Culture, Society, and Praxis

Volume 7 Number 2 Culture, Economy, and Change Article 9

January 2008

Forensic , , and the Creation of Osteobiographies

Bronwynn Meredydd Lloyd California State University, Monterey Bay

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Recommended Citation Lloyd, Bronwynn Meredydd (2008) ", Paleopathology, and the Creation of Osteobiographies," Culture, Society, and Praxis: Vol. 7 : No. 2 , Article 9. Available at: https://digitalcommons.csumb.edu/csp/vol7/iss2/9

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Forensic Anthropology, Paleopathology, and the Creation of Osteobiographies

By Bronwynn Lloyd

Summary

This paper discusses the field of osteology and its origination. Osteology, the study of human , along with other investigative modes used for define trauma and time of are important in the fields of archeology as well. The author high- lights the fact that the study of human remains in archaeological contexts allows archaeologists to better identify significant factors present on the remains that could aid in their understanding of a site or culture.

Introduction lives and how they died based of characteris- tics identified on the remains. Like forensic In forensic anthropology it is important for investigators, they attempt to identify the sex, to be able to distinguish between age at death, ethnicity, and stature of the indi- trauma that occurs prior to death, at death, and vidual. Also in their analysis, they identify any after death. It is even more important in foren- antemortem and perimortem traumas that may sic investigations with be present on the bones and legal objectives that distinguish it from any post- antemortem, perimortem, mortem damage that may and postmortem trauma have been done naturally or be identified correctly so during the excavation proc- a proper analysis of the ess. One characteristic oste- crime scene can be given. ologists analyse are lesions However, this distinction on the caused by patho- must also be applied to gens from either infectious or the analysis of past hu- environmental sources. With man remains when found ancient cultures and their dis- in archaeological con- eases, the study is called pa- texts. Studies of human leopathology. In this analy- remains in archaeological contexts are allow- sis, insight into social status, occupation, and ing archaeologists to better identify significant daily activities are interpreted through lesions factors present on the remains that could aid in present on the bones caused by environmental their understanding of a site or culture. In disease and occupational stressor. In ancient these situations, specialists in the field of os- peoples, this interpretation is done through the teology, osteologists, are called on to analyze study of ancient diseases present on the recov- the remains in order to help archaeologists. ered bones through archaeological techniques. Osteology, the study of human bones, may Assessment of pathological conditions on give insight into individuals and communities skeletal elements can allow archaeologists to

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give an interpretation on lifestyle of individu- hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia. The popula- als and what happened in their lives. tions studied were colored laborers in the northern frontiers of South Africa who lived Environmental Diseases on the outskirts of the towns. These people were poor, living on the margins of society Environmental pathological conditions are and could not afford many luxuries. These divided into lytic, proliferative, and deforma- communities were also agrarian based with tive lesions. These lesions appear as bone loss, their primary diet being cereal grains and depostis of extra bone, and deformities. With vegetable. As a result of their living situation, environmental diseases, the most common are the majority of the population studied did have lytic and deformative lesions. Environmental iron-deficiency anemia. However, since peo- factors that produce these lesions result from ple do not usually die from anemia, the high malnutrition and vitamin deficiency leading to mortality rate of individuals dating to the pe- diseases such as anemia, scurvy, and rickets. riod of the recorded smallpox epidemic sup- Malnutrition affects the bone through degen- ports the connection of high rates of malnutri- erative factors causing the bone to bend, tion resulting in iron-deficiency anemia and weaken, or become porous. high rates of deadly infectious diseases Anemia is a lytic bone disease causing ab- (Peckmann, 2003). normal loss of bone due to a lack of iron in the Since the primary cause of porotic hy- body’s system. Iron deficiency causes red perostosis is iron-deficiency anemia, it is not blood cells to become deformed so they have surprising the archaeologists can associate this to be expelled from the body. With anemia, disease with agrarian societies whose diets the production of new red blood cells is accel- focus around cereal grains and certain milks erated causing the to expand (Byers, (Peckmann, 2003). Archaeological support for 2008) and the ends of the long bones to flare this connection can be seen in the absence of (Swales, personal communication, August 4, porotic hyperostosis on skeletons prior to 2007). The primary result of iron-deficiency 10,000 years ago before the adoption of agri- anemia is the development of porotic hy- culture and sedentary societies (Peckmann, perostosis and cribra orbitalia (Stuart- 2003). As a result, archaeologists can deter- Macadam, 1989). mine individuals connected with agrarian and/ These diseases are characterized by porosity or poor communities where access to meat on the bones of the cranial vault and around high in iron is limited. the orbits. Studies of skeletons with these le- Coincidentally, iron-deficiency anemia is sions have shown that the diseases are most also connected with other deficient diseases common among persons from lower social such as vitamin C-deficiency scurvy (Clark et classes and individuals of black ancestry al, 1992). Since vitamin C helps to metabolize (Byers, 2008). Researchers have also found iron individuals exhibiting traits of anemia, that “in some cases, the presence of cribra or- especially in poorer communities, will also bitalia and porotic hyperostosis lesions hints at show signs of scurvy (Peckmann, 2003). individuals who have been or were exposed to However, it is difficult to discern between additional stressing agents” (Mitchell, 2003, these two conditions as they manifest simi- 176). larly on skeletal material (Swales, personal All three of these characteristics are sup- communication, August 4, 2007). Archaeolo- ported by a study done by Tanya Peckmann in gists can use the presence of scurvy on a 2003 that looked at the connection between skeleton along with other discernable traits to the smallpox epidemic of 1866 and porotic connect the individual to certain locations, oc-

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cupations, and social circumstances. Depend- Osteophytosis appears as small spurs or ing on the region, this can indicate poorer ridges of bone called lipping, on an area that is communities where a limit of fresh produce normally smooth (Byers, 2008, p. 375). Often may have reserved it for persons of higher these occur on articular surfaces such as ver- status. Often scurvy is found in populations tebrae and joints. The areas of the shoulder, living in cooler climates or where there is lim- elbow, and knee are common areas for ridges ited access to produce (Brickley, 2000). The to develop from heavy lifting or long periods most common association with scurvy is with of kneeling. Many of these stress markers are sailors who would develop it on long voyages more common in third-world countries but can and often die. occur in industrial nations (Byers, 2008) al- Another nutritional deficiency often seen in lowing archaeologists to interpret a regional or young children, but can continue in adults, is economical association for the individuals. rickets. In adults this disease is called osteo- Osteochondritis dissecans and Eburnation, malacia. This degenerative disease is caused osteoarthritis, results from cartilage between by a lack of Vitamin D in the body resulting in the joints being worn away. The wearing of the bowing of weight-bearing limbs particu- osteochondritis dissecans forms indentations larly the legs (Byers, 2008). The disease is on the bone. Eburnation results in the polish- often associated with industrial areas, crowded ing of the bone because of the bone surfaces populations, conservative dress, and became rubbing against each other (Swales, personal very prevalent in the 17th and 18th centuries conversation, August 4, 2007). Both stress (Roberts and Manchester, 1995). As an easy markers result from over use of the joints af- source of vitamin D is exposure to the sun, fected and can indicate a life of hard continu- rickets is not generally associated with rural ous work. populations and villages. Coincidentally the Stress fractures are another common result disease appears to have begun increasing in of repeated and strenuous activities. These the medieval period (Stuart-Macadam, 1989). fractures often result from the lifting or carry- Archaeologists can usually tie individuals with ing of heavy loads. Unless resulting in a seri- rickets and osteomalacia back to industrial ous break of one of the long bones or cranium, communities and Northern European countries most stress fractures appear in the vertebral where exposure to sun was limited either by column with the separation of the neural arch social ideals or by environmental conditions. from the body of the lumbar vertebrae and compression fractures in the vertebral bodies Occupational Stress Markers particularly the thoracic vertebrae (Byers, 2008). Many occupations and activities can leave im- Musculoskeletal stress markers are perhaps prints on the bone in the form of occupational one of the most common occupational stress stress markers. These osteological factors give markers. Simply put these are modifications to good information as to the lifestyle of a com- areas where soft tissue attaches to the bone. munity and its individuals. The lesions on the The areas often appear enlarged and rugged bone are the result of occupations and activi- because of the increased strength needed from ties involving heavy strenuous labor or con- the manifestation of muscular hypertrophy. tinual usage of certain muscles. Occupational These specific bony changes are produced stress markers include lipping and ostephyte during normal, habitual use of muscles and deposits, degenerative markers such as osteo- ligaments at their attachment sites and can re- chondritis dissecans and osteoarthritis, stress flect strength or weight training, running, or fractures, and musculoskeletal stress markers. climbing (Stern & Lane, 1998).

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Osteobiographies The only female recovered exhibited muscu- loskeletal stress markers on her upper limbs The following case studies show how the and muscle attachments of the hands. These identification of various occupational stress markers were consistent with the domestic markers on skeletons help to interpret the ac- activities of milking, soap making, and butter tivities and occupations down by individuals churning documented in the fort’s records. of certain communities. Some cases incorpo- The female also shows some osteoarthritis and rate historical documents to use as references lipping in the form of Schmorl’s nodes indi- as to the occupations or activities that would cating weight-bearing or plant harvesting, also have been done by these people. In these cases activities documented at the effort (Lovell & the paleopathology can help to support or con- Dublenko, 1998). tradict what was expressed in these docu- ments. Other cases had no documentation to The Golovin and the Nunivak in Alaska refer to and so offer interpretations supported by the data alone or in conjunction with eth- Ethnoarchaeological studies of two Inuit nographic observations of surviving popula- populations revealed occupational stress tions. The results of these studies were osteo- markers connected with the habitual activities biographies for the communities under inves- of the groups. Evaluation of these activities tigation and their individuals. was done by observing degenerative joint dis- eases, accessory facets, and musculoskeletal Fort Edmunton and the Fur Trade stress markers. While the two groups, the Golovin and Nunivak populations, all exhib- Exhumation of skeletons found at Fort Ed- ited the same conditions, the location of the munton in Alberta Canada revealed signs of lesions and data recovered from ethnographic degenerative stress markers and muscu- observations reveal remodeling based off dif- loskeletal stress markers in both upper and ferent activities (Steen & Lane, 1998). lower limbs. The three male skeletons showed The stress markers in both populations were hypertrophy of the bone at the muscle and found in the upper and lower limbs and ligament attachment sites of the humerus, around the cranium. Golovin peoples had lar- ulna, femur, and tibia. These along with ac- ger attachment areas of the cranial facial mus- cessory facets where the sacrum articulates cles, which are used for mastication and using with the ilium and kneeling facets on the the teeth as tools, as a result of chewing skins metatarsals are consistent with the heavy lift- for making footwear. The Nunivak population ing and transport of pelts documented in the did not make footwear in this method explain- Canadian fur trade (Lovell & Dublenko, ing why the same attachment areas are not as 1998). rugged. Both populations had hypertrophy Evidence of arthritis was found in the lower around the insertion site of the costoclavicular limbs of the male skeletons in the form of lip- ligaments which typically results from the ro- ping and pitting. One male showed signs that tary motion associated with kayaking. In the confirmed osteocondritis dissecans on the lower limbs, Golovin people also had greater femora while another exhibited osteoarthritis hypertrophy then Nunivak peoples. The mus- on the head of the first metatarsal. The re- cle attachment sites are important for walking searchers concluded from these stress marks which Golovin peoples are documented as the first individual transported pelts primarily transversing long distances which would ex- by dogsled and the second individual by ca- plain the higher development (Steen & Lane, noe. 1998).

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communities, privileged wealthy individuals Pre-Historic Signs of Occupational Stress in also show revealing skeletal traits. The Medici Abu Hureyra were one of the most powerful families in It- aly and ruled the country for four centuries In Abu Hureyra, occupational stress markers (Fornaciari et al, 2005). However, despite all revealed domestic activities around the early their wealth and privilege, when archaeolo- agricultural community were very strenuous. gists exhumed the remains of Cosimo and his Skeletons showed stress with buttresses wife Eleonora in 2004, their skeletons ap- around the femur and bony growths around peared just as marked and deformed as any the knee. The metatarsals also showed bony other individual with a life of habitual stress growth and wear as a result of long periods of put on the body. kneeling while grinding grains. Cosimo’s teeth showed signs of eating hard Skeletons from the Abu Hureyra population foods such as nuts and raw vegetables (For- showed many of the same signs of heavy load- naciari et al, 2005). The teeth were very worn bearing discussed in the previous cultures. and most likely, though it was not discussed in Stress markers in this group appear as hooks the article, the attachment sites for mastication on the vertebrae and buttressing around the muscles showed hypertrophy and were very cervical vertebrae for support. Researchers rugged. His musculoskeletal stress markers interpret this as resulting from carrying heavy showed years of strenuous physical activity. It loads on the head (Molleson, 1994). Given the is known through historic documentation that type of work, it would not be surprising to see Cosimo was an avid sportsman, lifting hypertrophy on the bone around the nuchal weights, hunting, and riding horseback. The area as the muscles would have strengthened markers on his bones were consistent with and developed from the weight being carried. these activities appearing on his femora (For- The teeth of the individuals studied naciari et al, 2005) and also most likely on his showed excessive wear from the course meal humerus and on his vertebrae. that was ground. Often, small bits of stone Similarly, Eleonora’s life was also revealed would also chip off and become mixed into in her bones. During her life, she gave birth to the ground grain and then accidentally eaten. 11 children. Each birth is a traumatic experi- As a result many of the oldest individuals ence on the body, in Eleonora’s case so many studied had no teeth left to analyse has they births without a period of recovery caused her had eventually fallen out from so much use. pubic symphasis to become rough and irregu- Skeletons dating to later periods in the culture lar and the back of her pelvis to flatten. Each did not appear to have as much wear on their pregnancy also leaches calcium from the teeth indicating a less course meal being mother’s body so Eleonora’s bones were thin eaten. Archaeologists have determined that and weak and some of her teeth were missing during their agricultural development the peo- (Fornaciari et al, 2005). ple of Abu Hureyra began sifting the ground substance to remove hard kernels and stones Conclusions that would be in the mixture (Molleson, 1994). Since forensic anthropology, , Occupational Stress among Italy’s Elite and osteology are such dynamic fields, tech- Family niques of excavating human remains and iden- tification of the characteristics are constantly Even though most stress markers appear on being reassessed, developed, and shared to skeletons from more labor intensive, poorer improve the analysis and interpretation of

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finds. Research, like those summarized though Clark, N G, Sheard, N F and Kelleher, J F out this paper, are essential to further under- (1992). Treatment of Iron-Deficiency standing of how lesions on the bone relate to Anemia Complicated by Scurvy and Folic various activities or circumstances. This un- Acid Defiency. Nutrition Reviews, 50(5): derstanding can then be used to develop fur- 134- 137. ther interpretations of the culture being stud- Fornaciari, G, Brier, B and Fornaciari, A. ied. (2007). Secrets of the Medici. In Parker, M Signs of heavy-intensive labor, child- P and E Angeloni (Eds.), Annual Editions: bearing, and malnutrition all show up on the Archaeology (120-122). Dubuque: McGraw- bones allowing paleopathologists, osteolo- Hill Contemporary Learning Series. gists, and archaeologists to create an osteo- Lovell, N C and Dublenko, A A. (1999). Fur- biographical assessment of an individual’s ther Aspects of Fur Trade Life Depicted in life. The osteobiographies created for indi- the Skeleton. International Journal of Os- viduals, like those used for this paper, often teoarchaeology 9: pp. 248-256. rely on historical documents or observations Mitchell, P. (2003). The Archaeological Study of present populations to help with the inter- of Epidemic and Infectious Disease. World pretation. From these osteobriographies in- Archaeology, Vol. 35, No. 2, Archaeology formation regarding dietary habits, work of Epidemic and Infectious Disease. pp. types, and level of strenuous work can be used 171-179. to give indications as to the social conditions Molleson, T. (1994). The Eloquent Bones of of the activities they were engaged in and the Abu Hureyra. Scientific American August: social status they had during their life. pp. 70-75. Further investigations and developments Peckmann, T R. (2003). Possible Relationship may then be able to bring clarity to cultures Between Porotic Hyperostosis and Smallpox where a lot of information is not known about Infections in Nineteenth-Century Popula- them or shed light on cultures that are tions in the Northern Frontier, South Africa. shrouded in myths and legends. Physical evi- World Archaeology, Vol. 35, No. 2, Archae- dence recorded on the bones can help to sup- ology of Epidemic and Infectious Disease. port or argue the ideas already established pp. 289-305. about certain groups furthering the under- Roberts, C A and Manchester, K. (1995). The standing about them. Information about loca- Archaeology of Disease. Ithaca: Cornell tion, socio-economic status, and occupation University Press. can lead to further information and interpreta- Steen, S L and Lane, R W. (1998). Evaluation tions about other aspects of these cultures that of Habitual Activities Among Two Alaskan are of interests to anthropologists. Eskimo Populations Based on Muscu- loskeletal Stress Markers. Bibliography International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8: pp. 341-353. Brickley, M. (2000). The Diagnosis of Meta- Stuart-Macadam, P. (1989). Nutritional Defi- bolic Disease in Archaeological Bone. In ciency Diseases: A of Scurvy, Rick- Cox, M and Mays, S (Eds), Human Osteology ets and Iron-Deficiency Anemia. In Isçan, M in Archaeology and Forensic (183- Y and Kennedy, K A R (Eds.), Reconstruc- 198) London: Cambridge University Press. tion of Life from the Skeleton (201-222) Byers, S N. (2008). Introduction to Forensic New York: Wiley-Lis. Anthropology. Pearson Education, Inc, 3rd edition, Boston.

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