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Home , Native Hawaiians, Osteology

63 History of in the Pacifi c

MICHAEL PIETRUSEWSKY AND MICHELE TOOMAY DOUGLAS

INTRODUCTION in the Pacifi c, however, the theoretical importance In this chapter we present a brief chronological his- of islands as laboratories for assessing the dynamic, tory of paleopathology in the Pacifi c, highlighting long- term relationship among health, culture, and key individuals who have contributed to the study environment may never be fully realized given the of disease in this vast ocean . Unlike other diffi culties of studying human remains from this regions covered in this volume, the sheer enormity region. Such limitations, as discussed in this chap- and relative isolation of many of the islands of the ter, include the nature of salvage and Pacifi c further warrants that we consider national skeletal analysis, repatriated skeletal collections, and as well as regional variables that have infl uenced increasingly stringent local regulations on studies of these contributions to paleopathology. human skeletons, among others. As is the case for other areas of the world, the availability and access to human skeletal collec- PACIFIC ISLANDS: tions has been greatly infl uenced by the history of GEOGRAPHY AND early collecting expeditions, museum accessions, PREHISTORY archaeological excavations, and more recently, With tremendous variation in size and diversity, Cultural Resource Management (CRM) work as many as 7,500 Pacifi c islands span one- third of involving modern development and construction the Earth’s surface and thus comprise the world’s projects. Th e relatively recent exploration and set- largest assemblage of islands (Lobban and Scheft er tlement of the Pacifi c has also infl uenced research 1997). Our will cover the three traditionally initiatives in . Because the oldest recognized geographical groups of tropical Pacifi c occupied regions of the Pacifi c did not receive their islands (sometimes also referred to as Oceania): fi rst modern human inhabitants until approxi- , , and . Although mately forty to 50,000 years ago and the remain- this tripartite classifi cation, fi rst introduced by der of the Pacifi c was void of human presence until the French voyager Dumont d’Urville (1832), is less than 1,000 years ago, physical anthropologists based on a faulty perception of Pacifi c Island cul- have tended to focus more on the origins of these ture history, these labels have become entrenched colonizers rather than on issues involving health in (Kirch 2000). For that reason and lifestyle of Pacifi c Islanders. we retain them mainly as geographical referents. As physical anthropologists studied the com- Th is chapter will therefore focus on studies of the plex histories of settlement and exploration, they inhabitants of the islands east of the Lesser Sunda also documented the uniqueness of these island Islands (Nusa Tenggara) of Indonesia, beginning environments—their physical isolation, constrained with the Molucca Islands and Irian Jaya (eastern resources, severe climate events, and so on. Research ) and extending east, north, and south in some regions of the Pacifi c, such as the remote into the Pacifi c (see Figure P.1, map of world, island arcs of Central East Polynesia, is beginning within the Preface). to suggest that the combination of late colonization From the perspective of prehistory and histor- (Hunt and Lipo 2006; Tuggle and Spriggs 2002), and ical linguistics, archaeologists have further divided relative (if not complete) isolation (Brewis et al. 1990; the Pacifi c into Near Oceania (comprising the Kirch 1989) has generated unique island historical islands of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, trajectories that approach the conceptual ideal of and the Solomon Island chain), and Remote the “island as laboratory” criteria for human popu- Oceania, which comprises all of Micronesia, and lation studies. For physical anthropologists working the Melanesian archipelagoes of Vanuatu, Loyalty

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Islands, , Fiji, and Polynesia (Green 18th century, expeditions that acquired a vast 1991). Humans began entering the western mar- array of fl oral and faunal (including human) mate- gins of Near Oceania approximately forty to 50,000 rial. Such explorations, mainly European, contin- years ago, crossing Wallace’s Line from Southeast ued well into the early decades of the 19th century, Asia into the ancient of “Sahul” (con- along with the appearance of additional collectors sisting of New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania). of human skeletal remains in the form of traders, From there, they expanded to occupy Sahul and missionary groups, and imperial colonizers from all of Near Oceania and regions as far as the main Britain, France, Germany, , and Japan. Solomon Islands by 35,000 BP (Kirch 2000). Much Skeletal remains accumulated by these disparate later, at approximately 3,500 years before present, a means typically have the barest of provenance, or major expansion of Austronesian-speaking people good preservation, and are subject to many and resulted in the relatively rapid spread of humans various biases (e.g., incomplete skeletons, sample beyond the Solomon Islands into Remote Oceania, error, collector’s bias). Two early descriptions of associated with the archaeological horizon known crania and skeletons from the Pacifi c are William as Lapita (Kirch 2000). Aft er a period of perhaps Turner’s (1884, 1886) study of that were col- as many as 1,000 years, eastern Micronesia and lected during the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger eastern Polynesia were settled between 900 BC (1873–1876) and Emil Zuckerkandl’s (1875) and AD 1000. Th e very fi rst human settlers proba- descriptions of crania from Africa, South America, bly did not reach some of the most remote regions Southeast Asia, and the Pacifi c collected during the of Polynesia (e.g., , , and New Austro- Hungarian scientifi c Novara-Expedition Zealand) until approximately AD 1200 (Hunt and (1857–1859). Th ese were two of the last great sci- Lipo 2006). entifi c expeditions of the 19th century to produce Our chapter begins with initial observations reports with such broad and deep coverage. and descriptive reports of paleopathology using Printed catalogs are another source of early human skeletons (primarily crania) collected dur- descriptions of human skeletal remains (e.g., ing the age of scientifi c expeditions to the Pacifi c Davis 1867, 1875; Ecker 1878; Flower 1879; (1840–1900). Work at the beginning of the 20th Schaaffh ausen 1878; Schmeltz and Krause 1881; century (1900–1950) continued using museum von Luschan 1907). Th e catalogs, which sometimes collections but with the addition of a small num- included items for sale, itemized and described ber of excavated human skeletal series. Aft er World anatomical collections that had been donated or War II (1950–1980), more evaluative comparisons otherwise acquired by museums and private indi- of paleopathological evidence emerged. We con- viduals, mainly in Europe (see the biography of clude with the most recent work encompassing Joseph Davis, below). Today, oft en relegated to the both individual and population aspects of paleo- rare book sections of libraries, they serve as valu- pathological description, diagnosis, and paleoepi- able sources of information on the provenance of demiology that continues into the 21st century in these collections and early descriptions of disease. some regions of the Pacifi c. Short biographies of Th ese publications concentrated mainly on cranial eight key individuals further illustrate some of the morphology and detailed metrical descriptions major contributions and thematic developments for reconstructing human “racial” history and of paleopathology in the Pacifi c. sometimes included observations of paleopathol- ogy. Extensive comparisons of crania from newly EARLIEST STUDIES: discovered regions provided the Western scien- 1840–1900 tifi c community with its fi rst glimpses of new and Initial descriptions of excavated human skeletal exotic people. remains from the Pacifi c, including some of the fi rst observations of paleopathology, were made Joseph Barnard Davis (1801–1881) by individuals trained as medical doctors, anato- Born in York, England (1801), Joseph Barnard mists, and naturalists, using the large numbers of Davis amassed an extensive, global collection of skeletal remains, primarily crania, found in muse- human skulls, including many from the Pacifi c. ums in Europe, the United States, and the Pacifi c. During his long career as a medical practitioner For example, more than 2,000 crania from New in a small Staff ordshire town (Anonymous 1881), Guinea alone are found in museums around the he assembled one of the largest 19th-century col- world (Pietrusewsky 1976, 1983, 1986, 1990a). lections of human skulls (more than 1,500), pro- Many of these collections were the result of the cured through private purchases and donations. great expeditions to the Pacifi c that began in the Following Davis’ in 1881, the collection

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was donated to the Royal College of Surgeons of Although these initial reports about paleopa- England in London and subsequently transferred thology in the Pacifi c, made by people who had to the Natural History Museum, London, at the never traveled there, were largely anecdotal in end of World War II. nature and tended to focus on unusual fi ndings Davis published numerous papers on anthro- such as tooth ablation and cranial modifi cations, pological topics, including his infl uential Th esaurus there were a few exceptions. For example, Weckler’s Craniorum (Davis 1867), a valuable catalog featur- (1888) pioneering comparative study of cribra ing descriptions of skulls of various “races” repre- orbitalia in crania in European museum collec- sented in his collection along with a vast number of tions included examples from the Pacifi c Islands. measurements (well over 25,000) and literary ref- Similarly, reports by two 19th-century American erences. Several sections of Th esaurus Craniorum researchers on Hawaiian crania, Jeff ries Wyman are dedicated to crania from the Pacifi c, the largest and Harrison Allen (see biographies below), fore- series representing Hawaii (139), Marquesas (30), shadow later contextualized and problem- oriented New Zealand Maori (14), and the Loyalty Islands approaches. Th e fi rst full description of New (12). In the Maori sample, Davis described evi- Zealand Aborigines using a large skeletal series dence of cranial fractures, extensive tooth wear, actually in New Zealand was published by John and dental caries. In reporting on the 139 crania Scott (1893; see biography below). from Hawaii, Davis extended his observations to include not only tooth wear and caries, but also Jeffries Wyman (1814–1874) auditory exostoses (for which no cause was given), Jeff ries Wyman, an anatomist, naturalist, and a cranial modifi cation, antemortem tooth loss due pioneer of American anthropology, was born on to “tooth knocking” (tooth ablation), and other August 11, 1814, in Chelmsford, Massachusetts. conditions. As a child, Wyman was drawn to natural history Other early brief notations of paleopathol- and pure , which infl uenced his research in ogy include those by William Henry Flower his formative years. Aft er attending Phillips Exeter (1831–1879). Flower, in describing eight Maori Academy, he went on to graduate from Harvard skulls in the Royal College of Surgeons, London, College, Massachusetts, in 1833 despite suff ering noted that one of the skulls exhibited a mandibu- from severe pneumonia in his senior year, a condi- lar condyle with severe “chronic rheumatic arthri- tion that would aff ect him throughout life. With the tis” (osteoarthritis) (Flower 1879:131). A cranium death of his fi rst wife Adeline Wheelwright, with from New Caledonia was also said to present evi- whom he had two daughters, Molly and Susan, dence for “rheumatic arthritis” of the temporo- he married Anna Williams, who died aft er giv- mandibular joint (Flower 1879:204), while eight ing birth to their son, Jeff ries Wyman, Jr., in 1864. crania from one of the Vanuatu Islands (Malekula) Several memoirs of Jeff ries Wyman’s life and work and one cranium from Torres Strait Islands were have been published (Packard 1878; Wilder 1910). described as having been artifi cially modifi ed Th ese and other publications (e.g., Hrdlička 1914; (Flower 1879:214, 220). One of Flower’s more vivid Jarcho 1966; Browman 2002; Cook and Powell examples of perimortem paleopathology was his 2006) are the source of information covered in this description of a from the interior part of the section. largest of the Fijian Islands, Viti Levu: “Th e blow, infl icted just behind the left parietal eminence, has Professional Career completely detached a nearly circular piece of the Aft er receiving his medical degree from Harvard inner table of the skull about the size of shilling.” in 1837, Wyman opened a private practice and also (Flower 1879:209) served as demonstrator of for Harvard Overall, however, descriptions of Pacifi c crania Medical School under the supervision of John C. at this time did not mention pathological changes. Warren. Later, as curator for the Lowell Institute With the possible exception of a few brief com- in Boston, he presented a distinguished series ments concerning artifi cial cranial modifi cation of twelve lectures on comparative anatomy and or dental caries, most early studies—even those by physiology (1840 to 1841). He used fees from medical professionals—neglected to report patho- these lectures to further his studies in Europe, logical conditions (e.g., Udhe 1861; Retzius 1864; especially Paris, where were instru- Weckler 1866; Pruner- Bey 1864–1867; Spengel mental in formulating the beginnings of physical 1873, 1874, 1876; Meyer 1875; Krause 1881; anthropology. Upon his return to the Unites States Quatrefages and Hamy 1882; Turner 1884, 1886; from Europe, Wyman taught for several years at Prochownick 1887; Mollison 1908). Hampden-Sidney College in Richmond, ,

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before assuming the position of Hersey Professor drawings of places he had encountered during his of Anatomy at Harvard College in 1847, where journeys away from home for health reasons. he remained until his death in 1874. During his lectures at Harvard, Wyman oft en used his own Harrison Allen (1841–1897) anatomical sketches, which were drawn with great Another pioneer in the study of paleopathology in precision and detail. From 1866 to 1874, while he the Pacifi c was Harrison Allen, born on April 17, was teaching at Harvard College, Wyman became 1841, in Philadelphia (Wilder 1898). As a child, a trustee and then the fi rst curator of the newly Allen had a profound interest in natural history established Peabody Museum in 1866, one of and science, which continued during his adult the world’s oldest museums devoted to archaeol- years. Even though his family was not affl uent, ogy and ethnography. Wyman was also active in he pursued a degree in medicine, including den- several professional societies, including serving tistry, at the University of . Th ere as president of the American Association for the Allen had the good fortune to study with Joseph Advancement of Science. Leidy (1823–1891), a renowned paleontologist, Wyman’s earliest research, reported primarily anatomist, and anthropologist, and a protégé and as abstracts and unpublished manuscripts, focused successor of Samuel Morton (1799–1851), one of on the osteology of great apes and humans. His the pioneers of American physical anthropology. later work concentrated on the morphologi- In 1869 Allen married Julia A. Colton by whom cal observations of crania. His two publications he had a son, Harrison, and a daughter, Dorothea. on paleopathology of skeletal remains from the Allen died from heart failure on November 14, Pacifi c included a short paper on the distorted 1897, at the age of fi ft y-six. skull of a child from the Hawaiian Islands (Wyman 1866–1868a) and the description of a series of cra- Professional Career nia collected from a sand dune on the Hawaiian Aft er receiving his medical degree in 1861, Allen island of (Wyman 1866–1868b). In describ- served as a physician and surgeon in the US Army ing twenty-one crania from Kauai, he devoted in , DC, until 1865. Th e remaining several pages of text and tables, and described thirty-one years of his career were spent at the the development of bony nodules in the auditory University of Pennsylvania, where Allen served as meatus in four crania (auditory exostoses), which a professor of , comparative anatomy, and he attributed to activities involving water, as well physiology. He was also appointed the fi rst curator as several dental anomalies such as small teeth of the University of Pennsylvania’s Wistar Institute (microdontia/peg- shaped teeth), tooth retention of Anatomy in 1893. in the alveoli (impacted teeth), absence of the wis- Allen authored numerous monographs, papers, dom teeth or third molars (agenesis), and rotation and books including A Study of Hawaiian Skulls of the premolars. As Ubelaker (1982) observed, (Allen 1898), which includes observations of Wyman’s comparative study of auditory exos- paleopathology. Th is study of sixty-fi ve skulls col- toses in prehistoric Peruvian and Hawaiian crania lected from Hawaiian caves and coastal locations (Wyman 1868) was the fi rst study by an American and curated in various museum collections at to take an explicitly comparative population the Academy of Natural in Philadelphia, approach to understanding abnormal lesions in Princeton University, and Harvard University ancient populations. is among the earliest studies of human skeletal Overall, Wyman’s work was novel and note- remains from the Hawaiian Islands. Allen’s obser- worthy. He introduced an innovative compara- vations of paleopathology were most detailed and tive approach to systematic observation, including extensive for the time, including descriptions and observations and interpretations of paleopathol- selected line drawings of examples of osteoporosis, ogy. Before he died from pulmonary hemorrhage osteitis, hyperostosis of the mandibular condyle, on September 4, 1874, at the age of sixty, Wyman defects of the maxillae, premature suture closure, expressed his intention of furthering his research auditory exostosis, enamel defects, and dental on the paleopathology of the Hawaiian Islands anomalies such as absence of the third molar and residents. Many years aft er his death, Wyman’s let- extra cusps (Figure 63.1 ). Using skull measurements ters (1866–1874) written to his only son, Jeff ries and “characteristics” (including paleopathological Wyman, Jr., were published in one volume (Giff ord ones), Allen contrasted the cave skulls (presumed 1978). Th e letters reveal Wyman’s clever attempt to be nobility) with the coastal skulls (presumed to instill the concept of keen observation and to be commoners) and found diff erences in both curiosity in his son through his descriptions and datasets. Allen was primarily interested in how

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FIGURE 63.1: Maxillary dentition of a Hawaiian cranium exhibiting tooth loss. (Source: Allen 1898).

a particular disease aff ected cranial morphology displayed in museums today (Wright- St. Clair rather than the disease itself, concluding that nutri- 2007). He also drew many anatomical diagrams tional defi ciencies, environmental changes, and cul- for use in teaching. tural modifi cations rather than “race”—a common explanation of the time—likely explained many of Professional Career the conditions he described. Scott revealed his attraction to physical anthro- pology, and especially osteology, through his John Halliday Scott (1851–1914) teaching, his skeletal collection, and through his An early pioneer in the fi eld of osteometry who monograph, Contribution to the Osteology of the also contributed to our early understanding of Aborigines of New Zealand and Chatham Islands paleopathology in the Pacifi c was the Scottish (Scott 1893), in which he published the fi rst com- anatomist John Halliday Scott. Scott, the son prehensive study of approximately eighty Maori of a writer, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and skeletal remains located in museums on December 28, 1851 (Allen 1997; Wright-St. and private collections in New Zealand. Although Clair 2007). He received his MD degree from the Scott’s main focus was morphology and measure- University of Edinburgh in 1877. Aft er serving as ment, he commented on the absence of dental a house surgeon in Edinburgh and Stirling, and caries and auditory exostoses, and noted several teaching within the Department of Anatomy at examples of alveolar abscesses and tooth wear. Scott the University of Edinburgh, Scott left Edinburgh observed that some of the Maori mandibles were in 1877 to take a position as professor of anat- “convex from behind forward” (Scott 1893:37), omy and physiology at the University of Otago in a unique morphology that would later be given the New Zealand. He later became the fi rst dean of name “rocker jaw,” and he made the fi rst observa- Otago Medical School, a position he held until tions of squatting facets in tibiae and tali of Pacifi c his death on February 25, 1914. In addition to his Islanders (Scott 1893:59). Scott’s early contribu- devotion to the medical school, Scott also had a tion to osteology and paleopathology stands as a great interest in art and anthropology. A gift ed landmark study of Pacifi c skeletal series because it water color artist, he was active in the art com- included all the of the skeleton rather than munity and served as secretary of the Otago Art just crania. Unfortunately, he did not systemati- Society. Many of his paintings of nature are still cally quantify his observations of paleopathology

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as he did for the other morphometric variation he Henry G. Chappel (1868–1941) observed. We know very little about the life of Harry G. In summary, early work in paleopathology Chappel except for the information provided in the Pacifi c was highly descriptive, oft en anec- by Californian death records and the 1900 US dotal in nature, noting unusual conditions such Federal Census Records. He was born on March 20, as tooth ablation, cranial modifi cation, and dental 1868, in England. Aft er emigrating to the United disease observed in crania. Th e skeletal remains, States as a child in 1873 Chappel went on to earn primarily stored in major museum and univer- his Doctor of Dental Surgery degree (DDS), before sity collections found in Europe and the United setting up a dental practice in Oakland, . States, frequently resulted from the great scientifi c His sole contribution to the fi elds of physical collecting expeditions and early trading typical of anthropology and paleopathology resulted from a this period. Th e major interest in physical anthro- brief visit to in 1920. Chappel died on pology was cranial morphology and “racial” his- September 13, 1941, at the age of seventy- three. tory. While the morphometric work of Scott on Maori and Moriori skeletons is exceptional for Professional Career its time, paleopathology receives only passing In addition to his dental practice, Chappel served as mention in his landmark study. In contrast to president of the California State Dental Association these primarily typological studies, the works from 1911 to 1912. With the support of the muse- of two early American pioneers, Jeff ries Wyman um’s director, Herbert E. Gregory, Chappel exam- and Harrison Allen, are exemplary because they ined native Hawaiian crania and mandibles in not only provided the earliest careful system- 1920, and his monograph, Jaws and Teeth of Ancient atic observations of paleopathology in skeletal Hawaiians, was published by the in remains from Hawaii but they began to specu- 1927 (Chappel 1927). In addition to detailed metri- late on the interaction of disease, culture, and cal and nonmetrical descriptions, he made system- the environment. Allen’s work is also particularly atic notations of cultural modifi cations, lack of tooth noteworthy as it was one of the fi rst comparative development, dental disease, and other anomalous studies in the Pacifi c. features. Chappel’s study is the fi rst comprehensive investigation of ancient Hawaiian dentitions, includ- EARLY 20TH CENTURY ing prevalence rate comparisons between the sexes (1900–1950) and the islands, photographs, and individual raw With the exception of two pioneering dental data. In using his personal knowledge as a practicing studies, there was little work in human physical dentist, Chappel noted that the ancient Hawaiians anthropology for the Pacifi c during the rstfi half had experienced the same dental diseases that were of the 20th century. Th is absence occurred, in found in living people. Chappel also drew correla- part, because systematic stratigraphic archaeolog- tions between dental disease and the diet of ancient ical excavations in the Pacifi c were rare until aft er Hawaiians. Th is is probably the only detailed doc- World War II and also because physical anthropol- umentation of these crania made before they were ogy’s focus was primarily on somatological stud- repatriated and forever lost to science. ies of living peoples. Of course, museum studies in craniometry continued (e.g., Duckworth 1900; Rufus Wood Leigh (1884–1964) Th omson 1915; von Bonin 1931) but again, the Rufus Wood Leigh was born on December 18, 1884, emphasis was on reconstructing “racial” history in Cedar City, (http://www.rootsweb.ancestry. and exploring cranial modifi cation (Giuff rida- com/). In September of 1920 he was commissioned Ruggeri 1921; Pearson 1921; Th omson 1915). as a First Lieutenant in the US Army Dental Corps. However, works by two dentists, Henry Chappel Leigh subsequently went on to earn his MA degree and Rufus Leigh, are exceptional for their system- in anthropology at the University of Hawaii in 1930 atic appraisals of dental anthropology, including under the supervision of Frederic Wood- Jones who, oral-dental paleopathology. Both contributions from 1927–1929, was the Rockefeller professor of were the result of studies of skeletal remains acces- physical anthropology at the University of Hawaii. sioned in the Museum in Leigh died a few months short of his eightieth birth- Honolulu. Th e museum, established in 1891, began day on August 24, 1964, in Salt Lake City, Utah. assembling artifacts and human skeletal remains donated by residents, collected from the surface of Professional Career eroding sand dunes, and uncovered during mili- In addition to serving as a captain in the US Army tary construction and operations. Dental Corps, Leigh taught in the Army

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Dental School and Georgetown University Dental elusive stratigraphy of sand dunes). At fi rst con- School in Washington, DC. Later, Leigh went on to fi ned mainly to Polynesia, controlled excavations teach at the University of Utah. Leigh was a pioneer of stratifi ed sites, oft en containing human skeletal in the fi eld of dental pathology, examining dental remains, eventually expanded to include Melanesia health and diet within cultural contexts (Cook and Micronesia. For the fi rst time, sizable ceme- and Powell 2006:295; Rose and Burke 2006:331). tery series of human skeletal remains from places His primary contribution to paleopathology in such as Tonga, Hawaii, Marquesas, Easter Island, the Pacifi c was his monograph on Chamorro teeth and New Guinea were now available for study published as a memoir by the Bishop Museum (Table 63.1). Th ese collections were curated in (Leigh 1929), which he also used to complete his museums across the Pacifi c (e.g., Bishop Museum requirements for an MA degree (Leigh 1930). Th e in Honolulu, Auckland Museum and Institute in human skeletal remains that Leigh studied, the Auckland, New Zealand, and elsewhere). Although so-called Hornbostel Collection, came from the fi rst full-time academic physical anthropolo- archaeological excavations in undertaken in gist was hired by the University of Hawaii in 1969, 1922 by J. C. Th ompson, an offi cer in the US Navy, studies of paleopathology were still carried out by and Mr. Hans G. Hornbostel, a retired US marine, dentists and medical doctors such as Morris Taylor for the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. Leigh’s study at the University of Auckland and Philip Houghton included the fi rst observations of dental morphol- (see biography below) at the University of Otago in ogy and disease in skulls from pre-Spanish to early New Zealand. Gradually, however, physical anthro- post- Spanish contact Guam. For his time, Leigh’s pologists, in collaboration with other specialists, work was very thorough, scoring the presence and begin to predominate. With very few exceptions, absence of disease by tooth, and analyzing percent- however, observations of paleopathology were ages of individuals aff ected by specifi c conditions. commonly treated in separate sections of larger Th e eff ects of chewing betel nut were well docu- systematic archaeological site reports. mented. Leigh’s several publications (1929, 1930) An early publication from this period that linked dental health and disease to the diet of the focused exclusively on paleopathology was by prehistoric Chamorro of Guam. He also noted cul- T. D. Stewart (Chapter 15) and Spoehr (1952). tural modifi cations and deformations that could Th eir report described the fi rst paleopatho- lead to dental disease, such as incising of teeth to logical example of yaws in a single pre- contact make latticed patterns, which would hold betel nut (pre-1521) subadult individual from Tinian, in the stains. Leigh published his work in both dental and . Radiocarbon dating anthropological journals, underscoring the value suggests this individual dates from AD 845±145 of each discipline to the other. years, establishing signifi cant antiquity for this As was the case in the preceding period, work modern endemic illness, and establishing the pre- in paleopathology in the fi rst half of the 20th cen- contact context of yaws in the ongoing debate on tury in the Pacifi c was largely overshadowed by the history of the treponematoses. Th e long limb anthropometric studies. Work by two dentists vis- bones and skull in this incomplete skeleton were iting Hawaii, Chappel and Leigh, produced the fi rst exquisitely documented through measurement monographs on dental anthropology that included and careful description, with supplementary pho- systematic observations of oral-dental disease, tographs and radiographs. Although there is no dental modifi cation, and the relationship between systematic discussion of diff erential diagnosis, an dental disease and diet. Papers dealing specifi cally attribution of yaws versus venereal syphilis relied with pathology using excavated skeletal series with primarily on the pre- contact temporal position of controlled provenance, or even discussions includ- the burial, the subadult age, and the fi rst author’s ing whole individual skeletons, were still elusive background in medicine and paleopathology. Th is for this period. study also stands out because the skeletal remains resulted from a deliberate, stratigraphically con- AFTER WORLD WAR II trolled excavation, with temporal and spatial con- (1950–1980) trol, and all of the available bones of the skeleton Aft er World War II physical anthropology, were utilized. At this time, “case studies” such as including paleopathology, in the Pacifi c region this were the norm. Th ere were few epidemiolog- was transformed by an increasing availability of ical or population perspectives, examinations of archaeological human skeletal remains from well pathological processes in other parts of the skel- stratifi ed excavations and the use of the radio- eton, or recognition of signs of biological “stress.” carbon dating for temporal control (vital for the Th is paper therefore stands as an example of the

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TABLE 63.1 SUMMARY OF WORK IN PALEOPATHOLOGY FOR 1950–1980.

Island Group Skeletal series/site Dates Main Contribution Reference

Easter Island Late prehistoric to AD 1110–1869 Detailed descriptions Murrill 1965, 1968 historic skeletons from of DJD, trauma, Th or Hyerdahl’s Kon infection, TB, rickets Tiki Expedition to Easter in approximately 33 Island (1955–1956) individuals. Tonga To-At- 1, To-At- 2 Prehistoric: Detailed systematic Pietrusewsky 1969a, b 390±110 years BP; descriptions of DJD, 770±200 years BP trauma, yaws, infection, TB, dental pathology in 99 skeletons from Tongatapu. New Zealand Various Prehistoric Dental pathology, Taylor 1963, 1971, trephination, rocker jaw, 1972, 1975; Houghton and other pathology in 1975 1977a, b, prehistoric New Zealand. 1978a, b, 1980 Marquesas Hane Dune site, AD 1110±110 - Detailed systematic Pietrusewsky 1976 (MUH- 1) AD 1635±90 descriptions of DJD, trauma, infection, TB, dental pathology in 42 prehistoric skeletons. Hawaii Bellows Beach Site AD 600 Osteological and Pearson et al. 1971 (O18), Ohau paleopathological descriptions in fi ve prehistoric skeletons from Oahu. `Anaeho`omalu, Prehistoric/ Descriptions of Pietrusewsky 1971; Hawaii Is. historic paleopathology in 100 Pietrusewsky et al. late prehistoric and early 1990c historic Hawaiian burials. Mōkapu, Oahu Pre- 1778 One of the earliest studies Snow 1974 of 1171 prehistoric skeletons from the Hawaiian Islands. New Guinea, Dental casts of Solomon Ethnographic Dental occlusion and diet Corruccini and New Ireland, Islanders and skulls collection of skulls in early . Pacciani 1983 & Solomon from Bougainville, New Islands Britain Nebria, Papua New 149±270 yrs. BP; An early study, including Pietrusewsky 1976 Guinea 750±80 yrs. BP paleopathology, of 38 prehistoric skeletons from Papua New Guinea. New Ireland Ca 1600–500 BC Dental pathology in Turner and Swindler Lapita- associated 1978 skeletons from the St. Matthias Group, New Ireland.

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kind of thorough, “by element” descriptions of dis- Agriculture (Bass 1968; Bridges 1997). Aft er grad- ease in an individual skeleton that are still being uation from Harvard, Snow accepted a position called for today (Ortner 1991, 2003). With this as physical anthropologist with the Works Project depth and detail of description, any reader today Administration (WPA), Valley Authority can render an opinion on the suggested diagnosis, Archaeological Project in Birmingham, , rather than having to rely on the experience and which was part of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal judgment of the recorder. relief program during the Great Depression (Milner Accidental discoveries and several major sal- and Jacobi 2006). Snow and his colleagues stressed vage excavations at the Mōkapu sand dunes on the importance of standardized measurements the island of Oahu resulted in more than 1500 so that comparisons could be made in the future. Hawaiian burials accessioned at the Bishop A great many of his future papers and research Museum in Honolulu. A comprehensive study of cover the human skeletal remains recovered in this these skeletons, including extensive descriptions project. Th e project was closed with the beginning of paleopathology, was conducted between 1951 of World War II, and Snow was off ered a position in and 1957 by Charles Snow, (see biography below), the Department of Anthropology at the University with the assistance of his wife, Katherine, but the of , where he remained until his untimely results were published posthumously (Snow 1974). death on October 5, 1967. During his study Snow worked with Warner F. Bowers, a practicing military surgeon stationed Professional Career in Hawaii (Bowers 1966); each acknowledged Following World War II, Snow served as an anthro- the collaboration, but Snow commented that his pologist for the American Graves Registration observations were off ered “from the viewpoint of Service (AGRS) at the Central Identifi cation an anthropologist” (Snow 1974:60). Laboratory on Oahu, Hawaii, for six months in Bowers’ (1966) summary of pathological 1947 and 1948. It was while serving with the AGRS and functional changes in 864 pre- 1778 Mōkapu on an errand to the Bishop Museum that Snow skeletons stands as the fi rst study of ancient dis- learned of the Mōkapu burials (Snow 1974:1). ease using a large sample of skeletal remains from During the summer of 1952 Snow returned to the Pacifi c. Until other large skeletal series were Honolulu to study the remains of 1,171 individuals excavated and analyzed, this study represented a who were exposed during excavations at Mōkapu, unique, signifi cant overview of paleopathology in Oahu. Th e results of his study were published post- skeletons from a single Hawaiian archaeological humously by his wife, Katherine B. Snow, in 1974 site. Use of radiography, classifi cations of disor- (Snow 1974). In addition to describing examples ders based on osseous processes, and reporting of cranial deformation and rocker jaw in these data by the number of elements aff ected, remains, Snow provided detailed observations compared to those observed, rather than by indi- of pathological conditions in one chapter (e.g., viduals aff ected regardless of preservation, charac- healed fracture, an amputation, “lopsided” skulls terized this forward- looking study. Unfortunately, (wryneck syndrome), osteoarthritis, club feet, and because this was a summary article, much of the dental pathology). He made observations of liv- detailed descriptive information on the abnormal ing native Hawaiians, showing methods of cranial fi ndings is absent. modifi cation, and he included comments by emi- nent native historians of the time. Also included in Charles Ernest Snow (1910–1967) this seminal work in Hawaiian osteology was an Charles Ernest Snow was born on April 11, 1910, in appendix detailing a number of paleopathologi- Boulder, . Snow was an enthusiastic pho- cal examples from Mōkapu by Johnson and Kerley tographer, a skill he learned from his father, who (1974). Th is collection greatly added to the num- was a professional photographer. He attended the ber of skeletal remains that were studied in Hawaii, University of Colorado, Boulder, and graduated and Snow’s photographs, recorded measurements, with a BA in Geology with honors in 1932. He was and observations continue to be of great value as later accepted into Harvard graduate school, where the skeletons have been repatriated. he studied physical anthropology under Earnest A. Additional work following World War II Hooton, (Chapter 24), receiving his MA in 1935 illustrates how paleopathology was beginning to and his PhD in 1938. While working on his doctor- develop further. A “preliminary” report by Jane ate, Snow worked as an assistant anthropometrist Hainline Underwood (1969) provided a fairly on the Child Measurement Project for the comprehensive overview of the skeletal biol- Bureau of Home Economics, U. S. Department of ogy of ninety- seven individual burials from the

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South Point site on the island of Hawaii, but also Although this was one of the fi rst large-scale captures some of the diffi culties of “salvage” and skeletal analyses by a young physical anthropolo- even research-oriented archaeological work in gist, it is evident that the research was under- the Pacifi c for this time period. Underwood, from taken with attention to detail and with an eff ort the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), to document the skeletal series in full, including despite spending only two weeks analyzing the paleopathological evidence. Th is is likely the fi rst skeletons, presented a rather inclusive overview of computerized analysis of skeletal morphology the skeletal biology of these remains but laments and paleopathology, and the fi rst fully published that there was no “detailed archaeological analysis description of a large archaeological skeletal series of the site” (Underwood 1969:13). Another short- in the Pacifi c. Th e author provided visual, radio- coming of this early work was the lack of individu- graphic, and textual descriptions of the abnormal als trained in paleopathology: “the causes of death bone changes and provided individual, as well as in the sample are not evident, although examina- a population, context for diseased individuals. For tion by a qualifi ed palaeopathologist may dispel this period and in a region of the world with little some of this ignorance” (Underwood 1969:5). or no ongoing skeletal research, this was a com- Furthermore, a representative example of a mendable eff ort. Th is paper established the stan- study that includes a separate section (Chapter V dard for skeletal analysis in the Pacifi c. One of the in Murrill 1968) on paleopathology in archaeolog- more remarkable fi ndings of this early study was ical human remains from Easter Island is anthro- the description of lesions consistent with a diag- pologist Rupert I. Murrill’s study of thirty- three nosis of yaws in thirteen adults, the largest number adult skeletons recovered from Th or Heyerdahl’s of individuals aff ected in a skeletal sample from 1955–1956 Kon-Tiki expedition (Murrill 1968). the Pacifi c. Although Murrill’s study focused primarily on metrical and nonmetrical observations, and Philip Houghton (1937–) focused on questions of origins, one brief sec- Philip Houghton was born on May 14, 1937. tion (a single page of text and another page show- He received his degrees in medicine and surgery ing photographs) was devoted to observations of (MB and ChB) in 1960 from Otago Medical School paleopathology (e.g., osteoarthritis, rickets, healed and became a fellow of the Royal Australasian fracture, tuberculosis, and possibly yaws). Murrill College of Surgeons (FRACS) in 1969 from the used radiographs, and acknowledged the assis- University of New Zealand. Aft er working as house tance of an orthopedic surgeon in assessing and surgeon at Christchurch Hospital, Houghton served interpreting the conditions discussed. three months in 1963 as a medical offi cer help- A further early paper by Pietrusewsky (1969a), ing Sherpas for Sir Edmund Hillary’s Himalayan which was part of his doctoral dissertation (1969b) Expedition (Zega 2006). research, summarized skeletal morphology and Houghton served as a demonstrator of anatomy paleopathology in human skeletal material from at Otago Medical School, and then spent four years two prehistoric burial mounds (To- At- 1 and (1965–1969) as a practicing surgeon in various To- At- 2) on the island of Tongatapu, Kingdom of posts in Christchurch, Auckland, and in London. Tonga. Th e material was the largest skeletal series In 1970 he led a surgical team as part of the British excavated in the South Pacifi c at that time and Ministry of Overseas Development in Nigeria dur- thus provided the fi rst opportunity for skeletal ing the Nigerian- Biafran War, and in 1971 through description of Western . Pietrusewsky 1972 was part of the New Zealand surgical team introduced “burial descriptions” that summarized in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Beginning in morphological details about each individual skel- 1973 Houghton taught anatomy at the University eton. A great deal of attention was given to obser- of Otago, where he remained until his retirement vations of paleopathology, including systematic in 1997. It is during this period that he contributed observations of dental pathology, degenerative greatly to Pacifi c physical anthropology. In addi- changes on the articular surfaces of the long bones tion to his academic work, Houghton published and axial skeleton, and evidence for trauma and a novel (1966), and several natural history and infection. Explanations of pathology included all adventure books (e.g., Houghton 1968, 1972). aff ected elements in each individual using system- atic, descriptive terminology, followed by attribu- Professional Career tions to specifi c diseases (e.g., treponematosis). Houghton’s primary interest was in the human Th e studies were augmented with liberal photo- biology of the Pacifi c, including phenotypic graphs and radiographs of the aff ected elements. adaptations of Polynesians and the health of the

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prehistoric New Zealand Maori. He published Likewise, considerable variation in the level two books and numerous papers on the subject. of reporting paleopathological conditions exists In his book, Th e First New Zealanders (1980), for this recent period, with a tendency to empha- Houghton discussed the physique and head form size a specifi c diagnosis rather than provide fuller of the Maori, and also included separate chapters descriptions of the conditions. Additionally, there for demography and disease. Large sections of his is the propensity to report unusual conditions book People of the Great Ocean (Houghton 1996) (e.g., cranial deformation, rocker jaw, dental mod- are devoted to supporting his theory that the rig- ifi cations) or to report the “fi rst ever case of” from ors of long- distance voyaging contributed to the the Pacifi c, or anticipate the origin and introduc- skeletal morphology and health of the Maori and tion of certain infectious diseases (e.g., leprosy, Pacifi c Islanders seen today. Th e strong program yaws, tuberculosis) into the Pacifi c (e.g., Miles of research in the skeletal biology of the Pacifi c 1997; Trembly 1995a, 1996a). Th e use of photog- initiated by Houghton at Otago, which followed raphy, radiography, and other analytical methods the earlier work of Scott (1893) and Schofi eld also became increasingly common in this period. (1959), continues with the work of Nancy Tayles, While many of the descriptions of paleopathology Hallie Buckley, and Sean Halcrow of the same are included in skeletal reports (the gray litera- department. ture), there is a noticeable increase in the number It is during this period aft er World War II that of journal articles and book chapters that focus papers focusing exclusively on paleopathology in on paleopathology over the past four decades Pacifi c skeletal remains begin to appear although (Table 63.2). they do not extend much beyond careful case At the University of Hawaii, work by studies and diagnosis. With the onset of systematic Pietrusewsky and his students (and later col- archaeological excavations in the Pacifi c, there was leagues) began a tradition of systematic record- a virtual “explosion” in the number of reports con- ing of skeletal data, including paleopathology, taining observations of paleopathology, notably work that would provide an important source of in Polynesia and Micronesia. Th ese reports oft en information for some of the fi rst surveys of health contain detailed systematic descriptions of disease and disease in the Pacifi c. Examples of these early in skeletal and dental remains, oft en supplemented surveys include diachronic and regional syntheses with radiographs, photographs, and interpreta- that use indicators of health from skeletal remains tions by pathologists, radiologists, and orthopedic from Hawaii (Pietrusewsky and Douglas 1994) and specialists. the Mariana Islands (Pietrusewsky et al. 1997a). It is also during this period that the fi rst symposia RECENT STUDIES: devoted to bioarchaeology and paleopathology in 1980–PRESENT island ecosystems, such as the one organized in With some exceptions, studies in paleopathology 1995 by Hanson and Pietrusewsky on bioarchaeo- beginning in approximately 1980 to the present in logical research in the Mariana Islands, appear the Pacifi c have been driven by the availability of (Hanson and Pietrusewsky 1997). human skeletal remains from archaeological exca- Another focus of bioarchaeologists during this vations (e.g., for Hawaii large skeletal series such period has been the importance of prehistoric mor- as Keōpū, `Anaeho`omalu, and Honokahua), and tuary practices and human biology, demonstrated most noticeably the boom in archaeological con- in the CRM-based work in Mariana Islands by tract work by CRM fi rms (created by federal legis- Douglas Hanson (Hanson 1987, 1989) and the use lation). Th e inherent nature of CRM work (budget of subadult skeletal remains in studies of growth and and time constraints, multiple investigators, inter- development (e.g., Stodder 1997; Buckley 2000). observer error, reburial of the skeletal remains, Likewise, more attention to diff erential diagnosis and other variables) contributes to the relegation and interpretation, and the integration of historical of osteological and paleopathological data to the and ethnographic information with paleopathol- appendices of archaeological site reports, which ogy, is a further characteristic of the most recent results in a lack of integration between the people work with Pacifi c skeletal remains. An excellent and their context. Additionally, although skeletal example of a multiple working hypothesis approach data from site reports contribute to the expand- to diff erential diagnosis is the work on congenital ing database in paleopathology, these reports torticollis or wryneck in prehistoric Hawaiians by are typically unpublished “gray” literature (e.g., Michele Toomay Douglas (1988, 1991). Pietrusewsky et al. 1989, 1990a, b, c; Roberts and Th e number of individuals working in the Cox 2003). Pacifi c further increased substantially during this

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TABLE 63.2 RECENT WORK OF SELECTED KEY CONTRIBUTORS (ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY) TO THE STUDY OF PALEOPATHOLOGY IN THE PACIFIC (1980–PRESENT)

Individual Main contribution References

Bernardo Arriaza Spondylolysis in skeletons from the Mariana Arriaza 1997 Islands. Hallie Buckley Sudadult health; yaws; malaria; gout; Lapita; Buckley 2000, 2006, 2007; Buckley and Tonga; Taumako; Vanuatu. Dias 2002; Buckley and Tayles 2003a, b; Buckley et al. 2005, 2008; Bentley et al. 2007; Scott et al., 2010 Sara Collins Osteology and paleopathology; Keōpū, Collins 1986; Collins and Weisler 2000; Hawaii; Henderson Atoll; Kwajalein Atoll. Weisler et al., 2000 David De Gusta Cannibalism and mortuary practices in Fiji; De Gusta 1999, 2000; Kyle et al., 2009 and others post- Lapita health John Dennison Brief synopsis of paleopathology from a Conte and Dennison 1995; Kieser et al., 2001 marae. Michele T. Wryneck Syndrome in early Hawaiians; Douglas 1991; Douglas et al. 1997 Douglas et al. skeletal biology and paleopathology of a large skeletal series from Guam. George Gill and Dental pathology and trauma in Easter Island Gill 1990; Gill and Owsley 1993; Owsley and Douglas Owsley skeletal remains. Gill 1997; Owsley et al. 1983, 1985, 1994 et al. Douglas Hanson Isotope analysis, paleopathology, and Ambrose et al. 1997; Hanson 1987, 1989, mortuary studies in skeletal remains from the 1990, 1993 Mariana Islands. Gary Heathcote Occipital superstructures; diff erential Heathcote, 2005, Heathcote et al., 1996, et al. diagnosis of yaws, diagnosis of gout. 1998; Pate et al., 2001; Rothschild and Heathcote, 1993, 1995; Rothschild and Rothschild, 1995 Philip Houghton Skeletal biology and paleopathology in Houghton, 1980, 1983, 1989a, b, c, 1996; et al. Maori, Lapita, and other skeletal remains Houghton and Kean, 1987; Kean and from the Pacifi c. Houghton, 1982, 1987, 1990 Rona Ikehara- Tooth modifi cation in dental remains Ikehara and Douglas 1997 Quebral from Guam. Kazumichi Limited paleopathology in skeletons from Igarashi et al. 1987; Katayama 1988; Tagaya Katayama . and Katayama 1988; Yoshida 1988 Harris J. Keene Dental pathology and Stafne’s defect in Keene 1986, 1990; Keene and Keene 1985 Hawaiian skeletal series. Greg C. Nelson Preliminary observations of paleopathology Nelson and Fitzpatrick 2006; Fitzpatrick and Scott M. in 3,000- year- old skeletons from . et al. 2008 Fitzpatrick Michael Systematic recording of skeletal biology and Pietrusewsky 1985, 1989a, b, 1990b; Pietrusewsky et al. paleopathology, including surveys of health Pietrusewsky and Douglas 1992, 1993, and disease and mortuary practices in Pacifi c 1994; Pietrusewsky and Ikehara- Quebral Island skeletal series; Lapita skeletal remains 1996; Pietrusewsky et al. 1989, 1990a, b, from Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and 1991, 1997a, b, c, 1998, 2007, 2010, 2011; New Caledonia; tooth ablation; cultural Pietrusewsky and Willacker 1997; Goodwin alteration of bone. et al. 1995; Cochrane et al. 2004 Stephen Schendel Head form and rocker jaw. Jaeger and Schendel 1982; Schendel et al. 1980

(Continued)

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TABLE 63.2 (CONTINUED)

Individual Main contribution References Ann L. Stodder Subadult paleopathology, Mariana Islands. Stodder, 1997, 2006; Stodder and Douglas, 2003; Stodder and Reith, 2011; Stodder et al., 1992 Alice A. Storey Cultural modifi cation in Tongan skeletal Storey, 2008 assemblages. Takao Suzuki Paleopathology and cribra orbitalia; Hawaii; Suzuki 1986; 1987a, b, 1993 Guam. Morris S. Taylor Dental wear in Maori. Taylor 1986 Diane Trembly Tuberculosis in Hawaii; yaws; leprosy. Trembly 1995a, b, 1996a, b, 1997 Christy Turner II Dental pathology of Lapita remains from Kirch et al. 1989; Turner, 1989 Mussau Island, New Ireland. Frédérique Valentin Limited discussion of paleopathology in Valentin et al. 2004, 2005, 2006; Valentin and Lapita skeletons; isotope studies, and dental Sand 2000, 2001 pathology. Edward Visser use in Fiji. Visser 1994a, b Stephen Webb Cribra orbitalia and paleopathology in early Webb 1982, 1995 skeletons from Papua New Guinea.

period, drawn by the burgeoning CRM work in where a minimum amount of data is collected. In Hawaii and other places in the Pacifi c. Key aca- Hawaii, especially, use and access to reports, orig- demic institutions in Hawaii, New Zealand, and inal data, photographs, and so on are now either Guam trained, and continue to train, bioarchaeolo- prohibited or severely restricted by Memoranda of gists. Michael Pietrusewsky (University of Hawaii) Agreement. Because of the current political situa- and Gary Heathcote (University of Guam), both tion, there has been a noticeable shift in research educated in paleopathology at the University of activity away from Hawaii and out into the south- Toronto under the direction of James Anderson, ern and western Pacifi c aft er the early 1990s. one of the pioneers in paleopathology in Canada Despite these limitations, this most recent (Chapter 34), continue this tradition in the Pacifi c. work in paleopathology has contributed substan- Philip Houghton, at the University of Otago, a tially to the development of the discipline in areas surgeon and self- trained as an anthropologist, of recording, quantifi cation, and interpretation of supervised Nancy Tayles who now continues that pathological lesions, as well as providing some of tradition in New Zealand. George Gill and his stu- the fi rst glimpses of the health and quality of life dents (e.g., Douglas Owsley) at the University of of prehistoric inhabitants of the Pacifi c. Major Wyoming conduct work on Easter Island skeletal developments in bioarchaeology, including paleo- remains, and another contributor to the paleopa- pathology, in Oceania include descriptions of a thology of the Pacifi c, Takao Suzuki, received his group of colonizing people, descrip- doctoral degree from the University of Tokyo under tions of the fi rst human skeletal remains excavated the direction of Kazuro Hanihara, and continues from Palau, and examinations of mortuary behav- to research past health and disease in Japan. ior, including evidence for cannibalism. Pacifi c Except for a few skeletons associated with the bioarchaeologists continue to add more advanced Lapita horizon (ca 1500–500 BC) in places such as techniques to the basic suite of analytical methods, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji, including multivariate statistical analyses, aDNA, relatively little paleopathological work in the rest and stable isotope analyses. Although the “island of the Pacifi c has been produced in recent years. as laboratory” ideal has not materialized in full, Issues connected with the Native American Graves studies of paleopathology in the Pacifi c continue Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) and to advance our understanding of the health of the repatriation have challenged work in physical early inhabitants of this island world. Th is work anthropology in the Pacifi c, converting it from will provide a foundation for addressing more problem- oriented studies to “salvage osteology” global issues of health in the Pacifi c in the future.

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THE FUTURE isotopic analysis human diet in the Marianas In Hawaii and most of the Pacifi c, the climate in Archipelago, Western Pacifi c. American Journal which paleopathological research is conducted of Physical Anthropology 104:343–361. has changed considerably since Sir Peter H. Buck Anonymous. 1881. Joseph Barnard Davis. Nature (Te Rangi Hiroa), former director of the Bishop 24: 82–83. Museum, welcomed Charles Snow to undertake Arriaza BT. 1997. Spondylolysis in prehistoric his study of the Mōkapu skeletons in 1951. Slightly human remains from Guam and its possible more than four decades since Snow began his etiology. American Journal of Physical study, research involving human skeletal remains Anthropology 104:393–397. from Hawaii virtually ended due to restrictive leg- Bass WM. 1968. Charles Ernest Snow 1910–1967. islation enacted in 1996 that eff ectively prohibits American Journal of Physical Anthropology all examinations of any human remains dating 28(3): 369–372. back more than fi ft y years found in the State of Bentley RA, Buckley HR, Spriggs M, Bedford S, Hawaii. Even the use of the term “paleopathology” Ottley CJ, Nowell GM, Macpherson CG, became a lightning rod for activists to express Pearson DG. 2007. Lapita migrants in the Pacifi c’s oldest cemetery: isotopic analysis their horror and contempt for anthropologists at Teouma, Vanuatu. American Antiquity who wished to examine the bones of their pur- 72(4):645–656. ported ancestors. Similar scenarios played out in Bowers WF. 1966. Pathological and functional New Zealand, although work by physical anthro- changes found in 864 pre- Captain Cook pologists there was allowed to continue, albeit contact Polynesian burials from the sand dunes cautiously, with the blessing of its indigenous at Mokapu, Oahu, Hawaii. Internal Surgery peoples. Examination of archaeological human 45:206–217. skeletal remains from Easter Island, Fiji, Vanuatu, Brewis AA, Molloy MA, Sutton DG. 1990. New Caledonia, Mariana Islands, and Papua New Modeling the pre- historic Maori population. Guinea continues, oft en with the active support of American Journal of Physical Anthropology the who wish to learn about 81:343–356. their ancestors. It is in these regions of the Pacifi c Bridges P. 1997. Snow, Charles Ernest (1910–1967). that we envision the continued development of the In Spencer, F, editor. History of Physical fi eld of bioarchaeology, including paleopathology, Anthropology, Volume 2. : Garland using new collections of human skeletal remains. Publishing. p 958–959. For other regions of the Pacifi c, research will have Browman DL. 2002. Th e Peabody Museum, to focus on creative uses of archived data (e.g., Th e Frederick W. Putnam, and the rise of U.S. History of Health Project, Steckel and Rose 2002; Anthropology, 1866–1903. American http://global.sbs.ohio-state.edu/western_hemi- Anthropologist 104(2):509. sphere_module.htm) until, or if, a reversal of pol- Buckley HR. 2000. Subadult health and disease in icy allows further research to be undertaken. prehistoric Tonga, Polynesia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113:481–505. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Buckley HR. 2006. Th e predators within: Th e authors extend their gratitude to Tai Arakawa, investigating the relationship between malaria Karen Kadohiro, and Jo Ann Sakaguchi for their and health in the prehistoric Pacifi c Islands. help in researching the biographical information In: Oxenham M, Tayles N, editors. Th e for the key individuals covered in this chapter and bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: for their assistance in preparing annotated bibliog- Cambridge University Press. p 309–332. raphies of their work. Th e editors provided insight- Buckley HR. 2007. Possible gouty arthritis in ful and helpful comments on an earlier draft . Lapita- associated skeletons from Teouma, Efate Island, Central Vanuatu. Current Anthropology REFERENCES 48(5):741–749. Allen H. 1898. A study of Hawaiian skulls. Wagner Buckley HR, Dias G. 2002. Th e distribution of Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia skeletal lesions in treponemal disease: is the Transactions 5:1–55. lymphatic system responsible? International Allen JS. 1997. New Zealand. In Spencer F, editor. Journal of Osteoarchaeology 12:178–188. History of physical anthropology, Volume 2. Buckley HR, Tayles N. 2003a. Th e functional cost New York: Garland Publishing. p 749–751. of tertiary yaws (Treponema pertenue) in a Ambrose SH, Butler MM, Hanson DB, Hunter- prehistoric Pacifi c Island skeletal sample. Journal Anderson RL, Krueger HW. 1997. Stable of 30:1301–1314.

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