1

Catholic Transtemporality through the Lens of Andrea Pozzo and the Jesuit

Baroque

A thesis presented to

the faculty of

the College of Fine of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Arts

Emily C. Thomason

August 2020

© 2020 Emily C. Thomason. All Rights Reserved. 2

This thesis titled

Catholic Transtemporality through the Lens of Andrea Pozzo and the Jesuit Catholic

Baroque

by

EMILY C. THOMASON

has been approved for

the School of + Design

and the College of Fine Arts by

Samuel Dodd

Lecturer, School of Art + Design

Matthew R. Shaftel

Dean, College of Fine Arts 3

Abstract

THOMASON, EMILY C, M.A., August 2020, Art History

Catholic Transtemporality through the Lens of Andrea Pozzo and the Jesuit Catholic

Baroque

Director of Thesis: Samuel Dodd

Andrea Pozzo was a lay brother for the Order of the Society of in the late

seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries who utilized his work in painting, architecture,

and writing to attempt to create an ideal expression of sacred art for the Counter-

Reformation . The focus of this study is on Pozzo’s illusionary paintings

in Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola in as they coincide with his codification of

quadratura and di sotto in su, as described through perspectival etchings and

commentary in Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum.

This thesis seeks to understand the work of Pozzo in context with his Jesuit background, examining his work under the lens of Saint ’s Spiritual

Exercises, as well as the cultural, political, and religious climates of Rome during the

Counter- era. Additionally, it seeks to understand how Pozzo and the Order

of the contributed to Baroque Art, as they are so often discussed

together. Pozzo’s intentions are additionally examined through a study of his

predecessors and contemporaries, such as Andrea Mantegna, Baciccio, Francesco

Borromini, and Pietro da Cortona. The works of these artists were either studied by

Pozzo, or he encountered them directly. Seeking theatricality and striving to visualize the

spiritual realm, Pozzo is finally discussed in the context of the decrees of the Council of 4

Trent from 1543, the of the Catholic liturgy, and the theology of Catholic

Temple.

5

Dedication

To Philokalia

To Philosophia

To Philothea

Ad majorem Dei gloriam

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Acknowledgments

One of my favorite things to read in books and publications is the acknowledgements section. I read them smiling at the collaborative efforts of so many types of relationships that contribute to written works. And I have always pondered who would be included in my own. I feel so honored that I get to create such a list, a list of people without whom this thesis would not have been possible.

The origins of this thesis can be traced back to my first year of graduate school at

Ohio University. At the time, I was pursuing my Master of Fine Arts degree and trying to get my footing in the first year of intense studio work, teaching assistantships, and theory and history classes. I am indebted to the Athens Catholic Community, OU Catholics, and the Athens Catholic Young Adults for their support in my time in Athens, as well as communities that provided so many friends that let me bounce around ideas and theories with them.

I am equally indebted to my committee members and many mentors from the

School of Art + Design at Ohio University. Julie Dummermuth has always offered support and guidance through my five years at OU. Dr. Marilyn Bradshaw served as not only an amazing professor, but also a wealth of knowledge and expert on the Renaissance and Baroque. I have been incredibly lucky to have her serve on my committee until her retirement. I am also grateful to Drs. Jody Lamb and Jennie Klein for serving on my committee in the middle of summer and during a global pandemic. Quite literally, I would not have passed my defense without your presence. I am thankful for your thoughtful insights and openness to discussion. 7

In the summer of 2017, I met Giovanni Pagani and Laura Ridoni at the San

Gemini Preservation Studies summer program. They have since supported my research endeavors through conversation, accommodations, and mentorship. Because of their friendships, I was able to study Pozzo at Pontificia Università Gregoriana in Rome. I am equally thankful to the brothers at the university who introduced me to their library and aided me in collecting as much scholarship and data on Pozzo as I could glean from their collection. The kindness of my entire Italian contingency will never be forgotten.

My parents, Jim and Sylvia Thomason, taught me my entire life that I could do anything I put my mind to. I could achieve anything with the right attitude and work ethic. I am not sure either of them thought it would lead to two Master’s degrees. Along with my two sisters, Courtney and Sarah, they have supported me through absolutely everything. My entire family has travelled for exhibitions, waited to hear about the outcomes of defenses, and prayed for my successes. I am eternally grateful for the support and love that I receive from them—that which is the unconditional love of family.

In my second year of graduate school, Dr. Samuel Dodd assigned two articles by

Linda Henderson. Henderson discussed the Italian Futurists and the idea of fourth dimensional art. A major idea was that these artists were not describing time as a fourth dimension, as so often attributed, but that they were attempting to depict a fourth spatial dimension. As we humans exist in the third dimension, the Futurists could only attempt to express another dimension by that which they knew in their own. These articles served as a catalyst for my thesis. The parallels between Henderson’s writings and Christian 8 theology were uncanny to me. Throughout the Scriptures and theology, man often encounters or describes the spiritual realm by earthly means. Additionally, Catholicism specifically claims the meeting of earthly and spiritual realms at its liturgy. Dr. Dodd, for years, has indulged me in intense discussion and discourse on this topic. I do not think he knows the monster he created by assigning those articles to our class. I all but demanded that he be my thesis advisor for my art history degree. I was and continue to be so thankful to his agreement, as well as his support to me academically and professionally during my years at Ohio University.

Back during that first year at OU, I began conversations with Fr. Jonas Shell about art, the Church, and theology. Whereas Dr. Dodd provided fuel for the art theory, Fr.

Shell served as an impetus for art and theology. He challenged my ideas on objectivity and subjectivity in art, gave me spiritual readings on art by the saints, and introduced me to ideas of Temple theology and sacred beauty. It was these conversations with Fr. Shell that led me to pursue a Christian and spiritual art practice for my MFA. And these would be ideas that would be carried over to this thesis, where I could ground them in historical research and practices. As the Christian I am, I can only believe that it is the Holy Spirit that guided to such a place and to encounter such people.

Emily Thomason

MFA, Painting + Drawing

MA, Art History

July 27, 2020 9

Table of Contents

Page

Abstract ...... 3 Dedication ...... 5 Acknowledgments...... 6 List of Figures ...... 10 Introduction ...... 12 Chapter 1: Andrea Pozzo: Humble Beginnings, Famous Endings ...... 18 Chapter 2: Pozzo's Architectural Treatise ...... 26 Chapter 3: Pozzo's Masterpiece ...... 30 Chapter 4: Pozzo and His Contemporaries ...... 38 Chapter 5: Pozzo and the Order of the Society of Jesus ...... 44 Chapter 6: Pozzo and the Eschatological Temple ...... 52 Chapter 7: Pozzo, Reform, and Liturgy ...... 56 Conclusion ...... 64 References ...... 66 Appendix: Figures ...... 70

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List of Figures Page

Figure 1.1. Figure 61 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum ...... 70 Figure 1.2. Figure 72 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum ...... 71 Figure 1.3. San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi altar piece ...... 72 Figure 1.4. San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi altar piece, rear view ...... 73 Figure 1.5. San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi altar piece, side view ...... 74 Figure 1.6. Figure 60 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum ...... 75 Figure 1.7. Figure 64 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum ...... 76 Figure 1.8. Andrea Pozzo, cupola painting in Sant’Ignazio dy Loyola ...... 77 Figure 1.9. Figure 94 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum ...... 78 Figure 2.1. Figure 1 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…..….. 79 Figure 2.2. Figure 2 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…..….. 80 Figure 2.3. Figure 8 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…..….. 81 Figure 2.4. Figure 14 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…..… 82 Figure 2.5. Figure 23 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…..… 83 Figure 2.6. Figure 62 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum……. 84 Figure 2.7. Figure 90 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum……. 85 Figure 2.8. Figure 91 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum……. 86 Figure 2.9. Figure 101 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…... 87 Figure 3.1. Andrea Pozzo, Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius………………………………. 88 Figure 3.2. Mirror in Sant’Ignazio di Loyola………………………………………...... 89 Figure 3.3. Marble marker in Sant’Ignazio di Loyola…………………………………. 90 Figure 3.4. Figure 100 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum…... 91 Figure 3.5. Figure 93 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum……. 92 Figure 3.6. Figure 88 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum……. 93 Figure 3.7. Figure 89 in Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum……. 94 Figure 4.1. Baciccio, Triumph of the Name of Jesus…………………………………... 95 Figure 4.2. Triumph of the Name of Jesus, side view………………………………...... 96 Figure 4.3. Baciccio’s Triumph of Saint Ignatius, Il Gesù…………………………….. 97 11

Figure 4.4. Andrea Pozzo, Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius, detail…………………….... 97 Figure 4.5. Andrea Mantegna, cupola fresco in Camera degli Sposi in Mantua………………………………………………………………… 98 Figure 4.6. Pietro da Cortona, Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power……………………………………………………..99 Figure 4.7. Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane floor plan…………………. 100 Figure 4.8. Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane floor plan…………………. 101 Figure 4.9. Borromini, Sant’Ivo floor plan with superimposed hexagon……………102 Figure 4.10. Andrea Mantegna, frescoes in Camera degli Sposi in Mantua…………103 Figure 6.1. Steven Smith, Creation Temple diagram………………………………...104 Figure 6.2. Steven Smith, Exodus Tabernacle specifications………………………..105

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“Whatever exists in the universe, and was created by God, either falls under the senses, and is included in the word ‘visible,’ or is an object of perception to the mind, and is expressed by the word ‘invisible.’” Catechism of the , referring to the addition of the words “of all things visible and invisible” to the . “All art worth the name must go beyond the visible, must reveal, must show us something that is hidden, and in its total effect, not reproduce, but create.” Sri Aurobindo, The Future Poetry with ‘On Quantitative Metre’

Introduction

Walking the streets of Rome, one finds a church around each corner. Although a long-time reality of the city due to its prominence and centrality to the Catholic faith, the current footprint of Rome is also largely due to the re-urbanization efforts under Sixtus V and the Counter-Reformation. Following Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, in which the former Augustinian monk challenged the whole of 1500 years of the codification of —from the sacraments to the saints to the role of Mary, the mother of Christ—the Church first responded with the Council of Trent, convening in

1545 and then 1563, seeking to clarify doctrine and disseminate the Church’s teachings.1

Then, in wanting to restore the Catholic foothold and establish Rome as a major pilgrimage site, Sixtus “Christianized” the city, reappropriating formerly non-Christian objects to become major landmarks for the Church. For example, the obelisks around the city were relocated to be made guideposts in front of major basilicas.2 He also

1 See Thomas Worcester, "Introduction," In From Rome to Eternity: Catholicism and the Arts in , Ca. 1550-1650, (Leiden: Brill, 2002) 1 – 13. 2 Andrew Hopkins, Italian Baroque from Michelangelo to Borromini (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), 83 – 84. 13

constructed new streets, improved existing ones, and even enlisted private landowners to

include their holdings in the projects, from which resulted the Quattro Fontane

intersection.3 Although the documents from the Council only included a general decree

on the importance of art and architecture in the Church, the spirit of the Council moved

leaders to transform existing structures and include the construction of new church

buildings.4 The result is the major footprint that exists in Rome today—a church around

every corner, alerting residents and tourists that Rome remains the center of Catholicism.

Some of these churches are small and quaint, whitewashed walls with simple altar,

tabernacle, and sanctuary candles. Others, such as St. Peter’s Basilica and the ,

are so unmistakably recognizable, they are those structures to which tourists flock. These

are those architectural feats with a cross-topped obelisk standing watch in its piazza, their interiors lined with statues and gilded frames. They have a dozen altars, a set aside chapel for private , and a vast collection of relics.

In researching Baroque tourist sites for Rome, Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola is often included. Such is the case on reidsitaly.com under the search criteria “Baroque art in Rome.”5 Similarly, Trip Advisor lists Sant’Ignazio in the top twenty of churches and

cathedrals to visit in the city.6 With its close proximity to other major landmarks, such as

3 For more on the history of urbanization in Rome, see Joseph Connors, "BORROMINI AND ROMAN URBANISM," AA Files, no. 2 (1982): 10-21; David Friedman, “Geometric Survey and Urban Design: A Project for the Rome of Paul IV (1555–1559).” Geometrical Objects, January 2014, 107; and Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008). 4 Andrew Hopkins, Italian Baroque from Michelangelo to Borromini, 99. 5 Reid Bramblett, "Baroque Art in Rome," ReidsItaly.com, http://www.reidsitaly.com/places/ rome/interest/baroque. 6 "Rome Churches & Cathedrals," Tripadvisor, https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attractions-g187791- Activities-c47-t175-Rome_Lazio.html. 14

the Pantheon, Trevi Fountain, and the Jesuit mother church, the Gesù, Sant’Ignazio has a

steady stream of tourists. It serves as a Jesuit landmark, and arguably the most important

art historical work for the Jesuits. It may not be the Jesuit mother church; it does not house the bones of its patron; its original architectural construction did not even come to fruition, although it had lofty goals. The contribution of Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola is its interior. Visitors seek it out for its decoration—a church-filled set of illusionistic paintings created by Jesuit brother Andrea Pozzo.

If Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola is so pivotal to Jesuit history, as well as art history, one may ask what its contribution is to the Counter Reformation and the Baroque era. What makes Sant’Ignazio and Andrea Pozzo’s frescoes so prominent in discussion of Baroque art? Many, such as Rudolph Wittkower, Howard Hibbard, Evonne Levy, and

Gauvin Alexander Bailey, connect the Baroque period and the Jesuit Order, discussing the period as an overzealous and almost overdramatic time in art that the Order used for a propagandic nature in its promotion of the Catholic Church. Furthermore, although there are claims that a Jesuit artistic style flourished during this period, most scholarship argues that such a style hardly exists, if at all. For example, the opening line of Wittkower’s chapter in Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution reads as thus: “To the best of my knowledge, an exchange of views among parties interested in the Jesuit contribution to art has hardly ever taken place.”7 A few pages later, he similarly states, “Turning to

painting, we could easily demonstrate that the Society had scarcely any aesthetic

7 Rudolph Wittkower, “Problem of the Theme,” In Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution, (New York: Press, 1972), 1. 15

ambitions before 1600 or even in the early decades of the new century.”8 In a later

chapter, Hibbard discusses the sense of fluidity in the Jesuit’s establishment in Rome.

For example, the Jesuit mother church, the Gesù, did not follow the Jesuit’s preference in

architectural style, and instead was highly influenced by its financial patron, Alessandro

Cardinal Farnese. The Order may have been staunch in their ideology and charisms, but

their reliance on patronage, financial and otherwise, led to a more organic attitude in their

physical establishment in the city.9 Levy, in her Propaganda and the Jesuit Baroque,

goes so far to say on the first page of her first chapter that “no one would claim today that

a Jesuit Baroque existed.” And although the so-called “Jesuit style” can be instrumental

in understanding the Catholic Baroque, a specific style being connected to the Jesuit

order, themselves, becomes more synonymous with a means of propaganda.10

As a rebuttal, Bailey, in his chapter “‘Le style jésuite n’existe pas’: Jesuit

Corporate Culture and the Visual Arts” in The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts,

1540 – 1773, describes a whose members were great promoters of images

and icons. Their criticism was not found in a lack of imagery but in its extravagance. Its

“prejudicial” connotation was “devised by Protestants” because they thought the Jesuit

style “signified artistic decadence.” The Jesuit Order and its artistic contribution,

subsequently, “was blamed for making extravagant appeals to the senses as a vehicle for

8 Ibid., 8. 9 Howard Hibbard, “Ut picturae sermones: The First Painted Decoration of the Gesù,” In Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution, (New York: Fordham Iniversity Press, 1972), 29 – 49. 10 Evonne Levy, Propaganda and the Jesuit Baroque, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004) 15 – 17. 16

control and domination.”11 One must ask again, then, what is the Jesuit contribution to

Baroque art? If there is no true visual style and little consistency throughout the period,

why does the Jesuit Order and Pozzo coincide so often with Baroque scholarship?

Bailey’s opinion, although critical in tone, may lead one closer to the answer.

In the wake of the Council of Trent and wanting to follow its decrees, the Jesuit

Order sought out decadence and opulence for the structures in which believers thought

that God physically dwelt.12 In combining extravagant interiors with the imaginative

prayer style of Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises, the Jesuit contribution is really

something more cerebral, a conceptual state of mind. In this thesis, I will demonstrate

that the result of combining prayer and imagery created a sensory encompassing

experience that would serve a pivotal role in reforming the function of the Catholic

Church. I will draw on theological teachings, as implemented by the Counter-

Reformation Church and outlined in the Catechism of the Council of Trent, as well as

historical tradition preceding the Council. Under the lens of Michael Baxandall’s period

eye, I will also present a lineage and tradition for both Ignatius of Loyola, addressing his

methods of prayer, and Andrea Pozzo, addressing the influences of his predecessors and

his use of the Spiritual Exercises in his work in the Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio. Using these

methods and examples, as well as Felix Burda-Stengel’s arguments of Pozzo as a

11 G.A. Bailey, “‘Le style jésuite n’existe pas’: Jesuit Corporate Culture and the Visual Arts,” In The Jesuits: Cultures, Science, and the Arts, 1540 – 1773, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 39. 12 From the Catechism of the Council of Trent, 250: “[T]o make and honour such images of our Lord, of his holy and virginal mother, and of the Saints, all of whom appeared in human form, is not only not forbidden by this commandment, but has always been deemed a holy practice, and the surest indication of a mind deeply impressed with gratitude toward them.” Emphasis added. 17

precursor to virtual reality in his book Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, I will propose that

Pozzo, in painting the interior of Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola and implementing his

own trompe l’oeil style called quadratura, utilizes the spiritual traditions of the Jesuit

Order and the Catholic Church, as well as his own inventions, to demonstrate that the

Jesuit influence on the Baroque period was not a visual style, but a reforming factor in a system, both individually and communally, as well as its art and architectural practices.

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Chapter 1: Andrea Pozzo: Humble Beginnings, Famous Endings

Andrea Pozzo was born November 30, 1642, in Trent. He was educated by local

Jesuit brothers until the age of seventeen, when he began apprenticing under various artists. At the age of twenty-three, he joined the Jesuit order, spending his novitiate in

Piedmont before being sent to San Fedele in .13 Pozzo’s prominent career began due to the Order’s celebrations around The Forty Hours Devotion. The devotion was a prevalent practice at this point in Jesuit history, a means of reintroducing the importance of Eucharistic practices, as they were called into question by Luther in the Protestant

Reformation.14

The Catholic teaching for the Eucharist is sourced from two major parts of

Scripture. The first is what is commonly known as the “Bread of Life Discourse,” found in John 6, in which Jesus establishes himself as the source of eternal life and that he is the bread of life. One must consume his body to achieve such eternal life.15 The other

13 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, (Philadelphia: Saint Joseph’s University Press, 2001), 21. 14 See Pierre Janelle, The Catholic Reformation, (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1963), 4 – 16. 15 John 6: 32-40, 47-58, NAB: “So Jesus said to them, ‘Amen, amen, I say to you, it was not Moses who gave the bread from heaven; my father gives you the true bread from heaven. For the true bread of God is that which comes down from heaven and gives life to the world.’ So they said to him, ‘Sir, give us this bread always.’ Jesus said to them, ‘I am the bread of life; whoever comes to me will never hunger, and whoever in me will never thirst. But I told you that although you have seen [me], you do not believe. Everything that the Father gives me will come to me, and I will not reject anyone who comes to me, because I came down from heaven not to do my own will but the will of the one who sent me. And this is the will of the one who sent me, that I should not lose anything of what he gave me, but that I should raise it [on] the last day. For this is the will of my Father, that everyone who sees the Son and believes in him may have eternal life, and I shall raise him [on] the last day… Amen, amen, I say to you, whoever believes has eternal life. I am the bread of life. Your ancestors ate the manna in the desert, but they died; this is the bread that comes down from heaven so that one may eat it and not die. I am the living bread that came down from heaven; whoever eats this bread will live forever; and the bread that I will give is my flesh for the life of the world.’ The Jews quarreled among themselves, saying, ‘How can this man give us [his] flesh to eat?’ Jesus said to them, ‘Amen, amen, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you do not have life within you. Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal 19

occurs in the accounts of the Last Supper, recorded in both the gospels of Matthew and

Luke, chapters 26 and 22, respectively. This gives the form of the Eucharist to the

Christian, the manner by which it would be implemented in the Church after Christ.16 As

a result of the Church’s desire to reiterate the validity of the sacrament and the

heightened sense of Eucharistic devotion, churches were transformed and decorated to

further emphasize the Forty Hours event: “By means of lateral wings with painted scenes

done in false perspective and special light effects, high altars were transformed into stage

backdrops, the focus of which was the display of the mystery of the Eucharist.”17 This

style of stage set was adopted from the tradition of theatre during the Baroque period.18

These backdrops were similar to the theatrical device deus ex machina (literally, god

from a machine), which were used to stage “supernatural events” and which called

attention to the act of viewing artifice and the push/pull of reality and illusion.19

Pozzo’s first illusionistic machina was created for the Order’s celebrations of the

canonization of Saint Francis Borgia in San Fedele. Unfortunately, there are no surviving

images for the machina, but based on his other works, they would most likely resemble a

life, and I will raise him on the last day. For my flesh is true food, and my blood is true drink. Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood remains in me and I in him. Just as the living Father sent me and I have life because of the Father, so also the one who feeds on me will have life because of me. This is the bread that came down from heaven. Unlike your ancestors who ate and still died, whoever eats this bread will live forever.’” 16 See also the first-known account of the Liturgy by Saint Justin, Martyr around the year 155, in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1345. 17 Richard Bosel, “Jesuit Architecture in ,” In The Jesuits and the Arts: 1540-1773, (Philadelphia: Saint Joseph’s University Press, 2006), 69-70. 18 As discussed in Dunbar H. Ogden, The Italian Baroque Stage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). 19 Larry F. Norman and Elizabeth Rodini, “The Theatrical Baroque: European Plays, Painting and Poetry, 1575-1725,” 2001, adapted from Véronique Sigu, "The Baroque Pastoral or the Art of Fragile Harmony," in The Theatrical Baroque (Chicago: The David and Alfred Smart Museum/University of Chicago, 2001), 58-67. 20

structure like that of Figure 61 in his Pespectiva Pictorum et Architectorum (Figure 1.1)

Surpassing all expectations in his design, Pozzo’s work caught the attention of the

Order’s General, Gian Paolo Oliva. Oliva began arranging commissions for

Pozzo, including one for a nephew of then Innocent XI.20 Pozzo’s machina usually

consisted of multiple canvases or frames surrounding the altar and monstrance, as a

means to create three-dimensional visual depth in addition to the two-dimensional decorative paintings (Figure 1.2). Pozzo drew on the knowledge of theatre staging, as can be seen in his architectural treatise, Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum, printed in two volumes in 1693 and 1700. For example, Figure 72 shows the setting of a scene for stage, taking into account the audience and perspective of the seating to the stage (Figure

1.3). Pozzo describes, “Scenes for the Stage have very much Affinity with those lately described, but the Point of Sight is not so easily found in these…Half this space is taken up by the Stage, the other half by the Spectators. O is the Point in which the visual lines concenter. D is the place of those things that are to appear most remote.”21 Pozzo

describes each point on his diagram, in terms of its appearance and sight lines of the

viewer. These staggered pieces would then give the appearance of a greater depth than

the actual stage, while still giving the illusion of accurate perspective.

Pozzo employed a similar structure for the altar at San Francesco Saverio in

Mondovi, his first major permanent commission after leaving Milan. A flat canvas cut in

20 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, 22. 21 Figure 72, “Of Scenes for the Stage” In Andrea Pozzo, Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects.

21 the shape of the altar fills most of the sanctuary space. An additional shaped canvas

“floats” in the arch of the altar, appearing as an altar painting of the church’s patron saint.

Pozzo layers these canvases to trick the viewer into seeing three-dimensional objects and architecture. From the nave, the illusionistic paintings and layered works read as an accurate three-dimensional space. In the sanctuary, from an oblique angle, the illusion fades (Figures 1.4, 1.5, 1.6). This combination of layering two-dimensional surfaces with three-dimensional paintings became a precursor to Pozzo’s quadratura illusionistic paintings. Pozzo describes in Figure 60 (Figure 1.7) of his treatise, “I have sometimes made use of this Tabernacle for the Exposition of the Forty Hours. If the Colours are laid by a skillful Hand, on two Ranges of Cloth, and the Frame cut away according to the

Out-line of the Work, they will wonderfully deceive the Eye, and appear as solid.”22 And again in Figure 64 (Figure 1.8),

“I have sometimes, for the Solemnity of the Forty Hours, exposed this painted on

a Machine, with an universal Satisfaction; Angels with Clouds possessing the

higher part of the hemisphere within, and Groups of Figures the lower part. The

Manner of designing on the inner Frame, that part of the said Cupola which you

here see, is deduced from what has been before said of putting circles into

perspective.”23

22 Ibid., Figure 60 “An Octangular Tabernacle in Perspective.” 23 Ibid., Figure 64 “A Square Design in Perspective.” 22

Both descriptions give insight to Pozzo’s mind in creating these structures. They were

meant to be cost effective while simultaneously fooling the eye. They were meant to

appear as a solid, three-dimensional object in the accuracy of their perspective.

Between his machina and his work in Mondovi between 1671 and 1680, Pozzo

gained enough artistic attention by the Jesuit order, he was called to Rome by Superior

General Oliva in 1681. Oliva’s death preceded Pozzo’s arrival, and his budding artistic

career was put on hold, as he had no real support from the rest of the Jesuit leadership.24

He once again made a name for himself on the occasion of a Forty Hours Devotion.

According to his eighteenth-century biographers, Pozzo overheard the conversation of his

superiors, in which they were discussing an economical way to construct the stage set for

the event. Pozzo volunteered to construct an apparatus out of scraps of canvas and

rags.25 Up to this point, traditionally from the Renaissance, the quality and expense of

material for a work reflected the subject matter.26 Pozzo’s volunteering to create a

theatrical apparatus for the adoration of the Eucharist—by Catholic standards, the Body,

Blood, Soul, and of God, present among them—with scraps and rags was

initially rejected. He succeeded in winning over the superiors, and as a result, his work

would be deemed a triumph.27 Pozzo, from then on, would be known for his ability to

create extravagance out of virtually nothing, both materially and monetarily.

24 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, 22 – 23. 25 Francis Haskell, Patrons and Painters: A Study in the Relations between Italian Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque, (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1963), 88. 26 Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style (: Oxford University Press, 2011), 82. 27 Francis Haskell, Patrons and Painters: A Study in the Relations between Italian Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque, 88. 23

Pozzo’s penchant for resourcefulness and ingenuity in his machina, as well as his

ability to create realistic three-dimensional spaces using only two-dimensional surfaces,

eventually led to winning a commission to paint the dome for Sant’Ignazio. The original

plan for the church included a dome that would be second only to St. Peter’s Basilica in

terms of size and prominence. Due to financial difficulties and disputes among the

descendants of the church’s Ludovisi descendants, the construction of such the planned

dome was no longer possible. The Rector of the Collegio Romano, attached to

Sant’Ignazio, determined that something must fill the empty space, and after the

consideration of many artistic and architectural plans, Pozzo was chosen under the

recommendation of Mattia de Rossi to create the illusion of a high-peaked dome on a

circular canvas.28 Pozzo would strive for the illusion of a dome that matched the

greatness in size and depth for the original plans.

The dome has a long history of theological connections for churches. In biblical

symbolism, the cubic shape represents the renewed earth, and the circular or spherical

shape represents “the unending movement of God.” Domes became the universal,

architectural expression for heaven.29 Frequently used as locations for spiritual

iconography, including biblical stories, heavenly bodies, or important texts, they resulted

in making the spiritual realm visual for the congregant or visitor.30 In bringing the cube

28 Ibid., 89; Mattia de Rossi was the successor of Bernini Sant’Andrea al Quirinale and the then architect of St. Peter’s Basilica, thus the importance of his opinions in the matter. 29 David Stephenson, Visions of Heaven: The Dome in European Architecture, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005), 161. 30 Dennis R. McNamara, How to Read Churches: A Crash Course in Ecclesiastical Architecture, (New York: Rizzoli, 2011), 140. 24

and dome together, the building then embodies the joining of heaven and earth.31

Specifically during the Baroque period, there was a heightened interest in worldly

exploration and circumnavigation. This combined with the continued emphasis on

geometry from the Renaissance and resulted in an architectural “stretching” of space.32

These are all things that Pozzo applied to his dome piece in Sant’Ignazio. Pozzo

includes little iconographic imagery, only a group of angels blowing trumpets, grouped

around a large cartouche that shows the monogram of Christ, IHS, also the emblem of the

Order.33 This part of the painting is most difficult to make out due to dirt and damage

throughout the years. The major feat of the 17m painting is its architectural illusion

(Figure 1.9). Pozzo, in foreshortening the architecture and forcing a single ideal

viewpoint, creates the illusion of a much higher dome (Figure 1.10). In his architectural

treatise Perspectiva Pictorum er Architectorum, Pozzo notes the criticism that some of the architectural features he includes may not be accurate: “Some Architects disliked my setting the advances Columns upon Corbels, as being a thing not practised in solid

Structures; but a certain Painter, a Friend of mine, removed all their Scruples, by answering for me, That if at any Time the Corbels should be so much surcharged with the

Weight of the Columns, as to endanger their Fall, he was ready to repair the Damage at

his own Cost.”34 For Pozzo, it was not a matter of the dome being structurally accurate.

It was of lesser importance that the corbels he painted could accurately support the

31 Ibid., 33. 32 David Stephenson, Visions of Heaven: The Dome in European Architecture, 178. 33 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, 82. 34 Figure 91, “The Cupola of the Ninetieth Figure, with its Lights and Shades” In Andrea Pozzo, Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects. 25

columns above. The point was that the flat surface creates spatial depth. And that depth

appears perspectivally accurate from its ideal viewpoint. This was similar to Pozzo’s

work in San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi.

Contrastingly, Pozzo was commissioned to work in San Francesco in order to

conceal its architectural flaws. His creation of spatial depth by means of an altar machina

offset the unproportional relationship between the steep vault and short nave. Another

painted cupola created a projected second bay (Figure 1.11), concealing the irregularity

of the ceiling.35 Even without much mathematical knowledge—as Pozzo was a self-

taught geometrician—the viewer can understand the interest in using visual distortion and

“stretching” to create illusioned reality.36 It calls into question that bridge between

illusion and perception and reality. For this painting, at its ideal viewpoint, perception

becomes reality. Pozzo’s cupola would be the only this first commission for Sant’Ignazio

that explored such ideas.

35 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, 45 – 47. 36 Kirsti Andersen, "The Master of Painted Archtiecture: Andrea Pozzo, S.J. and His Treatise on Perspective." In Geometrical Object: Architecture and the Mathematical Sciences 1400 - 1800, (Manchester: Springer, 2014), 179. 26

Chapter 2: Pozzo’s Architectural Treatise

Coinciding with his work in the Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio, Pozzo was working to publish his architectural treatise Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum.37 Although

working in the tradition of ecclesial and architectural writings, Pozzo would achieve

more success than his fellow writers. Before his Perspectiva, there had been eight other

books entirely devoted to perspective, as well as numerous authors coming from the

Jesuit Order.38 Pozzo’s treatise was published in two volumes, first in 1693 and then in

1700. Between 1700 and 1725, the treatise was translated into at least nine languages

and distributed widely, making it as far as China, as the Jesuit Order began missions in

Asia beginning in the sixteenth century.39

Pozzo uses a distinctive style throughout Perspectiva. He pairs architectural and

geometrical engravings as figures with explanatory captions. The captions, themselves,

give some guidance on reconstructing the figures, but one must study and put them into practice to even attempt to recreate them. The explanations are convoluted and complex.

Pozzo’s English translator, John James, provides one explanation for this: “…the Brevity or Silence of our Author…writing in a Country where the Principles of this Art are more

37 As a note, the version of the Treatise referenced throughout this thesis is Andrea Pozzo, Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects, New York: Bloom, 1971. This is a reprint of the original English translation. 38 For more on Pozzo’s place in this lineage, see Kirsti Anderson’s “The Master of Painted Architecture: Andrea Pozzo, S.J. and His Treatise on Perspective,” 170 – 172. 39 Ibid., 172; also see Gauvin Alexander Bailey, “Jesuit Art and Architecture in Asia,” in The Jesuits and the Arts, 1540 – 1773, 311 – 360; for more on the specifics of the influence of Pozzo’s Treatise in China, see Elisabetta Corsi, “Pozzo’s Treatise as a workshop for the construction of a sacred catholic space in Beijing,” In Artifizi della metafora: saggi su Andrea Pozzo, 232-243, : Artemide, 2011; for the influence of the Jesuit Order on the , see Gauvin Alexander Bailey, “The Artistic and Architectural Legacy of the Jesuits in Spanish America,” in The Jesuits and the Arts, 1540 – 1773, 269 – 310, and Gauvin Alexander Bailey, “The Jesuits in North America and Their Legacy in Art and Architecture, 1611 - 1814,” in The Jesuits and the Arts, 1540 – 1773, 361 – 412. 27

generally known than with Us, had no need to insist so long on some things, as may be

thought necessary to Beginners.”40 According to James, then, it becomes clear that

Pozzo was speaking to his artistic peers and, therefore, used his own brand of

perspectival jargon that is difficult to interpret today.

Beyond the instruction and commentary, Pozzo begins his figures with simple

shapes. With the exception of Figure 1 (Figure 2.1), in which he gives a more complex

example to fully describe and demonstrate what he calls the “Principle of Perspective,”

Figure 2 demonstrates both a drawing of a square in perspective, as well as depicting this

square folding over a corner (Figure 2.2). He progresses with more complex and detailed

shapes and objects. For example, Figure 8 (Figure 2.3) shows a pedestal with cap and

base, Figure 14 (Figure 2.4) moves on to circles in perspective, working all the way up to

an Ionic capital in Figure 23, which consists of a combination of circles and squares

(Figure 2.5).

As mentioned earlier, Pozzo also gives examples of his work in the theatrical stage tradition and his machina. Figure 60 (Figure 1.7), again, gives an example of an altar design for the Forty Hours Devotion. Figure 61 (Figure 1.2) gives a side view of such a construction and how to implement the two-dimensional design. Figure 62

(Figure 2.6) even gives a method of gridding preliminary drawings to be able to fit a design to a specific space: “You have jointly in A, the two Designs of a Tabernacle, which are to be drawn separately; the same Net-work serving for both, which is also

40 John James, “Preface to this Translation” In Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects. 28

marked with Numbers. When you have therefore resolved on the Size of your Work, on

the Pavement some Room capacious enough, make a Net-work answerable, and affix thereto the Numbers, as in your Copy.”41

His illustrations continue in complexity, working up to his designs for

Sant’Ignazio. His cupola painting (Figure 1.9) was finished in 1685, eight years to

the treatise’s first publication. Plans for the cupola are included in Figures 90 and 91

(Figures 2.7, 2.8). Figures 93 through 100 are devoted to plans for the nave ceiling

painting in Saint Ignatius. The volume concludes with an engraving of the completed

design of the painting (Figure 2.9). It commemorates the unveiling of the finished work.

Overall, Pozzo was working to codify two major techniques for what would become his own quintessential Jesuit visual style: quadratura and di sotto in su. Defined simply, quadratura is “a form of illusionistic mural painting in which images of architectural features are painted onto walls or ceilings so that they seem to extend the real architecture.”42 It is a variant of trompe l’oeil, as it fools the eye, but it is specific to

architectural structures. Pozzo, in his Perspectiva, is publishing a guidebook for

executing quadratura paintings. Di sotto in su, literally translating “from below up”, is a

method in which artists would paint in “an extreme form of illusionistic foreshortening

whereby figures and forms in ceiling painting appear to be suspended or float above the

41 Figure 62, “Of making the Net-work on Frames, for representing the Architecture as solid” In Andrea Pozzo, Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects. 42 "Quadratura: Illusionistic Painting Technique." ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FINE ART. http://www.visual- arts-cork.com/painting/quadratura.htm. 29

spectator below.”43 James Elkins suggests that paintings done dal di in sotto in su are the most successful and effective “when they seem to be extensions of the room in which the viewer stands, and two- and three-point perspectives indicate the viewer’s position by specific constructions.”44 This is the exact manner in which Pozzo employs both techniques in Sant’Ignazio.

43 "sotto in sù," Oxford Reference, 11 Apr. 2019, http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100519256. 44 James Elkins, The Poetics of Perspective, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 133. 30

Chapter 3: Pozzo’s Masterpiece: Contemporary Experience, Iconography,

and Structure

Upon entering the Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola in Rome, the viewer is

immediately overwhelmed with Pozzo’s trompe l’oeil ceiling fresco, Apotheosis of Saint

Ignatius, covering the entirety of the nave ceiling and completed in 1694 (Figure 3.1). In

the present day, the viewer and church goer has two options—crane his or her neck to

stare at the wonder of the church architecture seemingly rising and merging with the

heavenly realm or wait in a short line to view the painting in a mirror (Figure 3.2). The

latter may save the neck muscles, but the former allows for the original, intended effect.

One is meant to immediately look up. An idea dating from the Renaissance, vision had

been considered the most important of the senses, and in using vision, one could meditate

on the realities of Heaven. This is described by Bartholomew Rimbertinus, in his 1498

On the Sensible Delights of Heaven. There were thought to be “three kinds of

improvements on our mortal visual experience: a greater beauty in things seen, a greater

keenness in the sense of sight, and an infinite variety of objects for vision.”45 Pozzo

referenced these ideas while creating his fresco. In attempting to distinguish reality and

illusion, one becomes increasingly aware and wonders at the liminal space that is the

reality of the man-made building you are standing in. It is man-made. It is also spiritual

realm. It is a space where God dwells with man. It is a space where Heaven demands to

be acknowledged. The fresco speaks to this. The viewer is able to experience this before

45 Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style, translated and cited, 103-104. 31

even entering the sanctuary, the space in the building where God physically dwells in the

Tabernacle in the Eucharist (at least to the Catholic mind and visitor). From the Jesuit

tradition, Pozzo adopts the idea of using a conceptual theme in his iconography and

pictorial program.46 In drawing on themes of Jesuits’ missionary works, the work and

life of Saint Ignatius, the , and Temple theology, Pozzo again utilizes a Jesuit idea,

in which the meditative and programmatic nature of the interior decoration of the church

enables a “sequences pilgrimage of the soul.”47 The viewer, then, in a common and

universal church space can draw on other commonalities of the Catholic experience, in

terms of biblical stories or the lives of the saints, to continue to cultivate the personal

spiritual life.

Presently, Pozzo’s intended experience is interrupted by the modern-day

accommodations. The mirror stands directly in the center of the nave, forcing traffic to

either side. Not long after side-stepping the mirror and subsequent line, visitors are

stopped and offered a free audio-guide for the church. Although informative, the viewer

is once again distracted from an elongated period of looking up. It distracts from noticing

the intricacies of all surfaces, including a pattern in the marble floor, indicating specific

vantage points for church decoration. A marble disk is inserted into the floor, indicating

from which point the viewer should engage Pozzo’s scene (Figure 3.3). Pozzo, in

reacting to criticism of its function, addresses this single viewpoint in his treatise: “Since

46 This is discussed in Howard Hibbard’s Ut picturae sermons: The First Painted Decoration in the Gesu, In Baroque Art—The Jesuit Contribution, 29-49. 47 Gauvin A Bailey, Between Renaissance and Baroque: Jesuit Art in Rome, 1565-1610, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), 269. 32

the Perspective is but a Counterfeiting of the Truth, the Painter is not obliged to make it

appear real when seen from Any part, but from One determinate Point only.”48 He seems to have ordered the marble disk marker himself, positioning it directly under the center of the fresco, as well as falling directly under Christ, as he reaches out to the church’s patron, Saint Ignatius. Consistent to Pozzo’s contemporaries, more recent scholarship notes criticism for Pozzo’s fixed vantage point: “Standing on the marble disk, the observer has the perfect illusion of the structure with an arcade sitting on the beam of the nave to the open sky…If the observer leaves the ideal standpoint, then the architecture begins to ‘tip’…columns turn more and more horizontal, the vault of the ceiling reappears, and the cupola becomes crooked.”49 This distorted view is a result of the

extreme foreshortening di sotto in su method Pozzo used to paint his architectural

structures accurately. The criticism is that the fresco loses its effects because the viewer

becomes aware of its falsity, its illusion, but even Pozzo, again above, states,

“Perspective is but a Counterfeiting of Truth.” Only by viewing the work from the ideal

viewpoint—the marble disk—does one experience what Pozzo intended.

The viewer is overwhelmed by the fresco. The line between physical and painted

architecture blurs. This is also the ideal viewpoint for Pozzo’s painted cupola, completed

in 1685. These “ideal” viewpoints parallel the idyllic push for Catholicism during the

period of the Counter-Reformation. In wanting to counter the denouncements of the likes

48 “An Answer to the Objection made about the Point of Sight in Perspective,” In Andrea Pozzo, Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects. 49 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, 96.

33

of Luther, Church leaders were seeking to establish Catholicism as the ideal Christian

denomination. It can be argued that although Pozzo was first and foremost promoting the

Jesuit Order and the successes of sainthood from its members, he, too, was promoting

Catholicism as the truest denomination. This may seem incongruous with the fresco

because Pozzo’s “perfect” viewpoint is so easily broken by movement in the space.

However, it is this ideal viewpoint that the viewer can recall in later settings, such as the

liturgy.

The architecture and physicality of the church space, itself, is that of a barrel

vault. Pozzo used a system of projecting candle or lamp light under a grid of strings to

accurately transfer his image to the ceiling surface (Figure 3.4). In Figure 100 of his

treatise, he explains, “Therefore if you imagine a Lamp or Candle fixed in the Night-time

at Point O; the Shadows of the Thread, thrown thereby on the Vault, being traced by a

Pencil, make the third Net-work required for painting the same.” He then warns that the

image transferred to the vault must be exactly the same as your copy (Figures 3.5, 3.6,

3.7).50 It is in this manner that Pozzo was able to so accurately transfer his preliminary

drawing to create a perspectivally accurate work on a curved vault.

At the base of this curved vault sits a row of six clerestory, lunette windows.

Here, in between the windows, Pozzo employs some sculptural stucco, bringing to life

human figures and giving them some three-dimensionality that reinforces the visual

illusion between three-dimensional spaces and two-dimensional painting. On the

50 Figure 100, “The Method of drawing the Net or Lattice-Work on Vaults,” In Andrea Pozzo, Rules and Examples of Perspective, Proper for Painters and Architects.

34

boundary where the barrel vault transitions to the wall, the figures similarly follow. The figures are painted two-dimensionally on the vault and sculpted three-dimensionally on the wall. This transition is seamless, as the figures follow the extreme foreshortening

Pozzo used on the architectural painting. Beyond the clerestory, all architectural elements are painted, and he adds coffered arcade openings between protruding double columns, mirroring the double pilasters below in the nave. It becomes increasing difficult to distinguish the bounds of physical architecture and painting. As the architecture (real and illusioned) is sectioned, so are the figures in the paintings. In the lowest tiers are humans, many allegories for virtues or “corners” of the world. There are putti, but even these represent angelic beings that often manifest in human form on earth.

The next tier depicts more angelic beings and fewer humans. These humans are not necessarily recognizable figures, but are presumably saints, as they exist in the spiritual realm. As the architecture merges with the Heavens, human figures are more intermingled with heavenly bodies. These Heavenly figures are depicted with human bodies, although they are not human by Catholic tradition. Angels have a long-standing tradition of taking human forms for human interaction, so that humans can better understand them.51 This happens throughout scripture, such as the angels that call on

Abraham in Genesis 18 or the archangel Gabriel that appears to Mary in Luke 1, or the prophet Zechariah, also in Luke 1.

51 Catechism of the Council of Trent, (Miami: HardPress Publishing, 2013), 250. 35

Above each lunette window, Pozzo depicts six virtues important to the Jesuit

Order—justice, eloquence, purity, charity, prudence, and fortitude.52 These depictions surround allegories of the four continents where the Jesuits were working. Lady Europe wears a gold crown, holds a scepter of an orb, and sits atop a stallion. Lady Asia wears a turban and, sitting on a camel, is handed a vessel from two putti. Lady

America, semi-nude, wears a headdress and feathered skirt and is accompanied by a

puma and toucan. Lady adorns a feathered diadem and holds a tusk while riding a

crocodile.53

There are five recognizable saints depicted—Saint , Saint Francis

Borgia, Saint Luigi Gonzaga, Saint , and Saint Ignatius, for whom the

church is named. Each saint, with the exception of Ignatius, rises on a cloud above the

continent on which he was sent for Jesuit mission work.54 Francis Xavier appears before

Asia, Francis Borgia and Luigi Gonzaga above Europe, and Peter Canisius above Africa.

The Heavenly realm in Pozzo’s depiction is engulfed with clouds. Even from the Old

Testament, God dwells in a cloud, and the cloud can demarcate a sign of the presence of

God, such as the tabernacle of the Exodus Temple. The clouds break the plane of the

painted architectural structure where the recognizable saints are ascending into Heaven.

These five saints have been canonized by the time Pozzo paints them—recognized by the

52 Ruud Teggelaar, "Rome Day 6 (continuation 1)," Italian Cities, Walks Art in Florence Rome , 2020, https://www.teggelaar.com/en/rome-day-6-continuation-1/; the inclusion of Pozzo and Sant’Ignazio on this travel bloggers reiterates the point made in the Introduction that Pozzo is often visited and documented by tourists as a major work for Baroque Art. 53 Felix Burda-Stengel, Andrea Pozzo and Video Art, 95. 54 Ibid., 93. 36

Church to be in Heaven and beyond purgatory—and they are all Jesuits. As the church is named for Ignatius, and he is the founder of the Jesuit order, as well as this being a Jesuit church, Ignatius is the most central figure second to Jesus. By the centrality of Saint

Ignatius’s location in the painting, Pozzo reminds the viewer of the celebration of the saint’s life, the work that is attributed to him and the order he founded, as well as the work that led him to sainthood.

Centered near the church’s namesake is the Risen Christ with His cross, with the other two figures of the Trinity, God the Father and the Holy Spirit, depicted behind.

Christ exists in the fullness of the Resurrection while simultaneously existing in the fullness of the Trinity. A ray of light emanates from the Resurrected Christ, striking

Ignatius of Loyola in the heart. This light can represent the wisdom, truth, and divinity that Ignatius receives from his holy and devout earthly life following Christ and that results in his eventual eternal one. The light then shines through Ignatius into five more rays, four of which shine onto the four regions of the world. This represents the mission of the Jesuit Order that Ignatius founded as well as the work that reached the four continents depicted. Pozzo, in a letter to Principale Antonio Floriano di Liechtenstein, describes the work accordingly:

“These are invested with so much light that they reject the deformed monstrosities

of , or heresy, or other vices, and fertilized by this divine light, like the

seeds of all the virtues, the four corners of the world send back to Heaven a mass

blessed by holy souls, which through the culture of many tireless hardworkers or 37

infidelity pass to the faith, or from a faith that is dead because of the perversities

of habit returns to a state of grace.”55

The last ray reflects back to Christ. That which was gifted to man is regifted and re- reflected back to one who first gave it. This is the basis of Ignatian Spirituality: one should live to find God in everything and then subsequently should live to give to

God in everything.56 Pozzo too states this meaning, “…thereby that by glorifying his

name the Redeemer wishes to adorn Ignatius; while every thought, every effect, and

every work of Ignatius was aimed at nothing else but ‘ad maiorem Dei gloriam.’ (for the

greater glory of God).57

55 Published in Peter Wilberg-Vignau, Andrea Pozzo’s Deckenfresko in Sant’Ignazio, (Munich: Uni-Druck, 1970), 45 – 46: Copy of a letter written by Andrea Pozzo to Prince Antonio Floriano of Liechtenstein. 56 Saint Ignatius of Loyola, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, Translated by Anthony Mottola, (New York: Image Books, 2014). 57 Peter Wilber-Vignau, Copy of a letter written by Andrea Pozzo to Prince Antonio Floriano of Liechtenstein. 38

Chapter 4: Pozzo and His Contemporaries

Pozzo is hailed as a great master of both quadratura and di sotto in su.58 He was

drawing on a vast tradition of these methods, responding to both predecessors and

contemporaries. For example, Baciccio had finished his ceiling fresco, Triumph of the

Name of Jesus, in the Gesù in 1685, ten years prior to Pozzo’s Apotheosis but coinciding

with the completion of Pozzo’s cupola (Figure 4.1). He too painted in such a way to

highlight the liminal space of the church, creating an illusionary depth in which figures

broke from earth to enter the Heavens (Figure 4.2). The stucco of the painting extends

over the three-dimensional gilded frame and a glaze was painted to simulate shadows

from the clouds, further calling into questions the boundaries of the spiritual and earthly

realms.

Baciccio even painted the same figure—Ignatius of Loyola—as he was the

Order’s founder. Although Pozzo was not commissioned to work in the Gesù until 1695 for the altar in the Saint Ignatius chapel, he was likely still exposed to Baciccio’s work during his 1682 commission to paint the corridor leading from the Gesù to the rooms of

Saint Ignatius is the adjoining Casa Professora. Visual evidence suggests that Baciccio’s work had an impact on him (Figure 4.3, 4.4). They use similar gestures and di sotto in su foreshortening techniques. Pozzo seems to expand Baciccio’s notion of boundary lines.

Baciccio, too, was working in tradition. Illusionary paintings where the Heavens intermingled with church architectural space had existed for at least a century. In

58 Katherine Wheeler, “Fictive and Real Architecture: A Preliminary Drawing for Andrea Pozzo's Vault Fresco at Sant'Ignazio, Rome." Thresholds, no. 28 (2005), 100: “[T]he fresco is one of the finest examples of Baroque quadratura.” 39

addition to Baciccio, one could cite Andrea Mantegna’s painted ceiling in the Camera

degli Sposi in Mantua from 1465 – 74 (Figure 4.5) as an influence on Pozzo. One could

also mention Pietro da Cortona’s illusionistic ceiling, Allegory of Divine Providence and

Barberini Power, painted in from 1633-39, also preceding Pozzo

(Figure 4.6).

Architects sought to achieve similar goals with space. Francesco Borromini,

drawing on geometry and illusion in his architectural design, viewed space as not a void

of structure, but as something corporeal, its own element, molded by the surrounding

architectural shell.59 This is a projected space unto itself. This corporeal projected space,

then, intermingles and acts as an underlying influence and source of information for the

visitor of the space. For example, in his construction of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

from 1638 – 1646, a resulting shape is created by a series of equilateral triangles, gleaned

by Borromini from Euclidian geometry (Figure 4.7). The use of the triangles is often

interpreted as an instantiation of the Trinity, a nod to the , for whom the

church was being constructed. San Carlo’s plan also creates the shape of a mandorla

(Figure 4.8), “the auric vessel and window into heaven that had been a ubiquitous

ideogram in Christian art from at least the ninth century.”60 The almond shape, created

from the intersection of two circles, also represented the merging of heaven and earth,

divine and human, especially when taking the dual nature of Christ into account.61

59 Christian F. Otto, “Francesco Borromini,” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., September 21, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francesco-Borromini. 60 Michael Hill, "Practical and Symbolic Geometry in Borromini’s San Carlo Alle Quattro Fontane," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 72, no. 4 (2013), 570. 61 Ibid. 40

Similarly, at Sant’Ivo Church (1642 – 1660), Borromini draws on a equilateral triangles

to create a hexagonal shape, also referencing the shape of the bee (Figure 4.9). The bee

was the symbol for the Barberini family, for whom the church was constructed.62

Symbolism of the bee is a part of ancient Catholic tradition as well. Ecclesiasticus states,

“For my spirit is sweet above honey, and my inheritance above honey and the

honeycomb.”63 The bee is also referenced in the Exultet text sung at the blessing of the

Paschal candle, making the “moral probity of the bee…affirmed not only by the ancients

but also by the and the Scriptures.”64 One entering Sant’Ivo, then, could

not only draw on the knowledge of Barberini patronage, but also the symbolism of bees,

as it pertained to Scripture, morality, and wisdom. The “empty” space of the church,

therefore, holds just as much weight and symbolic information as does the iconography

or the architectural styles of the church. In San Carlo, Borromini, too, employs the

elliptical dome. One could view this as a nod to the geometry that he studied at length

for use in his construction.65 But it also speaks, once again, to a more literal notion of the

“stretching” of space and the Baroque interest in exploration and expanding the world.66

What Borromini creates with constructed buildings, Pozzo eventually achieves

with painting. Even in painting, Pozzo’s work far exceeds that of his predecessors.

Mantegna and Baciccio, although creating illusionistic, depth-defying works, still frame

62 John Beldon Scott, "S. Ivo Alla Sapienza and Borromini's Symbolic Language." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 41, no. 4 (1982), 298. 63 Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) 24: 27, Douey-Rheims 64 John Beldon Scott, "S. Ivo Alla Sapienza and Borromini's Symbolic Language," 301. 65 For more on Borromini, see Leo Steinberg, Borromini’s San Carlo Alle Quattro Fontane: A Study in Multiple Form and Architectural Symbolism, (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1977). 66 David Stephenson, Visions of Heaven: The Dome in European Architecture, 178. 41

their illusions for the viewer. Looking up to the plane where earthly figures rise into

Heaven on a cloud or putti look down upon the those who behold them, each of these

artists break the illusion by framing it. Mantegna also continues his painting to the rest of

the Camera’s ceiling and returns to conventional, earthly architecture (Figure 4.10).

What is earthly and man-made remains on earth, and what is spiritual and angelic

remains within the confines of the painted sky and occulus. There is a clear distinction

and separation of the two. For Baciccio, his painted figures, although breaking beyond a

golden embellished, stucco frame, are still bound by their relationship to the frame.

Again, there is a clear distinction between the painted artwork and the architectural work.

Pietro da Cortona’s work is that which is closest to illusionistic achievement to Pozzo’s.67

But Pietro’s figures and allegories are framed by architecture. Even in the embellished

corbels and simulated stucco, each section of ceiling is just that—sectioned off by

projected architecture for a specific set of figures or a specific allegory. The figures do

not interact with the space. They break their own planes, intermingling with each other,

only engaging the viewer in that it is immersive and overwhelming in size. Similar to

Pozzo’s Apotheosis, the Barberini salon has a floor marker, indicating the center of the fresco. In differing Pozzo’s work, Pietro’s Allegory has no ideal viewpoint due to potential awkwardness when the viewer moved around the room. In addition, because

67 For more on Pietro da Cortona’s inlfuence on Pozzo’s work, see Anthony Blunt “"Two Architectural Drawings by Andrea Pozzo." Master Drawings 20, no. 1 (1982): 22-75. 42

Pietro did not extend the architecture so high above the actual ceiling, the need for a

single viewpoint was not there.68

Pozzo’s projected spaces achieve or exceed all of the above. Like Borromini, he creates an extension of the architectural space that becomes as important of a space of the building as the nave or the side chapels. He, too, relies on geometric principles to achieve his paintings, using a projected grid to transfer a flat two-dimensional sketch to a barrel vault. The resulting projection of space becomes as interactive to the viewer as does the sanctuary, referencing the same intermingling of Heaven and Earth of the sanctuary and

tabernacle, angels and saints and man and God. Pozzo’s quadratura architecture exceeds

that of those mentioned above as the viewer struggles to distinguish projection from

reality. He extends the existing architecture until in breaks into the heavens. And his

figures, painted and stucco, overlap that of the existing architecture, calling into question

the boundary lines between reality and illusion, constructed architecture and projected

space, heavenly realm and earthly realm. His works demands not only the attention and

subsequent participation of the viewer, it also guides the viewer into a particular means of

prayer. This draw on meditation and prayer is then taken into the Mass and allows the

viewer to more actively participate in the liturgy. Pozzo and his work, then, become

popular topics of historical scholarship not only because it is the culmination of multiple

methods of painting and architectural construction, but also because his work can be seen

68 Christian Lovén, "Too Many Levels of Reality: An Almost Abandoned Idea in Pietro Da Cortona’s Barberini Ceiling." Konsthistorisk Tidskrift/Journal of Art History 83, no. 4 (2014), 3 – 4. 43 as a pinnacle of Ignatian Spirituality. He visualizes an imaginative and meditative prayer system. Pozzo’s work can only be fully understood through this lens.

44

Chapter 5: Pozzo and the Order of the Society of Jesus

It is also possible that Pozzo looked to the formation of his own religious order for precedence in his work. It can be argued that the Jesuit Order stands as an influencing factor for shift and reform in Catholic Christian spirituality in the way in which it was formed and lived out. This is especially true since it continues to be a major and, sometimes, primary influence for contemporary Catholicism. Following the Protestant

Reformation and coinciding with the Council of Trent, Ignatius of Loyola founded his

Order of the Society of Jesus as a means to help combat the challenging of the Church and its teachings. Ignatius meticulously curated the aspects of previous monastic orders he wanted to include in his own. He followed the likes of the and

Franciscans and in taking the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. But he evolved his own order in not requiring a distinctive habit, a measure to more easily integrate while working with the . The members of the order would still be bound to praying the Divine Office, or Liturgy of the Hours, but they would not do so as a community. And they took a fourth vow—“to God to obey the pope ‘concerning missions.’”69 There was a distinctive focus on personal prayer, as with many other orders,

but Ignatius, especially in creating that fourth vow, would also foster a focus on

evangelizing and educating the masses. The Jesuits would send missionaries across the

world, highlighted in Pozzo’s Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius, and they would open the first

69 John W. O’Malley, S.J., “Saint Ignatius and the Cultural Mission of the Society of Jesus,” In The Jesuits and the Arts: 1540-1773, 3. 45

formal universities.70 Because of the didactic nature of their order, imagery and visuality

would be used to inform and reinforce theology, falling in line with the goals of the

Council of Trent to clarify the Church’s teachings to its followers.

The most prominent form of prayer for the Jesuit is The Spiritual Exercises,

created by Ignatius and published in 1548. The Exercises themselves are outlined into

“weeks,” or groupings, of meditative prayer. These meditations, focusing on the Life of

Christ, Scripture, and theological teaching, guide the participant to examine one’s life

with the hopeful result of purging that which is not holy, to be able to live a devout,

prayerful life, finding God in life’s every aspects to share Christianity beyond oneself.71

The five major themes for meditation include Creation, Mankind, The Kingdom of God,

Christ, and the Trinity.72

The Exercises, too, were a culmination of other works Ignatius was studying

while writing and during his conversion. He was looking at The by

Thomas à Kempis, a series of meditations in themselves, offering advice on how to live a

devout life in the imitation of Christ and his teachings. Ignatius also studied The Life of

Jesus Christ by Ludolph of Saxony.73 Coined as the most comprehensive series of

meditations on the life of Christ in the Late Middle Ages, Ludolph writes on Christ as he

is witnessed to in each Gospel, weaving in the writing of the Church fathers and other

70 For more John W. O’Malley, S.J. and Gauvin Alexander Bailey, eds. The Jesuits and the Arts: 1540- 1773 (Philadelphia: Saint Joseph’s University Press, 2006). 71 Author’s definition, based on many readings and references on “overviews” of the exercises. 72 Saint Ignatius of Loyola, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, 14. 73 Ibid., 17. 46

medieval spiritual writers.74 He gives advice on meditating on the Scriptures and

applying such to one’s personal prayer and spiritual life. Lastly, it was well-known that

Ignatius was looking at Jacopo de Voragine’s The Golden Legend, a culmination of the

stories of the saints, again meant to be studied and then applied to one’s own life.75

These stories, especially, become inspirational, as they give witness to ordinary people who achieved sainthood through their following of Christ. Clearly Ignatius gleaned the basic structure of the Exercises from these works—meditate on the life of Christ or a devout person who became a saint and use that example to form one’s life similarly to follow Christ as devoutly as possible.76

Ignatius could also look to these writings as a precedence for visually imaginative prayer. Ludolph, in the prologue of The Life of Jesus Christ, states,

“Therefore read what happens as if it were happening now. Make the past present

before your eyes and in this way you will enjoy and love the things more […] It is

wonderful to long for the Holy Land […] but it is even more wonderful to see this

land with one’s own eyes and then to consider mentally how Jesus there worked

our salvation.”77

74 Ludolph of Saxony; Translated and Introduced by Milton T. Walsh, The Life of Jesus Christ, Liturgical Press, https://cistercianpublications.org/Products/CS267H/The-Life-of-Jesus-Christ. 75 Saint Ignatius of Loyola, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, 17. 76 One should note that meditative and contemplative definitions in the Christian religion is the opposite of those in Eastern religions. Meditation is a means of “conversing” and thinking about a point in Scripture or Christ’s life or a saint’s life. Contemplation is a means of actively being present with God, being aware of that presence, and existing in it. Meditation is a means to contemplation, but not all achieve it. 77 Ludolph of Saxony; Translated and Introduced by Milton T. Walsh, The Life of Jesus Christ, Liturgical Press, Prologue. 47

Printed in the 1470s, this may have been a precedence for other forms of imaginative prayer that flourished in the Renaissance as well. Similarly, nearly one hundred years before Ignatius’ Exercises, the Garden of Prayer was written for young girls in 1454 and later printed in Venice. The book explains the need for internal (or imaginative) representations and their place in the process of prayer:

“The better to impress the story of the Passion on your mind, and to memorise

each action of it more easily, it is helpful and necessary to fix the places and

people in your mind: a city, for example, which will be the city of Jerusalem—

taking for this purpose a city that is well known to you. In this city find the

principal places in which all the episodes of the Passion would have taken place—

for instance, a palace with the supper-room where Christ had the Last Supper with

the Disciples, and the house of Anne, and that of Caiaphas, with the place where

Jesus was taken in the night, and the room where He was brought before Caiaphas

and mocked and beaten. Also the residence of Pilate where he spoke with the

Jews, and in it the room where Jesus was bound to the Column. Also the site of

Mount Calvary, where he was put on the Cross; and other like places…

And then too you must shape in your mind some people, people well-known to

you, to represent for you the people involved in the Passion—the person of Jesus

Himself, of the Virgin, Saint Peter, Saint John the Evangelist, Saint Mary

Magdalen, Anne, Caiaphas, Pilate, Judas and the others, every one of whom you

will fashion in your mind. 48

When you have done all this, putting all your imagination into it, then go into

your chamber. Alone and solitary, excluding every external thought from your

mind, start thinking of the beginning of the Passion, starting with how Jesus

entered Jerusalem on the ass. Moving slowly from episode to episode, meditate on

each one, dwelling on each single stage and step of the story. And if at any point

you feel a sensation of piety, stop: do not pass on as long as that sweet and devout

sentiment lasts…”78

Compare these excerpts with Ignatius’ explanation and instructions:

“The first prelude is a mental image of the place. It should be noted at this point

that when the mediation or contemplation is on a visible object, for example,

contemplating Christ our Lord during His life on earth, the image will consist of

seeing with the mind’s eye the physical place where the object that we wish to

contemplate is present. By the physical place I mean, for instance, a temple, or

mountain where Jesus or the Blessed Virgin is, depending on the subject of the

contemplation. In meditations on the subject matter that is not visible, as here in

meditation on sins, the mention image will consist of imagining, and considering

my soul imprisoned in its corruptible body, and my entire being in this vale of

tears as an exile among brute beasts. By entire being I mean both body and

soul.”79

78 Anonymous, Zardino de Oration, quoted in Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth- century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 46. 79 Saint Ignatius of Loyola, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, 54.

49

Whereas Ludolph and the Garden of Prayer primarily focus on imagining

tangible events in which the meditator can place oneself, Ignatius expands this practice to

meditate and pray on that which is intangible, or visible and invisible as he explains it.

Ignatius uses these predecessors as an example but then takes them one step further, much like Pozzo, to create a structure of prayer for meditation on anything to do with the spiritual life. In utilizing the common human experience of living on earth in specific

locations and interacting with other humans, an experience shared with God by his

humanity in Jesus, this meditative method of prayer “demonstrates the common practice

in which a concrete geographical location—here, the holy sites in which Jesus performed

his works—is given imaginary spatial form through the inner gaze of the pilgrim. This

space serves as a kind of matrix within which the biblical events of the past come to life

at their historical sites and are experienced by the pilgrim in personal terms.”80

Praying in this manner begins to share some similarities with Baxandall’s ideas of

a cognitive style. Baxandall states that “at some fairly high level of consciousness the

Renaissance man was one who matched concepts with pictorial style.”81 This included a

knowledge in quality of an image or techniques used, such as the cost of a color of

pigment or the use of foreshortening. But the Renaissance cognitive style also referred to

“the equipment that the fifteenth-century painter’s public brought to complex visual

stimulations like pictures,” the public referring to the patrons, merchants, and

80 Steffen Zierholz, “‘To Make Yourself Present’: Jesuit Sacred Space as Enargetic Space,” In Jesuit Image Theory, (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 426. 81 Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style, 36. 50

professionals—those which could afford the luxury of purchasing works of art.82 The

Jesuits sought to cultivate a cognitive style but one that could be shared with the masses.

In their evangelization efforts, the members of the Order would share not only Biblical

knowledge and Church teaching, but also means for prayer and developing a personal

spiritual practice. Those entering a church such as Sant’Ignazio would then remember

such knowledge, a Jesuit cognitive style, an inner eye, that functions similarly to

Baxandall’s cognitive style. The architecture and the painting of it reinforces the literacy

of the theological teachings. With its accessibility, people understand the cues, the

iconography, the theology, triggered by the images in the church and can apply it to their

own lives as well as the church community. In its universality, it promotes the personal.

This is true for Pozzo and his painting as well. The holy site of the church, which acts as parallel to the Temple and to Golgotha, gives a concrete geographical location to meditate on Pozzo’s painting. The church is the space where Heaven meets Earth. Pozzo also paints this reality in a way that the pilgrim can actively participate by way of its fixed viewpoint and meditate on his or her role in that reality. Pozzo first pulls from his artistic predecessors to visually create in one painting what they were doing with multiple paintings, paintings and architectural structures, or just architecture. Like Borromini, especially, Pozzo is creating that corporeal space with which the body and mind can interact. The empty space holds as much weight as the decorated. But Pozzo also pulls from his spiritual predecessors, creating a visual depiction of a method of prayer that was previously entirely cerebral. In one painting, he diminishes the boundary of illusion and

82 Ibid., 37 – 38. 51 reality, both architecturally and in cerebral prayer, while also giving means to meditating on the tangible lives of the saints; the Life, Death, Resurrection, and Salvation History of

Christ; the realities of the Mass; the theological teaching of the Eucharist; the Church as parallel to the Creation Temple; and the relationship between personal spirituality and prayer life in conjunction to the responsibility to the larger church and world communities.

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Chapter 6: Pozzo and the Eschatological Temple

The church building, itself, also acts as this tangible, visual example for the faith.

The architectural layout mirrors the Tabernacle in Exodus, as well as the Temple created

by God at the Creation in Genesis (Figure 6.1, 6.2).83 Temple theology describes the

prototype for the Temple, as it was instituted by God in the creation of the world: the

Garden of Eden with the Tree of Life at the center where God dwelt with man

(Tabernacle and sanctuary), Mount Eden as the nave, with flowing rivers into the world, and the rest of the world, to be fed and cultivated by the rivers and man.84 This is similar

to the ’s Temple, which was a microcosm for the entirety of Heaven and Earth, as

ordered in Exodus 25 – 31, 35 – 40. This Temple was composed of three main parts, each

symbolizing a major part of the cosmos: “(1) the outer court represented the habitable

world where humanity dwelt; (2) the outer holy place was emblematic of the visible

heavens and its light sources; (3) the holy of holies symbolized the invisible dimension of the cosmos, where God and his heavenly hosts dwelt.”85 The Church is a reflection of

the Temple, which is a reflection of the Creation Temple, which is a reflection of all the

cosmos.

It can be argued that Pozzo’s Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius, too, follows the

hierarchy laid out in Temple theology and the temple Garden. Instead of just physical

architectural spaces to distinguish between these levels, he uses a combination of

83 Steven Smith, The House of the Lord: A Catholic Biblical Theology of God’s Temple Presence in the Old and New Testaments, (Steubenville, OH: Franciscan University Press, 2017), 45. 84 Ibid. 85 G.K. Beale, The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God, (Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press, 2004), 31 – 32. 53

physical architecture and painted, as well as types of figures. Just like the Temple

Garden, you have the space outside the temple that is to be cultivated and ordered toward

God; this is still the world outside the physical church. The nave is still the nave, that holds the believers and followers (at least contemporary to Baroque times—now any

visitor is welcome to come and see). This is where the people “work” in the liturgy,

sacrificing themselves back to God during the Mass.

The “uncultivated” world can also be represented by the clerestory. Pozzo, in

painting the regions of the world to which the Order had expanded, represents this

uncultivated world with the places that the Jesuits are sending missions and evangelizing.

The Jesuits, specifically in their missions, is doing what God charged of Adam—to cultivate the Earth. It is also representative of the great commission at the end of

Matthew’s gospel: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you.”86 This also speaks to the Jesuit charism of teaching and

education. They emphasized education and the teaching of theology, opening the world’s

first formal seminaries and many universities. In this tier, Pozzo also includes the largest

number of human figures and the fewest angelic. There are a few, but the emphasis is on

the human world, specifically those that come from the four depicted continents—

America, Africa, Europe (Europa), and Asia.

In the next tier, also the next painted architectural tier, featuring numerous columns and arches, depicts more angelic figures. The few humans (not the named

86 Matthew 28: 19 – 20, NASB 54

saints) are being supported by the angelic. This is representative of the nave, where

believer intermingles with angelic; earth collides with heaven. There is a specific part of

the Mass, during the Preface of the Liturgy of the Eucharist, where the priest and presider

speaks of joining the choir of angels and saints in one voice. Then the congregation

continues with the Sanctus. The words of the Sanctus are found in both Isaiah and

Revelation. We, humans, join the voices of the angels and sing or say the same words of

praise that the angels sing in the presence of God, at the foot of his throne. This is

another theological point that teaches the simultaneous coexistence of the invisible

spiritual realm and visible earthly realm.

Central to this tier, and arguably separate from it, Pozzo depicts the five saints.

Ignatius is the centermost because he is the subject of the painting and church. In their sainthood, these men have achieved eternal life; they have transitioned to the Holy of

Holies, where God dwells. They see the face of God and rejoice in his presence. For the viewer, though, I think it can also be argued that the saints are also representing the role of the priesthood. The priest, because of the ontological mark on his soul after ordination, shifts between temporal spaces more so than the rest of the followers. He stands in persona Christi, in the person of Christ. He, himself, becomes a conduit between the Earth and the Heavens. The priest dwells in the Garden (the sanctuary) with

Christ, as well as becoming Christ in the sacraments.87

87 The particulars of the realities of can be found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Article 6, 1536 – 1600. 55

The center of the painting is Christ, dwelling in Heaven. This is the Holy of

Holies, the sanctuary. Pulling in the Church’s Jewish roots, this space was traditionally physically veiled from the congregation.88 Iconostases were installed or communion rails were employed as a physical barrier between layman and . Although this was not true of Sant’Ignazio, Pozzo’s fresco, in its three-tier construction, harkens back to the three-tier Temple and, therefore, reiterates the teaching of delineation of spaces in the

Church, the Temple, and unveiled its teaching. Congregants would get a glimpse into

Heaven in the nave, as they do in the Elevation of the Host in Mass. This Temple existed in our temporal world, but it also is a microcosm of the reality and structure of Heaven, as the Passover and Last Supper is that of the great banquet of Heaven.

88 Exodus 26:31-33, NASB. 56

Chapter 7: Pozzo, Reform, and Liturgy

In addition to the Protestant Reformation, beginning in 1517, the institutional

Church had to contend with a rising interest in empiricism. A scientific and

mathematical movement that would eventually result in the Enlightenment, people had a

new sense of believing only what they could see, not only what they were told.89

Interestingly, this was somewhat contrary for traditional philosophical and secular

thought. For example, Plato felt that “the empirical world is evanescent and contingent in

the extreme, made up of unstable objects that pass in and out of existence; whereas the

invisible world of forms and mathematical truths is permanent, reliable, and supremely

beautiful.”90 This heightened empiricism started to move beyond the acknowledgement of the dual beauty of tangible and invisible to a belief in only the tangible. Although

Catholicism was a faith practice that relied heavily on the invisible and veiled visuals, empiricism and its rise seemed to only fuel artists and architects for the era.91

Much of the Catholic liturgy, the realities of the liturgy, as well as the Catholic

view on universal existence rely on believing in that which cannot always be seen with

human eyes. The unknown author of the Letter to the Hebrews reminds first century

followers of this:

“Faith is the realization of what is hoped for and evidence of things not seen.

Because of this the ancients were well attested. By faith we understand that the

89 See George L. Hersey, Architecture and Geometry in the Age of the Baroque, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). 90 Robert Barron, Vibrant Paradoxes: The Both/And of Catholicism, (Word on Fire Catholic Ministries, 2017), 65. 91 George L. Hersey, Architecture and Geometry in the Age of the Baroque. 57

universe was ordered by the word of God, so that what is visible came into being

through the invisible.” 92

Faith relies of believing in that which is not seen, realizing that not only the universe was created by an invisible God, but that the invisible and immaterial facets of that God continues to coexist with what He made visible. Throughout Biblical history, when humanity has needed visual evidence to strengthen faith, visuality was provided. For example, in their doubt to follow Moses out of Egypt, God appears as a pillar of fire and a resting cloud to the Israelites to remind them of the divine nature of their situation.93

Angels frequently appear as divine messengers throughout scripture to be able to give a

visuality to what is purported as God’s plan, as previously listed. Christ, himself, acts as

a visuality of God, God made man. So too, then, the Church and, subsequently the Jesuit

Order, felt an obligation to better visualize the Mass and the faith to strengthen and

reestablish its following, harkening back to G.A. Bailey’s description of Jesuit brothers

and their great promotion of images and icons.94 Pozzo’s Apotheosis, then, becomes a

contemporary example for the Counter-Reformation Christian. He visualizes, under the

inspiration of his religion and his order, a version of a faithful and devout life. In

depicting human persons who had been known to achieve the singular goal of

Christianity—to be able to triumph into Heaven—he provides a tangible example for something that can seem impossible.

92 Hebrews 11:1-3, NASB. 93 Exodus 13:21, NASB. 94 G.A. Bailey, “‘Le style jésuite n’existe pas’: Jesuit Corporate Culture and the Visual Arts,” 39.

58

The visual experience of Andrea Pozzo’s Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius becomes

important both within the context of Mass, as well as outside of it. Within the context of

Mass, as all images in a church, Pozzo’s fresco acts as a didactic tool, depicting the

reality of the Temple at Mass. It serves as the example of achievable sainthood and

eternal life. Even though Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio did not employ the use of a rood screen,

the fresco remained as a primary visual example as the congregant enters the church,

indicating those atemporal and temporal realities before Mass began. Sight, as already

discussed, was the most important sense for the Renaissance and Baroque Christian. It

can be argued that, for centuries, sight was the least engaged sense during the Mass, as it

was only engaged through church decoration and the Elevation of the Host. Before the

Counter-Reformation, most churches employed the use of a rood screen. This screen

physically separated sanctuary and Holy of Holies from the congregation, keeping veiled

that which was deemed most holy, again following the tradition of Temple specifications

in Exodus 26. The follower’s glimpse behind the veil, the only glimpse of the sacred,

was the Elevation of the Host, directly preceding the distribution of Holy Communion.

The Church of the Counter-Reformation sought to break down these barriers, as rood

screens were removed, or, in the case of Sant’Ignazio, a rood screen was not included in

the plans. The lack of screen and the Tabernacle directly placed on the altar allowed for a

means of spectation, a new sense and knowledge of the visual of the liturgy.95 Arguably,

this follows Scriptural tradition, as the Gospel of Matthew describes the tearing of the

95 Elizabeth Lev, How Saved the Faith: The Triumph of Beauty and Truth in Counter- Reformation Art, (Manchester, NH: Sophia Institute Press, 2018), 222. 59

Temple veil at the moment of Christ’s death.96 Marking the beginning of Christ’s new

covenant, the veil is stripped away, as the iconostasis is removed, signifying the ability

for closer relationship to the Church. Similarly, in the Gesù, the screen was converted to

a communion rail. One could now see the tabernacle from almost any point in the church

and shift in and out of engagement with it and the frescoes. This also allowed for a fuller

engagement of all the senses, playing and responding to the heightened interest in

empiricism and its relationship to the body and human experience.97 The physical barrier still existed, by means of altar rail, a modernized visual cue for the separation between heavenly and earthly realms. But the architectural shift gave congregants something tangible to see and believe with their eyes. Pozzo’s paintings reiterate this point by making visible a part of the spiritual world that is normally invisible to the follower.

Sight is still the first engaged outside of Mass, as previously discussed by

Baxandall. During Mass, hearing and smell and taste and touch work simultaneously with sight. To this point, outside the Mass, vision and sight is the most emphasized sense. Visuals remain after incense and music and audible prayer cease. In the silence, sight is still engaged, the only engagement. Something like Pozzo’s fresco continues to engage and teach and mesmerize, speaking to theology, even outside of the Mass.

During the Mass, one watches the liturgy and the actions of the priest, clergy, and servers. The sense of sight now goes beyond the art and the Elevation of the Host. Smell

96 Matthew 27:51, NASB: “And behold, the veil of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom; and the earth shook, and the rocks were split.” 97 Elizabeth Lev, How Catholic Art Saved the Faith: The Triumph of Beauty and Truth in Counter- Reformation Art, 21. 60

is engaged by incense and flowers and the traditionally beeswax candles; touch, by the

physicality of the movements and the bread and wine; taste, by the actual consumption of

the bread and wine in the Body and Blood of Christ; hearing, by audible and

readings in the Liturgy of the Word, musical instruments, singing, and bells. All senses

are engaged with the intention of making aware the transcendent and other-worldly

realities of the Mass and the space.

The layout of the church and its parallels to the Creation Temple are an important aspect to the relationship to the Mass as well. Practicality comes into play, especially now there is an emphasis on the sensorial experience. If the tabernacle is at the highest point, then the congregation can always see it.98 It arises above the heads of the rest of

those attending and the clergy. Everything in a Catholic church functions in this

manner—symbolic and theological as well as practical and sometimes educational. For

example, stain glass windows practically help educate the congregation, with depictions

of Biblical scenes and figures. It also acts as a means of changing the natural, white light

of the world to point those inside to the transforming nature of the space. Similarly, the

communion rail, again, practically functions as a physical barrier between the Earthly

nave and the Heavenly sanctuary. Symbolically, during Communion, the priest, in

persona Christi (in the person of Christ), reaches across the barrier, from Heaven, to feed

his flock.99 So, too, should the paintings and images in a church function, bridging a

visual gap between Heaven and Earth.

98 Dennis R. McNamara, How to Read Churches: A Crash Course in Ecclesiastical Architecture, 210. 99 Robert Barron, Heaven in Stone and Glass: Experiencing the Spirituality of Great Cathedrals, (New York, NY: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 2015). 61

Pozzo’s painting does this, beginning on earth, engaging and grounding the

viewer with its di sotto in su viewpoint. The viewer first sees the architecture and

allegories of four corners of the earth—Asia, Europe, Africa, and America—referencing

the mission work of the Jesuit order. Then there is a shift to human figures, the saints,

who have already achieved rising into Heaven. Pozzo then leads the viewer to the focus

of the fresco—Saint Ignatius, himself, triumphing to meet Christ. It evokes a sense that if

one follows the faith, as well as the ideologies of the Order, the viewer, too, can achieve

Heaven and meeting the Ascended Christ.

The Mass, itself, also acts as this bridge, as it is simultaneously temporal and atemporal. It is celebrated at a specific time on a specific day in a specific church, but it also transcends time back to the Crucifixion on Calvary, re-presenting the same sacrifice

of Christ on the altar. This ties to the ancient Jewish idea of remembrance in the

Passover tradition. In celebrating Passover each year, ancient Jews viewed this

celebration as a way of participating in the original, and they spoke and prayed as such:

““[T]he ancient rabbis saw each annual celebration of the Passover as a way of

participating in the first exodus. At the time of Jesus, the Passover was not just a

sacrifice; it was also a ‘memorial’ or ‘remembrance’ (Exodus 12:14) by which the Jewish

people would both remember and somehow make present the deliverance that had been

won for their ancestors in the exodus from Egypt.”100 Raised in the Jewish tradition and

fulfilling Jewish prophecies and beliefs, Christ establishes and continues this tradition for

100 Brant Pitre, Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist: Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper, (New York: Image, 2016), 64; also see Mishnah, Pesachim 10:5 62 the New Passover, which is recognized by his earliest disciples, as we can see in many of

St. Paul’s letters in Scripture: ”Just as the ancient Jews saw their Passover as a participation in the exodus from Egypt, so, too, Saint Paul and other early Christians saw the Eucharist as a real participation in both the Last Supper and the death of Jesus.”101 It is logical, then, that churches would be built and decorated in such a way to reflect these realities: to depict something that references truths both of this world and beyond it, of this time and outside of time, simple to understand as well as mysterious, as if divine.

The tradition of opulence and rich and as perfect as humanly possible becomes logical as it is to reflect that which cannot be fully comprehended, as it is more than human.

Christ, in establishing the Eucharist, calls followers to participate in the reality of

His existence in and out of space and time by partaking in the consumption of His resurrected body, as it transubstantiates in bread and wine: – “…Jesus will give his crucified and risen body and blood. For, after his resurrection and ascension into heaven, his body would no longer be bound by space or time. He would be able to appear when he willed, and where he willed, and under whatever form he willed…”102 Therefore, if

Christ exists beyond our temporal reality, the Eucharist exists outside of our temporal reality (a transtemporal object), becoming the fulfillment of Exodus’ manna from

Heaven, as Christ is the Messiah as the New Moses.103

This points to the Jewish roots of the “memorial,” “remembrance,” and “makes present” idea of the Catholic Mass. The Mass re-presents the entirety of the Passion and

101 Ibid., 76. 102 Ibid., 111-112. 103 Ibid., 86 – 89. 63

Resurrection cycles in the manner in which the Body and Blood cycle from separated to combined on the altar. The Crucifixion is made manifest and is represented by the separation of Body and Blood before being joined together to signify the Resurrection.

So, too, Pozzo’s painting brings the full cycle of Passion to Resurrection to the forefront of the minds of the viewer because of his depiction of the Resurrected Christ. The

Resurrected Christ holding his cross reiterates the fullness of the Crucifixion and

Resurrection that is experienced in the Mass. It is a both/and situation. For if the

Crucifixion did not occur, neither would the Resurrection. Upon achieving his sainthood and triumph into heaven, Ignatius would come to understand this fullness in a complete way. Pozzo is reminding the viewer of this fact—that the penitent, faithful congregant can, too, achieve such a thing.

64

Conclusion

One of the oldest accounts of the structure of Christian worship was described by

Saint between 153 and 155 A.D. and is still found in the Catechism of the

Catholic Church as the basic structure of the contemporary Mass. St. Justin, writing to pagan emperor Antonius Pius, explains that followers would come together on the “day of the sun” to gather in some place, listening to the memoirs and writings of the apostles, followed by an by “he who presides over those gathered.” Justin then describes a time for prayer, an exchange of peace, and then an offering of bread and wine that is prayed over before distribution to the people in attendance.104 The Council of

Trent harkens back to this account and uses it in its basis of recording the doctrines and dogmas post-Reformation, and it contributes to the lineage of the work of the Jesuit

Order and Andrea Pozzo.

In circling back to our original inquiries, I can agree with scholarship in saying there is no true Jesuit Baroque visual style. I am not even sure that one can classify a true

Baroque visual style. One could argue that each artist working in the Baroque time period establishes his own visual ideal. There are, indeed, consistent themes that run through, such as theatricality and grappling with spatial realities. This is true for Pozzo as well. While drawing on theatricality, spatial realities, a lineage of imaginative prayer, etc., he establishes his own ideal visual iteration of prayer and sacred art for the Jesuit

Order. He believed in it so much so that he would publish his methods to disseminate them in multiple regions of the world by means of the Order’s mission work. The hope

104 Catechism of the Catholic Church, (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 1345. 65

was that Pozzo’s methods of visualizing the spiritual realm would be used in newly constructed churches as Catholicism was spread.

Pozzo believes that his ideal, his iteration, can serve the mission of the Church

well. In coming back to that one ideal viewpoint of his work, Pozzo establishes another

spiritual space on which the viewer can meditate. Although seemingly incongruous by

the ease of breaking the illusion, one can still recall the single, ideal viewpoint in

personal meditation or prayer. By drawing on the heightened sense of empiricism and

the “believe only what you can see” mentality of post-Reformation Europe, Ignatius first

sought to implement such an idea via imaginative prayer. Draw on what you know. Use

the tangible world in your meditative prayer. Pozzo then takes it further. He visualizes

this cerebral prayer. He makes visible what it is to have faith, by using Ignatius as the

example. In doing so, he aided in the explanation of the realities of the doctrine of the

Catholic faith. He simultaneously supports the theology of the Catholic liturgy while also supporting the cerebral prayer space composed in the Spiritual Exercises. His work, as well as the work of his predecessor Ignatius of Loyola, is still a major focal point of the

Catholic spiritual life today. In establishing their methods as prototypes for ideal forms and expressions of prayer, they, too, confirm their place as Catholic reformists.

66

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Appendix: Figures Figure 1.1

Figure 61, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 71

Figure 1.2

Figure 72, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 72

Figure 1.3

Andrea Pozzo’s altar piece, San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi

73

Figure 1.4

Andrea Pozzo’s altar piece, rear view, San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi

74

Figure 1.5

Andrea Pozzo’s altar piece, side view, San Francesco Saverio in Mondovi 75

Figure 1.6

Figure 60, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 76

Figure 1.7

Figure 64, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 77

Figure 1.8

Andrea Pozzo, cupola painting in Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola 78

Figure 1.9

Figure 94, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 79

Figure 2.1

Figure 1, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 80

Figure 2.2

Figure 2, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 81

Figure 2.3

Figure 8, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 82

Figure 2.4

Figure 14, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 83

Figure 2.5

Figure 23, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 84

Figure 2.6

Figure 62, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 85

Figure 2.7

Figure 90, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 86

Figure 2.8

Figure 91, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 87

Figure 2.9

Figure 101, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 88

Figure 3.1

Andrea Pozzo, Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius 89

Figure 3.2

Mirror in Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola 90

Figure 3.3

Marble view point marker in Chiesa di Sant’Ignazio di Loyola 91

Figure 3.4

Figure 100, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 92

Figure 3.5

Figure 93, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 93

Figure 3.6

Figure 88, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 94

Figure 3.7

Figure 89, Andrea Pozzo’s Perspectiva Pictorum et Architectorum 95

Figure 4.1

Baciccio, Triumph of the Name of Jesus in Il Gesù 96

Figure 4.2

Il Gesù, side view, projected spatial depth 97

Figure 4.3

Baciccio’s Triumph of Saint Ignatius, Saint Ignatius of Loyola Chapel, Il Gesù

Figure 4.4

Andrea Pozzo, Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius, detail 98

Figure 4.5

Andrea Mantegna, cupola fresco in Camera degli Sposi in Mantua 99

Figure 4.6

Pietro da Cortona, Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power 100

Figure 4.7

Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane floor plan with superimposed triangles 101

Figure 4.8

Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane floor plan with superimposed mandorla 102

Figure 4.9

Borromini, Sant’Ivo floor plan with superimposed hexagon 103

Figure 4.10

Andrea Mantegna, frescoes in Camera degli Sposi in Mantua, wide shot 104

Figure 6.1

Creation Temple diagram, Steven Smith, 47

105

Figure 6.2

Exodus Tabernacle specifications, Steven Smith, 13 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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