices. Smallholder coffee below thé poverty line (www. (CAB International2005). reasons(isolation of population, be discussed.Thé methods used hâve begun to appreciate thé
15 INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS contributionsto knowledgethat Thé crop is grown in small plots discussed later in this paper. distribution, impacts, biology ethnographieprovides for their on customarylands, along with and control of CGS in thé research endeavours.Reflecting fi-eshfoods and firewood (Batt and BACKGROUND TO THE coffee growing zones of PNG, on récent writings on 'action Murray-Prior2007).Subsistence RESEARCH PROJECTS and evaluating biological and research', in thé discipline of farmingis anessential part oflife other methods of controlling geography, participating and in thé highlandsand commonly Thé two projects CGS.An essentialaspect ofthis reportingon suchcollaborations sweet potato, winged beans, showcased hère are part of project bas involved taking into might well be described as a casuarinas and bananas can be a cluster of research projects account grower information. politics ofactivism. found growing amongstcoffee currentlyunderway in PNG,and A set of régional and national trees (Hanson, Allen, Bourke fimdedby thé AustralianCentre stratégiesfor wider évaluation Action and activism are sometimes McCarthey2001). for International Agricultural and implementation of CGS not mentioned [... becauseof] Although organic, and Research (ACIAR www. aciar. controls will ultimately be thé schism between thé messy suitablefor a bourgeoningniche gov.au). A third project, which developed. Dr Sean Murphy everyday practice and politics marketfor organicproduce, most hasbeen completed and extended, at CAB International in thé of research ... thé full extent ofPNG's coffeecrop is exported has investigatedthé marketing United Kingdom is thé project and nature of impacts outside to thé soluble coffee markets in PNG coffee in a globalised leader, and Mr Nelson Simbikin, thé academyare unknowable ... Germany,Australia and Japan. economy (www.aciar.gov.au/ thé Senior Entomologist at thé î/2 [however]'activismcanbecome A number of factors, including project/ASEM/2004/042). Coffee Research Institute (CRI, '^ a generativelocus of new ways end processingand difficulties which is a division of CIC), in of thinking ... ' (Pain 2003,651, with road accessto crops,hâve Thé project titled Aiyura in théPNG highlands, co- 652 and quoting Ruddick). contributed to thé relative low 'Sustainable management of ordinatesail aspectsof théproject § priéesreceived for smallholder Coffee Green Scales in Papua (Mr PotiasaHombunaka is thé l It is from within thé coffee.Thé implications of low New Guinea Project' aims to director of CRI) (www.aciar.gov. somewhat messy everyday or falling coffeepriées for PNG develop and foster uptake of au/project/ASEM/2004/047). practiceofPNG-based research hâvebeen profound; household biological control over other Thé project titled 'Assessment l that we provide this report on mcomesare also directly afFected integratedstratégies for CGS.Thé and improvement of quality 5 highland grown coffee. (Batt and Murray-Prior 2007). projectis currentlydocumenting managementduring postharvest Thé implicationsofthis will be baseline information on thé processing and storage of
Papua New Guinea coffee production Coffee production in small-scale cash cropping of coffee industry remain strong. l thé highlands of PNG began coffee has prevailed (Rannells As Sinclair (1995, 387) bas in thé early 1950s. Growing 1995). Thé Coffee Industry observée'politics and coffeego 03 conditions were perfect for Corporation Ltd (CIC 2007, hand-in-hand' in PNG. high-quality Arabica beans,and p. l) attributes this survival to coffee priées at that time were smallholder 'independence and COFFEE TODAY high. Investmentensued but by in-builtresilience' and simplicity thé 1970s,priées had dropped in farming techniques.Accordmg Thereare currently three (Denoon and Snowden 1981). to Millett (1990), thé PNG main growing régionsof coffee By independencein 1975,many Government also encouraged in PNG, thé Eastem and Western plantationowners had abandoned and assisted smallholders to Highlands provinces and thé their plots. Coffeepriées crashed continuecoffee production. Simbu (or Chimbu) province. following market deregulation Thé CIC currently Coffee growing occursbetweeG by thé then InternationalCoffee régulâtesPNG's coffeeindustry thé altitudes of 4,000 to 8,000 Organization,in 1989.This was through thé provision of feet, where favourable climatic particularlydevastating for small licences to exporters, as well factorsandvolcanic soils provide growers as production costs as working with growers and an optimal enviromnentfor thé beganto exceedthé priée being researchers to improve coffee crop.Thèse days, approximately obtainedfor coffee(Pendergrast crops (Raimells 1995).Thé ties 250,000 smallholders produce 2001,Waiko 1993).Despite this, between govemments and thé 80-90percent ofPNG's coffee.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 17 growerlevel. Extension questions 92 per centofgrowers use coffee and to gain fùrther insights into aboutpost-harvest methods were pulpers,but thé surveyindicated thé lives of thé PNG farmers, also asked. inconsistencies in how thèse and thé specti-umof otherwise were used. Varions methods for unpredicteddétails that may arise CRI researchers drying coffee were found, but (Hay2000;Burgessl982). approached coffee growers thé vast majority (80 per cent) using formai (established use 'canvas'(plastic sheets). through previous extension Implications for CGS from This very thorough work) and informai networks. current ethnographie Thé researchers filled out thé survey also indicated thé gaps surveys for thé participants, in questions asked. Another data who were well infonned about large-scale survey instrument ail aspectsof thé research.CRI will be administered towards researcherswere well-equipped thé end of thé project timelines, Thé statistical analysis to pay due respect and use of in 2009. In thé meantime, Phase of détails gatheredin Phase 2 culturally-appropriateprotocols. 2 of thé ethnographieprofiling showed more détail about farmer Permissions were, of course, ofhighland coffee growerswas incomes over time, labour input ÛQ gained before any survey or implementedin March 2007. - particularly thé gendering of interviewprocess, and individual labour - knowledge on CGS l farmer identifies hâve been and control practices. Thé PHASE 2 G<2 protected; they will remain research explored thé capacity ^ coffee in Papua New Guinea' aspects thé projects. Ms Susan of labour at thé varions stages anonymous. for adopting technologies that is working to improve quality May Inu, from CRI, and her team thé process,money spent and of may be introduced once thé best l through thé assessment and of dedicated extension officers income eamed,and othermajor Thé results of this first In thé 2nd phase of practiceshâve beenestablished improvement of postharvest hâve carried out thé bulk of thé variables (in général,and with stage indicated that farmers use ethnographie surveying, through thé research process. Systems for wet processing, ethnographie work. addedemphases on présenceof coffee production as a 'cash nearly 200 farmer groups l drying and storing smallholder cofifeepests and control methods, crop' (often for school fées). participated from thé East Thé level of détail cofîee.While farmerprocessing ETHNOGRAPHIC andpost-harvest techniques). AU Coffee production remains thé Highlandsprovince. Thé results gatheredabout growers and their has thé potential to improve data génération methods were COMPONENT source of incarne over and above corroboratedthé first survey,and crop basmeant fhat it is now clear returns by slowing quality carried out in a semi-formal subsistence.Food production a moremixed-methods approach that CGSbas spread through thé détériorationand cuttiag transport way, with free interchanges is still thé mainstayof survival provided interview data, field highlands. Thé pathways for costs, inadéquate processing, In large part, thé betweenproject staff and local for most households.Although notes and photographs. Focus this spread, and methods to drying or storageand thé lack of ethnographie component of stakeholders.Thé data generated l land is sometimesowned, it is groups were also conductedto contain it, are currently under consistencyhas meant a réduction thé two research projects bas bas been sufficiently sfa-uctured often shared. This first stage identify thé différent factors investigation.Generally, coffee 00 in priées, and reliability ofcoffee been combined with some to obtain statisticallysignificant survey also established amounts that impact on décisionsabout growersbuy seedsthen use thé supply. Dr Robert Driscoll at separate project-specific data quantitative détails, as well eamedfi-om coffee growing, and farm budget, CGS management crop for propagation. However, thé University of New South génération.Prior to commencing qualitative information. thé rôles in coffee production. (more prévalent in this part of if seedlings are obtained, by Walesin Australia is thé project thé ethnographiework, ethical A significant finding, that thé highlands)and Post Harvest purchase or other method, CGS leader and Mr Nosare Maika at clearance was sought and PHASE l corroboratedprevious research, practices(Maika 2007).Thé use may be présent. When thèse CRI co-ordinates ail aspects of gained (from thé University thé stage more In first was that women and children are of semi-structured interviewiag détails are fully established, this project (www.aciar.gov. of New South Wales). Using than 500 farmer groups were primarily responsiblefor cofifee enabledCRI researchersto avoid educational materials about CGS au/projecb/ASEM/2004/017). a mixed-methods format, this surveyed.This largescale survey production(Ayisi 2004;Hanson limitations arising from thé - whatit is,how to identifyit, how researchhas been implemented instrument was administered in et al. 2001). It is now clear that rigidity of questionnaire-basedit spreads and what to do about Through an agreement in stages to provide a detailed thé three main coffee growing more than 65 per cent of coffee surveys(Cloke 2004; Wax 197l). it - will be developed.Currently, with thé funding body, ACIAR démographieprofile ofhighland areas- Eastand West Highlands, productiondone by women and Further in-depth interviewing, growers do not see CGS as a and thé research teams, both coffee growers, as well as an andSimbu (Chimbu) (Figure l). children(Figure 2). Whencash to be completed later in thé problem unless seedlingshâve projectshâve includedthé input understanding of thé nature of This survey askedquestions that is scarce, school fées are often project timeline, will allow died as a result of infestation. of a 'collaborative scientist', a enduring problems for relevant were largely generic to thé two not paid. As girls are required researchersto better understand There is confiision about CGS geographer, Dr Wendy Shaw stakeholders, particularly thé projects.They were désignéeto to participate in coffee cherry thé 'activities and events which and thé présenceofants. from thé University New growers. generated a profile of Datahas been draw socio-economic picking,their éducation is a lower cannot be directly observed' South Wales,Australia, who is on where coffee is grown, time of coffee production, and pnority. With coffeeprocessing, (Minichieiïoet al. 1995,p. 70), CRI extension officers responsiblefor thé ethnographie spent on production, divisions opérations of thé industry at
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 19 are now working on ways to stored within thé house for an existing NGO that currently Thémclusion of théethnographie économieissues - mustproceed. Small-ScaleFanner Vulnerability in Northem Nicaragua,World Develop- bettereducate growers about thé safety,which is not necessarily utilizes a range of information component in thé two highly At a récent planning meeting m ment, vol. 33, n. 3, p. 497-511 spécifies thé CGS problem. good for drying. Coffee is ofiten dissémination technologies. of scientifîc and technical coffee Port Moresby,thé CGS project BATT, R. and MURRAY- Thé research indicates that some processed to what is known organizationproduces radio This projectsshowcased in thispaper leaderput it thus: PRIOR P.J. 2007. Emergingpossibili- coffeegrowers do usetechniques as thé 'parchment' stage, broadcasts and low-cost DVD has proved to be a positive ties and constraints to PNG smalUiolder to control CGS, and thèse are which may not be necessaryor movies, and taps into a current and fruitful engagement in socio-economicaspects splice cofifeeproducers entering thé speciality being tested for effectiveness. désirablefor quality. Levels of enfertainment pastime in thé interdisciplinary research. In into ecologyofCGS in PNG ... coffee market, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, From hère, régional and national over-processing may need to highlands gathering local of in this case 'hard-core' science, [it is a] humanmediated ecology Australian Govemment stratégies for wider évaluation be addressed, which will also halls. In thé final stagesof thé carried out by scientists who ... thé ability [to solve thé CGS BURGESS,R. G. 1982.Field and implementation of CGS improve grower time budgets. ethnographie research, thèse arepassionate about appropriate problem, or leara to live with Research: A Sourcebook aad Field control will be developed. Generally speaking, and by ideas will be canvassed with agricultural development- in it] is dépendenton thé people Manual, London, Allen and Uawin. région, thé data has indicated coffee growers who may well thé case of controlling CGS, involved (SeanMuqïhy, 14 Oct CAB International. 2005. ProjectDocument, Sustainable Mana- Implications for postharvest that thé affordability of inputs hâve ideas of their own. Thèse 06, Pt Moresby). and implementing appropriate gement of Coffee Green Scales in techniques from current to improve coffee production détailswill providea soundbasis postharvest technologies PapuaNew Guinea,Australian Centre ethnographie data quality vary slightly but overall upon which to build a set of - has been informed by thé In sucha globally driven for InternationalAgricultural Research, is low. There is room to consider régional and national stratégies establishment of thé socio- and volatile industry as coffee Australian Govemment. thé establishmentofcollectively for infonnation dissémination cultural and économie contexts production, thé socio-cultural CLOKE,P (2004)Practising Results show that current ownedtechnologies. about CGS and its control, and socio-economic contexts Human Geography, London, SAGE of coffee production in thé Publications. postharvesttechniques are 'low and appropriate postharvest remote highlands of PNG. For of local production is essential COFFEEINDUSTRY COR- l tech', with higher adoption of technologies. both 'sides' of thé research information to ensuring any PORATION LTD. 2007. Story of Proposed dissémination t/2 cheaperpractices (such as thé emphasis this process has fomi of research, including thé Cofifeein PapuaNew Guinea,viewed use of 'canvas'/plastic sheets inethods of Hexiblc 'best projectsdescribed hère, proceed 28 August 2007, Conclusions proved enlightening. Many drying cofifee). There an www.coffeecorp.org.pg/Cofifeepercen- l for is practice5 sessions 'brainstorming' from an informed perspective. of t20inpercent20PNG.html ovemseofwater, and stratégies ideas hâve occurred involving Ethnographieprofiling cangene- DENOON, D. and for effective management As well as utilising It is not always easy researchers from thé United rated unique, context-specific SNOWDEN,C. Eds. 1981.ATime to of waste disposai need to be existing networks established work alone,to cany out research Kingdom, Australia and PNG. sets of détails, and in this case, Plant and a Time to Uproot: A History l developed.Currently, too much through extension work, and thé that is informed by one Extensionofficers hâve proved aboutan industry's most vulne- of Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby,Institute of PapuaNew waste flows into rivers and ethnographieresearch process, disciplinary paradigm. to be thé most informed on râblé but most important compo- Guinea Studies. streams. Theft is a huge issue, thé projects plan to collaborate local coffeegrowing issues,and nent - thé peoplewho grow thé HANSONL. W.,ALLEN B.J., and means that coffee is often with Mr Steve Layton, from their input hasbeen invaluable. product. Thèsekinds of ethno- BOURKE R.M andMcCARTHEY T. J. They hâvedeveloped long-term graphiedata génération projects 2001, PNG Rural Development Han- relationshipswith coffeegrowers hâvethepotential to infonn any dbook, Canberra, Australian National University. l through extensionwork. They scientific endeavours that, at HAY, I. (ED) 2000.Qualita- hâveintimate knowledgeof thé their core, strive for enhanced tive ResearchMethods in Human Geo- û0 worlds ofPNG highland grown enviromnental and socialjustice. graphy,Meridian sériesin Geography, coffeeand its producers. Such 'action research' based Melbourne,Oxford University Press. projects,that seekto improvethé HOLLAND COFFEE CROUP. 2000. Papua New Guinea: local lives ofthose at thé bottom of thé For thé foreign and Organic Purosa, viewed 29 August scientists and social scientists, global commodity chain, must 2007, www.holandcoffee.com/papua- extensionofficers and, hopefiilly, also be acknowledgedfor their newguinea.htm. thé coffee growers this bas activism in research practice MAIKA N. 2007. ACIAR beena rewardingand ongoing andin their opennessto différent ASEM/2004/017 Project Progressive 2nd QuarterReport, Coffee Research relationship. In thé realm of paradigms. Institute Aiyura, PNG. scholarship,thé scientistshâve REFERENCES MANNING M. 2007. Papua expressed their enthusiasm for New Guinea'sstratégie plan for agri- thiskind of ethnographiework, AYISI, R. 2004. Yeaming to culture. Pacifie Economie Bulletin Vol. which hasproved essential for Leam, but deniedthé right, UNICEF 22N. 3,p.l63-172. MILLET, J. 1990.Economie understandingthé contexts within PapuaNew Guinea - Real Lives, viewed17 August 2007, www. unicef. Nationalism in Papua New Guinea: whichthèse kinds ofaction-based org/reallives_3919.html. Institutions and Instruments. Policy, projects - in locations with their BACON, C. 2005. Confroa- own setsof social,political and ting théCoffee Crisis: Can Fair Trade, Organic,and Speciality CofFees Reduce
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 21 MDSTICHELLOV, ROSALIE ScaleReport, 6-10 November,Cofifee A., TIMEWELLE. andALEXANDER. ResearchInstitute Aiyura, PNG. L. 1995.In-Dqpth Interview: Principles, SB40ND. 1997.Development Techniques, Analysis, Sydney, Reconsidered; New Directions in Longman. Development Thinking. Geografiska MURPHY, S.T. 1991.Insect Anaaler: SériesB, HumanGeography, Natural Enemies of Coffee Green Vol. 79, n. 4, p. 183-201. Wendy S. Scales[Hemiptera: Coccidae] in Kenya SINCLAIR, J. 1995. Thé Shaw is Senior Lecturer and their Potential for Biological Money Tree: Coffee in Papua New in Geography School Control ofCocciis celatus and C. viridis Guinea, Bathurst, Crawford House of Biolosical Earth and in PapuaNew Guinea,Entomophaga, Publishing. Environmental Sciences vol.36,n.4,p.519-529. WAIKO, J.D. 2001. A By Andrew Eastand Les Anthony Dawes PAIN, R. 2003. Social Short History of PapuaNew Guinea, University ofNSW Sydney geography:on action-orientedresearch,Melbourne,Oxford University Press. 2052 Australia Email: Progressin HumanGeography vol. 27, WARDLOW, H. 1993. w.shaw@unsw edu.au n.5, p.649-657. "Women Are Our Coffee": Historical Susan May Inu, Coffee PENDERGRAST,M. 2001. Factors and Current Variables in Research InstituteAiyura Uncommon Grounds:Thé History of SmallholderCofFee Production in Papua Coffee and How It Transformed Our New Guinea,Emory University Papua New Guinea Worid, New York, Texere Publishing WAX, R.H. 1971, Doing Gemma Smart School ai Ltd. Fieldwork: Warnings and Advice, of Biological Earth and RANNELLS, J. 1995.PNG: Chicago, Thé University of Chicago Environmental Sciences A fact book on modem PapuaNew Press. University ofNSW Sydney l Guinea, Oxford, Oxford University WILD, A. 2004.Black Gold: 2052 Australia ai Press. A Dark History of Coffee, London, d SIMBIKEN N. A. 2006. HarperPerennial. ÛO Preliminary Survey of CofifeeGreen l l l
ABSTRACT ÛQ
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. he Republic of Kiribati is a redevelopment of large areas agroforestrySystems could hâve small, highly infertile Pacifie of Govemment owned land for beyonda homegardensetting in island nation and is one of thé urban settlement. Buthow should a fiitureplanned urban settlement mostchallenging locations in thé such settlements be désignée? scenano. worldto attemptto supportdense urbanpopulations. In thépast 50 Research has shown how This study, investigates years,Kiribati basexperienced a urbanagroforestry Systems such thé issues surrounding thé dramaticpopulation shift from ashomegardens hâve tremendous deliberate inclusion of urban outlying islands towards thé potential to achievea variety of agroforestry Systemsin future capital and only urban centa-e, development goals in urban planned urban settlements in SouthTarawa. Thé tremendous areasrelating to food security, Kiribati. Results show, that land pressuresassociated with nutrition, waste management although urban agroforestry is urbanchange in Kiribati hâve andemployment. However, little a highly sustainableland use it resulted in thé Government research has been undertaken faces two main challenges in of Kiribati consideringthé into thé potentialrôle that urban Kiribati. Firstly, people'sperce-
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAJRS 23 ption that urban agroforestry Pacifie Océan. An atoll environ- agreed définition ofthis concepi Systems are a relatively low mentis oneof thé mostmarginal cornes from thé Brundtland value land use and secondlythé locations in which to support report (World Commission or général inability of thé Kiribati humansettlement(Kunzel1996: Environment and Developmem Government to effectively 141; Lawrence 1992: 264). In 1987: 43) where sustainabîc regulateurban land uses.While général,thé majority ofislands developmentis definedas, 'deve. significant constraints need to in Kiribati can be described as lopment which meetsthé needs be overcome, it is argued that ribbon-like, long skinny cres- of thé présent without corn- thé planned inclusion of urban cent landmasses with océan on promising thé ability of future agroforesfay Systemsat a whole one side and a shallow sheltered générationsto meet their own ofsettlement scale is essential to lagoonon thé other.Thèse atolls needs'. While acknowledgin^ thé responsibledesign of future are rarely more than three métrés thé ambiguity inhérent in thé urban settlement in Kiribati. abovethé level ofhigh-tide with conceptof sustainability,in this sandy soils that are some of thé study sustainableurbanisation is KEY WORDS: Kiribati, home- most infertile on earth (Small definedas thé developmentofaii gardening, sustainable deve- 1972: 5-9; Thaman 1990b: 6). urban settlement where thé wise lopment, Micronesia, urban Extended human settlement is stewardship of limited means agroforestry only possiblein anatoll environ- créâtes an appropriate legacy t. ment due to thé fi-esh water lens for future générations (Lawi) that hydrostaticallyfloats on thé 2001: 21). In this way, while BACKGROUND TO higher density saltwater beneath thé marginal and fragile nature e URBANISATION IN manyof thé largerislands. Thus, of life on atolls is widely acce- KIRIBATI thé Republic of Kiribati faces pted (Small 1972:5-9; Thamac l someof thé greatestchallenges 1990b: 6), thé possibility that of thé divide between urban and mral associatedwith achievingsustai- such constraints should funda- lands uses.As a result, urban settlements i nable urbanisationanywhere in mentally change thé approacli in Kiribati face 'some of thé worst R Thédeveloping nation of thé world. to thé design ofurban centres is modemchallenges associated with human Kiribati is populatedby around not. Consequently,currenturbas g population growth, urbanization (sic), 92,500 peopleand is comprised Sustainability means developmentin Kiribati pursues imported food dependency,pollution, of 33 isolated coral atolls scat- différent things to différent a cousis- vision of urban living limitednatural resources (at least terrestrial tered around thé equatorin thé people. Thé most universally tent with industrialised notions resources),geographical isolation and impact from global warming' (Thomas 2002:166). \' i In thé past 50 years,Kiribati has ÛO
170'MARSHALL 180" 170' » ÏW experienceda dramatic population shifit ' . ISLAM)S FAUmiA* from outlying islands (outer islands) rTERAINA towardsthé capitaland only urbancentre, »M;»MN NOSTHPACIFIC OCEAN » BUTAIUTAM TÀBCAOWN SouthTarawa (Macdonald 2001: 216). ABAI,WO-.'MARAKEI » TARAWA convergence migrants o 500km KuamMATi Thé ofouterisland MOWW©_ m^^mwA ; BAKER SCALE on South Tarawabas been driven by a 0°> KU>UA>1ÀRANUKA ARWS. ^ varietyofpush andpull factorsassociated ^BA^
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 25 Thé tremendousland pressures urban agroforestrySystems? development of Government urbanareas in a cohérent,holistic Thé tenu agroforestry years of research expérience associatedwith urban change owned land in South Tarawa and timely way so as to ensure has been defined by various into 12 différent Pacifie island in Kiribati has resulted in hâve ail beensuggestedas future livable and sustainable towns' authors including Nair (1993: nations, key publications on thé Government of Kiribati Sustainable urbanisation settlement options (Hockings (Butcher-Gollachet al. 2007a: 13),Thaman and Clarke (1993: homegardeningin thé Pacifie considering thé redevelopment and future planned urban et al. 2004; MELAD 2003: 14). To achieve this Butcher- 10) and Rogers and Thorpe include Thaman (1977; 1988; of large areas of Govemment settlements in Kiribati 50). Despite thé diversity ot Gollachet al. (2007a)recommend (1999, sec. l: 2). While many 1990a; 1993; 1995; 2004) and owned land for urban settlement development stratégies, a a Sustainable Towns Program of thé concepts in each of Thaman,Elevitch andKennedy (AsianDevelopment Bank 2004, commonfeature of thé majority (STP)be implemented over a five thèse définitions exists, it is (2006).Despite thé large number 2005; Butcher-Gollach et al. South Tarawa plays of resettlement proposais is yearperiod. According to thétitle important to adopt a définition of publications by Professer 2007a; Hockings et al. 2004). an important rôle in national their orientation towards land ofthis donor initiative, achieving of agroforestry and more Thamanon urban agroforestry Thé opportunity to redevelop coordination,formmg a collective that is owned by thé Kiribati sustainable development in specifîcally urban agroforestry in thé Pacifie, thé core thesis of ail of thèse works remains thé a large tract of Government sensé of national identity Govemment(Asian Development urban centres of Kiribati is a that recognisesthé distinctive ÛQ owned land présentsa valuable and providing an alternative Bank 2006; Butcher-Gollach et high priority for both thé Kiribati nature ofurban cultivation m thé same.In brief, that thé promo- opportunity to redress issues to rural life (Larmour 1982: al. 2007a;Hockings et al. 2004; Govemment and associated donor Pacifie. Thus, in this study thé tion, préservationand improve- of sustainable urbanisation in 8). However, it is generally MELAD 2003). organisations. définition of "agroforestry" in ment ofurban agroforestryand l Kiribati andexplore locally based acknowledgedthat thé current thé Pacifie in Thaman, Elevitch in particular homegardening dÛO alternatives to industrialised state of urbanisation in South Future urban settlement and Wilkinson (2000: 4) is is one of thé most direct, cost- c^ URBAN RENEWAL ï^ notions of "urban" and "mral". Tarawais unsustainable(Bryant- has also been a feature of other combined with thé définition effective and culturally/ecolo- In particular, publications on Tokalau& Kumarasuriyar1994: KIRIBATI reports into urbanisation in of "urban" as associated gically appropriate means of development and agriculture in 87; Butcher-Gollach et al. 2007b: Kiribati (Hockings et al. 2004). with seulement within city achieving sustainable develop- l ro Kiribati (Peduzzi 1999; Thaman 109; Larmour 1982:7). In early 2007, a team Thé Queensland University boundaries, to define to urban ment and meeting thé majority 1990b; Thomas 2002) and thé A strong and proactive of consultants undertook thé of Technology (QUT) began agroforestryas thé: of thé development goals of 5 Pacifie (Kuchelmeister 1998; vision for future urban Kiribati UrbanRenewal Program preliminary investigations in Pacifie nations (Thaman 1988: Thaman 1995; Thaman, Elevitch developmentin Kiribati is needed Scoping Study (KURPSS) 011 2004 into thé large scale deliberate planting and pro- 174,1995:223;Thaman, Elevi- l & Kennedy 2006) advocate to address thé environmental, behalf of New Zealand Agency urban settlement of a pièce of tection of trees and forestry in tch & Kennedy2006: 26). thé potential of simple organic social and économiechallenges for International Development Government owned land in an and around agricultural sys- 5 agricultural Systemsto address of sustainingurban populations (NZAID) and thé Australian area of South Tarawa known as tems within city boundaries,in In urban areas,Thaman, many of thé development in anatoll environment.In regard Agency for International Temaiku. Thé QUT resettlement order to improve or maintain Elevitch and Keimedy (2006: problemsassociated with urban to improvingurban management Development (AusAID). plan advocatesa stagedmaster thé short-term and long-term 32) remark that urban agrofo- i living. Suchagricultural Systems practicesin SouthTarawa, a récent Thé purpose of thé study planning approachwhere waste, économieproductivity, cultural restryin thé Pacifietakes one of C/2 arecommonly included within thé report on urban managementin was to 'establish thé priorities water, transport infrastructure unity, andecological stability of two fonns, either on "homegar- tenu urbanagriculture (Mougeot Kiribati states that 'thé costs and define thé scope ofan urban andagroforestry food production agriculturalSystems. den land" or on "undeveloped 2006; RUAF 2007; Smit, Ratta of doing nothing are extremely renewal developmentpartnership would be strategically planned land" where no buildings exist & Nasr 1996). Thé aim ofthis high' (Butcher-Gollach et al. to address thé development at a broad scale to create an Prior to thé introduction such(playing fields, parks, road study is to explore thé rôle of 2007b:109). Stratégies for future impacts of urbanization (sic) integrated and sustainable urban of urban living in thé Pacifie, frontagesand vacant lots). From urban agroforestry Systemsin urban developmentare likely to Kiribati' (Butcher-Gollach et seulement (Hockings et al. agroforestry Systemssuch as this perspective, any urban futureplanned urban settlements involve both thé development 2007a:4). 2004).Thé Kiribati Govemment family food gardens were a agroforestrySystems outside a in Kiribati. More precisely, this of new growth centres and Thé ensuing reports is currently seeking funding common feature ofmral settle- homegardensetting is viewed study investigates thé strengths thé revitalisation of existing recommended that in addition for this projectfrom thé United ments(Malolo, Matenga-Smith as a temporary land use to and weaknesses associated with settlements. to continuingto pursuea growtt NationsDevelopment Corporation & Hughes 1999: 66). For this occupy vacant spacesaround reserving thé most productive In particular, thé policy for thé outer islands,thé (UNDC).An importantfeature of reason urban agroforestry in urban centres. While this defi- land in future planned urban consolidation of existing land, Kiribati Government should, thisproposai was thé composting homegardensremains a ubiqui- nition, reflects current practice settlementsfor food producing réclamation of new land and 'address thé conditions in thé oforganicwaste to encouragethé tous feature ofurban landscapes in thé Pacifie (Kuchelmeister developmentofurban agroforestry in thé Pacifie (Thaman 1993: 1998), it leaves little room for imtiativessuch as homegardening 145). thé deliberate management, (Hockingset al.2004:21). conservationand development Urban agroforestryhas of trees in urban settlements Answers in thé past: been a field ofresearch ofPro- beyondthé homegardensetting Agroforestry and fessor Randy Thaman of thé in a planned seulementscénario. homegardeningin thé University of thé SouthPacifie This researchgap is addressed Pacifie for many years. With over 30 in this study.
27 RESEARCH within this settlement scénario. Kiribati; production?Following this mterview dialogue. Systems include: improved METHODS homegardenersin Soutl question,participants were asked living conditions, réduction Thé nature of thé Tarawa; what they believed was thé of urban densities, improved . consultants or volunteers public health resulting from above investigation informs potentialof théabove approach RESULTS Thé methodology in a qualitative problem solving with over six monthsexpérience for making urban living on consumptionof more nutritious this study is developedaround approach where thé opinions living in South Tarawa or atolls more sustainable? Ail food and increasedagricultural thé conceptof an "illustrative" of urban résidents are collected yearsin thé Pacifie région. participantswere able to answer Potentialbenefitsof thé deliberate educationalopportunities. or "typical" model of future and analysed with référence thé first question. However, it inclusion of urban aproforestry planned urban settlement in to thé cultural constructs in Participants fr was found during interviews, Systems Kiribati. In this way, literature which they exist. In this way, thèse groups were recruited thathomegardening participants On an économie level, on thé typical atoll environment thé importance of recognising through personal contacts weregenerally unable to answer it was believed that urban in Kiribati (Hockings 1989: thé attitudes, values and needs within thé Kiribati Govemment, thé secondquestion because of Developing a clear agroforestry Systemswere an 83; Liew 1990: 82; Small of future urban résidents directs homegardenerorganisations and their low éducation and therefore plan for a more sustainable affordable, low technology 1972: 5-9; Thaman 1990b: data collection procédures consultancy community. Thé a lack ofunderstanding ofwhat future was thé key thème solution to many urban 6), typical urban household towardsobtaining well informed number of participants in this "sustainability"actually meant. underlying participants' belief problems.Participants identified (Govemmentof Kiribati 2006) interview datafrom participants study reflectstime and resource in thé benefîts of reservingthé thé potential for urban food socio-culturalparticulars within capableofcommumcating a deep consti-amtsratherthan a particulai In caseswhere participants most productive land in future productionto assisthouseholds urban settlements (Bryant- understanding ofcultural, urban sampling requirement.Despite could not communicate in planned urban settlementsfor générale income and save Tokalau & Kumarasuriyar 1994; living, agricultural,planning and thèse constraints, this numbei English,thé services ofan elderly food production. Throughout money through not having to l Butcher-Gollach et al. 2007b; nutritional issues in Kiribati. was sufficient to adequately I-Kinbati translater were used. interviews, numerous références purchase food and creating Larmour 1982; Roniti Teiwaki & answer thé researchquestions Thé assistance of a translater, were made to thé potential of employment.'You can sell your s Associâtes2004) andfuture urban due to thé depth and breath proved an effective means of urban agroforestry Systemsto vegetablesand you get a lot of l settlement (Butcher-Gollach et In this study, data of knowledge of participant overcoming communication produce a variety of benefits food fi'om your own vegetables' al. 2007a;Hockings et al. 2004)} collection focused on thé responses. andcultural barriers particularly through thé use of culturally (interview extract). Similarly, is used to establish a settlement following three participant in regard to interviewing acceptabletechnologies, while urbanagroforestry Systems such l scénariothat présents an accurate groups,each of 13 participants: During thé interview, homegardenparticipants. at thé same time preventing as composting technologies R vision of future planned urban participants were asked what thé création of, 'unsustainable were seen to potentially create settlements in Kiribati. Thé . educated they believedwere thé goodand Followingthé completion urban circumstances' (interview new jobs for urban résidents. deliberateincorporation ofurban Government employées with thé bad things about reserving of interviews, interview extract). In this way, numerous Furthermore, thé capacity of agroforestrySystems on thémost expérience in urban planning, thé most productive land in transcriptswere typed out word participantsidentified oneof thé urban agroforestry Systems to productiveland is then explored agriculture and nutrition in urban settlements for food pro- for word and then analysed main benefits of thé deliberate increase thé self sufficiently using qualitative analysis inclusion of urban agroforestry of urban settlements was also l techniques. Qualitative data Systemsas thé developmentof identifiedbecause,'peoplehave analysisrequires making sensé a clear plan for a sustainable spaceto plant their own food, î/2 of thèmesand concepts contained future. Speaking in regard to ratherthan dépend on food fi-om within interviews through urban agroforestry Systems, thé store' (interview extract). codingparticipant références to one participant stated that, Finally, urban agroforestry différent conceptualcatégories. 'we need to hâve a healthy Systemsin fiiture plaimedurban According to Ezzy (2002: 86) populationwithm thérestrictions settlements were also believed thé purpose of coding is to of our environment' (interview to be associated with a variety 'develop a systematicaccount extract). of ecologicalbenefits including of what has been observed and orgamc waste management, recorded' by organising data Thé thème ofsustainable préservation of local ecosystems according to common thèmes urbanisation can be further and thé absorption of carbon andcatégories that émergefrom categorised according to thé dioxide from thé atmosphère. thé data. Thematic analysis différent benefits of urban In this way, by using organic is one analysis technique that agroforestry Systems across compostmgmethods, 'thé land uses coding to identify and socio-cultural, économie will become rich and recover' contextualisesuch thèmes (Ezzy and ecological fields. On a and people can help, 'clean 2002: 88). Thematicanalysis socio-cultural level identified thé environment' (interview was used in this study to code benefits of urban agroforestry extract).
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 29 DISCUSSIONS 0F inclusion of urban agroforestry are necessary. This is because RESULTS Systemsin future plarmedurban extemalities such as thé overall settlements in Kiribati are no ecological integrity of urban différent from otherparts of thé settlementsare not prioritised Acommontheme:sustainability world. While certain similarities by individual households and and literature on agroforestry exist, thé marginal nature of thereforerequire some level of and homegardening maintaining high density urban protection from Government settlements on a fragile atoll organisations.Thus, thé marginal It is generallyrecognised environmentcréâtes a variety of nature ofurban settlement in an by existing literature that thé newopportunities and constramts atoll environment can be used concept of sustainability is for urban agroforestrySystems. as an argument in support of closelylinked with agroforestry. As Thomas(2002: 166) states, initiatives such as thé deliberate Thé conceptof sustainabilityis 'South Tarawa currently faces inclusion of urban agroforestiy itself included in many of thé some of thé worst modem Systemsin future plannediirban définitions ofagroforestry (Nair challenges associated with settlements. This is because 1993: 28). This is particularly human population growth, wastemanagement, employment, évident in thé title of publications urbanization (sic), imported food insecurity and nutritional ÛQ such as Clarke and Thaman food dependency, pollution, problems are generally (1993) 'Agroforestry in thé limitée natural resources (at compounded by increasing l Pacifie islands: Systems for least terrestrial resources), densitiesyet assistéeby urban sustainability'. Furthermore, geographical isolation and agroforestry Systems.As one § ÛO sustainability is a central impact from global warming'. participant stated, 'population ^ component of literature on Enviromnental conservation on increase, thé land decrease and Potential constraints thé of during interview. Thèse productivelanduses. In this way, homegardening(Nair & Kumar thé face of developmenttakes fheir costsincrease from imports, deliberate inclusion urban of include: a perceptionthat urban one participant believed that due 2006). Finally, publications on a new level of importance so push them to acceptto work agroforestrySystems agroforestry is an impediment to thé, 'domestic pressiire that on agriculture in Kiribati also in such conditions (Thomas & by themselves,to producetheir 5 further urban growth; infertility exists forpeople to live on South acknowledgethé needfor 'more Tonganibeia2006). own food and enrich their own Despite thé wide range of thé atoll environment; theft Tarawa, people seeland which is sustainablelanduse Systems' such land; otherwisethey will cause benefits associated thé of with of urban produce; général lack notbeing lived on asbeing a waste as homegardensto encourage Assuming thé regular their own crisis' (interview inclusion of urban agroforestry of agricultural knowledge of of space' (interview extract). local résidents to 'become more supply of imported food , thé extract). lands in future planned urban urban résidents;cost of leasing Thus, some participants felt that self-reliant' (Thomas 2002: marginal nature of sustaining settlements,numerous criticisms or buying productive land; if urban résidents challenged 167).Considering thé consistent urban settlements in an atoll Sustainability in theory and ofthis conceptwere also raised further depletion ofurban water productive land use of l thé référence to sustainability environment decreases urban practice during interviews. This was resources from agricultural urban agroforestry lands, thé in related literature, it is not résidents' incentive to invest î^ despite thé général belief that crops;contamination ofproduce Govermnent would be unwillùig surprising that results identified in urban food Systems due to On a theoretical level, such an approachwas a, "good from urbanpollutants; busyness to impose necessary controls, "sustainabledevelopment" as thé land infertility, theft ofproduce, little argument exists against idea in theory". A recurring ofurbanrésidents; préférence for This is because thé Govermnent central thème around which thé contamination of food from thé inclusion of agroforestry thème in thé interview data was importedfoods and thé tendency is, 'not very big on enforcing benefits of urban agroforestry urban pollutants and land Systemsin future planned urban thé lack of demand from urban of projects in Kiribati to 'fade laws and régulations' (extract Systemsin future plannedurban affordability and availability settlements in Kiribati as, 'it résidentsfor urban agroforestry away' with time (interview from interview COl). In support settlementscould be clustered. issues. Combining thèse makes a lot of sensé from ail lands compared to other land extract). of this argument, participants limitations with thé poor history perspectives'(interview extract). uses such as housing. 'There's made référence to existing Impactof thémarginal nature of of Government régulation However on a practical level, not a big push for productive Thé lack of demand for difficulties of evicting squatters atollseulement on thé importance provides a strong argument thé inclusion of such Systems land' (interviewextract); 'people productiveland in futureplanned firom Govemment leased land, ofurban food production against thé potential of urban is clearly limited by peuples' will obviously use thé land urbansettlements directly impacts Thé pressureof urban growth, agroforestry Systemsin future willingness to participant and for a higher use' (interview on thé Govemment'sability to relativelyyoung political systeiu. Despite thé similarities plannedurban settlements. support such a scheme. extract). Thé général beliefthat control and enforceagricultural lackofinstitutional capacity and betweenmany of thé resultsof Thus, is it also necessary many urban résidents would be land uses in urban areas. In this poor Govemmentmanagement thisstudy and thèmes in existing On thé other hand, if to consider sustainability from disinterested in growing food way, participants raised concems were ail believed to contribute literature,it would be incorrect urban settlements in highly thé perspectiveof thé long term in an urban environment can be Govemments not that thé would to this problem. to assumethat thé potential and marginalenvironments are to be viability ofa given development explainedthrough examining be able to enforcethé necessary constrains associated with thé sustained,then certain controls initiative. Results show that thé thé varions constraints identified planning controls to maintain
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 31 long term sustainability of thé peopleofSouth Tarawa' (Thomas servativepolicies toward urban dents cultivate vacant land wai- inclusion of urban agroforestry 2002: 172).Due to thé strengths agroforestrySystems include thé ting to be developedfor urban Systems in future planned ofbothof thèsearguments andthe mandatorykeeping of pigs at a settlement. urban settlementsfaces two key division betweenthé "theoretical certain distance fi-om housing in constraints.Firstly, thé perception potential"ofurban agroforestry shared or communal piggeries A décision to further of many urban résidents that :S4 and thé "practical reality" of and improving organic waste invest in urban agroforestry urban agroforestrySystems are urbanliving in Kiribati, it would collection to produce organic approacheswould seethé poten- a relatively low value land use. appear that a compromise is compost to be used in home- tial benefits of thèse Systems Secondly, thé Government's necessary. Thus, thé most gardens.Thèse simple impro- more fùlly realised.Thus, while poor history of regulating and accurate understanding of thé vements in animal husbandry more costly investmentoptions enforcing planning controls. potentialof urbanagroforestry and waste managementwould such as reserving agricultural this way, issues agro- In of Systemsin future plannedurban increase public health, visual land in urban settlements would deforestation (Thaman 1990b: settlements rests between a amenity,soil fertility and create requirea greaterland investment, 16-7), loss productive lands of view of urban agroforestry as employment. it would alsomore fùlly address in urban areas(Butcher-Gollach an "essential land use" and urban problems such as food et al. 2007b: 56) and inefifective panaceafor ail urban problems Other more conservative msecunty, poor waste manage- controls Govemment planning comparedto urban agroforestry investmentoptions included thé ment, malnutrition, unemploy- ai (Butcher-Gollach et al. 2007b: Systems in future urban provision of agricultural lands ment and overcrowding. 18) SouthTarawa hâve been in ail settlementsas a "waste ofspace", to educational institutions to hâve identified as constraints in l unnecessarily constraining thé demonstratethé importanceof Future urban settlements: a past studies. économie development ofurban agroforestry Systems,offering catalyst for change e ÛO settlements. tax incentives for households Furthermore,thé général to mvest m on site compostmg Thé Government's ! inability of homegardeners Urban agroforestry Systems: a Systemsand combining urban général inability to adequately to understand thé concept of diversity of investmentoptions agroforestry approacheswith enforceland planning controls is i sustainability suggests thé that recreational land uses. Finally, a major constoraintto thé poten- 5 inclusion of urban agroforestry It is important to note urbanagroforestry could alsobe tial inclusion urban agroforestry G Systemsin future plannedurban at this point that thé inclusion used as a temporary provision Systemsin future planned urban settlementsusing théjustifica- of urban agroforestry Systems during thé stageddevelopment settlements. One of thé primary tion of "sustainability" alone than concem for thé environment a plethoraofbenefits capable in future planned urban settle- of an urban settlement. This difficulties associated with thé would hold little meaning for or overallwelfare ofsociety. This addressingthé vast majority ments exists within a spectmm approachcould see short term Govemment's ability to take a manyI-Kiribati. Similarly,Jones resultonce again emphasises thé developmentissues in Kiribati, ofinvestmentoptions. More con- leases used to assist urban resi- leadership rôle in thé develop- (1997, Ch. 9: 10) states that potential of urban agroforestry However from another point l 'sustainability principles hâve Systems achieve économie and to of view, low public intercst in ÛQ little relevanceand meaning to thé health benefits at a household urban cultivation and thé poor bulk of thépopulation, especially level while providing broader history of Govemmentregula- given thé populations strong ecological and environmental tion, fundamentallyundermines social and économie afiHliation benefits to thé overall urban thé potential of such an appro- to land'. At a Pacifie level, Nunn settlement. ach. This tension is reflected in (2004:317)also agues that while Thomas' (2002: 168) comment sustainabledevelopment is often Urban agroforestry:an essential that on one hand, 'agroforestry a popular concept on paper, land use or a wasteofspace? development provides hope few Pacifie island govemments for thé sustainable use of local are prepared to count thé cost Thé above perspecti- resources,while lesseningthé of such philosophies for thé ves explain why convincing dependency on thé expensive saké of "sustainability" alone. arguments exist m support and imports, and reversesthé trend Alternatively, results indicate in opposition for thé inclusion leading to a détériorationof that homegardenersare highly of urban agroforestry Systems nutritional health' yet on thé motivatedby financialprofit that in future planned urban settle- other that, 'greaterinvolvemeflt canbe eamedfrom producefirom ments. From one perspective, in agricultural activities currefl- urbanagroforestry Systems rather urbanagroforestry Systems offèr tly seemsunlikely amongthé
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 33 planned urban Pacifie'.PhD thesis. Uaiversity ofQueensland. New York: United Nations. ment of future to note that urban agroforestry and addressmany of thé urbai ticisms are a reflection of thé settlements is thé inhérent KUCHELMEISTER, G. 1998. Urban THAMAN, RR. 1977.'Urbm gardemngin Systemswere not given a higher problemsthat currently exist difficulties and cost involved forestryin théAsian and Pacifie région: status and PapuaNew Guineaand Fiji: présentstatus and impli- limitations associated with priority in thé recommendations urban centres in Kiribati. prospect.Working paperNo. APFSOSAVP/44. Food and cations for urban land use plamiing'. in JH Winslow. with moving towards more AgriculturalOrganziadon (PAO) Asia-Pacific Forestry (éd.) ThéMelanesian environment. Canberra: Australian achieving strong Govemment of thé récent Kiribati Urban SectorOutlook Study. Rome: Food and Agricultural National University Press. sustainableurban settlements. Organziation(FAO). -. 1988.'By thé peopleandfor thé people:home gar- leadership a démocratie deningand national development in thé PacifieIslands'. in Renewal Program Scoping Despite this potential Thus, a balancée approach is KUNZEL, W. 1996.'Atoll Agroforestty'. society. This is because in a in SRogers & PThorpe. (eds). Agroforestry research in in J Hirst, J Overton,B Allen & Y Byron. (eds). Small Study designedto proceed thé considérable challenges are need where thé most accurate théPacifie: reports and papers presented at théSecond scale agriculture. London: Commonwealth Geogra- démocratie system political STP (Butcher-Gollach et al. AnnualMeeting of Collaboratois,Port Vila, Vanuatu. phical Bureauand Départaientof Human Geography, likely to exist in promoting. understandingof thé potential Suva:Quality Print Limited. AustralianNational University. leadersare likely to be directed 2007a). However, significant protectingand developing urbaii LARMOUR, P. 1982. Report on urban --. l 990a.Mixed homegardening in théPacifie Islands: ofurban agroforestrySystems in présentstatua and future prospects.in K Landauer & thé "popular" décision and thé managementm SouthTarawa. Suva: United Nations by potential still exists within agroforestry Systemsin future fuhireplanned urban settlements DevelopmentAdvisoryTeam for thé Pacifie. M Brazil. (eds).Tropical homegardens. Tokyo: United not necessarily thé "right" components LAWN, PA. 2001. Toward sustainable Nations University Press. five program of planned urban settlements. exists between a view of urban development:an ecologicaléconomies approach, --. 1990b. Kiribati agroforestiy: trees, people and décision. thé STP in Butcher-Gollach Dependingon one'sperspective, Ecologicaléconomies séries. Boca Raton, Florida: thé atoll environnent. Atoll Research Bulletin, vol. agroforestryas a panaceafor Lewis PublishersInternational Society for Ecological 333.pp. 1-29. et al. (2007a: 14) for urban thèsechallenges can be used ail urban problems compared Economies. .. 1993. 'Pacifie Islaad urban agroforestry'. m WC important LAWRENCE,RJ. 1992."Kiribati: change Clarke & RR Thaman.(eds). Agroforestiy in thé Paci- Although it is agroforestry Systems to be support or to oppose thé rôle to urban agroforestry Systems and context in an atoll world'. in AB Robillard. (éd.) fie Islands: Systemsfor sustainability.Tokyo: United not to lightly dismiss thé incorporated through bottom a Social changein thé Pacifie Islands, London: Kegan Nations University Press. such Systems.If décision in fiiture urban settlements as a Paul International. --. 1995.Urban food gardeningin thé PacifieIslands: difficulties associated with urban up and top down approaches madeto supportsuch an initiative, LffiW, J. 1990. 'Sustainabledevelopment a basis for food security m rapidly urbanising small- "wasteofspace". and enviroiimentalmanagement of atolls', in W Bélier, island states.Habitat International,vol. 19. no. 2, pp. agroforestry Systemsin future where thé Government sets associatedprojectsmust considei P d'Ayala & P Hein. (eds). Sustainabledevelopment 209-24. planned urban settlements, thé REFERENCES andenvironmental management ofsmall islands.Paris: -. 2004, 'Urban gardeningon thé small islands of thé parametersfor urban food and respond to thé issues United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural thé Pacifie', Urban Agriculture Magazine,December, no. 13. constraintson fiirther agricultural production and local initiative and Organization. surroundingfood production ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK. 2004. MACDONALD, B. 2001. Cinderellasof THAMAN, RR & CLARKE, WC. 1993."Introduction Technical assistanceto thé Republic of Kiribati for expansion in urban areas are is encouraged. urban managementin Kiribati. théEmpire: towards a historyof Kiribatimd Tuvalu. (to Agroforestryin thé PacifieIslands)'. m WC Clarke preparingthé Outer Island growtfa centers project, TAR: Suva:bstitute of PacifieStudies University of thé Soufh & RR Thaman.(eds). Agroforestry in théPacifie Islands: KIR38138.Asian DevelopmentBank. l 'not insurmountable' (Thomas In developingthis responseit is Pacifie. Systemsfor sustainability. Tokyo: United Nations --. 2005. Draft report on thé potential ofKiritimati a> 2002: 172). Furthermore, it MALOLO, M, MATENGA-SMITH, T & University Press. d important to consider thé diverse Islandas an économiegrowth center:An initial assess- HUGHES, 1999. staples eat.Nouméa, New THAMAN, RR, ELEVITCH, CR & R. Thé we C^2 ment.report. TA No. 4456 - Kir. October. is also important to recognise CONCLUSIONS Caledonia: Secrétariat offhe Pacifie Community. WILKINSON,KM. 2000.Multipurpose trees for rangeofinvestmentpossibilities 2006. Kiribati: preparingthé outer island growth --. MELAD. 2003,- seeMinistry ofEnviron- agroforestiyin thé Pacifieislands. Agroforestry guides centers.TANo. 4456-KIR. March.n.p.:AsianDeve- that any attempt to increase that exist in urban agroforestry ment, Landsand Agricultural Development,2003, for Pacifieislands #2. Holualoa:PeimanentAgriculture lopmentBank. MINISTRY 0F ENVIRONMENTLANDS Resources.Viewed 8 June2006
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 35 '7 ' l/ INTRODUCTION and conséquentsea level rise and frequency - placed thé . e/ may be somewhat less than problem of global warming Extrême climate indicated. However, it is thé at a crisis point especially for events and natural disasters extrême events and/or climate low-lying islands. Thé rising such as hurricanes,floods and surprisesthat need to be taken sea levelleads to increased droughtscan hâve far-reaching seriously. beach érosion, reduced space conséquences, particular for for locational redistribution ^-^ in or évasion, intrusion saline k..- small developing countries. For years now thé of Developing countnes are scientists had dedicated their sea water in thé fresh water often unable to marshal thé work on thé analysesofclimate réservoirs and on agricultural By Béate M. W. Ratter substantial resources needed changeandpossible conséquences land, etc. in thé aftermath of a natural in sea level rise or increased disaster. Smaller countries face storm activities (IPCC Whether there is enough tropical ÛQ thé spécial challenge of being 1990, 2001, 2007). However, évidence for catastrophic unableto "hedge"thé riskthrough thé urgent problem is not yet long term global warming or geographicalredistribution. To talked about enough. There is enough proof for thé human l illustrate, hurricane Katrina hit already a recognizablechange responsibility in thé observed § thé US in 2005 and despiteits in climate schemes and there has climate development is û<î catastrophiceffects upon New been and will be impredictable secondary. For small islands 'E Orléans it caused damage of heavy storms in thé future. it is crucial that thé problem less than 2% of US GDP. By So our responsibility is not in stream is différent than it is for Sylt Cayman contrast, hurricane Ivan - a further elaborate scénarios for most of thé developed world. hurricaneof a similar strength - thé future alone but in analyzing One of thé major problems is l hit Grenadaand caused damages and evaluating existing stratégies that thèse environmental threats g ABSTRACT of up to 200% of Grenada's to copewith naturalhazards. are not imminently linked to island population behaviour. It r -l GDP.This susceptibilityleads to spécialneeds for smallislands to Thé innovation capacity is thé output of thé developed -. heprédiction ofa catastrophic magnitudes thé anticipated of be prevented and which efforts behaviour shows a rise in sea level and increased adaptabilitystratégies forhazard of societies is a critical junchire world which global warming and conséquent lead to a suitable adaptation01 eventscaused by thé predicted betweenthé climate Systemand direct impact for small islands. storm activity (increasing in sealevel rise may be somewhat abatement. Are small islands humanactivities. Thé question However, to retain thé upcoming both intensity and frequency) climatechanges. i less than indicated. However, in thé position to open up their whetherit is possibleto contain threatsonly to developedworld û0 placed thé problem of global it is thé extrême events and/or window ofvulnerability towards Since thé FirstAssessment thé ongoing uncontrolled behaviourwill not be enough. warming at a crisis point for climate surprisesthat needto be a window ofopportunity? Reportof thé Intergovemmental experiment of greenhousegas low-lying islands. Since thé taken seriously. Thépaper discusses fhree Panelon ClimateChange (IPCC) increase dépends on human First, it could be quite First Assessment Report of Whetherthere is enough différentways ofcoping with thé published in 1990 there is capacities to generate basic harmful to restrict causality to thé Intergovernmental Panel évidencefor catastrophiclong current situation: a technical- building évidencethat thé earth innovations that are both needed émissions and weather hazards. on Climate Change (IPCC) tenu globalwarming or enough engineering approach to beach is growing wanner due to thé for reducing émissions and Thereare many people who want published in 1990 there is proofofthehuman responsibility érosion in Sylt (Germany); actionsof humans,particularly adapting to climate change. to believe,that today's weather building évidencethat thé earth for thé observed climate an international approach of due to thé large-scalebuming What can small islands with their extrêmes hâve a direct link to is growing warmer due to thé developmentis secondary.For Vanuatu (South Pacifie) with of fossil fuels and thé clearing limitée resourcesdo to cope with thé global climate change and actions of humans,particularly small islands it is cmcial that its eflfortsto place thé issue of of forests which absorb much natural hazards? that they can be preventedwith due to thé large-scalebuming thé problemstream is a différent global climate changeonto thé of thé carbon dioxide, thé a successfulclimate policy. This of fossil fuels andthé clearing one for them than it is for most international agenda; and an major "greenhouse gas". Thé 2, GLOBAL CLIMATE (mis)perceptionof nature as a of forests which absorb much of thé developedworld. Thèse institutional approach of prospectiveconséquences of thé powerful force which strikes of thé carbon dioxide, thé environmental threats are not Cayman Islands BWI .in CHANGE AND continuedwarming of thé earth back in thé case ofmisbehavioiir major "greenhouse gas". Thé imminently linked to islands' Caribbean. REGIONAL EFFECTS mcludedrising sealevel andthé even fosters our vulnerability. prospective conséquencesof thé population behaviour. It is thé Key Words: Climate possibilityofflooding low lying Weathereventsareunpredictable, continuedwarming of thé earth output of thé developedworld change,small islands, adaptation islands were predicted for thé Thé prédiction of a non-linearand dynamic. Weather includedrising sealevel andthé behaviour which shows a direct stratégies,Sylt, Vanuatu,Caymac next forty years (IPPC 1990). catastrophicrise in sea level pattems are always and hâve possibilityofflooding low lying impact for small islands. It Islands BWI Meanwhilethé magnitudesof and increased storm activity always been full of surprises islands were predicted for thé is debatable if thé potential thé anticipatedglobal wamiing -increasing in both intensity (Von Storch2004). next forty years.Meanwhile thé impacts of climate changecan
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 37 Second,there is anotherserious window ofvulnerability towards cane activity in thé Caribbean. problem which should not a window of opportunity?Thé be forgotten. Major natural paper discussesthree différent 3.1 Technical engineering hazardsand threatsare not only ways ofcoping with thé current Sylt, Germany to be blamed to thé émission situation: of greenhouse gases. Many Sylt is a low-lying islanc of thé existing threats are due in thé German bight of thé Nortli to interférences in thé local Sea. It is thé biggest Germai enviromnent. In this context an l. A technical-engineermg islands in thé North Sea witl assignmentof obligationto théso approach to beach érosion in a surface of 99 sqkm, a north. called developedworld without Sylt (Germany) - costly sand south extensionof 38,5 km and changinglocal behaviourcould dépositions in front of thé low- a west-east extension betwees causecatastrophic events. Small lying dunescoast 350 m (north of Kampen) and islandsare not only victims but 12,6 km (Westeriand-Morsum), also agents of environmental 2. An international appro- Thé total population oi cnsis events. ach of Vanuatu(South Pacifie) Sylt is 21.057 (Kreis Nordfries. Om +lm +4m ^ with its efforts to placethé issue land 2006), there are about of globalclimate change onto thé Sylt: Anticipated SeaLevel Rise ( Source: http://fllood.firetree.net/ ) 3, LOCAL STRATEGIES 3.000 commutersevery day and e internationalagenda 5.941.257 tourists (over night AGAINST CLIMATE ûd stays) in 2005 (Sylt Marketing Thé west coast of Sylt r^ Tétrapodes.Photo Oliver Kreiizer 2006 CHANGE 3. An institutionalapproach GmbH 2005) as well as more is a typical régression coast on thé CaymanIslands (BWI) then 12.000 second home owners with no natural barrier against l Are small islands in and cognitive behaviour of thé (Insel Sylt 2007). thé oncoming wave power of thé position to open up their people towards increased hurri- thé North Sea. Unlike thé other islandsin thé area,thé seabottom 5 in front of Sylt is deepand rises steeply in front of thé island. -''8- Therefore, sea waves reach thé Sytt Llst^ »*, l lana Ust coast unobstructed. Thé "Blanke N|»n»^ ^sfîvrw Simtfm Hans"(as storm surges are called l in this areaofGermany) ablates g more than a million cubic meter <»k ofsandfrom thé coastofSylt per l îsa. ÙQ -.t'îai»» year(von Hass2004). . <î orçr. ïs-îhx? blnBBlMnctar Beyond thé island's . înc M» K<Ï;OF K 00 niarittttoft importance itself, Sylt bas its CamîTW Mfôgfatt^rt ^hd0a»n Ko. importance for thé protection ifatcrta1 of thé mainland coast as a wave breaker. Therefore, thé -^yt-t-^ ~i xwn podw ^^^^ -»Wa»np, aiw^aii government has started huge Naytwe#iiBr> ^.¥t3dl>nghà, rci<» efforts early in thé seventies (1972) to protect thé island Wiu0ih»*tnrt)e C;çtî«^tt000 t-latni**o -a. of Sylt. Every summer huge 0 amountsof sandare brought to 9 G thé west coast of thé island - tS.^îfti^^h^^» Erfmnlatodll-e>s until now about35, 5 mio. cubic Vftlwi . ^- ' Haubu» * ÇSoiri5t»ÏÎXli3& meters.Thé cost for thé public
&».'.. ' ' . m.' budgetso far amountsto about KOoa "" wifc.e-naltitN . 143mio. .Other types ofbeach -®.' ' ' ' B~ê> h. f n^ç' n s f ôhr ^ X!»,»»ar- protection for example with thé . »'" establishment of Tétrapodes Oatf »»»). «. 'ytv failed
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 39 And thé beachérosion process 3-2, Political Agenda setting 1996/97). 1996/97:548)Récognition of thé Sylt coast,photo by Oliver Kreuzer 2006 is growing every year. Only in Vanuatu problem in this fashion stirred between 2003 and 2005 about As such, Vanuatu has thé policy community of thé 9 mio. were spentfor coastal taken on a rôle as a leader small islands to action, and was protection(von Hass 2004). Until among thé island nations. one of thé more effective initial 2009 there will be another 14 Climate change and Clearly establishedas thé most tools to combat those who would mio. spentfor théprotection of sea level rise is an issue of «radical» of thé South Pacifie frame thé problem as simply an thé island's coast(Ministerium gréât importancefor thé South island nations, Vanuatu was économie one. fur Landwirtschaft, Umwelt Pacifie islands(compare Lefale poisedto leadin théinternational und làndliche Ràume 2007). (2002).Their efforts in order to arena on thé matter of global THEPOLICYSTREAM: In 2006 about 1,2 mio. cubic deal with thèse problems can warming. Its nonalignment Much of thé work by thé island meter of sandwas deposedon be labelled "Agenda Setting". allowed it greaterflexibility in states has been and should be in thé shoreline of Sylt. But thé Shibuya (1996/97) uses thé its international dealings, and thé form ofcollaborative efforts. autumn storms Fritz and Kyrill agenda-building model of from its diplomatiecorps would It was quite clear to thé island of thé sameyear ablated ab-eady K-ingdon(1984) which analyses arise thé policy entrepreneur nations that while they were 800 000 cubic meter ofsand an approach of dealing with that would take advantageof thé among thé least industrialized shortlyafter thé déposition.Only on thé island's infrastmcture and home property on thé island climate change issues as small window ofopportunity that was nations in thé world, they were thé t\vo heavy stormsFritz and building properties as well as a spécialplace in Germanhigh islands. It is thé pre-decision, opened when thé three streams going to be among thé first Kyrill ablated between 30 and for thé économiedevelopment society. Thé costs for coastal agenda-buildingstage that is thé intersected. affectedby thé conséquencesof 50m of thé shoreland on thé l will be paramount.Thé property protection are calculated more keypoint in thépolicy formation THE PROBLEM global warming, whetherby thé ÛQ southtip ofSylt at thé beginûing damagesin thé community of on thé basis of interest than on processat which thé islandstates STREAM: In thé matter of possibility of rising sea levels, c^ of 2007 and thé famous ,,Red Wenningstedt,Kampen, Homum, factual benefît. Thé argument (andindeed, most of thé weaker global warming, thé problem or thé more probableand more l Cliff in Kampen was disturbed without coastal protection will of coastal protection for thé states, micro- or otherwise) stream was a différent one for impendingissue ofstorm activity. by breakinginto parts(T-Online add up to 1,23 billion and in mainland would not be enough can probably best affect thé thé island nations than it was for Thé islandswere not going to be Nachrichten2007). Rantum 1,18 billion . With for spendingsuch huge amount internationalpolicy docket. most of thé developed world. If able to solve thé problem of l Thépredicted increase in increasing climate change and ofmoney every year in orderto global warming was a problem global warming by themselves, s heavy storms and sea level rise increased sand érosion tourism protect property on Sylt. It is thé Thé efforts of thé South that had implications only for this necessarilyhad to becomean will fosterfhe necessity ofcoastal industry in Sylt will looseabout spécialinterest and lobby of thé Pacifieisland nations to placethé thé island nations, then it was internationalissue. And among protection for thé Govemment l mio. per year. Aceording secondhome owners underlying issueof global climate change highly doubtful that therewould thé island nations attempting of Schleswig-Holsteinand thé to calculationsby Hartje et al. thé yearly tax expenditures.But onto thé international political ever hâve been an international to bring global warming to thé l Bundesregiemng.Hartje et al. (2002) thé cost-benefit ratio how can one justify billions of agendagoes back to thé Earth summit on thé matter. But thé internationalfonnal agenda,thé (2002) calculatedthé upcoming will amount to a relationship Euro usedin Sylt in thé North Summit in 1992. Kingdon's prédiction of a catastrophicrise island nation of Vanuatu was a l sand déposition costs between of 38:1. But Sylt is more than a and paid by Bavarians in thé agenda-buildingmodel allows in sea level placed fhe problem key player and leader. 33 mio. and 46,5 mio. for thé théséparation thé stages thé THE POLITICAL l tourism destination.Thé fancy South of Germany? Coastal of of of global warming at a crisis as west coastofSylt. Ifthey arenot island for thé rich and famous protection efforts are political process and to examine how thé point for those low-lying islands. STREAM: With international protecting thé coast,thé damages with many having a second and interest lead. three «streams» intersected to For most of thé developed world opinion swinging toward a allow thé island statesto advance this was not thé case, however, «greener» stance, thé setting Sylt coast,photo by Oliver Kreuzer2006 their views. Kingdon defînes despite thé fact that most of was right for thé small islands thé 'agenda' as «...thé list of them do indeed hâve vulnérable to attempt to assert their voice. subjectsor problems to which régions. Thé sensé of almost Ail that was required was thé governmental officiais, and apocalypticurgency on thépart of création of a forum (beyond people outside of govemment thé small islandswas a powerful that of thé SouthPacifie itself), closely associatedwith those motivating force for action, and a «policy entrepreneur» officiais, are paying some as well as a sourceof political to take advantageof thé open senous attention at any given discourseagainst thé économie «window of opportunity. » Thé time.» (Kingdon 1984: 17) Thé and scientific issues. As was expérience of Rio has shown processofsetting thé agendaand stated at a 1989 conférence thé cmcial importanceof formai thé discussionsof alternatives in thé Marshall Islands, «We organizations such as AOSIS in is further divided into three don't hâve time to wait for maximizing thé island states' «streams»: thé problem, thé conclusive proof. Thé proof, potential influence. Thé power Policy,and thé political (Shibuya we fear, may kill us.» (Shibuya of thé many to speakwith one
INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 4l voice bas a multiplying effect. Even 3-3, Institutional small wooden houses with nisational changes facilitated in a Systemthat valuespower over ail porous Windows and totally this transformation. One was thé HUÎ Vanuafai approaches and cognitive fus %>frwrftf. else, thé smallest members of such a TtfM: ^ TORR£S * NatloMt cairftal vuhierable to storm attacks. Thé créationofa fonnal Department toh^: non-behaviour in thé Systemcan still achievenotice, given TW ^U^iuufffm lnt»ma> adflninfstrathr® nam* stmctures fiSS ftOWA ^, . Afof © )n)em?)admlntetrativ ca^t! massive concrète hôtel ofEnvironment.Since 1988, thé V*»,»" Caribbean thé right circumstances."Even mice 'un i'.. A-. '*"' are storm safe and sometimes Department ofEnvironment has ..*" \-"S;I;'-,^ 0 2S SO ?B lOOKUtunutew can roar, and sometimesthey can be ^ awKS evolved fi-om thé small conserva- Sa»» -'-, o ao they are evenused as hurricane . ».». 1. Tropical stormsare per- heard, even by thé lions." (Shibuya -tMfrf Lw sheltersfor thé local population. tion orientée Natural Resources ceived differently in différent 1996/97) Thé typical instable wooden Unit with 4 staff,to a department societies.Thé perceptionofrisk ;. l- ,. . . OBA/f.-.'EWO - -;'^»rt-E»tï . ^ri»* powerpôles are easier to rebuild with 26 staff, and a recognised £spmt» i»tw» iwsws U«ém andnatural hazards culturally . is Santo KM. ."*. - ." f; each time after thé hurricane than rôle in thé Ministry ofTourism, Fonnal organizationssuch as :.: INTERNATIONALJOURNAL OP ISLAND AFFAIRS 43 l. Well established and responsibilityby thé developed can be disastrous for small equipped locale Disaster nations. However, anonymous islands. Climate changes are Units with thé respectivelégal payment into something like presently ongoing and coping frameworks and financial thé Global Environmental Fund with them has to coordinate resources (GEF) might be donehesitantly internai and extemal adaptation 2. A close cross-sectional and limited. processes.There is a window of coopération between Public opportunity for small islands, Sectors, such as Public Health, Thé window of but it is not reducedto waiting ForeignAffairs etc. with trained opportunity for small islands or to institutionalarrangements. staff and respective adéquate in an inter-connected world can Resilience stratégies hâve Anticipated Sea Level Rise: Cayman Islands (B.W.I). Source: http://flood. firetree.net/ resources for preparedness only be openedby seekingfor to be designed in thé short, activities like awareness supportnot only on a fmancial middle and long term and thé campaignsin schools,hospitals basis but on a basis of common flexibility in combiningdifférent etc.- anintersectoral coopération responsibility, because thé approaches can help to deal is cmcial impact of climate change is with uncertainty. Above ail: 3. A powerful régional not only a money problem. ,,The problem is that doing coopérationlike CDERA Why not stimulate thé idea of nothing does not necessarily 4. Training in universities creatiagresponsible partnerships stabilize thé equilibrium of a as well as thé establishment of betweensingle developed nations complex Systemand can drive l new curricula such as Disaster states? Thèse and small island it to another metastable state." î/3 Management "environmental partnerships" (Mainzer 1997:324). ^ 5. Training thé média could foster environmental l représentativeaboutvulnerability coopération between two REFERENCES + Im andhazards and thé perspective partnerson thé basisoftechnical that people are agentsand not and financial support and with AHRENDT,K. 2001.Expected effect of climats changeon Sylt island: resultsfi-om a l only victims thé implementationof practical multi-disciplinary Germanproject. In: Climate préparée and a working crisis managementplans and disaster behaviour and reduce carbon s 6. Early waming Systems, responsibility.Thèse partnerships Research,18(l-2), p. 141-146. management is inexistent coordinators it is thé people's dioxide émission. But to wait AMT FUR LAND- UND National Hazard GIS-Maps, couldprovidesupport on aperson WASSERWIRTSCHAFT HUSUM 1997. organisationaland institutional perception which has to adapt for that could be disastrous to which partly already exist can to person basis, and not thé least FachplanKûstenschutz Sylt - Forschreibung. changes are not enough to to thé possibility of preparing small islands. Climate change Husum. help to deal with thé uncertain on an emotionalbasis, help thé ARNELL, NW.,MJL. LrVERMORE, decreasevulnerability. Hazard againstthreats. is measurable no matter how futures small island statesto implement S. KOVATS, PE. LEVY, R. NICHOLLS, ML. management can only work intensive thé effects are. Thé PARRY AND SR. GAFFIN 2004. Climate 7. Spatial planning and actual energy saving stratégies and Socio-economic Scénarios for global- together thé people How vital people's event of a naturai hazard is with scale Climats Change Impacts Assessments: l building codes hâve to adapt andfoster enviromnentally sound involved. And if there is not perceptionis showsfhe following uncertain; thé risk of being Characterismgthé SRESStorylines. In: Global to thé vulnerability on small behaviouron their islands.Any EnvironmentalChange, 14 (l), p. 3-20. enough awarenessamong thé example:A surveyon thé Turks by a major storm is certain. ÛQ islands kind of intrinsic motivation to BLAAS, M., D. KERKHOVENAND peopleas far aspreparedness for and CaicosIslands asking about HE. DE SWART2001. Large-scaleCirculation 8. Risk perception help peopleon far away islands and flushing characteristicsof thé North Sea natural hazards is concemed thé major threats for thé islands Thépresented approaches among thé population is very could be supported through under varions Climate Forcings. In. Climate organisationalstmctures remain resulted in answers like oil are not always and anywhere Research,18(l-2), p. 47-54. important and thé awareness thèsetypes ofpartnerships.Thé BÔLSCHE,J. 2007. Kampf um weak or inefficient. spills, garbage,sand dégradation appropriatebut maybe an adapted that measurementscan reduce required financial resources die Deiche. In: Spiegel Online. Internet: This gives rise to thé and over fishing. Thé study combination and suitable local http://www. spiegel. de/wissenschaft/ vulnerabilityin thélong mn and to support environmentally mensch/0,1518,460630,00.html (2.4.2007) impressionthat small Caribbean was done even directly after strategywould help to dealwith DOUGLAS,CH. 2006.Small Islands canbe economicallyfavourable sound developmenton a small island's population react rather hurricane Hortense in 1996, but fiiture threats.It is importantto StatesandTerritories: Sustainable Development atthé sametime bas to be deluted island would be quite limited Issuesand Stratégies - Challengesfor Changing fatalistic to tropical storms. in thé Caribbean: October ail reducethé vuhierability(Pielke amongthé population. for a developed nation. But thé Islands in a Changing World. In: Sustainable Unlessthey are directly hit by a over. 2007), to look for adaptability Devolopment,14 (2), p. 75-80. advantagesof growing together HARTJE, V., I. MEYER AND J. hurricanethey do not really see stratégieswhich can be afforded Ail thèse measures as family in a connectedworld MEYERHOFF2001. Kosten einer môglichen thénecessity ofadapting to stonn 4. Towards a window of to search for joint efforts on Klimaânderungauf Sylt. In: Daschkeit,A. und are costly and need thorough are unlimited. Environmental P.Schottes: Klimafolgen fur Menschund KUste. threats with new constructing opportunity thé internationalagenda and to Springer.Berlin. financialbackground. As one partnerships could be a step codes or better infrastructure. implementadaptability stratégie INSEL SYLT 2007. Die Insel. seesthé developed world as forward in thé sustainable Internet:http://wwwl meer-sylt.. de/_DE_de/ Even if thé government has Thereis of coursea way into thé people's awareness responsiblefor at leastpart of thé imperative: think global, act WZL_0089321713a74d4eaab5d57cddb47ec6 realizedthé necessity ofpreparing to dealwith climatechanges and behaviour. WZL/app.wiz?&TEMPL=EMPTY (1.4.2007). causeeffects one could demand local. Waiting for thé developed INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL against hazards, even if there natural hazardsby blaming thé What is needed? supportand expressed world to changetheir behaviour ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC) 1990. First are established disaster units, developedworld to changetheir Assessmenton ClimateChange 1990: Impacts INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 45 Assessmentof ClimateChange. Report of E177624C8E0440003BA5E08D7,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.html WorkingGroup Canberra:Australian (1.4.2007). II. RISK ASSESSMENTS MODELS GovemmentPublishing Service. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL 2006. U.S. and CaribbeanHurricane Activity ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC) 2001. Rates. Internet: http://www. rms.com/ Publications/60HUActivityRates_whitepaper. ClimateChange 2001: Impacts,Adaptation & Vulnerability.Contribution of Working pdf(13.7.2007). SHIBUYA, E. 1996/97. "Roaring GroupII to thé Third Assessment Report of (he miceagainst thé Tide": Thé South Pacifie Islands IntergovemmentalPanel on ClimateChange. andAgenda-Building on global warming. In: Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. INTERGOVERNMENTALPANEL PacifieAffairs, 69 (4), p. 541-555. STADT WESTERLAND 2007. ON CLIMATE CHANGE(IPCC) 2007. Béate M. W. Ratter. Zahlenund Fakten. Internet: http://www. stadt- By Stephen A. Royle and Huei-Min Tsai ClimateChange 2007: Impacts, Adaptation & westeriand.de/content/view/49/60/(l .4. 2007). Vulnerability.Contribution of WorkingCroup VON HASS, ES. 2004. Sylt: II to thé Fourth AssessmentReport of thé ProfesserofCoastal Research, TonnenweiseSand gegen den ,,Blanken IntergovemmentalPanelon Climate Change. Hans".In: Die Welt- Online.Internet: http:// Institute of Geography, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. JESSEN,E. 2007. DerKampfum Sylt www.welt.de/print-welt/article311284/Sylt_ University of Hamburg, Tonnenweise_Sand_gegen_den_Blanken_Haiis. - «Wirhaben keine Pausen mehr». In: Hamburger Slcphcn Roylc Rcadcr Gcographyat Quccn's Univcrsity Belfast. Amongst his books arc A gcographyol'islands: small Abend-Blatt.Internet: http://www. abendblatt. html (2.4.2007). Germany.Joint position at thé A. is in VON STORCH,H. 2004.Anpassung islandinsularity, Routlcdgc, 2001 and Thc company'sisland: St Hclcna,company colonies and thc colonial cndcavour,IB Tauri.s, 2007. Hc is de/daten/2007/01/19/672460.html (2.4.2007). InstituteofCoastal Research, KINGDON, J. 1984. Agendas, undVermeidung-Paperin Hamburg, 12. 2.2004. a mcmbcrollhc InternationalGcographical Unioii's Commissionon Islands.Addrcss: School ol'Gcography, Archacology and Palacoccology, GKSS, Geesthacht, head Quccn'sUnivcr. sity Belfast,Belfast BT7 INN. Northcrn Ircland, UK; cmail: s.roylc&jqub.ac.uk. Alternatives,and Public Policies. New York: Internet:http://coast. gkss.de/staff/storch/ pdfi'040212-hamburg.pdf( 13.7.2004). department Human HarperCollins. SÙNDERMANN, J., S. BEDDIG, of thé KNUTSON,T. AND J. MARSHALL Huci-MinTsaiisAssocialc ProfcssorandDircctorol'tlicGraduatc Inslitutconïnviroiimcntal Educalion.National Taiwan Normal Univcrsity. Shc J. HUTHNANCE CNK. MOOERS Dimensions in CoastalAreas. SHEPHERD2005. Thé CurrentDebate on AND co-cditcdSustainablc Dcvclopmcnt for Islaiid Sociclics.Taiwan and thc World,Asia-Pacific Rcscarch Program of'Ataclcmia Sinica. 2002. Shc 2001.Impact ofCUmate change Coastal is Sccrclaryoflhc [ntcrnalionalGcographical Union's Cominissionon Islands,aiid a mcmbcrol'lhc ExecutiveCommittcc ofthc Intcmational théLinkage Between Global Warming aad onthé dimensions in coastal areas. Zone:discussion and conclusions. In: Climate IslandsStudics Association Addrcs.Graduatc Environmcntallîducation. 88, Humcanes.In: GeographyCompass, l (l), p. Small (ISISA). s: Institutcof NationalTaiwan Normal Univcrsity Research,18(l-2),p. l-3. Main researchfocus is thé Ting-Joii Road,Sec. 4, Taipci 16,Taiwan, émail: hmtsai@;ntnu.cdu.tw. l-24.doi:10.1111/j.l749-8198.2006.00002.x SYLT MARKETING GMBH KREISNORDFRIESLAND 2006. human/nature-mteraction in 2005.Marketingplan. Internet: http://www3. Zahlenspiegel2005/2006. Internet: http://www coastal areasand on small nordfnesland.de/media/custom/45_3490_l.PDF meer-sylt.de/_FILES/zahlen/SYLT_094_ INTRODUCTION MARKETINGPLAN_06.pdf (13.4.2007) (13.4.2007) expériences T-ONLINE NACHRICHTEN 2007. islands.Régional LAL. M., H. HARASAWAANDK. mall islands are ofiten found be usefùl in a small island where a substantial insular 'mainland' setzen Nordsee den in thé Caribbean and on TAKAHASHI2002. Future Climate Change and Stûrme Sylt zu: nagt an DûnenundKlifE-Kanten:Internet: http://www2. a number offshore itshnpacts over Small Islands States. In: Climate thé European North Sea at thé limits of sustainability, sharedactivities might well be with of onnachrichten.t-online.de/dyn/c/10/13/49/18/ Researeh,19(3),p. l79-192. regarding not just thé usual necessary. Further, cultural islands. Some of thèse hâve LANDESREGIERUNG 10134918.html (2.4.2007). Coast. Contact: Institute of SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN 2007. TOMPKJNS,EL. 2005.Planning for Geography,University of environmental reading of that héritagecan be an économieas relatively strong économies, ClimateChange in SmallIslands: Insights from FôrderprogrammKûstenschutz. Internet: well as a social asset that it NationalHun-icane Preparedness in thé Cayman Hamburg,Bundesstrasse 55, word but, perhaps,also in social in with more problems being http://landesregierung.schleswig-holstein. Islands.In: GlobalEnvironmental Change, 15 de/coremedia/generator/AktueUer_20Bestand/ 20146 Hamburg, Germany, terms: thé sustainingof human might contribute economically seen in other, usually smaller MLUR/Information/ZAL/ZAL-K_C3_ (2),p. 139-149. TOMPKINS,EL. AND HURLSTON, lifeontheisland. Théchallenges fi-om thé iaherited expériences and more remote, islands. In BCstenschutz.html (2.4.2007). LEFALE,PENEHURO FATU 2002. LA. 2003. Report to thé CaymanIslands' of life in thé setting of a small of exploiting thé local resource thé Irish case especially many Govemment.Adaptation lessons leamed from ThéVulnerability of PacifieIslands to CUmate islandcan be sufficiently sévère base to, in this modem world, islands been depopulated responding cyclones Cayman hâve Change.In:Pacifie Ecologist, l (2002), pp. 19- totropical bythé Islands' Government.1988-2002. Tyndall others threatened. 22 to drive inhabitantsaway. Out- providing a spectacle to attract and are In MAINZER, K. 1997. Thinking in WorkingPaper 35. Tyndall Centre for Climate migration bas troubled and is tourists. Thus, example, in both Ireland and Taiwan there ChangeResearch. University EastAnglia, for Complexity.Heidelberg: Springer. of MINISTERIUM FUR Norwich, UK troubling many small islands, some of thé farming settlements is a réalisation that thé offshore LANDWIRTSCHAFT, UMWELT UND leading in thé limiting case to of thé Falkland Islands part of islandscontain spaces of spécial LÀNDLICHERÀUME 2007. Pressemitteilung cornes vom 19.1.2007 - Minister Dr. Christian von complètedépopulation. Islanders their income now from cultural significance including Boetticher:Westkuste istbeim Orkan Kyrill noch hâveresponded to thé pressures tourists who watch and, to a thé now rare use oflrish as a first einmalglimpflich davongekommen. Internet: http://landesregierung.schleswig-holstem. through thé employment of limited extent, participate in languageon someIrish islands de/coremedia/generator/Arehivordner/MLUR/ varions stratégies from thé traditional activities such as and,in Taiwan,islands being thé Pressemitteilung/2007/MLUR_070119__ Orkan Kyrill.html (2.4.2007). exploitation of indigenous sheepshearing, horse handling homelandof certain aboriginal PIELKE, RA. 2007. Thé human resources, both material to and peat digging as well as groups.Thèse cultural héritages Impacton Weather and Climate. Présentation at thé GKSS ResearehCenter, Geesthacht, social,fhrough to outsidesupport enjoying traditional meals at a are partly thé reasonwhy there Gennany,Junell, 2007. m tenus of aid, remittances or 'smoko' in thé farm kitchen. are dedicated support Systems PIELK.E, RA., J. RUBIERA, C. LANDSEA,ML. FERNANDEZANDR.KLEIN management programmes. for thé small islands organised 2003.Hurricane Vulnerability in LatinAmerica This paper considers through or from thé state andthé Caribbean: Nonnalized Damage and Loss Potentials.hi: NaturalHazards Review, 4 (3),p. One resource that can cultural identity and héritage govemments. Thé activities of 101-114. contributeto sustaininga small and their rôle in island social thé local islandersmay also be POSSEKEL, A. 1999. Living with thé Unexpected:Linking DisasterRecovery islandpopulation in situis cultural sustainabilityby consideringthé importantm this regardand thèse to Sustainable Development in Montserrat. identityand héritage. A strong offshoreislands oftwo polities: issues are explored after. Heidelberg:Springer. PLANET WISSEN 2006. Sylt identitycan deliver bonding and thé Republic of Ireland and - LieblingsinselderDeutschen. Internet: http:// common expérience, which can Taiwan. In both cases there is www.planet-wissen.de/pw/Artikel,,,,,,,OB9359D 47 INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 186). Gréât Blasket was IRELAND ÏO* ^ o* writing-in Irish-that 'thé like and aquaculturehâve helped To»y depopulatedin 1953; Sayers ofus will neverbe again'( 1978 : population increase from 127 herself must hâve been one of Thé island of Ireland is 244). Maybe he was right: in 2002 to 136in 2006, someof Annmoreût / thé peoplebrought off. thé one (offshore) island-bom thé old ways can still be found. surroimdedby a fringeofseveral <^-. OONEGAL/"-^ hunà-edislands, particularly on writer in thé list above, Liam For example,in 2007 one of thé G" NORTHERN Sayers and thé other two Blas- O'Flaherty(l 896-1984)oflnish- authors observed in use there its Atlantic seaboard(Figure l). IREIANO1 ^-"^ ket autobiographers, Thomas more thé Aran Islands, wrote None are particularly large,thé < /^-- in thé traditionalboat, thé curragh ^ .. . O'Crohan (1856-1937) and mountainous Achill Island at A \/^Vr/ 7' novels sometimes set on Aran (Figure 2), and also hayricks, Adiill InishMgste-^SUGO1^-^^) . ^ ; Maurice O'Sullivan (1904- (e.g. 1932). However,although thélatter being a fodderstorage 148 sq km is by far thé biggest ^---f'1 t^ ^ \ -\. t ûars^ 1950)wrote Irish (Gaelic);in andalso had thé largestrecorded MAYO^]v-^ ^ ^ --'^ ^r/f in a native Irish-speaker,he was Systemnow seldom found on thé Inisbtuika s. . \-»>' fact O'Crohan and O'Sullivan island population of 5260 in Inisbbafin® discouragedfi-om using thé lan- mainlandwhere silage domina- 1911. Some 300 of thé offshore ^^ s might properlybe giventhé Irish guage by his father and wrote tes,but presumablystill ofutility form of their names,Tomâs Ô mainly in English. O'Flaherty thé small-scaleSystems thé Irish islands hâve been inhabited ûonimna a I^. -..^ in of RÈPÙBÙC Criomhthain and Muiris Ô Sûi- a récent study concludedbased Inblimore^ himself did not regard highly island. Thé secondreason relates Inishmaan-»^» ^ lleabhâin. Thislinkbetweenthe that portion ofhis output which to thé way other people in Ire- on analysis of censusrecords taisheer OF^ CLARE use oflrish and island résidence stretching back to 1821, IREÎ.AND ^ he composedin Irish. However, land regardthé islandsand their with identification of earlier ^'v"<^.. is significant, for thé islands another writer on thé list, John inhabitants.Their position, or at became bastions of traditional habitation from archaeological Millmgton Synge(1871-1909), leastthé perception oftheir posi- ^ \-'/"'" culture. Thé centuries links évidence (Royle 2007). At of an Anglophone from County tion, as bastions of thé old Irish Gréât" between Ireland and Gréât Bri- l u-\.f Dublin on thé east coast spent culture gave them a significant thé last census, 2006, only 62 Slaskrt KERRY CORK ''\ tain, including thé period bet- much of his brief career lear- a Valencia place in thé Irish Renaissanceof § islands retained population HaulbBtïIiM, ÛQ '\ ween 1801 and 1921 when ail (discounting Hawlbowline ning thé languageand culture of thé late 19thand early 20th cen- oflreland was within thé United ? Island,which is a navy base). Dur»^ ^ Figure l: Ireland andits islands O'Flaherty's Aran Islands. He tunes(as in thé works ofSynge) Bere Kingdom of Gréât Britain and lived for five summers there at Thé peak recorded 0 km 100 and this positive view pertains Cape^SheriBB Ireland, had seen an érosion thé tum thé century and his populationon thé islandscan be Clear of again today. This is important thé culture, especiallythé calculated from census reports of book. Thé Aran Islands(1907), in an era of state intervention 5 to hâve been 35,828 in 1841 disproportionateloss ofislands' was seasonal, especially for language,of thé smaller island is one of thé best accounts of andrégional planning at both thé when 180 islands were populationwere associated with harvesting work in Britain; (Hindley 1990). One of thé iro- traditional island life, although nationaland Europeanlevel. nies ofthis cultural dominance is populated. Note that this figure thé geography of thé islands, more often it was or became disliked by O'Flaherty,who felt differs from that given on thé their being small and remote. permanent. Migration chains thatmany of thégiants ofEnglish it to be somewhat romanticised. As noted,thé population Irish Central Statistical Office Mostly thé only économie were established-people (-language)literature in thé 19th Further, Syngeused island sto- of thé Irish islands had been database,which doesnot include opportunitieswere small-scale leaving Gréât Blasket Island and 20th centuries are Irish: ries as thé basis for some ofhis declining for décades. By thé farming and fishing. Few had tended to go to Springfield, Beckett,Behan, Heaney, Joyce, best-known plays, especially l islands depopulated prior to 1980sthere were assumptions Missouri, for example. Moore, O'Casey, O'Flaherty, shadow glen (first thé early twentieth century. high level services,some none Thé of thé that island life might not conti- ÙQ Thé population of thé part of at ail. Thé seajoumey off thé Staying with Gréât Shaw, Synge,Wilde and Yeats produced 1903) and Riders to nue in any except a handful of Ireland which separatedfrom island to avail of services and to Blasket, one can use thé island are amongstthose beating thé thé sea (first produced 1904) cases. There were suggestions thé UnitedKmgdom in 1921and marketgoods inevitably imposed voice to explain migration, English at their own game. (1911). thatsome local authoritiesdesig- is now thé Republic of Ireland inconvenience and added cost to for several résidents there ned to empty islands. This was was 6.5m in 1841 before thé social and économie life and left accounts of their lives. English substituted for Thé survival of cultural thé chargelevelled at Donegal dreadful famine of 1845-49 led sometimesimposed danger. It is Peig Sayers(1871-1958), for Irish in most parts of Ireland, traditions on thé islands is sig- County Council regarding its to a massive réduction through noteworthythat thé islandsthat example,wrote that 'I thinkthis restricting first-language Irish nificant for two reasons.Firstly stewardshipof Tory Islandby thé 5. 1m in 1851, bottoming out became linked to thé mainland is a very confinedplace with to less-favoureddistricts, which on thé islands themselves thé island'spriest who wageda long at 2.8m in 1961 as emigration had lower rates of population thé sea out there to terronze did not develop and modernise culture, stemming as it does campaign for support for thé continued. Recently, a stronger décline (Royle and Scott 1996; me';'there's a gréât deal of to thé same extent as thé rest of from thé interaction with thé island (0 Peicin 1997). In 1980 economy has seen growth to Royle 2007). Islanders were hardship in thé life of a persan thé country. Suchdistricts were local environmentis important bad weatherhad eut off Tory lives an island' and, 4.2m, 64% of thé 1841 figure. oflten outward looking, thé sea who on often in thé west, including a in thé transmission of thé skills for weeks, stimulating some Thé 2006 population living on was a highway as well as a upon her son's announcement number of thé islands. Hence and traditions necessaryto deal résidents to seek relocation and offshore islands in civilian use barrier, and they were aware thathe was leaving, that ' 'twould thé use of Irish by thé Blasket with thèse difficult ecumenes. It a policy of providing housing is 8818,25% of thé 1841figure, of greater opportunities on thé be a badplace that wouldn't be wnters. O'Crohan seemedpar- is notable that even on an island for Tory people on thé mailand a slight improvement on thé Irish mainland, in Britain and in betterfor you than this dreadfiil ticularly consciousof being an such as Clare where thé modem began.A textile factory scheme 8733 of 2002. Reasons for this NorthAmerica. Somemigration rock'(Sayers1974:159, 211and endangeredcultural repository économie sectors of tourism on thé island also failed and INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAJRS 49 Fédérationcpnfirms that 'there Sound in almost ail weathers. A key member of thé basbeen substantial investment Much of thé transformation school is Patsy Dan Rogers in infi-astmctureon thé islands hasbeen supported by outside (Figure 3) who holds thé over thé last décadeand this, agencies,but there has also been unofficial but elected office alongsideincreased subsidisation private investment, including of King of Tory and who is offeny andair passenger services a hôtel, which bas helped to usually to be found on thé and supportfor healthand other tum thé economy away from quaysidegreeting visitors when essentialservices, has improved primary activities to a focus on théfeny docks,often carrying thé quality oflife for islanders'. tourism. Partof thé appealisthé his accordion.This helps make Thisbody receives support fi-om culturalhéritage: Irish language, a visit to his realm a mémorable théDépartaient of Community,traditionalmusic, archaeological cultural expérience. Tory's Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs sites,including a splendidsixth population had increasedto l 42 and thé Minister, Éamonn Ô century granité round tower. by 2006. Cufv, launchedtheComhdhâil's More unusually within thé new policy proposais in héritagesphère there is also thé Other Irish islands hâve December2007. policies Thé well-regarded Tory School of goneeven fùrther into héritage cover access and transport, PrimitiveArt, originallyinspired tourism as a meansof support. ^ agriculture,childcare, éducation, by thé English artist Derek This is particularly true of enterprise and employment, Hill. Inishmore,largest of thé Aran environment,fîre and emergency Figure3: PatsyDan Rogers, King of Tory, ith ÛQ services, health, housing and ufhis paintings ^ Figure2- A curragh in useat Clare planning, marine policy and Island waste management. There is ^ focuson economyand services with accessbeing 'perhaps thé most fundamental issue Tory's survival was in doubt within their areas. Putting thé coming under thé Department R of concemto thoseliving on as thé population fell 43% in a islandstogether, scaling up their for Arts, Héritage, Gaeltacht islands', but throughout there décadefrom 208 in 1981to only mass, to press for thé support and thé Islands. Since 2002 thé is acknowledgementof héritage 119 in 1991. each islând needed was a way responsibilitybas been that of j forward. thé Departmentof Community, issuesincluding: landscapeand préservation projects under At this bleak period for Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, l which states: 'Our coastal agriculture;thé continueduse of Tory and otherislands, a change Already there was some Irish on Gaeltachtislands fi-om l beganto be seenm that islanders state aid, but this was biased islands ... possessa valuable towards islands within thé cultural héritage. It is a central childcareprovision onwards; themselves petitioned jointly C/3 traditionalfarming and fîshing for thé supportthey ail needed. designated Gaeltacht (Irish- purposeof thé Departmentthat .o practices under enviromnental Usually représentée by thé speaking régions), in which a sustainable vibrant communities policies and thé restoration of secretariesoftheir co-operatives, development agency, Udarâs will continue to settle on thé derelictbuildings under housing islanders got together to form na Gaeltachta had operated islands'. Thé departmentseeks (ComhdhâilOileâin na hÉireann a pressuregroup, Comhdhâil since1980, superseding another, 'to provide satisfactoryservices 2007). na nOileân (Royle 1986). This Gaeltarra Eireann, of 1957. To anda developedinfrastmcture lu ensure sustainability body, whose name means thé simplify a complexjoumey,one order to thé Regarding Tory Island, fédération of thé islands, sought in which thé positiveview of thé of thé islands'(Department of a visit now reveals thé results state support and, of equal islands as réservoirs of cultural Community,Rural and Gaeltacbt of major récent investments importance, state validation héritage played a part, thé Affairs 2007). includingaschool and community for island life. One problem Comhdhâil's aim was successfùl centre, a supermarket and a regarding island adminisfration insofar as policy towards thé Prionty basbeen given to healthcentre. Thereare also was that thé islands are scattered islands as a whole became thé infi-astmctureand access projects severalcouncil (i. e. subsidised) throughoutthé coastalcounties responsibility of a designated and thé successor organization houses. extensiontothé pier and différent local authorities department of thé Irish state. to thé original Comhdhâilna An facilitâtesthé new feny, capable each managed a handful of From 1997 to 2002 thé islands nOileân, Comhdhâil Oileâin na of crossingthé furiousTory islands, an insignificant mass even featured in a ministry name, hÉirearm/Irish Islands Federa- INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 51 Islands. Part of thé appeal 4: is at a traditional ^y Figurt 5: Taiwan and its islands world, Orchid Island off thé is its limestone landscape, cottage on Inishmore. 6>fellkan southeast coast of Taiwan was "tontonMatsuls characterised by tiny walled (Matzu) EA ST£ R N kept freefrom outsideinfluence, ^ S E A fields; there are also important even that of thé majority Han l N } archaeologicalsites, especially Chinese, being dominated by thé ancient stoneforts, iûcluding oneof théindigenous Taiwanese thé spectacularDun Aenguson ^ groups,whose nine major tribes its clififtopsite. Othertraditions, comprise just 2% of thé total y' Talpei including thé famous Aran ^^ >- population of Taiwan. Orchid sweater,are exploitée, as is thé ^ Island (45 sq km) housesabout 1934documentary film Man of 2000of thé2900 Yami (Dawo) ^. ±^ \ £i:'^, «i>v s- . people,thé most isolatedof thé Aranby RobertFlaherty, usually ?utueUnleKtnmen w on show at a visitors' centre. aboriginal groups, with close Visitors receive a partial and associations to people in thé rather romanticised vision of TAIWAN northemPhilippines. islandhéritage, probably about Pwghuls Historically thé island as accurateas that depicted in ail proportionto theircombined 45,000), formerly Quemoy,was (Pescadores) was treated as a cultural réserve thé siteof&e battleofGuningtou Flaherty'sfilm, which notoriously populationtotal, which, at under km andduring thé Japanese colonial ^ in 1949 between thé communists 100 distortedthé reality it pretended 9,000, is thé équivalent of a period on Taiwan fi-om 1895 to small town. and nationalists and remained 1945 access was restricted to to depict. However, tounsm ÛQ affectedby thé disputebetween ''««ua supportsisland life hère to a CHINA researchers(Tsai 2002). Life d China and Taiwan for décades. o Green te reasonable standard and helps on Orchid,supportée by fishing TAIWAN ÎLu) l to pemiitmost islanders now to Hsiao. , and agriculture, especially live in thé modem bungalows It washeavily militarised ongKçng Uuchiu taro production, went largely and thé two islands of Big and . haoli pastwhich thé hordes oftourists ^, (D»i»h.«W!) Orchid Is untouchedby modem society display ^ÎLan)ftJ) Little Kinmen continue to SOUmCHIMSEA .; HIUPHNES Like Ireland, Taiwan >20" until 1960when thé govem- pass without a glanée en route (». s évidenceofthis aswell asearlier rr 1S to thé few remainingtraditional (théRepublic of China)consists cultural influences(Tsai 2003). g cottageswhich they photograph of a largeisland (roughlyhalf Kinmen and thé Matsu Islands enthusiastically(Figure 4) (Royle thé size of Ireland) containing Figure6: TienhoTemple, Magong, remained under martial law Penghu 2003). thé considérable majority of 5 thé population(23 million) and untill992. Penghuhashadlong involvement outsidepowers Thé fùtu-e ofsome of thé a number of offshore islands with smaller Irish islands remains m (whose common names in giventhé stratégie location and accessto goodfishing grounds; li § doubt;thé 2006 census revealed English will be used below), ÛQ that34 of thé62 inhabitedislands hèreforming six groups,together thé Portuguese named thé some islets archipelago thé Pescadores, hada populationofless than 20. with uniûhabited However, thé islands' position (Figure 5). fishing islands. Visits to some of thé more remote islands collectively is stronger now than it bas been in thé récent Thé geographyof thèse in thé Penghugroup such as islands varied: Kinmen and Tongpanreveal évidence ofout- pastthanks partly to islanders is own efforts, throughthé support thé Matsu Islands hâve coastal migrationwith théabandonment of their fédération, Comhdhâil locations off thé People's of housingclearly visible and Oileâin na hÉireann, also their Republicof China;thé Penghu nowonly 20 of thé64 islands are inhabited,with thémajority of willingness to embracenew Islands are an archipelago of économie activities. Some 127sq km in théTaiwan Strait; thépopulation ofaround 90, 000 of thèse activities involve thé Hsiao-Liuchiu, Orchid and residingon thé linked islands in thécentre of thégroup where thé exploitation of thé islands' Green Islands are off thé coast cultural héritage. Héritage and of Taiwan. Thé six islands/ city ofMagongis located. identity are also strong reasons archipelagos also hâve had contrast Penghu's for thé islands receiving state distinct historiés. Kimnen(150 By to interactionwith thé outside récognitionand supportout of sqkm with apopulation ofabout INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 53 nment of Taiwan started to to villages to défend them velopment and stratégies to develop thé island, which againstthé sandand winds manage growth' (Jou and Tsai 2000), and included some brought cultural change,too, (Figure7). Following mass including thé teaching of emigration to Southeast telling phrases like 'island Mandarin. Orchid Island Asia between thé late 19th developmentshould be based was brought firmly within centuryandfhe Sino-Japanese on principles of sustainable contemporaryTaiwan from war in 1930s; remittances development. This includes 1982 when thé southem tip from abroad enriched thé concern for island ecology, of thé island became a site island economy and cultural and thé préservationof unique cultures' for thé storageof low and landscape with colonial island history and médium level nuclear waste, style western buildings. (CEPD 2005). Schemesto be a controversialdécision which Thé héritage was protected funded hâve to emanate from thé islands' administrations and engenderedprétest (Marsh et by successfulreforestation al, 1993). Thé nuclear site as well as 40-odd years of are not imposée from Taipei. is isolated from thé rest of military frontline isolation In this regard Yung-JaanLee Orchid Island, which is now and associated building (2007) noted that Matsu had received much government ûQ an important tourist area, its prohibitions (Tsai 2002; plicated in Penghu and other article,thé fund operatedinitially attractionsbeing thé seclusion 2003). Suchhéritage plays islands where National Scenic under thé Construction Bureau spendingwith initial focus on <5 physical constmctionprojects, andslower pace oflife, which animportant part in Kinmen's Area législation from thé 1990s of thé Ministry of thé Interior l hâve survived hère. Nearby tourism and about one quarter impacted upon them 'for thé with a focus upon infi-astructure but social projects became ùd Green Island (15 sq km), of thé island was designated purpose of better protecting projects until it was réalisée significant, within a setting of G as a National Park in 1995 community involvement and originallya homeof théAmi thèse islands and promoting that 'unnecessaryconstructions l people, thé largest of thé for conservation. Kinmen's their tourism developmentin a began to impact thé fragile empowennent. aboriginalgroups who inhabit 20th century history has also properway' (Ni andChang 2007: island écologieswhile essential much of eastem Taiwan, bas potentialfor battlefield tourism ' dspiritlion, 6). Penghubecame a geopark social welfare services remained In sum, island l development Taiwan is long beenthé basefor high (Zhang 2007). Thé Matsu in 2002 and réalisation of thé unimproved' (Liu 2007: 2). By off 5 becoming more local with secunty pnsons. Islands retained their own significance of thèse islands to 2005 when about half thé fund distinct languageand culture arefragile andsome of thé support Taiwanwas further exemplified hadbeen spent, it becameévident greater control by and initiative given them théauthorities has On many Taiwanese and their traditional buildings to by by Penghu being thé location that a more nuancedapproach to from islanders. An interesting concentratedupon environmental situation thus results for Orchid islands isolation and/or (Figure8 nextpage) rcprcsent a for a major 2005 conférenceon island developmentwas needed. l their being closed military settlementlandscape umque m protection.Uninhabited Dongsha geologicaland geomorphological Administration was transferred Islandgiven it dominanceby an Atoll, théPratas Islands, thé only areas restricted development Taiwan,avoiding 'thé créative in conservation,Thé Penghu vision to thé Council for Economie aboriginalgroup with its distinct fùlly developedatoll in thénorthem and non-Chineseidentity and (Chiang2007; Huang 2007). destmction associatedwith (Lin 2005). Development, which 'took a part théSouth China Sea, of ! This helpedthé survival of modernism' (Lee 2007: 8). of is more holistic and integrated héritage: s^ considérableecological importance culture, identity and héritage, ThusMatsu is at variancewith As JohnLiu basobseryed, view of thé conditions of thé such as thé temples of Taipei, whose few surviving andhas been protected by désignation 'thèse off-shore islands hâve off-shore islands' (Liu 2007: 'Thé préservation of this ofthé Dongsha Atoll Marine National fragile culture and its future Penghuwith their elaborate héritagestructures stmggle to receivedconsidérable attention by 3). There is now a sustainable Parkfrom January2007, a key roof décorations (Figure gain attention,such as North with thécentral govemment of Taiwan development mandate for development should fully be policyto deterdestructive illégal directed and managed thé 6). On Kinmen, despiteits Gâte,now tuckedinto a curve m récent years' (2007: l). Thé projects and sustainability has by fishing. Dawo people themselves. opennessand social exchange, of an elevated road. Thé Offshore Islands Development been applied to thé fiind itself, they receive visitors and includingthat with thé rapidly- distinctivenessof thé islands Act of 2000 in its first article which has been recast as a How On Kmmenthé National Park présent culture developingChinese coastal hasencouraged tourism, which considérée thé promotion of revolving fund. Guidelines how they their administrationhas taken under rcview should ail be consideredon their régionoffwhich it lies,ancient is now of majorsignificance on construction and industry. for promoting thé sustainable thé conservationof its 'biologically own tenus. Yet because its cultural traditions remain manyofthem; Ni andChang Enviromnentalresources, cult. u-al developmentof offshoreislands of diversifiedenvironment', but basalso évidentsuch as thé traditional (2007)idenfified almost 1. 4m characteristicsand quality oflife were promulgated in 2005 by thé connection to Taiwan, its future been'actively involved in preserviûg is still necessarilytied to that of villagesof Outuo,Chu-Shan, visitors to Taiwan's small were mentioned, but afterwards. Directing Committee for Offshore traditional community appearance, Choun-lin and many others islandsin 2001, especiallyto Thé Act set up thé Offshore IslandsDevelopment, which re- Taiwan. Thé question is how warmémorial and historical landmark originally laid out according Penghu,Kinmen and Green Islands DevelopmentFund, an emphasised thé Act's amended to achievea fair and équitable maintenance(Huang 2007: l). Tbis exchange between thé Dawo to feng shui principles as Islands. addition to normal govemment régulation: thé particularities of identificationofcultural (and tourisin) well as thé wind spirit lions, Taïwan's islands, like funding for thé islands. In tune each island shall serve as a basis and Taiwan' (Liu 2007: 5). factorsin conservationcan be repli- statues erected at thé entrance thoseeverywhere, are fragile with thé agenda of thé first for determingdirections fot de- 55 INTERNATIONALJOUXNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS initiative and thé way in which 8/orchid.html;accessed Jan. 23, 2008). "^ COMPARISONS AND Ni. C-C and Chang,C-YD. 2007. J CONCLUSION Irish islandersthemselves strived Tourismdevelopment of PenghuIslands by through an islands pressure théperspectives of intra and inter scale in Taiwan.In TsaiH-M. (éd. ) (2007)Thé Inaugural group to arrive (eventually) Meetingof théIGU Commission onIslands at a situation where there was - IslandGeographies International Conférence Proceedings,Taipei, Taiwan, pp. F-5-1-F-5-11 Ireland and Taiwan are dedicatedstate support for them (accessiblevia http://igu-islands. giee.ntau.edu. bear witness to that. tw/conf_papers.htm). on oppositesides of thé globe Ô Peicfn,D. 1997.Islanders: thé story By Justin A Spenillo with différent historiés and ofoneman's fight to save away oflife, London: Fount. cultural héritages. They are REFERENCES O'Crohan, T. 1978.Thé islandman. similar in that both polities Oxford: Oxford University Press(firstpublished ABSTRACT asÔ Criomhthain,T. l 929.An tOIleânach,Baile consist of a large island with ÂthaCliath: Oifig antSolâthair). many offshoreislands, but even CEPD. 2005. Guidelines for O'Flaherty,L. 1932.Skerrett. l promoting thé sustainabledevelopment of London:Gollancz. w.ith growing environmental hère there are distinctions given offshore islands. Taipei: Thé Council for Royle.SA.1986. A dispersedpressure thé scaleinvolved, with Ireland EconomiePlanning and Development. group:Comhdhâil nanOileân, thé Federadon of dégradationand thé depletion of Chiang,B-W. 2007.Migration and thé thé Islandsofù-eland. Irish Geography,vol. 19, naturalresources, sustainability and its islandsbeing of a much formation of island historié landscapes: a case pp.92-95. andenergy are focalconcems smallerscale, in populationtenus studyofQuemoyDKimnenDIsland. In Tsai H-M. Royle,SA. 2003.Exploitation and two (éd.) (2007)Thé Inaugural Meeting théIGU célébrationof thé héritage of thé Irish islands. of for society. Civilization's useof ^2 anyway,thanTaiwan. However, Commission on Islands - Island Geographies IrishGeography, vol. 36n. l, pp.23-31. considération of thé two cases International Conférence Proceedings, Taipei, Royle,SA. 2007. Islands offthe Irish energyhas evolved in away that is ? Taiwan,pp. G-2-1-G-2-17 (accessible viahttp:// coastand thé "bridging effect". In G.Baldacchino notsustamable.Thispaper argues bringsforth much commonality. igu-islands.giee.ntau.edu.tw/conf_papers.htm). (ed.)Bridgingislands:théimpactof'fixed links'. Thé Irish and thé Taiwanese Comhdhâil Oileâin na hEireann. Chariottetown:Acom Press,pp. 203-218. that energyand sustainability 2007.Island policies. http://www. oileam.ie/en/ Royle, SA. and Scott, D. 1996. need not be at odds, and that ÛQ offshore islands both display ComhdhailWork/NationalWork(accessed Dec. Accessibilityand thé Irish islands.Geography, G islands are a prime location to ûd interestingcultural attributes ofa 28,2007). vol. 81 n. 2, pp. 111-119. H DépartaientofCommunity, Rural and Sayers, P. 1974. Peig: thé test and advance sustainable significanceout of proportionto GaeltachtAffairs. 2007. Thé offshore islands. autobiographyofPeig Sayers ofthé Gréât Blasket their mass within their national http://www.pobail.ie/en/Islands/(accessed Dec. Island. Dublin: Talbot Press(first publishedas energy.Case study islands were 28, 2007). Sayers,P. 1936. Peig. Baile Àtha Cliath: Oifig analyzed with focus on their realm. In both placesthere are Hindley, R. 1990. Thé death of thé an tSolEathair). development into sustainable survivais in linguistic, cultural, Irish language:a qualifiedobituary. London: Synge,JM. 1907.Thé Aran Islands. Routledge. Dublin: Maunsel. energy islands. Thèse islands l andarchitectural tenus ofpeople Huang, W-C. 2007. Héritage Synge, JM. 1911. Thé tinker's andpractices not now commonly revitalization: stratégiesfor héritageprotection wedding,Riders to (hesea, and Thé shadow of were fi-omthree régions around anddevelopment onKinmen Island. In TsaiH-M. théglen. Dublin: Maimsel. thé globe representingthree seenon thérespective mainlands. (éd.) (2007)Thé Inaugural Meeting of théIGU Tsai. H-M. 2002. Sustainability And whilst for much of récent Commission on Islands - Island Geographies of small islandsin Taiwan.In Hsiao,H-H., types of primary stakeholders: International ConférenceProceedings, Taipei, Liu. C-H.. and Tsai, H-M. (eds). Sustainable govemment, private sector, and history such traditions were Taiwan,pp. G-1 - 1~G-1-15(accessible via http:// developmentforisland societies: Taiwan andthe govemment/private.Thèse case viewed negativelyas belonging igu-islands.giee.ntnu.edu.tw/conf_papers.htm). world, Taipei:Asia-Pacific Researeh Program Jou. S-C. and Tsai, H-M. 2000. ofAcademia Sinica and SARCS Secrétariatat to thépast, in thémodem world studiesrevealed that thé keys to l Analysisand recommendationson Offshore National CentralUniversity, pp. 395-408. IslandsActand its implicationrégulations, Taipei: Tsai. H-M. 2003. Island biocultural developmentinclude not only there is a récognition of their ûd Construction and Planning Administration, assemblages:thé caseof KinmenIsland. thé tangibleéléments of energy value both culturally, focused Ministryof théInterior, Taiwan [in Chinese]. GeografiskaAnnaler B, vol. 85n. 2, pp.209- planning- renewableresources/ upon thé identity and héritage Lee. Y-J. 2007. Off-shore island 218. communityempowerment vis-à-vis globalization: Zhang,1-1. 2007. Beyond thé sun, technology and stakeholders - thé islands demonstrate and caseof Matzu. In Tsai H-M. (éd.) (2007) Thé sandand sea:prospect of battlefieldtourism but also motivational conditions economically, in relation to InauguralMeeting of thé IGU Commission developmentin Kinmen, Taiwan. In TsaiH-M^ on Islands - Island GeographiesInternational tourism. Taiwan (éd.) (2007)Thé Inaugural Meeting ofthé IGU that provide thé momentumfor Bofh Ireland and Conférence Proceedings,Taipei, Taiwan, pp. Commissionon Islands- IslandGeograpbies development. hâve established government E-4-1-E-4-13 (accessiblevia http://igu-islands. International ConférenceProceedings, Taipei, mechanisms support island giee.ntnu.edu.tw/conf_papers.htm). Taiwan,pp. G-4-1-G-4-15 (accessible viahttp:// to Lin, J-C. 2005. Thé PenghuVision. igu-islands.giee.ntnu.edu.tw/conf_papers.htm). life, including thé héritage and Magong:Penghu County Govemment. INTRODUCTION Liu, JK-C. 2007. Localizing thé ecosystemsfrom which it developmentstratégies for Taiwan'soff-shore arose. What is clear in both islands:policy issues in addressingenvironmental andcultural différences. In TsaiH-M. (éd.) (2007) Sustainabilitybas been defined casesis that successfulstratégies ThéInaugural Meeting of théIGU Commission as thé use of resources to meet of island support require local on Islands - Island GeographiesInternational ConférenceProceedings, Taipei, Taiwan,pp. I- current needs in a manner that involvement, thé island identity. 1-1-1-1-5(accessible via http://igu-islands.giee. Thé récent recasting of thé ntnu.edu.tw/conf_papers.htm). doesnot compromise thé ability Marsh, DR, Lin, E. and Lin, P- offiiture générationsto provide operational structure of thé Y. 1993. Orchid Island: Taiwan's nuclear Offshore Islands Development dumspsite.WISENews Communique, 28 March for their interests. Initially, (accessiblevia http://wwwl0.antenna.nVwise/ humanityexisted sustainably as Fund in Taiwan to require local index.html?http://wwwl0.antenna.nl/wise/387- INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 57 an élément within thé landlockedrégions is both logical of régional characteristicsand ServicesLimited (LUCELEC). environment. However, and lucrative. On a global driving stakeholder,but they ail Electricityconsumption was over civilization's transition from scale,sustainable energy islands share underlying similarities. 215,000MWh/yr asof 1999,with will provide thé foundationfor a thé needfor approximately33.3 hunter-gathersto agriculturists Although literatureexists about renewable energy Systemsto thèse islands being analyzed, MW of additional production led to thé developmentof a more servicelarger régions, including on-site research and interaction in thé coming décade (SEP complexsociety. Asaresult, the less developedcountries. With is essential to understanding 2001). Householdsuse nearly path of society divertedfrom one that was once symbiotic thé adventof thèsesophisticated, thé benefîts of thèse sustainable 36.9% ofelectricity while 56% largersustainable energy Systems, with thé environment to one energy Systems. goes to thé major consumer markets expand, technologies electricity, commercial and that is now parasitic.With thé of advance, économies of scale hôtel use. Industrial electricity conséquencesofindustrializatioû SAINT LUCIA are achieved, and society's use and street lighting demand becomingincreasingly apparent environmental footprint will a relatively minor portion of thé throughglobal warmingand diminish. Saint Lucia is a volcanic electricity produced,5. 7% and resourcedepletion, global efforts must focus on re-establishing island nation of 616 square 1.5%respectively. Hère we explore three kilometers, populated by Saint Lucia's journey sustainabilityor societywill be islandsthat are currentlypursuing 150,000people. Thegeography towards sustainable energy forced to adaptto thé emergmg sustainable energy portfolios: thé island characterizedby began when Chief Sustainable ^ unfavorable environment. Islandsare idéal for developing variablesinvolved, thé greater fhe of is Saint Lucia in thé Caribbean; a central mountainous région Development and Environment Energy is a central sustainable energy portfolios. complexity. ComplexSystems Gotland,Sweden; andYakushima, and planar north and south officer Bishnu Tulsie stated driver of technology and Similar to most mainland are diffîcult to understandand ÛO Japan.Thèse case study islands ends.Eco-tourism is its primary thé nation's désire to become d developmentand is often thé countries, islands rely on study holistically. Biologists are analyzed based on their source ofincome (Corbin 1999). a "Sustainable Energy root ofenviromnentalproblems. conventional energy, but thé constantlyconfront thé problem l geography,political and societal Currently, thé island bas 66.4 Démonstration Country" by Sinceenergy is anindispensable procuremeatof fossil fuel on of complexity when studying characteristics,energy plans and MW of installéeenergy capacity 2012 at thé fifth meeting of thé part of our society,it cannot islands is especially straining life Systems,and they address implementationstrategy, current from 3 diesel fùeled génération Conférence of Parties to thé be eliminated from daily life. economically due to thé cost thisproblem by studyingmodel progress, and stakeholders plants, ail of which are owned United Nations Convention on Instead,thé idéal solution is to of import. Renewablesoffer organisms.Thèse are orgamsms R driving thé initiative. While and operatedby thé sole utility Climate Change in November couvert conventional energy an indigenoussource of eaergy that engenderail core aspects each island case bas its own set company, St. Lucia Electricity 1999. As a result ofthis an- sources to ones that are both that is readily available,easily of life, but are simpleenough sustainableand environmentally extractedand favorable due to to understand. Sustainable l benign. Sustainableenergy decreasedreliance on outside energySystems are complex and ? portfolios- sourcesof clean, entities. Fortunately,thé lack andindependent buildings renewableenergy instead of a of non-renewable resources on small complexes operating portfolioof fossilfuels such as islands is counteractedby an on renewable energy act as coal, oil, andgas- area key area abundant stock of renewable their modelorganisms. Islands ÛO . ^î offocus to make such a transition energysources, including solar, providethé opportunity, through feasible. By successfully wind, geothennal,wave/tidal, theirmanageable complexity, to adoptinga sustainableenergy andhydropower.Implementing fùrther developthé technology, portfolio, an intégral step is sustainable energy portfolios implementation,and opération taken towardsre-establishing a becomes favorable as a ofsustainableenergy portfolios. symbioticrelationship with thé result of thé prohibitive cost Thé benefit ofsustainable energy environment. Governments, of conventional energy and to fhelocal communitieson thèse international alliances, non- thé abundance of renewable islands is energyindependence governmental orgamzations, resources. In addition, islands and reduced économie strain. and private corporations are offer smaller energy Systems Furthermore thé successes, stakeholdersthat must play an with a manageable level of lessons learned, and détails active rôle in resolving thèse complexity,which are suitable surroundingthé development environmentalproblems. This for thé researchand deployment of thèse sustainable energy paper analyzesand discusses ofsustainable alternatives. islandscan be synthesizedinto sustainable energy portfolios templatesfor utilizationby asdeployed on threecase study It generallyfollows that otherislands; thé transfer of islands. thé larger thé System,thé more knowledgetoother islands and 59 INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS Geothermalenergy has particular LUCELEC,thé only ciistomerfor potential due to Saint Lucia's »u(cr electric génération;LUCELEC volcanicactivity (MPDEH 2003). will beinterested in thisproject ll'llll '^ Qualibou-Calderaonthé southwest fl'. ï\ only if thé priéeof energyis Angu coast is thé focal geothermal ;,''Sî. _i*>irtfmù compétitive conventional t. 'J~. -St. Barthsleir with es site, where estimatedthat ';. ). it is energy and it does not hâve to An T) t.. »!..sctcrrc^f . St II températurescould reach as high li-VD NEVIS ' contributefmancial resources for Plymouth as350°C at adepth of l ,000m.Ail development(MPDEH 2003). Monteerrat(U. X.) Qu researchdone thus far confirms (F Withthis project's high potential Basse-Terre Marie- that there at least 10 Isla Aves is MW of for successon a large scale INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 61 GOTLAND (SWE35EN) In addition to Gotland's resourcesupplying 62 GWh/yr power sourcesand required thé extensiveplanning, it bas also (in 1999)to thé islandand holds developmentnew Systems to Off thé east coast of of beenable to mobilize,initiate, fiirther potential for thé future allow intégration. Sweden in thé Baltic Sea lies Oi and complète a variety of - expandto 120 MW capacity Biomass is Gotland's thé island Gotland. This of sustainableenergy projects. To by 2005. othermajor source ofsustainable islandhas a population 58,000 of date,wind powerprojects are Despite its success, energy. Gotland utilizes district and a land area of 3,140 km2. thé most signifîcant sourcesof initial projects had several heatingSystems m Visby,Slite, Geographically, is a forested it sustainableenergy. Currently, setbacks,but thèseprovided Hemse,and Klintehamn,which région (40% island) with aver 120wind turbineshâve been of valuable lessonsleamed. Initial are reliant on biomassfor 95% arableand grazed land (27% and constmctedand are operating on offshore wind farms were oftheir energy.Thèse Systems 4%) asthé othermajor landtype. and off thé coast of Gotland also démonstrationprojects, are fueledby wood chipsfrom Its annual energy requirements ALAN (Boxer 2001). Turbines are generating valuable information sawmills, heat recovery Systems are approximately 4,425 GWh JLAJV currentlylocated in Bockstigen, on environmental concerns, from industrialsites, and landfill with energy consumed by 6 Nâsudden,and Smôjen.Thèse including marine disruptions, andsewage treatment plant gas. identifiable sectors. Industry turbinesgénérale enough energy effects on seal populations, Gotland also applies biomass and transportationdemand thé to provide over 15% of thé and avian deaths. Additional to thétransportation industry in largest portion of energy at island's entire electrical needs. factors that local authorities and théform ofrapeseed oil (RME) ÛQ 2, 100 GWh and 950 GWh, Energi2005 setthé initiative for plannersleamed to considerwere and bio-ethanol - gasoline respectively. Agriculture, plans fiirtherdevelop wind ôt Goîiand to locationsfor deploymentand alternatives. Rapeseedoil is buildings, and thé public sector harvestingin thé southemhalf aesthetics,especially for Visby- a popular fuel in that it is a j eachconsume roughly 200 GWh. î/) of thé island;this is expectedHanseaticcity - a UnitedNation stand-alone fuel with reduced Théremaining 775 GWh arenot . /' to, at a minimum, double thé Education Scienceand Culture émissions. Over 90 alternative associatedwith any particular Map 2 î Go 11and current level production. To of Organizations(UNESCO) Worid vehicles recently acquiredin sector(Boxer2001). effectivelytransmit this energy, cultural héritage site (Boxer Gotland can operate on RME Gotland's population Council of Gotland passed thé Energi2005 (1999). Energi 2005 a supplementary50MW high 2001). Gotland experienced and/orbio-ethanol.Thereexists l voltage DC power line now is environmentally aware and Ecoprogramme for Gotland. emphasizedenergy efficiency growmg painswhen integrating a viable infrastructure and connectsthé turbines and thé grid 5 proactive, which facilitated thé This program set forth thé goal and thé use ofrenewable energy, wind power into thé power customerbase to supportthé use (Boxer 2001).Wind on Gotland development of a sustainable that thé island become a Zero- but also set forth concrète grid. Thé existing grid was not of RME in Visby,Hemse, and is already a proven sustainable energy portfolio. In récent Emission Zone, furthering its objectivesto reducefossil fiiel designedto acceptdecentralized Klintehamn,which ail hâve l décades, thé Municipality of efforts to become a sustainable use. It includes thé installation Gotland has demonstrated in island. Soon after Agenda 21, of 120MW of windpower by l words and actions its dedication thé notion ofenergy vukierability 2005, thé requirement 90% to thé environment. Numerous motivated Gotland to strengthen bio-fuel for district heating,and documents, déclarations, and its energy independence by implement a Systemto monitor M energyplans hâve been drafited initiating further efforts to progressand updatethé energy .o outlining thé steps towards advance renewable energy plan. It also commissioned transitioning Gotland into a sources and maximize energy and committed to a long-term sustainableenergyisland.When efficiency. energyplan that would achieve thémuiiicipal govemment signed Mlultipleplans were issued an ecologically sustainable Vision Gotland2010 (1995) thé in 1999 regarding renewable societyby 2025. In récenttimes, report set forth thé energygoals energy. Gotland Tillvàxtavtal Gotland bas its own "Renewable to révise Gotland'senergy plan, 1999 was a régional growth EnergyIsland Programme" and a encourage thé use of green agreement between Gotland commitmentto participatein thé energy, and emphasizeenergy and thé Swedish govemment EuropeanUnion (EU) Campaigû efRciencyin localprojects. Wind that included sections related forTake-Off. In this programme, powerwas specifically identified to sustainability. Most notably, Gotlandwouldbeone of thé first and it discussedoptions for wind it stated that there would be an 100 Renewable Communities farms on land and sea. Thé steps incrcaseinrenewable energyuse, in Europe and would aim to towards sustainable energy in biomass,andrecycledenergy. A produce a renewable energy Gotland continued on October morespécifie document released supply(RES) 100% équivalent 14th, 1996when thé Municipal was thé Energy plan for Gotland, to total energy consumption. INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 63 RME filling stationsand RME sustainableenergy from vehicle markets supportedby This is newer and smaller dams that can local businesses(Boxer 2003). an e u produce signifîcant amounts of Thé other fuel, bio-ethanol, is «^ VIadivosEok ,fl an additive that accounts for no energywithout causing ecological damage,therefore environmental more than 15% ofa fuel mix, and n yangp-^ ^j^ arguments against this form of is also a more sustainable fuel OKÊA than fossil fuels. Thé fiiture of okyo hydropowerare less compelling. Japan's Agency Natural bio-ethanol on Gotland hinges ngyang Yo for success Roma Resourcesand Energy proclaimed on thé of thé ..©y l igoy*î that dams on Yakushima need biomass démonstrationplant, emarcaîton ^ TH £aka not be taller than 100 feet to which is supportedwith fimds Une 3 EA from thé Swedish Ministry produce100+MWofpower, which of thé Environment. Thé mmimizesdégradation and enhances gdao uoka thé sustainableenergy network retrofïtted sugarbeet factory (Fulford2003). Furthermore, thé would produce bio-ethanol surplusin energyfrom this abundant and ideally increaseits use in ap 3: Yakushima source hydropower makes thé Gotland. This fuel would also of a be a favorable substitute for drive towards hydrogen-based economy feasible. Thé excess fossil fuel use in machinery receives approximately has evolvedinto thé form ofa hydropower can be utilized for j 160, that cannot be converted to 000 tourists each year "ZERO EmissionVision. " This ÛO (Uemura 2003). Thé aimual hydrolysisofwater for thé création alternative energy sources. vision focuses on three basic ^ estimatedenergy consumption points:fossil fiiel free- replace ofhydrogenfuel. In thisway thé ofYakushimaaverages 58, 800 fossil fuels renewable excessenergy can be efficiently and l In thé future, solar has initiatingnumeroussustainability vital as it can affect thé speedat with MWh/y for electricity from harmlessly stored in thé form of thé potential to become a key and energyplans. Govemment which thé transition occurs. energyelectricity; ZERO waste >; hydroelectric power and hydrogen,which contributesto thé energysource (viaphotovoltaics coopérationexists at ail levels - launcha recycling System and -147, 000 MWh/y from a island'sgoal of zéro émissions. E and solar thermal heating), as as evidenced by local/national initiate biomasscomposting; portfoliooffossil fuels (Uemura Despite thé abundance Gotland receives thé most sun govemmental agreements,and YAKUSHIMA (JAPAN) localresources - a campaign of hydropower, Yakushima hours in ail of Sweden. Thé national goveniment funding. 2003).Currentlyhydroelectric that focuseson thé use of native generatorstotaling 56.5 MW bas assessedother sustainable utilization of solar energy thus Academia and thé private Yakushima is a small resourcesm anenvironmentally energy sources to détermine far has been lunited to small scale sector are also influential in this island 100km offofthe southem andDiesel Generators totaling friendly manner, such as if theycould supplément thé energy projects such as domestic hot undertaking,as they contribute to most point of KLyushu,Japan 24.75 MW are providing fostering eco-tourism instead Yakushima energy demandin théfuture. Wind power water Systems,cooling Systems thé effort via research in energy with a land areaof504km2 (lida with its of traditional tourism (lida (lida 1999). estimâtes revealed that there are l for a library and university technology to strengthen thé 1999). Thé geographyof this 1999). Thé most récent Yakushima is similar approximately 368,000 MWh/ buildings, and electricity for sector and thé local knowledge régionis primarily mountainous, environmentalundertaking by ûd thé y of potential wind energy on homes and public buildings. base. Involvement from thé althoughits environmentranges to Gotland (specifically Yakushimais its commitment city ofVisby) in that UNESCO Yakushima. This is based on a Thévariety ofsolar applications private sector is primarily in from subtropical to subarctic to become a hydrogen-based simulatedwind farm where there and thé increasingaffordability thé form of coopération in throughoutits changingaltitudes declaredit a WorldHéritage economy,which wouldprovide site. In fact, thé entire island of are ten 500 kW (5 MW total) andefficiency of thé technology supporting Gotland's energy (Kai 2002). Its meteorological thé mechanismby which to Yakushimahas been declared wind turbines located offshore indicate solar as a growing part goals. Vindkompaniet AB, a conditions classify it a "wef become an émission fi-eeisland (Uemura 2003). This simulation of Gotland's sustainable future local company, developed thé island as it averages 10,000 a World NatureHéritage Site (Fulford2002). because of its diverse biota strategically arrangedthé chosen (Boxer 2001). most récent oÉfshore wind farm mm ofrainfall in thé mountams Yakushima already and globally renowned cedar sites on thé coast and near cities to with fînancial backing fi-omthé annually and 4,300mm in thé bas a significant amount minimizethé need sprawling Thé Swedish European Union's THERMIE lowerlying land. Théhigh level trees. In 1997thé Japaneseof sustainableenergy in its for government declared that developmentand be proximate to govemment,local municipalities, programme. Thé généraltrend of précipitation, especially in portfolio. Thé présentenergy Yakushima would become thé highestenergy consumption and international (primarily is that thé goals are set within thé mountains, high élévations, generatedfrom hydroelectric a "Zéro EmissionIsland, " a anddemand. Although there is no European)programs play a major thé govemment and are made and rocky terrain create an sourcesalone is approximately concept set Gunter initiative to move forward with this rôle in Gotland's stepstowards into reality via local companies enviromnentthat hassubstantial forth by 361GWh/year and thé estimate 1990s, plan,wind power could provide thé acquiring a sustainableenergy with fùnding from thé Swedish potentialfor hydroelectricpower. Pauli in thé early for total water energypotential setting on a path towards next major source of sustainable portfolio. Local government government or international Thépopulation of thé islandwas it on Yakushimais 1,150 GWh/ 1998). energy,depending on thé growth was responsiblefor drafting and programs. Local supportis also 14,000 as of 1995and it recei- sustainability (Pauli year, making it thé energy In Yakushima,this concept sourceofchoice (Kai 2002). ofenergydemand and thé degree INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 65 of success with thé hydrogen can fluctuate. It seems to available. What about thé economy. follow logically that thé more Yahishimaisprimarily driven by societal environment? Gotland théprivate sector, which in tum Solar power could government investment into and Europehâve an established respondedto society'sdemand also potentially contribute to achievinga sustainable energy environmentalcommunity which foraflfordable energy and its need Yakushima's sustainable energy portfolio,thé morelikely thé somewould cite as thé reasonfor forprofît.TheYakushimaDenko portfolio. If solar photovoltaics chances will be successful. it its successas comparedto thé were utilized, it is estimated that Co.identified an abundant source Thisis certainlytrue in thécase less establishedCaribbean and thereis a 19,000 MWh/y potential. Gotland and Saint Lucia. ofhydropowerasadvantageous of SamtLucia. Granted supportive An additional 24,500 MW could to expensiveconventional power. Gotlandhas strong govemment conditionscorrelate with a faster be contributed via solar thermal In order to fulfill thé needs of backing and is thus further transition, but Yakushima had technologiesbemg operated by both alongin thé developmentof Yakushima,private industry no supporting environmental respondedby tappinginto thé familles and companies(Uemura its own sustainableenergy community and still became a islands stock of sustainable 2003). However thé excess of Systems. Yakushima However, sustainableisland. Planning, hydropower, popularity of wind energyto its own benefit,as well demonstratesthat this also is documents,and government power, and thé prohibitive cost of asthat of théinhabitants, and thé a sufficientbut notnecessary involvementare very helpfiil but photovoltaic Systemsmake solar environment. Now, Yakushima condition. It developedon its not necessaryfor thé successfùl thé least favorable of thé three. is being led by thé désire to ownwith negligiblegovemment development of a sustainable becomea hydrogeneconomy. ÛQ involvement,and even recently energyisland. In tenusoftime, Thé financing and Motivational conditions for a ? withthé drive towards ahydrogen both Saint Lucia and Gotland involvement m Yakushima is unlike hydrogeneconomy continue to economy, thé government launchedefforts in thé 1990's, thé previous case studies in that be fmancial(profit) but may û0 préfectureis playinga minor, butGotland ismuch fùrther along thé private sector's involvement alsoinclude politics (power) as G supportmg rôle. m its transition to a sustainable û0 exceedsthé govemment. Ciirrently thé energyindustry can exerts energyportfolio. In thé end,it is théhydropower plants inYakushima its influence on thé political Knowing what is not thélevel ofcommitment and need are owned and operated by thé System. essentialto developmentcan forrenewable energy - driven by Yakushima Denko Co., a private be asuseful as knowing what a senséof urgency- that is thé company founded in 1952 and In Gotland,and Europe E is. Why is it that thé Saint strongestindicator for where and subsidiaryof thé TaiheiyoCément in général, thé motivational Luciais in itsrenewable energy howquickly a sustainable energy Group. ThéYakushima Denko Co. infancy while Gotland and conditionsare différent, yet islandwilldevelop.Thèse needs rendera result. As is a public-private joint venture they similar thé Yakushimaalready hâve andcommitment can be gauged including 11 private companies a whole, Europebas become thé operating renewable energy by thé motivational conditions l leader in enviromnentalefforts and thé Kagoshima Prefectural Systems?It is not a result of thé on thé island. Govemment. Overthehalfcentury FINDINGS AND development. Futhermore,if a result oflimited resourcesand environment, as they ail hâve Motivational conditions ofits opération,Yakushima Denko planswere essential to becoming impendingenvironmental crisis. IMPLICATIONS energy resources in thé form of are thé driver of sustainable has constmcted and owns/operates a sustainableenergy island, then There was thé simultaneous j solar,wind, wave/tidal directly energy island development. thé SenpiroWaterfall Power Plant In thé development of Yakushima would hâve never demandfor energyalong with and Anbou Power Plants (#1 and sustainableenergy islands, there become one. It was not until #2), which provide a total of -60 are multiple paths to success. thé past few yearsthat industry MW of clean hydro power to thé For instance, energy plans and first organized effort towards surrounding community (-20%) reportsarc often very usefùl but, sustainabilityin thé form of and for manufacturing (-80%). they are not always necessary pursuing a hydrogeneconomy. Thé companycurrently headsthé for a sustainable energy island In thé varions ways to transition Yakushima Clean Energy Partners to develop. Gotland and Saint to sustainableenergy portfolios, Cy-CEP), a program which aims to Lucia both initiated numerous stratégieplans are helpful, but form a hydrogeneconomy through reports and assessments,but not necessary. its hydropowersurplus. This goal Saint Lucia is not nearly as Similarly, govemment will not only make Yakushima afar along in achieving energy involvementcan be animportant model hydrogen island, but also independence. Although factor in thé transition to would put them in thé lucrative energyplans are a part of Saint sustainable energy, but thèse positionto be first to marketfor fhe Lucia's path, there are other casestudies show that thé level supply ofhydrogen. variables also influential in its ofgovemment involvement INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 67 conventionalenergy.Sustainable of thé world. Gotland is one of thé need to stop depleting thé In théglobal efforts to developenergy island in thé Baltic Sea. In 2001. Ratifiée June 2001. www. that environment in an unsustainable energy is alluring becauseit is Europe'sshowcase islands in sustainable energy islands, Islands 2010: Towards 100% RES eurocaribbean.org/pdf/SEPendorsed. fashion. Europeans, unlike cheaper that importing fossil it bas a strong and established understanding éléments Supply.January 2001. p. 87- 90. pdf www.islandsonline.org/island2010/ those in Yakushima, starting fuels and it is clean, which program for sustainability. It suchas stakeholders,energy UEMURA,Y.2003. Régional PDP/gotland.pdf EnergySystem in YakushimaIsland running out of resources is essential for an economy bas set spécifie goals that are plans,technology, resources, CORBIN,C. 1999. Energy - Analysisof RenewableEnergy and thé need for sustainable based on eco-tourism. Thèse supportedand implemented with and expertise, essential for is Production and use in St. Lucia Sources,Paper #362. Kagoshima motivational conditions hâve led thé help thé local community, energy led to political action of planning,implementing, and with particular focus on Renewable University.Kagoshima, Japan. http:// in thé form of local initiatives, to thé energyplans, joint venture govemmentfiinding, andprivate maintaining a sustainable Energy.Proceedings from thé Global www.cape.canterbury.ac.nz/webdb/ Conférenceon RenewableEnergy international programs, and assessments,and development corporations. Saint Lucia energyportfolio. As important Apcche_Proceedings/APCChE/Data/ Islands.Septemberl5-16, 1999. http:// 362rev.pdf national goals. Gotland bas of renewable energy programs doubles as a microcosm of thé as they eachare, they are not www.mforse.dk/doc/proceedings.pdf Y. 2003. created an infrastructure that like EuroCaribbean. Thé only Caribbean région, which as a UEMURA, by themselvesthé lynchpinto ECO-PROGRAM. 1995. RenewableEnergy Sources in developmental actively pursuesenvironmental reason why thé transition has whole is in earlier creatmg a sustainable energy Gotlands Kommun. YakushimaIsland. At théRenewable projects, including renewable not occurred as quickly as in stagesthan Gotland. It hasplans island. Successis dépendent ENERGI 2005. 1999. EnergySources for IslandTourism and energyislands; its motivational other places is simply because for sustainable energy, but it Energi2005 - Energiplanfor Gotland. Waterconférence in Crète, May 24-28, on thé présenceand intensity Gotlands Kommun condition was impendingcrisis. thé motivational factors are doesnot yet hâvethé foundation of motivational conditions that 2003.http://www. erec-renewables.org/ FULFORD,B. 2002. Mister documents/RES_for_Islands/pwpt/27_ not as intense and thé island is or will to mobilize to thé next create a demand for sustainable Natural. In Forbes. December23, May/Session_4/Yuemura.pdf Saint Lucia and thé pioneering thé establishment phase of physically obtaining energy. 2002. http://www.forbes.com/free VISION GOTLAND 2010. Caribbean are at an early stage of a Caribbeancommunity that and installing thé sustainable Thé researchperformed forbes/2002/1223/290.html 1995. GotlandsKommun. IIDA, T. 1999. Renewable WORLD 1984. St. t of sustainable development supportssustainability. energytechnologies. Yakushima in this paper was suffîcient to BANK. Energy Islands in Japan- Toward because until now there was no demonstrates that islands inAsia construct an initial fi-amework Lucia: Issuesand Options in thé ISLENETJAPAN. Proceedings from EnergySector, Report of thé Joint excessiveneed for energy,nor any CONCLUSIONS and South Pacifie are capable understanding of thèse case thé Global Conférenceon Renewable ÛQ UNDP/WorldBank Energy Sector G implementing a sustainable impendingenvironmental crisis. of studyislands. However, in order EnergyIslands. September15-16, AssessmentProgram, Report No. 5111- ù0 1999. http://www. inforse. dk/doc/ Reliance on small solar thermal energyportfolio. In Yakushima to trulyunderstand and capitalize SLU.Washington D.C., September proceedings.pdf 1984. j heaters and conventional energy Thé islands in this it was unique to seethé private from thèsecase studies there is sector as thé primary driver in KAI, T. 2002. Régional wassufRcient, but growthin eco- analysis were specifically thé need for further researchto Energy System in YakushimaIsland chosen represent a diverse thé island's development of l tourismand général development to collecttacit knowledge. This can - Analysis of EnergyDemand and has spurred économie and cross-section, geographically, small hydropower. However, only be acquiredthrough doser Supply,Paper #361. Kagoshima 5 environmental concems about economically, and politically, thèsearejust three casestudies. interaction with stakeholders University.Kagoshima, Japan. http:// Justin A Spcnillo wrotc g www. cape.canterbury. ac nz/webdb/. and thé islands. Future studies this paperwhile complctinghi. s MA Apcche_Proceedings/APCChE/Data/ thèse InternationalScience and Public Policy at to gather information for 361REV.pdf thé Elliott Schoolof InternationalAffairs. islandson site will undoubtedly MPDEH - Ministry of GeorgcWashington University (May provevaluable in thécompletion Planning,Development, Enviromnent 2004).His interest in sustainabilitystems and Housing. 2003. Saint Lucia fromhis time at ColumbiaUniversity's 1 ofatemplate for thé development Biosphère2 Ccntcr (Summcr 2000) and as EnergySector Policy and Strategy ofsustainableenergy islands, thé an undergraduateat Franklin & Marshall - (A GreenPaper for Discussion) May expansionofsustainable energy Collège,BA Biology(May 2002) He is ùd 2003.http://www. climatechange.gov. cun-entlyemployed at thé United Statcs lc/downloads/Saint%20Lucia%20%2 Systems,and converging thé pafh EnvironmentalProtection Agency anc! of civilization with that of thé ODRAFT%20Energy%20Policy.pdf looking for opportunitiesto continue global environment. PAULIG.1998. Technological hiswork on SustainablcEnergy Islands Forecastingand Social Change 1998, (NOTE. This paperis not supported, cndorsed,nor conncctcdto thé EPA). 4, REFERENCES 58,53-62. SEP- SustainableEnergy Pleasedirect contact tojspeni]lo@alumni. gmi edu. 202.564.0639. BOXER, K. 2001. Thé Plan. 2001. Saint Lucia Sustainable Municipalityof Gotland:A renewable EnergyPlan. Final Draft: 3 May Onthé »|, positepage: Simulation ofthé Wind-Hydro PowerStation inthi. 100% Rcnewal. leEnergy Sources inthc Island nt'El Hierru (Canarias - Spain) Population: More than 10000 inhabitants tbr a surface arca nf 276km2 Rcscn-oir: 70(lmabuve sca.LCM. I Capacity:200000 m3. 2-Conventiunal Power Station: 8,3 Mwdiesel fircd svstem 7-Lpper Hcight thé covcrageoftheencrg. v demandduring scvcn consccutivt. days'nithoutwïnd (beyondthis, thé existing diesel povver station will take ovcr to mcetthc'cntire 3-Wind Farm: 9. 35Mw installed power déni and). ^.MTï(S'^"mpc'"'trati""ratc "*"""I enel'gy *"'"direct ronsumption intothé 8- Lo"er Rcscr^oir. Capacity: 200000m3 Pumping Station 9-Desalination Plant. Capacity: Sto 10m3/dav. It tîlls thé rcservuirs and compensatethéeoporation losses. Thé |)la,, t ivill alsoprotide watcr'Ïor irrigation purposc or other use. . !.vd.ropo"e1'stat")n: 3X3. 3MwPclton turbines, ablc to operate t'rom }0% 100%uf theirpower capacity whilc kec|>ing thé samc et'ticicncv INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 69 CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL soilsshowing a firstaverage seedsproduction of 1,5kgper KNOWLEDGE tree. Thé oil extractedwith a handoperated Bielenberg press was about 10% of thé seeds JATRO URCAS,A'iAGI SPELL weight, not much in fact... it was also observedthat only 20% of thé plantsgrown fi-om FOR ISL^'D DEVELQFMENT wild non selectedseeds had a satisfactoryoil yeld... thénext stepis thus expectedto address By Pier Giovanni d'Ayala théidentification of productive A BLESSING FOR Jatropha varieties. Indonesia One of this projects started and Brasil seemto produce atropha Curcas is a frugal ISLANDS7MAYBE,... on 2006, is taking place on alreadygenetically improved smalltree growing on semi-arid thé upperArtibonito river, an plants. There is however no Islands at least most of and fallow lands. Familiar to areastretching over thé border évidence that thèse varieties themare hinging on imported l thé people of thé sub-Sahelian of Haiti and thé Dominican can adapt to semi arid waste fossil fuel for most of their African countries. Since ever Republic. This initiative soils...Afterail, Jatrophalived energy needs.High costs and they use Jatropha to create implemented by thé German up to its réputation as a shrub stratégiedependency are their coopérationtogether fences to protect fîelds from technical thatcould make out a livingon lot. A harshreality for SIDS, with thé local authoritiesaimed g hungry cattle. Its leaves are relativelybarren land raising actuallyunpalatable to goatsand thé smallisland developing originallyat théreforestation and gréât expectations from its states. Increasingly islands cows.They alsouse Jathropha's réhabilitationofsever degraded potentialas bio-diesel feedstock addressthemselves to renewable seedsto exb-actoil forpreparing soilsand indirectly to improve whilenon competmg for quality energysources mainly sun and soap or light oil lamps. Some thé life conditions of thé local soil with valued agricultural j windfor theirelectricity needs interesting pharmacological population by providing an foodcrops. Thereis perhaps a allowingin its tum to provide propertiesare also recorded. affordablesource of energy rathersobering concem. Despite Mercedes vehicles. british fi-eshwatertrough desalinization whilefighting eflBciently against l Thé land. Should thé first phase Jatrophagrows abundantly in plants.Thé relevant procédures desertification. But Jatrophaoil dripping Company D l Oils p.l. e. bas proceedaccording to plan,India's théwild, it basnot been really are nevertheless capital and In collaboration with a abundantlyfrom its seedscan be planted and has acquired thé govemmentwould embarkin a domesticatedyet. Thé interest l technology intensive not group peasants,some 7000 easily convertedin a low-cost rights to cultivate Jatropha on second phase concerning 12 of to its farminghas only a few alwaysafifordable todeveloping plants where grown thé first bio-diesel fuel, leaving back huge land extensionsin Africa, millions ofjatropha planted yearsahead it, thé parameters l countries.In anycase transports 0 usefùlby-products:glycerinfor India and China. Thé Company hectares. year.Seedlings of local origin, goveming its growth and thé are still dépendent on fossil 0 cosmetics and soap. Thé press bas installée its own refîning Daemon Fairless on « from India or Panama were relatedéconomies are still to be m cake of thé seeds represents plants in UK and SouthAfiica. Nature » October 2007 issue, fuel. Thébiodiesel originated testedon différentqualities of mastered. in its tum an excellent organic Thé envisagearefiining capacity infonns us that 500.000 hectares fi-omJatropha or otherlocally growing oil seedscould in fact fertilizer. for 2008 is 420.000 tons. are ah-eadygrown acrossIndia, represent a viable solution for AUthèse virtues, together Govemments start also to mainly by private small scale island'senergy needs. with théadvantage ofgrowing on considerJatropha as a promising farmers encouraged by thé poor soilsofgeographical areas, solution to their energy needs Ministry of Rural Development, located mainly in developping and growing costs of imported providing them with free It is interestingto note countrieswhere labour is cheap, fossil fuel. India's Planning seedlings and setting up bio- neverthelessthat thé fîrst pilot JatrophaCurca plantations in hâve attracted thé interest of Commission recommended diesel processingplants. India is ail sort of private and public recently to implement not alone. China daims to hâve théCaribbean are taking place on thé island Hispaniola entrepreneurswishing to lay a a widespread cultivation of already two million hectares of hosting two nations, Haiti bet on thé profitable future of Jatropha on wasteland across alreadyunder cultivation aûd and DominicanRepublic, this miracle shmb. No wonder much of India. Thé first phase plans to plant by 2010 an thé certainly not rich countries that Daimler-Chrysleris testing project aims 500.000 additional 11 million hectares of thé at indeed. in India Jatropha bio-diesel on hectares, taken on Govemment acrossits southemdepartments. INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 71 Suchperspective would burning however be iinrealistic without GeorgesValme mspectmg his Jatrophanwsuries thé strong involvement of thé farmers and thé rural population. A participation that only a pennanenteducational effort at ail levels and a diversified set of incentives can bring forth. Georgeis well aware that this social component is in itself, at thé very basis of thé issueat stake,more important than thé many technicalities involved »AAj in growing Jatrophaand other plants such as coconut or ricin and extracting oil from their seeds. MORE ON HAÏTI for domestic use being too Thé alliance between n expensive, people cuts down George Valme and Pastor N Jatropha bug is trees turning them into Michel Morisset fi-om thé Eben- charcoal. already 98% neverthelessattractmg more and Haiti is Ezer Mission provided thé first deforested! more followers. In Haiti several boost. Planting activities were Valmeand his firiends hâve created a started a educational new initiatives are taking place. while pilot corporationin charge ail aspects Energy is a necessity for of l Some of them hâve a straight programme was launched in concemmgthé implementationof ail societies, thé future of thé forwardprofit makingapproach, order to get people acquainted Jatrophaprogramme: Seedlings Haitian economy is doubtless thé ? others wish to advance on a to bio-dieselpowered stoves and production,sélection of productive more diversifiée path, perhaps depending on alternative lamps. Several other awareness and sustainable fuel sources vaneties, thé setting up of thé less risky financially, but raising and educational truck accessible poorest thé appropnatecoopération agreements showing a promising openness to thé at drivers are also addressed in same cost as wood charcoal. For withthé farmers. Convince people to local social and envù-omnental order to get them familiar with andauthorities about thé économie l needs. GeorgeValme thé solution lies in Biofuel. Schools, radio-station replacingthé demandfor wood andsocial benefîts they will profit and TV are also targeted as by endorsingthé Bio-diesel venture charcoal with a permanently Suchis fhe caseofGeorge appropriate tools for diffusing is of course at thé core of thé available fuel substitute, cost Valme a Haitian established thé Bio-diesel program. corporation goals. since years in Florida. As many effective and better perfbrming For practical w than wood charcoal. Bio-diesel others around thé world, he management purposes, George Todayin Valme'snurceries oil in other words. wl becameaddicted to Jatropha's thereare some 80. 000Jatropha promises. Knowing thé life seedlingsready to be transplanted conditions ofhis country fellows togetherwith many avocadoand and thé heavy deforestation coconutsplants. Three, four years and enviromnentaldégradation are neededto fully evaluatethé of haiti's landscape, George project's results. Since then let's Valmeconsidérée that Jatropha sharewith our friends from thé and other oil producing plants Islandenthusiasm and hopes. could contribute to mitigate thé considérable fuel needs of [t isimportant torccall that Jatroplia Curca. sdocs a lot forc"YiI'o"mcnt a"dsuslainablc dcvclopmcnt as7 his country and face thé heavy -Stabilizcand rcclaim lands that hâve bccn crodcd. desertification process due to -Crcatca business with lioncy and wax prodiictioii deforestation and soil érosion. smccthc plant nccds becs to pollinate. -Providcsccds ail ycar long if irngalcdprovidc One phenomenon depending l^brcigiiincomc incarbon crcditifonc pîiinls more than 2,750hectares iiitcrcropping with jalropha providc from thé other: importantfiiel contiiiuous incoinc to small farmcrs. INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 73 YOUTH SECTIONby JennyMarday Thé RichnessofWaste Bin: ecycling of WcurtiilnliMDl.n M»a««m he School ofGalileo Galilei, -mHm»mmUtH bniuu"lMf'. -' a collège in Lipari (Italy) has developed a didactic project . tNli»»»t.»ttt This successful rafts race showedclearly thé extent to which youngsters can be sensitized through éducation to understand environmental problems. Discussions and Teaching made it easier for them to understand thé needs for thé island habitat. At thé end of thé semester, after thé race, thé coca cola cans are handed to thé Municipality of Lipari for disposai. Thé "Ecologie Regatta"has beentaking place for more than nine years. INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 75 As an Australian one of herpreciousexpériences was in making Lap Lap ..vegetablesgrated into paste, in Pentecost wrapped in largeleaves, baked in an earth oven and covered Vanuatu with coconut cream to create 'lap lap' a savory pudding). Sitting on thé dirt floor of her family's but, sharinga meal, feelinglike thé most privileged entecost Island is one of thé personin thé world, Laurenfelt 83 islands that make up thé that no moneycould buy this South Pacifie nation ofVanuatu. unique expenence. It lies 190 km, north of thé capital city Port Vila. Due to its mountainous landscape, Théaid post construction most population lives of its was built very fast, as thé inland. Communication access Prime Minister happenedto be l is reduced, and people lack ÛQ there,it was arrangedfor him basic transportât! on Systems. s to corneand do thé opening This is one of thé reasonswhich ceremony. As they had two led Lauren Wapling to go to l weeksup to their sleeve,they Pentecost Island and help thé focusedon smallprojects such community Enkul build of as environmental awareness, their dispensaryto reduce thé disasterpreparednessand health mortality rate. Peoplefrom Vanuatu helping to issuesto raiseawareness among build thé new aid post thé youth. Lauren Wapling a volunteer from Australia detailed thé problems of high >me kids maternai mortality rate due to from Vanuatu thé difficult terrain surrounding thé Enkul'svillage andthé long joumey typically on foot which thé women had to undergo to reach a clinic. Thé village of Enkulwas willing to build a new aid post where mothers could give birth easily and safely. So with 6 other Australians and 6 Vanuatu Volunteers they got on a boat to Pentecost Island. Thé trip was said to take 5 hours but they were on thé boat for more than 26 hours ofunforgiving Stonny Seas! INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 77 F lo ating Il- with World Wild Life Fund ^ôfiâ Nairobi whichsaw thé need to develop G ag e a sustainable project with arb communities living around recycled into 0. Ndau, Kiunga, Kiwayu and Mkokomivillages in Kiunga Surprising Art division ofLamu district. Early every morning when ^. walkingalong thé beach, crowds -M-Kiwayu , a small island off of children collecting Flip thé West Coastof Kenya is an Flops can easily be mistaken ecologically significant island for beachcombers who are due to its three interdependent collecting shells .Salim Farouk habitats:coral reefs, mangroves a sandalssalvager who has and sea grassesail of which startedcollecting sandalssince sustain an amazing variety of he was10 yearsold saysthat marine, bird and animal life .It is their lives hâvechangea for locatednortheast of thé Kenyan thé bettersince thé flip flop Lamu Archipelagoand forms a art projecthas started. He says vital component of thé Kiunga thatit usedto takehim a day Marine National Réserve. to make a craft item. " l used to makefish, helicoptersand Unfortunately a toys car models out of sandals gréât amount of marine litter pickedfi-om thé beach but only accumulâtes regularly in madethem for fiin andgive to this coastal area. Thé débris my friendsto play with. l started including rubber sandals (Flip making craftswith thé WWF in Flops) and plastic drift along 2000for commercialuses where thé oceanic currents as far as l trainwomen on this art,"adds Indonesia, Australia, Somalia Salim. and strandedon turtle nesting beaches.As flip flops cannotbe People from thé digested,they clog thé turtles' community hâve managed to digestive Systems,leading to générale Sustainable income death.Thé lossis devastatingas from thé Flip Flopproject as a turtle takesup to 30 yearsto fishing used to be thé sole reachsexual maturity andin one revenue. But thé fish numbers breedingseason a singlefemale aroundthé Islandhâve declined might lay 400-600eggs. dueto overfishing. Thé people can now send their children to Communities within thé school and build houses Kiwayu Island hâve developed from thé crafts returns. Thé an initiative to collect beach Flip Flop projecthas spread wasteparticularly flip flops and to thé neighbouringislands in transform them into sellable Lamu district where this idea handicrafts. This initiative is is helpingto recyclewaste into art. particulariy undertakenby thé youth in thé area.This project startedin 1997as coopération INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 79 islands, especially in thé with largedeveloped states. and tailoredprogrammes arose Caribbeanand Pacifie not SR)SNEWS will out of thé BarbadosConférence enough meet hâve water to Strategicallyplaced and properly ofApril-May 1994and conclu- demand. VOICES FROM SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES implemented ICT investments/ dedwith a published131-page applications backed up with Island Agenda: An overview This situation has been com- focused IT Training, hâve thé of UNESCO'swork on Island, pounded récenttimes - fact in in ability ofrendering SIDS more environments, territories and International Perspectivesand UN Actions by thé Ambassador ofSt Kitts and Nevis in thépast year - by escalatingattractive .Thé previously elu- societies. UNESCO bas contri- priées in basic foods commo- David Doyle Permanent Delegate to UNESCO Paris. sive économies ofscale become butedsignificantly to théforward such as wheat and dities rice, moreattainable, with émergence planningprocess associated with sugar,inflicting hardshipon thé of new ICT applications in théreview of thé 1994Barbados Bottlenecks and tmy communities in thé small ehealth,early waming Systems,Programmeof Action (BPOA) island stages. Challenges e-commerce and distance lear- for théSustainable Development ning. Cleariy,capacity building of Small Island Developing istorically, économie and sugarindustry down in 2005, as Statesconstituency. They hâve, Thécauses, once again, are quite in ICTknow-how and marketing States and to thé Internatio- a result of volatile international social development in SIDS sadly,shared, for many years, a simple:climate change leading are essential. nal UN meetingin Mauritius has been cast a unique pnces. numberofcommon characteristics to restricted supply becauseof ÛO in (January2005), through events perspective. This is related adverselyaffecting their ability variableweather and crops being Vulnerability and needs cul- l that highlighted thé rôle of C/2 to thé fact that small islands Physical size considérations to make a full contribution to diverted into biofuels. from thé Barbados Action turc, youth visioning for Island many SIDS also hâve fheir indigenouséconomies, but face particularly challenging of Plan to thé Mauritius living, communitiesin action, économie, environmental and implications for human capital also thé wider world community. Researchand expérienceshows l Strategy océanand coastalmanagement iY) features. formation and development speak Hazards, that small island states can and logistical l of Natural and a civil societyforum. . Higher quality éducation and broughtabout by ClimateChange do,respond to challenges -many Firstly l do not fiilly endorsethé Smalhiess a certain health care delivery require which hit SIDS with particular with positive outcomes,Consi- bringswith it somewhatsceptical observer's Parallelto thèsedevelopments, exploit économies a minimum operating scale. seventy. der example following inability to for thé argument that few concrète other initiativeshâve emerged of scale; indeed a combination Limitation in market size restricts actions hâve resulted rom thé f . For instance,in thé Caribbean remoteness and insularity thé émergenceofuniversity and More than half of thé 25 most orthodox économieterms, of In BarbadosConférence since 1995 région one of thé most tangible compoundsthé smallnessand professionaltraining. At thésame disaster prône countries are SIDS are capableof deriving and this for several reasons: programmes, thé Youth Path heightens thé risk adverse time, lack of opportunities can SIDS, vulnérable as thèse are to thé multiple benefits from free of wasinitiated based on a strongly économies of scale. Distance also result in some individuals volcanic emptions,earthquakes, trade. Thé perceiveddisadvan- Above ail, thé Barbados Pro- UNESCO-crosscutting thrust to from thé main économie centres tsunamis, landslides, floods, be with better professional tages arising from size can gramme raised thé level of addressthé spécifievulnerabili- across costburdens qualifications seeking career hurricanes and cyclones. intégration théglobe adds offset by régional awareness of thé limitations ties of SIDS, namely,thé focus in transportinggoods. developmentin more developed andinternationalisation of pro- imposed on SIDS due to their on youth,poverty alleviation and ductive activities. régionsor countries,thé " brain Environmental dégradation multifaceted vulnerability and héritagetourism. SIDS suffers from high import drain" effect. plays a rôle in adding to thé isolation. It subséquenthigh sensitivities and narrow export vulnerability factor faced by SIDSmore than large developed -level conférence held in Mau- Anotherinitiative, this time cros- Limited financial resources bases leaving thèse countries SIDS. Looking to thé future, states,are capableof switching ritius( 2005)took this awareness sing ail SIDS régions - Small shocks, also mean reduced institutional Panel fi-om one vulnérable to extemal thé Intergovernmental quickly and flexibly to a further level by openingthé IslandVoice - throughits inter- vagaries m islands on Climate Change projections économie to whether it is thé of capacity thé small policy direction debate,flagging new issuesand net fomm,provided thé général commoditypriées orunfavourable administrations,affecting their are not very reassuringon this another. Indeed, a few strate- expandingthé list of potential public in islandswith " a space gically negotiated investments global fa-adeagreements abilityto negotiate,rcspond report question. Without remédiai partnersto includegovemments, to speak"to shareideas, views andimplement international and action, small islands will andsustainable and responsible civil society, régional bodies opportunities, solve common multi latéral trade, enviromnental Dismantling of preferential probably face partners can swiftly transform and international organisations problemsfacing island living, trade agreements,i. e . Sugar and other agreements. shape economyand Thé thé of thé ( including otherUN specialized central commimities in action, Protocol, vis à vis thé EU and Increased érosion of beaches perceptions about viable stra- agencies)to take timely actions it greatly contributedto promo- similar diminished level of l would like to underline andcoral bleaching that could tegies. to ensureeffective implementa- ting sustainable development damagelocal industries,sucb impart préférences for bananas, specifîcally thé émergenceof tion of thé updatesProgramme activities on thé ground where has lead to sévère crisis in thèse Climate Change and how it as tourism and fishing Rising SIDSare by définition,not threa- of Action. it matters. traditional and economically affects thé SIDS régions across sea levels will threaten homes, tening from a trade perspective infi-astmcturesand livelihoods. important sectors Kitts and thé world. SIDS representssome and thus more likely to secure It hasto be said that thé UNESCO Mauritiuswas thé inspiration for 20% of thé UNESCO Member Bythé mid century some small favourablebilatéral trade terms Nevis closed its 300 year old SIDS initiative and its focused creatingthé basisfor producti- INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 81 ve use of ICT solutions and SustainableDevelopment. thé strategy was cross cutting, applications for knowledge thus affecting thé work of ail Tî ^^_ sharing and for community In thépast décade, UNESCO has ministries, multi stakeholders ir-i INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISL.WD AFFAIRS 83 grammes. facing SIDS in their diversity. projects on renewableenergy, On one hand, NGOs e-governance and tourism, shouldenableUNESCOto secure We, within thé SIDS Committee focusingon Euro-Mediterranean and promote its precious advice at UNESCO, are in fact islandsand Caribbean. We hope and to benefit from important seekingto createthis "unity in that INSULA will expand its ^^^-^J.^ RJË ^ ^'7 and relevant documented- diversity" and at collaborating présencein thé Indian Océan wise practice, in matters of with UNESCO to see to it that and thé Pacifie Région. sustainable development and thé new lines of action for l feel, therefore, that Insula slipping away from my pursueas Methodological guide for Mediterranean Islands fading shadowsat thé horizon. other issuesrelating to "island small island developmentare could contribute to linking up development of territoral Edited by Charles Arnold But now,hère they are,ail of living". implemented. with UNESCO's programmes them, trapped in thé met coastedby Cultural System On thé other hand, with l acknowledge thé relating to research, policy Mediterranean Islands Charles Arnold and his skilled crew. their interaction with UNESCO, rôle that Insula plays in thé development, and other 2008 More thana guide,better than a travels reader or an administrative NGOscan help m givingvisibility économie, social and cultural relevant sectors, to galvanise 9780-9556489-1-5 ISBN: handbook, this volume addresses its in thé civil societyconstituency progress of islands, and our collective contributions to subjectfrom an accuratelychosen TA nvt to UNESCO's programmes promûtesprotection oflslands' thé sustainabledevelopment of set of points of view. Thé reader that are implemented in their eco-system and sustainable SIDS as a whole. or l should better say thé fervors différent fields of compétence development, especially islanders,will be ableto get detailed Methodotogical 6u«de fw o informationabout every one of thé218 thé Oevetopment of refritoriat namely. Culture, Education, throughits Information Society A uniqueand comorehensiye guide tothsisianctsandtsiets Cultural Systems ome Medrterranesn islandsofiFering accommodation, and Communication Infonnation, TechnologiesProgramme (IST) l & H. E. Mrs Indira Savitree Thacoor- in additionfor thé first time a good Natural Sciences and Social & and programmes aimed at Sidaya, Ambassador/Permanent overview of 1000 islands and islets. Human Sciences. developingmeasures in favour Delegate of thé Republic of Essays each written by a of thé efficient use ofenergy. Mauritius to UNESCO. leading expert in thé field include dl.mauricefiiiinesco. org iSa Thé dissémination of thé As an NGO, it has manykey aspectsof théMediterranean l such as geology, history, plant life, helps developedmany commendable Insulajournal to highlight environment, tourism, wildlife, thé very spécifie nature of sailing, and surprisingly information This book editedby « IMED » Istituto thé challengesfaced by SIDS on privately ownedislands, also those per il Méditerranée(Institute for thé (climatic change, éducation, on sale... Mediterranean) describes thé Delta health issues, etc.) and thus "Mediterranean islands" Projectco-fimdedby thé MEDAProgram is thé only place where thé vital raises thé importance of thé (Euro-Mediterraneanpartnership) of statisticsof ail théislands are concisely thé European Union, which aim is challenging implications to thé displayed.A unique servicebook not "to contributeto thé enhancement,in whole world about thé need oaly for plannersand developersof thé EuroMediterranean région, of thé to strengthen inter-regional thé travel industry,but also a serious potentialitiesofintegrated development Thiswas really a New Year's us coopération. gift for référencefor thé policy makersof thé between économie, environment and andail otherislands loving people. Mediterranean fiiture. culturalhéritage, which hâvenot yet Thé volume materializes in Should l add that thé many beenwholly exploited". In my v-iew,UNESCO fact an early dreamof mine. To a wail illustrations maps, designs and has always welcomed ail of myselfof a handycomprehensive photographsare at thé best professional This volume suggests defining proactive-oriented organisations and easyto use tool detailing"ail" standard? concretely thé stratégies planned Mediterranean islands... and islets. Tourists, travelers, sailors - including NGOs - which to promote thé development of Islands and islandness are so and dreamerswill find hère an endless always hâve at their core thé "territorial cultural Systems",where to speakmy profession,Mediterranean sourceof inspiration. by promotingpartnerships between community, progress and thus islandsare more to me, ljust love Last but not least, thé local authorities,public and private express their views freely them. Thé fact that l am bom and Islanders themselveswill be fascinated institutions, associations, NGOs and and democratically with thé grown up in Ae largestone, Sicily, or to seehow their island compareswith représentativesof thé "cultural world", that l am presentlycitizen of Salina, objective ofpromoting peace. their neighbors. and by significanttargeted actions, oneoftheAeolian Islands,North-east l believe that Insula culturalhéritage enhancement (tangible Sicily is not thé solereason. Med Islands andintangible) could be integratedto should help in creating that l always was, and still am c/o Survival Books thé mral andurban populations on a synergywhich is badly needed attractedand wickedly curious about 26 York Street territorial level. among ail thé SIDS thus them, a sort ofincestuous fascination London-wlu6pz whichcompelled me for manyyears to UK allowingthem to speakwith one Imed- Istitutoper il Méditerranée sail amongtfae archipelagos or to travel émail: info@mediterraneanislands. Via di SantaTeresa, 23 voice. By doing so, Insula can to one or another of thèse islands. org 1-00198Roma help UNESCO to focus on thé Unfortunately, as in a deceiving http://www. imednet.it/delta/index. most important and core issues dream, l was never able to take hold html of ail of thèseislands, they were just INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLANDAFFAIRS 85 '-"'y 9:^^ ThéInternational Scientific Coundl for Island tional organisations,as well as institutionsat opment.Each issue focuses on a spécifieas- A»^ JL Development(INSULA) wasformally created in thé nationalor régionallevel sharing thé same pectof islandsdevelopment and cultural life. November1989 as a non-gouvernmentalor- goalsofinterests. Through its international and Thé membershipfées are: ganisation(NGO) whose aims is to contribute multidisciplanrynetwork of expertsand re- . 70 euros for individual Volcanoesas Cultural Landscapes recalledby Fier Giovannid'Ayala in his of OTIE, thé Observatory of Island toshape island awareness anddevelop islands searchers,INSULA contributes towards bal- . 190euros for institution An exciting initiative launched by speechto a distinguishedaudience of Tourism and many others. 'commonfuture, supporting necessary coop- anced, sustainabledevelopment initiatives Paymentscan be made by check (in euros Insula and its Sicilian partners. scientific and cultural personalitiesof Architect Gesualdo Campo, head erationand informationactions in thé sden- undertakenby islandauthorities. only),MasterCard, Visa or AmericanExpress thé city. Bruno di Stefano,chair of thé of thé provincial office for cultural tificandtechnologicalfields. INSULApublishes twice a year "ThéIntema- (pleaseindicate card number and expiration UNESCO center for Sicily, Professor héritage orientée thé lively debates, Théaims of INSULAare to contributeto thé tional Journal Island Affaire". Thé aim of this date). On Saturday 23 February Giorgio Montaudo,chair of thé century contributing to trace thé appropriate économie,social and cultural progress of is- journalis to createa worid wide forumfor ail Back issues are also available for 8 euros 2008,thé organizingcommittee of thé old Gioedi academyof science,Mrs road map towards thé organization landsthroughout thé world, as to théprotec- thosewho onsider islandsas an importantpart each(plus shipping costs). tionof islandenvironment and thé sustainable of mankind'shéritage deserving major attention. forthcoming InternationalConférence RomildaRizzo, Professorofeconomy, next year of this highly expected Pleasevisit our website www. insula.orgfor developmentoftheir ressources. Within such "Thé International Journal of Island Affairs" is on "Volcanoesas Cultural Landscapes" ProfessorGiovanni Ruggieri, head of event. moreinformations about our publications, a context,INSULA coopérâtes with UNESCO, held its kick-off meeting in thé sent,free of charge, to thé members ofINSULA projectsand actions for wich INSULA's mem- thé EuropeanCommission and otherinterna- International SaenSlic Council for Island Devel- bershipis invitedto playan activerôle. prestigious historical remises of thé University ofCatania. Thé city spread in between thé Mediterranean Sea and thé verdant feet of thé Mount Etna, Applicationform for membershipof 1I1SU thé major active European volcano, hometo thé Cyclopsand other ageless Surname:...... Firstname: mythological créatures. Temporary home also hero Oratio to thé British Institution: Nelson endowedby thé Sicilian king Ferdinand thé Third of thé diikedom Address: ofBronte, a floimshing small town on Etna's slopes. City:...... postcode: Thèse and other cultural stratawrapping thé smokinggiant were Country: Téléphone:...... Fax: T' A J L_"^-/ Ï^J1. ^: .^ Email:. 3rd World Congress of Biosphère sharedperception of an urgent need cipants, worth to be presentedmore Annualmembership: [_]Individual (70euros) Réserves- Madrid 4-8 Febmary2008 to maintain a balance between nature consistently by a full issue of our conservation,enviromnental protection International ofIslandAffairs dedicated [] Insitution(190 euros) TheworldneworkofBiosphere andthe social, économie, technical and to this importantsubject. But théwriter D Supportingmember (300 euros or more) Réserves, a historical achievement of scientificdevelopments that constitutes of thé présentnote, while still under UNESCO's Man and thé Biosphère globalization. thé charmof thé Spanishmagnificence l ampaying thé amount of ...... by: Program, met in Madrid for its 3rd Islandbiosphère réserves were of thé congresscan't refrain to sink World Congress from 4-8 February also largely representedand INSULA, in some after thoughts, reading thé QCheck [] MasterCard [] Visa QAmex 2008. at thé origin ofsome ofthem, followed documents issued and recalling thé Thé congressorganized with thé debatesof thé ad-hocgroup chaired Madrid debates:thé feeling that an Checksare to bemade in eurospayable to INSULA thé auspicesof UNESCOandhostedby by Antonio SanBlas Alvarez, manager excess of faith attributes there to thé thé SpanishMinistry of Environment, of thé réserve ofLa Pahna, one of thé BiosphèreRéserves thé thaumatargical Crédit Gard number:. under thé high patronage of HRH. Canarias Islaads. Some interesting power of solving ail sustainable Felipe of Spainbrought together more achievements were reported bu parti- developmentriddles.. Expirationdate: than 1000participants. A good blend of managers and local or national Signature: Date: authorities which endorsed thé so called "Madrid Déclaration" and thé "Madrid Action Plan", articulating actions, targets and success indicators and otherimplementation stratégies for thé Pleasereturn this form by fax or mailto: periodof 2008to 2013.This undoubtly msula successful and crowded meeting deservesprobably its hugeparticipation InternationalScientific Council for IslandDevelopment c/oMAB-UNESCOHouse to a largeconcem for thé mcreasingloss 1 rue, Miollis - 75732Paris Cedex 15 - France of biodiversity, thé expected effects Ph:3314568 40 56 / Fax:3314568 5804 of climate and démographiechanges and problems raised by a largely INTERNATIONALJOURNAL 0F ISLAND AFFAIRS 87 / , \' l 0% CT in m ** Published by INSULA Thé InternationalScientific Council for Island Development with thé support of UNESCO