The New Crop Industries Handbook—Native Foods

The New Crop Industries Handbook Native foods

This handbook can be reproduced in whole or in part for studying or training purposes subject to the inclusion of an acknowledgment of the source and no commercial usage or sale.

ISBN 1 74151 610 2 ISSN 1321 2656

Pub. No. 08/021 Project No. HAS-11A

The New Crop Industries Handbook—Native Foods

RIRDC shall not be responsible in any manner whatsoever to any person who relies, in whole or in part, on the contents of this handbook unless authorised in writing by the Managing Director of RIRDC.

The handbook contains certain references to use of particular pesticides. No representation or warranty, express or implied, is made in relation to whether a particular brand of pesticide is preferable over another or whether a particular chemical product is registered by the National Registration Authority.

In submitting these reports the researchers have agreed to RIRDC publishing them in edited form. RIRDC contact details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600

PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Tel: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4199

Email: [email protected] Web: www.rirdc.gov.au

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This extract of The New Crop Industries Handbook (RIRDC Pub. No. 04/125) was printed in February 2008 Design, layout and typesetting by the RIRDC Publications Unit Printed by Union Offset Printing, Canberra

Native Foods Book.indb 2 18/02/2008 2:05:26 PM Native foods

Overview 1

Bush tomato 9

Lemon myrtle 16

Native citrus 21

Native pepper 31

Quandong 36

The Davidson plum 40

iii

Native Foods Book.indb 3 18/02/2008 2:05:26 PM Foreword

Farmers today, both those in existing businesses and new entrants, live in an environment where they by necessity have to keep an eye on new opportunities.

Changes in commodity prices or new value chain opportunities, let alone changes in types of food or new products, demand a flexible approach to farming. Many crops themselves have a “fashion” element where a new variety of fruit or vegetable can be “in” for a period then “out” with the market. Consumers expect farmers to be able to continue to meet their needs in both food and fibre when they follow these new trends.

As well, diversification of cropping opportunities, within the limits of good business sense, provides an essential part of risk management in modern farming.

The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation is tasked, within a number of its programs, with assisting agribusiness and the food industries to stay ahead of changes by looking at new crops and their management and potential in the food and fibre industries. Some of these crops are aimed at Australian markets, others are aimed at a mix of domestic and export.

Undertaking the research and supporting industries searching for new products is only the first stage of this work. Unless the work is communicated to the widest possible audience the potential of these new crops will never be fully realised.

This book contains the Native Food Chapters of RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook and is aimed at consolidating much of the recent research information into a handy format for those searching for the latest information on Australia’s native crops. I am sure it will prove to be as valuable to both potential and existing farmers as the first edition.

Peter O’Brien Managing Director The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

February 2008

Native Foods Book.indb 4 18/02/2008 2:05:26 PM Overview

Juleigh Robins

Acknowledgment is made to Caroline Graham and Denise Hart, authors of the chapter on bushfoods in the first edition of this publication.

Introduction

The native food industry has grown slowly since its inception in the mid—1980s. Native foods have proved difficult to commercialise. They have been difficult to commercialise agronomically Native foods (Photo: Catherine de Witt, Stray Cat Images, Melbourne) because they are new crops is not unusual for individuals or supply of native foods. without the benefit of existing companies to be active in more established production systems, than one level and they may be Table 1 lists, at this stage of skills, knowledge and reliable the industry’s development, the plant material. And they have active in all four: most commercially used native been difficult to commercialise • nursery operators foods. It should be noted that the in the marketplace because they • table represents current industry are innovative products without cultivators and wild harvesters knowledge but does not take into an established market or general • commodity traders and value- consumer knowledge. account plantings that are not yet adders—retail and food- yielding fruit, leaf or seed product. Currently it is estimated that the service The majority of the produce industry has a gross production • marketers—food-service and value (farm-gate and ex-nursery) retail, domestic and export is dried, frozen and/or further of between $5 million for processed into value-added The industry operates within a native foods (Fletcher 2003) products. Native foods are and $10 million for native food variety of commercial structures, essentially used in the broader and essential oils from native including single-purpose food industry as a defining flavour plants combined (Lester 2003). enterprises, networks, cooperatives to an existing food product or It is impossible at this time and vertically integrated supply process—for example, condiments, to extrapolate this to a total chains. Commercial horticultural sauces, biscuits and ice cream. “industry” value. cultivation of native food species is expanding; however, managed wild The main markets for native The industry, although very harvest remains an important and foods are in the hospitality and small, has four major levels. It integral part of the commercial tourism food-service, industrial

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 1 18/02/2008 2:05:29 PM Table 1. Commercially used native foods: supply status Mainly Cultivated/ Species Mainly wild harvest Supply cultivated wild harvest Aniseed myrtle * Yes No No Under Bush tomato No Yes Yes Under Davidson’s plum Yes Yes No Over Kakadu plum No Yes Yes Over Lemon aspen No Yes Yes Over Lemon myrtle Yes No No Over Native citrus No Yes No Over Native pepper No Yes Yes under Pepper-berries* No Yes Yes under Native mint * Yes No No Under Riberries Yes No No Under Quandong No Yes Yes Over Wattle seed No Yes Yes Over

* Recent (since last edition) additions to commercial supply.

food manufacturing and retail • under-capitalisation of the • establishing a market focus industries. Within the past two industry in general across all levels of the industry. years some native food brands have • low economic returns to Some necessary steps towards a successfully entered and remained growers through high costs sustainable and prosperous growth in the mainstream retail market. of production and limited in the industry are as follows: There has also been significant markets development in the industrial • • market driven, not production food manufacturing market, both low economic returns to wild driven domestically and internationally, harvesters due to climatic and • over the same time frame. geographic constraints ongoing research and • low economic returns to development in plant selection, The industry requires an ongoing processors due to high cost sustainable production and and targeted focus on the further of ingredients and marketing post-harvest systems—for development of these markets in costs in limited markets cultivated and wild harvest order to achieve critical mass and • establishing food safety and • uptake across industry of food anticipated returns. It will only quality standards succeed commercially in the long- safety and quality standards • low levels of cooperation, term if native food and native food • communication and infor- increasing cooperation, products meet mainstream market mation sharing within the communication and needs. industry knowledge sharing between all levels of the industry The native food industry continues • identifying appropriate ways to face great challenges and must to incorporate Aboriginal • product development to meet find timely solutions if it is to grow interests in the native food market needs further. These challenges include: industry • clear and consistent industry • increasing homogenisation of • supply issues—over and under marketing messages the food industry, which has • supply—not matched to the potential to marginalise generic marketing initiatives to market demand niche foods/products benefit the entire industry. • • inconsistent and unreliable ongoing product development The native food industry offers plant material—yield • market development and opportunities at the agricultural variability, attrition rates, etc. education—native foods level in farm diversification and • establishing efficient and are still largely unknown the development of sustainable sustainable ways to grow and in the domestic and global and environmentally appropriate harvest the crops marketplace agriculture.

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 2 18/02/2008 2:05:29 PM At the marketing level, native Marketing overview Table 2 provides some current foods offer a unique point of indicative farm-gate prices for Identifying markets difference to the food industry large-volume sales. These prices are indicative only and frequently globally, adding value by product All commercially used native foods volume users will negotiate a differentiation to potentially are marketed to the Australian tailored price with suppliers. The every area of food manufacture. domestic and export markets in pricing can be expressed as a range There are potential nutritional four major forms: and can change at any time due and functional food benefits and • farm-gate commodity to seasonality, shortage of supply, intangible benefits to Indigenous product—limited value-adding glut of supply, and so on. The most and non-Indigenous stakeholders. can include drying, freezing, common forms for each of the cleaning, grinding, etc.) native foods are also described in Fletcher and Collins refer to • Table 2. many of these in this handbook’s value-added into a wide first chapter—desire for change, range of industrial food Table 2 shows generally high desire for improvement, creating manufacturing flavourings prices for native foods. While real benefit, and an expectation of and seasonings these prices can appear attractive • intrinsic worth in the activity. value-added into a wide range to new entrants to the industry, of hospitality food-service they are based on the high cost of Aboriginal people who are products cultivation or wild harvest. involved in the industry identify • value-added into a wide social, cultural, economic and Most food processors and range of consumer products larger scale commodity buyers health benefits arising from in mainstream, specialty and within the native food industry that involvement (Mr John tourism markets. will generally require tonnage Collyer, Chairperson, Indigenous There is little or no interest at (usually provided over an agreed Australian Foods Ltd). The present in the mainstream market time frame) and will expect meaningful involvement of for native foods as fresh fruit or fruit to conform to minimum Aboriginal people brings herbs, although this can change food safety requirements. With authenticity and integrity to the as production and post-harvest increasing demands within the native foods industry. systems are improved. food industry to provide ever- Table 2. Some indicative farm-gate prices, 2004 Key messages Product Form ($/kg) • Aniseed myrtle Dry and milled leaf 38 The industry should be Bush tomatoes Dry whole or ground 20–24 market driven, not production Frozen whole 2–6 driven. Davidson’s plum Frozen deseeded halves 5–13 • Ongoing R&D in plant Frozen puree 9–10 selection, sustainable Kakadu plum Frozen whole 15–20 production systems and post- Lemon aspen Frozen whole 8–12 harvest systems is necessary. Whole fresh leaf on stem 2–10 Lemon myrtle • Industry commitment to food Dried and milled 22–25 Desert lime frozen whole 5–15 safety and quality standards is Native citrus necessary. Finger lime whole 25– 80 Native pepper Dry and milled leaf 38 • Foster cooperation, Fresh 6–20 Pepperberries communication and Dried 30–70 knowledge sharing between Native mint Dried and milled leaf 35–38 all levels of industry. Riberries Frozen whole, seedless 13 • Market as an industry as well 1st grade premium dried 40–60 Quandong as individual entities. Frozen deseeded halves 25–28 • Raw whole seed 15 Keep commercial reality as Wattle seed the focus. Roasted and milled 20-24

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 3 18/02/2008 2:05:29 PM safer food products, growers (and traders) of native foods Key messages will increasingly be expected to provide microbiological data • on their products, nutritional Critical mass for the industry cannot be achieved without information, and the provision of mainstream producers and markets adopting the products. specifications and conformation to • Native food prices are generally higher than for other crops. those specifications. Specifications • Higher prices will generally inhibit mainstream producers and will describe the product—colour, markets from adopting products. flavour, typical size, (including • micron for milled product), and so Native foods must have a clear marketing message that on—describe the packaging the differentiates them from standard foods—a point of difference product is provided in (which must that users will pay for. be food safe) and provide storage • Products need to be accessible—easy to use and understand. instructions for food safety and • optimum shelf life. Any known There is little reliable market demand information: research your allergens must be identified on the market options. specification sheet. • driven by highly motivated how to match the economic Smaller quantities can be individual ‘visionaries’, whose ideas viability of native food successfully marketed in local for the industry generally vary agriculture with the market’s markets and in some sectors of widely” (Lester 2003). need for affordable product. the native food industry this has become the prime market (see the One unifying “vision” throughout Species quandong chapter). the industry (see the following There has still been little genotype Market demand chapters) is the recognition that, without mainstream processors selection of improved plants, Reliable information on market and markets adopting the but the following species are at demand is very difficult to products, critical mass for the present the most commonly used obtain: as the industry remains industry will not be achieved. and in demand. They are listed fragmented and unwilling to alphabetically and are not ranked. To encourage uptake by share information. As Hugh Aniseed myrtle MacIntosh points out in the mainstream processors and native citrus chapter, there are markets, native foods must become (Backhousia anisata), a relative still “significant amounts of affordable and sustainable to the “newcomer,” is typically an east semi- or sub-commercial activity. broader food industry, which coast rainforest tree with dense Further, the industry is too small operates in a highly competitive foliage that has a strong anise to be considered in the normal marketplace. Consistency of supply flavour. It is used primarily as a horticultural production statistics”. must be guaranteed, regardless herb or flavouring. of variations caused by climate, Bush tomato A recent analysis stated, “Claims harvest, handling and transport. for sales volumes and market Key marketing issues for native (Solanum centrale), is a small shrub leadership are difficult to food producers include: with grey-green leaves. The fruits substantiate and appear to be turn from green to yellow when exaggerated in a number of cases. • a lack of market awareness ripe and dry on the bush until However, the native food industry, about native foods in general they reach a reddish-ochre colour while small and still fragmented, and about how to use native and resemble a raisin. It is an arid is nevertheless thriving on a foods in particular zone plant native to Central and diverse number of fronts and • Western Australia, growing on the substantial industry growth developing a clear, industry lighter soils in areas of extremely predicted in the 1990s is likely to marketing message that variable rainfall. occur in the next several years. can be heard among the cacophony of mainstream Fruit can be harvested The industry continues to be food marketing mechanically and it has enormous

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 4 18/02/2008 2:05:30 PM potential for dry zone cropping Kakadu plum Native citrus (but needs water). (Terminalia ferdinandiana), is a (Citrus glauca, Citrus australasica The fruit is intensely flavoured coastal tree growing from the and other spp.) Australia has with a piquant, spicy taste balanced Kimberley to Darwin. It produces seven native plant species that by fruit sugars. It is used primarily pale olive-green, ovoid fruits with are true citrus. The wild lime as a spice or flavouring. central wooden stone (similar to (C. glauca) is endemic to the an immature olive). The fruit is semi-arid regions of south-west fibrous and difficult to process but Queensland, western New South has an ongoing market as a value- Wales and South Australia. Finger added product. lime (C. australasica) is endemic to rainforest habitats on the Lemon aspen east coast. Like all citrus, native (Acronychia acidula and Acronychia citrus prefer a well-drained soil. oblongifolia), is an east coast They will tolerate poor soils, dry rainforest tree bearing pale lemon conditions and cold (particularly fruits. It can fruit within two the wild lime). Plantation-grown years of planting and will grow trees have been shown to respond Fruit of bush tomato in a variety of locations. With well to both irrigation and a wonderful lemon flavour and fertiliser. The fruits have a distinct The Davidson’s plum secondary flavour of eucalyptus, it lime flavour but with that unique difference found in native foods— (Davidsonia spp.), is a native is used as a processing or culinary so difficult to describe. These are rainforest fruit predominantly fruit. extremely versatile and excellent from sub-tropical coastal regions Lemon myrtle processing and culinary fruits. of New South Wales and tropical north-east Queensland. (Backhousia citriodora), is probably the most intensely cultivated of all Davidsonia does best in deeper, native foods, with 150,000 trees in high-organic-matter, friable soils New South Wales and a further but naturally occurs across a range 1 million in Queensland. Lemon of soil types. It is able to produce myrtle prefers nutrient-rich soils in semi-shaded conditions and can of a medium to heavy texture in be appropriate for south-facing a well-drained, wind-protected, slopes. sunny position. It prefers acidic soils and areas recording more The fruits are intensely and than 800 mm/yr of rainfall. exquisitely sour and not suited to Lemon myrtle has a distinctive the fresh fruit market, but are ideal lemon/lemon grass flavour due as a processing or culinary fruit. to the extraordinary level of citral Colour is deep purple skin with in the leaf. It is used as a herb or bright magenta flesh. flavouring ingredient. Fruit and leaves of Mt White lime Native pepper

(Tasmannia lanceolata and other spp.), or mountain pepper, is found naturally in the wet forests and shrublands of south-east Australia and extending as far as the Hastings River catchment in mid-north New South Wales. It grows best in cool, sheltered environments free from water Davidson’s plum (D. pruriens) Lemon myrtle (2 years old) stress, on neutral, acidic soil,

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 5 18/02/2008 2:05:32 PM preferably well-drained and fertile. Quandong The first project is in conjunction Mountain pepper leaf and berries with AgWA and the second (Santalum acuminatum) requires a have a hot, spicy and aromatic with the University of Western climate with high light intensity, flavour derived largely from a low relative humidity and will Australia. For further information, terpene compound, polygodial. grow in a range of soil types, consult Research in Progress The leaf is used dried and milled including pH variations and published by RIRDC. as a herb and flavouring. The high salinity. Soils must be well- berries are a processing fruit or are Agronomy drained: quandongs will not used dried and milled as a spice or tolerate waterlogging. The fruit is In general, to make a good profit a flavouring. a visually appealing red, tart tasting producer needs a good knowledge and dry textured. It is either dried of what management practices or frozen and is a processing and will yield good quantities of high- culinary fruit. quality produce. In the native foods industry producers need more—they need to know they are planting reliable plants with proven yields. Harvest and post- harvest issues need to be identified and addressed with a focus of continual improvement. To gain this knowledge will take time and those entering the industry will need to take a long-term view.

Although commercial production Ripening Powell No. 1 fruit (quandong) Native pepper berries A of many native plant foods (prov. ) Native mint is still in development stage, Wattle seed sufficient demand for some (Prostanthera rotundifolia and species is encouraging commercial other spp.), a recent addition to (Acacia victoriae and other spp.) production (see Table 1). While commercialised and cultivated Acacia grows throughout the basic establishment costs per native foods, is predominantly country and many species are hectare for most species are grown in southern Victoria. The suitable for culinary use. The most unavailable, Table 3, from Ryder plant is a large bush with dense popular wattle seed in the food (2004b) encapsulates some of the foliage that can be harvested three industry is Acacia victoriae, which current limiting constraints and times a year, once established. The is found extensively throughout requirements for long-term success leaves have an intriguing minty the Central Desert region and into for each crop. Dr Ryder has been flavour with a peppery finish. South Australia, Western Australia conducting research of a number Native mint is used as a herb and and New South Wales. The seeds of trial plantings of various native flavouring. can be harvested mechanically. The foods in South Australian and Riberry flavour of wattle seed is nutty with Victorian locations. coffee/chocolate overtones. The (Syzygium leuhmanii), with a range seed with aril intact is used and it Specific agronomic information similar to that of Davidson’s plum, must be roasted and milled before for selected species will be found is mainly grown in northern New use as a herb/spice or flavouring. in chapters that follow. The species South Wales but has potential in Other plants discussed in depth are: many areas. Plants are established • easily and there are some selections/ In addition to the above, RIRDC bush tomato • lemon myrtle hybrids available. The fruit is small is supporting two projects • and has a striking purple colour researching tuberous plants, one native citrus • native pepper that fades to pink when cooked. based on Adansonia (boab) tubers, • the other based on Platysace tubers, quandongs Riberries are strongly clove and • spice flavoured. This is an excellent which can lead to field crops for the Davidson plum. processing and culinary fruit. fresh produce from native plants.

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 6 18/02/2008 2:05:34 PM Table 3. Native food crops: limiting factors and requirements for success

Species Current constraints Needed for long–term success Cultivation methods, market and product Quandong Not easy to cultivate, market development development Improved planting material, market Improved planting material, harvest methods, Acacia development, product awareness and market development, product awareness education Product development, market development, Mechanical harvesting, market and product Citrus education and awareness development, education and awareness Improved planting material and cultivation Improved planting material, mechanical Mountain pepper methods, market development, education and harvesting, market development, education and awareness awareness Lemon myrtle Education and awareness, market development Education and awareness, market development Improved planting material, cultivation Improved planting material, cultivation Lemon aspen methods, market development methods, market development Improved planting material, cultivation Cultivation methods for fruit set and Riberry methods, long lead-time to fruit (some development, market development locations), market development Improved planting material, cultivation Improved planting material, cultivation and Bush tomato methods, harvest methods, education and harvest methods, education and awareness, awareness market development

Source: Ryder, M. (2004b)

References Lester, R. (2003) An Economic Analysis and Evaluation of the Faragher, J. (2004) Food safety Native Foods & Essential Oils Key messages issues for the Australian native Industry for The Australian Museum’s plant, food and herb industries. FATE Project. Australian Museum, • There are native food species Proceedings of the National Herbs, Canberra. enjoying commercial use and Native Foods and Essential Oils some success. Convention, Project No. TA 023-36. Phelps, D.G. (1997) Feasibility • Focus on those species that RIRDC, Canberra. (in press). of a Sustainable Bushfood Industry in Western Queensland. RIRDC, have an established demand. Fletcher, R.J. (2003) International Canberra. • Grow what the market new crop development. Incentives, wants. barriers, processes and progress: an Ryder, M. (2004b) Prospects for • Be aware of all issues that Australian perspective. In: J. Janick the Australian native bushfood contribute to or inhibit & A. Whipkey (eds). Trends in New industry—evaluating performance success. Crops and New Uses. Proceedings of cultivated native food plants in of the Fifth National Symposium, southern Australian environments • Be prepared for a long- RIRDC, Canberra. (in press). New Crops and New Uses, Atlanta, term investment and Georgia, http://www.hort.purdue. Ryder, M. (2004a) Commercial involvement–native food edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-040.html prospects for selected native production is not an Food crops and the native foods overnight success story. Hart, D., & Graham, G. (1997) industry—discussion document. Prospects for the Australian Native RIRDC, Canberra. Bushfood Industry. RIRDC, Canberra.

Hegarty, M.P., Hegarty, E.E. & Wills, R.B.H. (2001) Food Safety of Australian Plant Bushfoods. Pub. No. 01/28. RIRDC, Canberra.

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 7 18/02/2008 2:05:34 PM About the Key contacts

author Australian Quandong Industry Association. Northern Region Development Board PO Box 1762 Port Augusta SA 5700 www.aqia.com.au

Dr Rob Fletcher The University of Queensland Juleigh Robins is co-owner and Gatton College director of Robins Foods Pty Gatton QLD 4343 Ltd, manufacturers and brand Tel: (07) 5460 1301 marketers of Outback Spirit Fax: (07) 5460 1112 products. Juleigh has worked Email: r.fletcher@mailbox. extensively on the native food uq.edu.au. supply chain, strategically at the inbound supply end and the Dr Maarten Ryder outbound market end. CSIRO Land and Water PMB 2 Juleigh has also written Glen Osmond SA 5064 two native food cookbooks, Tel: (08) 8303 8534 Wild Lime and Wild Classics Fax: (08) 8303 8684 published by Allen & Unwin. Email: [email protected] Robins Foods won the 2003 Rabobank Agribusiness Award Indigenous Australian Foods Ltd for Excellence Rural Industries Mr John Collyer Research & Development Chairperson Corporation Agribusiness Email: [email protected] Value-adding Award. Juleigh was also a Victorian finalist Gil Freeman in the 2003 Telstra Business Prom Country Bushfood Women’s Awards Westpac Association Group Business Owner Award. Email: [email protected]

Southern Bushfood Association 48 Outlook Road Disclaimer Mt Waverley VIC 3149 Whilst every care has been taken Tel: (03) 9807 2834 in preparing this article, neither Email: [email protected] RIRDC nor the authors accept any responsibility or liability for Queensland Bushfood decisions or actions taken as a Association result of any data, information, Dick Copeman statement or advice, expressed or 40 Glenrosa Rd. implied, contained in this article. Red Hill QLD 4059 Readers should make their own detailed inquiries and obtain Tel: (07) 3244 0731 ah professional advice before making Email: any commercial decisions based [email protected] on information contained in this article.

Native foods overview

Native Foods Book.indb 8 18/02/2008 2:05:35 PM Bush tomato

chippendalei Juleigh Robins and among others. Maarten Ryder

Bush tomatoes are essentially Introduction a herb/spice product, and a Bush tomato is a common name major strength for the arid land species Solanum of the bush centrale that is found naturally tomato is its throughout the Central Desert unique and region of Australia. Bush tomatoes intense flavour, are the fruit of the plant and are which retains usually sun dried on the bush its integrity before harvesting. Post-harvest in many the dried bush tomato is usually applications Fruit of bush tomato ground into a fine powder or and in relatively coarse granule depending on small ratios application. There are many to total ingredient mass. This economical use and cost to the Solanum species in Australia, not characteristic is a double-edged manufacturing or hospitality all edible. S. centrale is by far the sword for the bush tomato “sector”. consumer; on the other, it is a most common edible species used On one hand, it is an attractive difficult crop for the agricultural in the food industry but further and marketable flavouring sector to commercialise due to the research and product development ingredient providing a distinctive high costs of production combined work is being focused on S. flavour difference at a relatively with the relatively small quantities currently required by the food industry.

The current demand for bush tomato is being met mostly by the wild harvest sector. The wild harvest sector, while operating under particular climatic, cultural, geographic and economic constraints, is, however, an important supply chain partner to existing users of bush tomato and provides a valuable income source to its largely Aboriginal members. Natural distribution It is unlikely that wild harvest Cultivation recorded can continue to meet the growing outside of natural distribution demand except in the very short term.

Bush tomato

Native Foods Book.indb 9 18/02/2008 2:05:37 PM The current uptake of bush tomato Mr Geoff Gordon, Managing • value-added into a wide into the food manufacturing Director of Hela Schwarz variety of industrial food and food-service industry is Australia, exports high volumes flavourings and seasonings encouraging, and further demand of native food–based flavour • value-added into a wide is expected over the short and bases, pre-mixes and seasonings variety of value-added long term. It is clear, however, for distribution throughout consumer products (sauces, that the professional agricultural Europe and Asia and identifies chutneys, herbs and herb sector, while identifying bush bush tomato as one of the most blends, breads, biscuits, and so tomatoes as a potential alternative versatile of all native ingredients on. crop suited to low rainfall and currently available. According to arid regions, will limit investment Mr Gordon, bush tomatoes have In some cases companies using in bush tomato production until been successfully incorporated into bush tomatoes in their own value- the demand is sufficient to make flavour bases because they “impart adding production are also acting broad-acre production viable. It a fascinating flavour twist to so as commodity warehouses and is also clear that the agricultural many standard herbs and spices”. suppliers to other parts of the food sector is seeking reliable plant industry. A clear sourcing and material with consistent and The broad supply chain for bush warehousing capability has yet to demonstrable yields. Managed tomatoes is described in the flow be developed in the bush tomato wild harvest activities and small- chart below. supply chain. Given the small size scale cultivation in particular of leading companies in the native regions and circumstances will At present the supply is largely food industry the overlapping need to fill ongoing and growing sold direct to the food industry for roles can be a major constraint to demand in the short term. further on–sale or value-adding. marketing effectiveness as precious Bush tomatoes are currently financial and time resources are marketed to both the Australian spent largely on inbound supply Markets and marketing domestic and export markets in chain activities and storage rather three major forms: than the outbound marketing Bush tomatoes, particularly activities. Suppliers of bush • Solanum centrale, are proving to prime ingredient/commodity tomatoes could gain a competitive be one of the most marketable as a whole dried fruit or advantage by developing a products emerging from the ground/powdered dry warehousing capability. This would burgeoning Australian native foods ingredient fit supply more closely to customer industry. Bush tomato suppliers Bush tomato-flavoured and (Cultivation & wild harvest) –seasoned products are now successfully ranged in mainstream categories in supermarkets nationally in Australia.

Chris Mara, Chairperson of the Coles Indigenous Food Fund (a Coles Supermarkets initiative) says Value-added Commodity bush tomato products are the most Retail and food-service Hospitality and tourism popular native foods purchased by Manufacturing and processing Industries consumers and are commercially Industrial-food ingredients Local markets successful in Coles’ supermarket range of native food products.

Bush tomato–based seasonings and flavourings are now available extensively throughout Europe, the - Export - Domestic - Export - Domestic markets markets United Kingdom and Asia and are markets markets - Retail and - Retail and - Food-service - Food-service experiencing growing acceptance food-service food-service in the industrial food sector.

Bush tomato 10

Native Foods Book.indb 10 18/02/2008 2:05:37 PM industry focuses on demand to pull production. However, in order to stimulate demand, bush tomatoes need to be more affordable and viable to the food industry, which operates in a highly competitive marketplace. Bush tomato products are expected to compete successfully against mainstream food products using ingredients from supremely well-developed supply chains—perfected over years, if not centuries.

Matching and meshing these needs will be essential for long- term bush tomato sector growth. Outback Spirit products, including bush tomato chutney demand by supplying bush value-added by grinding and so Production tomatoes as required, rather than on). Good conditions (rain when requirements in bulk seasonally. the plants need it) in Central Australia can see wild harvest Climate As a broad generalisation, the prices ease marginally. Cultivated The bush tomato is an arid demand for bush tomatoes in the fruit is similarly priced, at short-term is greater than available approximately $22 to $24/kg and zone plant native to Central and current supply and future demand this price is significantly higher Western Australia and grows in is expected to grow significantly. than some in the sector had lighter soils in areas of extremely However, it is impossible to anticipated. variable rainfall. The plant will provide an exact figure for the total normally grow, flower and fruit value of bush tomato production While these prices can sound after a sufficient rainfall event. (wild harvest and/or cultivation) attractive, they clearly reflect the Regrowth from below ground in Australia today. Recent analysis high costs currently involved is favoured by soil disturbance. suggests that annual volumes of in either wild harvesting or Although frosts are common in bush tomatoes traded are between commercially cultivating these the natural range of bush tomato, 8–10 t, of which up to 2 t can plants. For the bush tomato be from cultivated sources. The “sector” to continue to grow it is total value of the bush tomato important that we find ways to crop per annum is currently fairly make this product economically modest but expected increases sustainable in both the cultivated in demand can see the value of and wild harvest sectors. Barriers the bush tomato crop increase to increased cultivation, and significantly—but of course only if therefore large-scale supply, are the crop is available to fill demand. high initial set-up costs, low and inconsistent yields and perceived The recent supply of bush small market demand. Prices for tomatoes has been severely broad-acre cultivated crops are affected by drought in the Central unlikely to reduce until these Australian region. Prices have barriers are removed and bush moved upward from the range of tomato production must provide $15 to $20/kg three years ago. It commercially acceptable returns to is now common for wild-harvest bush tomato suppliers. fruit to fetch around $20.00 to $24.00/kg (depending on fruit It is critical for the future viability Bush tomato grown on mounds, Junee, New supplied as whole or partially of the bush tomato sector that the South Wales

11 Bush tomato

Native Foods Book.indb 11 18/02/2008 2:05:39 PM Water on the supplier, will consist of highly variable unimproved A water supply is required, either material or more uniform, from natural rainfall or from improved (selected) planting irrigation. The plant does appear material. Reedy Creek Nurseries to have a reasonable tolerance of has begun selecting bush tomatoes saline water supply. for increased fruit size and other Topography desirable characteristics. Seedling tray of bush tomato the plant itself and the ripening Bush tomatoes have been There are very specific require- fruit are susceptible to frost cultivated with some success ments for good germination damage. The plant is best grown as at several locations in Central of bush tomato. This has been a perennial in warm, dry, frost-free Australia and in South Australia investigated scientifically and or low frost-risk locations, but can (for example, Reedy Creek by various plant propagators in be grown successfully in a wider Nurseries and associated growers nurseries. Scarification of the seed, range of conditions. Bush tomato in Indigenous communities, soaking and smoke treatment all can also be grown as an annual Simarloo Pty Ltd, farmers in the promoted germination, but there crop but must be planted early (in mid-north of South Australia were also differences in response spring) because of the extended and Tangentyere Council, Alice between seed lots. ripening period in autumn. Bush Springs). They have also been tomato fails to thrive or even to grown successfully on a small- Plant material is available from: plot trial basis in locations from establish in colder, wetter areas • (such as the south-east coast of Ceduna in western South Australia Australian Native Produce South Australia). through to Junee on the western Industries (Paringa, South slopes of New South Wales. Australia; Tel. 08 8595 8129) Most of the current crop of bush • tomato comes from wild harvest Steve Ross, AZEC (Broken in Central Australia. Note that Varieties Hill, NSW Tel 08 8087 within the same geographic range 8023). there are closely related species When grown from seed, bush Reedy Creek Nurseries (Kingston that are similar in appearance to tomato plants vary a great deal SE, South Australia) sells to S. centrale but produce poisonous in morphology (leaf colour, the Indigenous communities (Tel 08 fruits. Similarly, it is important presence or absence of spines 8768 7220). Plants are available to note that the fruit of S. centrale and so on). This indicates that from August onwards. in the green (immature) state there is a great potential for plant contains the toxins solanine and improvement, which has barely Tangentyere Council Nursery in solasidine (similar to the toxin begun. Plants are usually supplied Alice Springs supplies a variety of in green potatoes). Green fruit in seedling trays and, depending native food seedlings, including should not be harvested for human consumption. Yellow and mature dried fruits have very low, acceptable levels of the toxin. Soil

Lighter, well-drained soils are preferred. Mounding (0.3 to 0.5 m high) to assist drainage is very likely to be beneficial. In heavier soils, mounding will probably be essential. Deep ripping to 0.5 m is also likely to aid bush tomato production. There is a view that for large-scale (broad-acre) production in well-drained soil mounding is unnecessary. Bush tomato with mulch, showing growth of suckers, Moonta South Australia

Bush tomato 12

Native Foods Book.indb 12 18/02/2008 2:05:40 PM selected bush tomato (10 Brown suitable location, harvest should St, Alice Springs, NT; Tel. 08 8952 occur the next autumn. In places 6644). where the plant is a perennial, the yield can be expected to rise in the second and third years. Quality Agronomy can decrease after that, so Reedy Creek Nursery and associated Site preparation growers plant the crop on a three- It is recommended that the soil year cycle. Expected yield figures Flowers and fruits at various stages of devel- vary from 25 to 100 g of fruit is ripped and mounded (0.5 m) opment occur simultaneously on a bush where possible, to aid drainage, per plant in year 1. Depending complete regeneration of the shoot especially on heavier soils and in on the conditions (and especially is necessary. It is possible to grow cooler environments in southern where the plant is perennial), this the crop as an annual, planting can increase to twice the initial Australia. Where mechanical as early as possible in spring and harvesting is used, the planting figure in years 2 and 3 (50 to 200 g harvesting in autumn. fruit per plant). However, note layout should be designed to suit that there are examples where the type of harvesting equipment. Mulching can be beneficial but yields were similar in years 1 and Some growers practise weed must be combined with good 2 (around 0.7 t/ha ) and then control by use of weedmatting. drainage. decreased dramatically in years 3 Equipment Fertiliser and 4. Where unimproved plant material is used, the variation in Equipment is required for ripping Slow-release fertiliser has been yield between plants is likely to be the soil along the planting line and used on plantings of bush tomato. very high. for soil mounding. Not a great deal is known of the specific nutrient requirements Good cultural practices of bush tomato, although high Pest and disease control Some growers advocate planting potassium fertiliser after flowering, Establishment rates of bush rows of other Solanum species during fruit development, is likely tomato in cultivation can be every third or fourth row, to attract to be beneficial. Phosphorus and nitrogen fertilisers as well as very variable. They can be pollinating insects, since bush organic manures have been used excellent, but complete failures tomato is bee pollinated. Native successfully. However, experience have also occurred. The failures bees appear to be the preferred shows that a fertiliser treatment were possibly due to soil-borne pollinators. that works at one location will not pests and/or diseases, although Row spacings are commonly in necessarily be beneficial at other no research has been done into the range 1 to 2 m, with 0.5–1 m locations. the cause and control of these problems. Small trial plantings are between plants within the row. Time line to first harvest therefore recommended for new At Tangentyere, about 1/3 ha was areas. planted with 10,000 seedlings— If planted in early spring at a that is, a rate of 30,000/ha. Sooty mould on the foliage and fruit has caused problems when The bush tomato can be grown as grown in moister (especially moist a perennial, with the second and coastal) locations. later year crops coming either from persistent above-ground growth, or from suckers that regrow in Harvest and post- spring after the plant has died off harvest in winter. The plant grows best as a perennial in warm, dry locations Harvest is by hand or mechanical. that have a low incidence of frost. The crop should be harvested In less favourable locations, the when the fruit is either dried crop can regrow from suckers but Mechanical harvesting of bush tomato, Simarloo or at least yellow in colour and will be harvested later because Pty Ltd, Lyrup, South Australia ideally when it reaches a rich

13 Bush tomato

Native Foods Book.indb 13 18/02/2008 2:05:41 PM ochre brown. Green fruit in the protected at all times from moth References harvest should be avoided because and insect infestation. these contain higher levels of Ahmed, A. (2001) Horticultural solanine. In summer, individual Financial information Development of two Australian plants very often carry all stages of Native Edible Plants: warrigal Cultivation of bush tomatoes has fruit development from flowering greens and bush tomato. University only been practised on a small through to ripe fruit. It is therefore of Technology, Sydney. scale to date. Tangentyere Council more efficient to harvest late in Alice Springs, Northern in the season when the fruit ANPI / PIRSA fact sheet Bush Territory, pioneered the successful is more uniformly ripe. When Tomato Production http://www. trial of cultivated bush tomatoes handharvesting, protection from anpi.com.au/farmserv/fs_idx.htm on three plots at Tangentyere the spines of the plant is necessary (on-line); http://www.pir.sa.gov. Town Camps around Alice (gloves). Mechanical harvesting au/pages/agriculture/agfactsheets/ Springs between 2001 and 2003. has been achieved by adaptation fs_index.pdf. and modification of grain crop Tangentyere Council has provided Hegarty, M.P., Hegarty, E.E. & headers. a table of typical set-up costs 2 Wills, R.B.H. (2001) Food Safety of Fruit that has not dried out to a for a plot of 3,500 m (Table 1). Australian Plant Bushfoods. Pub. no. very dry state or is still yellowish in The plot comprised 35 rows of 01/028. RIRDC, Canberra. colour will need to be further dried 60 m each, with a 1.5 m spacing after harvesting. Fruit must be between rows. Robins J, (1996) Wild Lime, Allen Table 1. Bush tomato horticultural production & Unwin, Sydney. http://www. robins.net.au. establishment costs, Alice Springs

Cost centre Cost ($) Fencing 4,940 Weedmat 2,200 Key statistics Trellises 770 Irrigation system 1,923 • The estimated harvest for Fertilizer 2,330 value-adding in 2002 was Seedlings 5,000 4–8 t. Hire equipment 1,000 • Consultants fees 2,500 Most of the produce is wild Freight 750 harvested, although up to Fuel 500 2 t comes from cultivated Office supplies 100 sources. Phone/fax/Email 250 Remote area fee 2,500 Key messages Travel allowances 2,100 Total 26,863 • The industry is currently market driven and bush Source: Peter Cowham, Tangentyere Council, 2001-2003 tomato is in demand because of its flavour Acknowledgments profile. • Bush tomato can be grown The authors acknowledge very helpful discussions with Noel Sims as a perennial crop, yielding (Simarloo Pty Ltd), Peter Hoffmann (Eudunda, SA), Peter Cowham up to 0.7 t dried berry per (Tangentyere Council, NT) and Mike Quarmby (Reedy Creek hectare in good conditions. Nurseries). We also acknowledge very helpful discussions regarding • Cultivation systems the markets for bush tomato with Chris Mara (Chairperson, Coles are at an early stage of Indigenous Food Fund, Coles Supermarkets) and Geoff Gordon, development and yield is (Managing Director, Hela Schwarz Australia). highly variable.

Bush tomato 14

Native Foods Book.indb 14 18/02/2008 2:05:41 PM About the authors Key contacts

Juleigh Robins is coowner and Director Peter Cowham of Robins Foods Pty Ltd, manufacturers Tangentyere Council and brand marketers of Outback Alice Springs Spirit products. Juleigh has worked Tel: (08) 8952 6644 extensively on the native food supply Email: peter.cowham chain, strategically at the inbound @tangentyere.org.au supply end and the outbound market end. Indigenous Australian Foods Ltd (an Aboriginal-owned and Mike Quarmby -controlled supply company), is a unique and tangible outcome Reedy Creek Nursery of this focus and has enabled Hela International, Kez’s Kitchen Kingston (SE) SA 5275 and Cooka’s Country Cookies to become valued Robins’ supply Tel: (08) 8768 7220 chain partners. Coles Supermarkets also supports Robins via the Email reedycreeknursery distribution of the Outback Spirit range in 600 supermarkets @bigpond.com nationally and through partnering Robins Foods in Coles Indigenous Food Fund. Steve Ross AZEC Maarten Ryder has a PhD in Agricultural Broken Hill NSW 2880 Biochemistry and Plant Pathology from the Tel: (08) 8087 8023 Adelaide University. He has worked in soil biology research at CSIRO since 1986. More Maarten Ryder recently (1999) he began working on the CSIRO Land and Water cultivation of native food plants and joined the Adelaide Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre Tel: (08) 8303 8534 in 2003, where he is working on “bush produce”. Email: [email protected]

Disclaimer

Whilst every care has been taken in preparing this article, neither RIRDC nor the authors accept any responsibility or liability for decisions or actions taken as a result of any data, information, statement or advice, expressed or implied, contained in this article. Readers should make their own detailed inquiries and obtain professional advice before making any commercial decisions based on information contained in this article.

15 Bush tomato

Native Foods Book.indb 15 18/02/2008 2:05:42 PM Lemon myrtle

Sibylla Hess-Buschmann

Introduction

Lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) is a medium-sized native tree (3–20 m), discovered by Baron Ferdinand von Müller in 1853.

It originates from coastal rainforest areas 50–800 m above sea level in Queensland, between Lemon myrtle orchard (Photo: Stephen Carle) the latitudes 17°30s and 27°S. ingredient, comprising up to 90% Although lemon myrtle essential Joseph H. Maiden reported on of lemon myrtle essential oil, gives oil has been used from early last the potential use of lemon myrtle it a distinctive lemon fragrance century for lemon flavouring, it for commercial production in and taste; other lemon-flavoured could not compete with the much 1889 and a German company, oils have less citral, such as citrus cheaper essential oils distilled from (3–10%), lemon grass (75%) and Schimmel & Co., was the first to lemon grass and tropical verbena. identify the ingredient, citral. This tropical verbena (74%). In the early 1990s, lemon myrtle was rediscovered as a promising culinary herb in the emerging Australian cuisine, fusing native flavours into a variety of dishes. This led growers to view the crop as a potential new enterprise for the Northern Rivers region of New South Wales.

By 1996–97 farmers in New South Wales had planted over 150,000 trees, hoping to satisfy a market demand anticipated during the Suitable growing areas Sydney 2000 Olympics.

More than 1 million trees have also been planted in Queensland.

Lemon myrtle 16

Native Foods Book.indb 16 18/02/2008 2:05:44 PM trees are particularly frost and drought tender and require irrigation during dry spells.

The tree prefers neutral instead of acid soil and is prone to yellowing in alkaline soils. Once established, the trees are relatively hardy and recover quickly from dry spells.

Although trees have been grown in Victoria and South Australia, most of the crop is located in northern New South Wales and south-east Queensland, in areas recording more than 800 mm rainfall. A Lemon myrtle orchard—year 4 (Photo: Stephen Carle) well-managed mature orchard in northern New South Wales with Markets and marketing Lemon myrtle essential oil in vitro rich soil and ample water can has been shown to be superior achieve a yield of 5.5 t/ha dry leaf Since 1997 the lemon myrtle in antimicrobial and anti-fungal per year. industry has been production action to the now popular tea tree driven, with growers not realising essential oil. Flat, free-draining ground is their anticipated returns. essential for mechanical harvesting. It can have a future as an River flats are not suited, as the antiseptic, surface disinfectant Lemon myrtle essential oil is not trees succumb to waterlogging. or perhaps for inclusion in foods commercially produced anywhere The tree is prone to snap off in as a natural antimicrobial agent. in the world and the product is wind-prone areas. largely unknown in the global Although the Therapeutic Goods marketplace. Administration of Australia has listed lemon myrtle essential oil as Varieties Lack of research into growing, an active ingredient for external processing, storage and product application, no health benefit There are two main commercial use has severely challenged the claims can be made without the clones being planted. The industry, which faces a glut of appropriate TGA approval. line commonly referred to as raw material and no market. In Limpinwood is hard to strike Australian production statistics are the past 10 years many more but shows superior ornamental unavailable due to the reluctance uses of lemon myrtle have been presentation, high biomass and of key producers to share discovered, though it is still only high oil yield and citral content. information. a niche market product, currently The other variety, commonly oversupplied. referred to as Line B or Eudlo Prices for lemon myrtle (as fresh clone is relatively easy to strike, leaf on stem) at the farm-gate have vigorous but slightly lower in Lemon myrtle product is mainly recently fallen sharply, from $10 traded as a specialist culinary biomass, oil and citral yield. Most to $2/kg, perhaps as a result of the plants have been supplied from ingredient to be added to food advent of mechanised harvesting. for its unique flavour. Some food contracted specialist nurseries. manufacturers use small amounts of either dried milled leaves or Production Agronomy essential oil to flavour pasta, oils, requirements sauces, ice creams or tea. Without The decision to cultivate mainstream food processors Lemon myrtle prefers nutrient- lemon myrtle as a commercial adopting the product, critical rich soils of medium to heavy crop should only be made in mass for the industry will not be texture in a well-drained, wind- response to market demand with achieved. protected sunny position. Young prearranged prices. The market

17 Lemon myrtle

Native Foods Book.indb 17 18/02/2008 2:05:46 PM is very competitive and currently Good cultural practices and processing. The capital- intensive oversupplied. good manufacturing practices are nature of the production and paramount as the product is a food processing chain, coupled with the Lemon myrtle is a perennial tree ingredient. Traceability, HACCP high cost of establishing markets, crop typically planted in rows. and product specification, poses risks for the grower. Site planning requires that there is including microbial or residual easy mechanical access year round. counts, are now becoming an Lemon myrtle mechanical harvest The land preparation required essential part of virtually any food for dried leaf product is done by for lemon myrtle is deep ripping, business. Farmers need to be very specially designed and custom- followed by rotary hoeing. It is diligent about the integrity of their built harvesting machinery cutting essential to clear the rows of weeds products if they want to sell them. before planting. Lemon myrtle is the tips of the tree in an angled most commonly planted in late Pest and disease control position. The cut material falls spring or early autumn. Young onto a conveyor belt transporting trees are transplanted at 30–40 cm Lemon myrtle has not so far it into a stainless steel bin. Some tall, placed 1.5 m apart with a been significantly challenged by people in the industry still hand 3.5– 4.0 m spacing between the pests or diseases in northern New cut and hand strip the leaf from rows. Ample moisture, mulching South Wales. There is no chemical the stem, but this will not be a and weed control are essential for pesticide approved for the crop. viable situation for the future. successful crop establishment. The leaf-on-stem material is dried The nutritional requirements Harvest and post- as is and is de-stemmed after for lemon myrtle are not well harvest drying or is mechanically stripped understood, but the trees grow best in rich, fertile soils and need wet, to then be dried in herb Growers of lemon myrtle need drying rooms or custom-designed increasing amounts of organic to consider economy of scale or driers. fertilisers as they are maturing. critical mass The trees can be cut up to three to be cost- times each year and, as each effective, to be harvest removes a large amount able to assure of biomass, it is essential to consistently return nutrients for long-term high-quality productivity. supply in quantity. This In New South Wales trees are tip- can only be pruned for the first 18 months to achieved by encourage leaf production. After mechanised 24 months, the trees start to form production and hedges, that can be mechanically harvested.

Specialised harvesting and post-harvest machinery is not available off the shelf and the prospective grower needs to consider investing substantial resources in mechanising harvesting. Lemon myrtle—year 1 (left) and year 2 (right)

Lemon myrtle 18

Native Foods Book.indb 18 18/02/2008 2:05:48 PM Due to the high volatility of the to remove leaves from stems, drying McKinna, D. (2003) Curing new citral component, it is imperative units and distillation equipment industry syndrome. Proceedings Of to dry lemon myrtle at low (such as boilers, condensers The National Herbs, Native Foods temperatures (less than 35°C) as and separators) are very high. and Essential Oils Convention. quickly as possible. Ideally, the Furthermore, suitable structures Project no. TA 023-36. RIRDC, product is placed into the drier for processing need to meet the Canberra. (in press). within one hour of harvesting requirement to comply with to prevent the product heating HACCP. Ryan, T., Cavanagh, H.M.A., & up, deteriorating and becoming Wilkinson, J.M. (2000) Anti- contaminated with a significant The size of accessible markets is microbial activity of Backhousia microbial load. limited and the marketing cost for citriodora oil. Simply Essential. a new crop not previously grown 38:6–8. After drying, the leaves are commercially anywhere in the ground to customer or product world is very expensive. Economic Ryder, M. (2004) Evaluating specifications and stored in a cool, analyses for lemon myrtle, as for Performance of Cultivated Native dark environment until dispatch. all new crops, need to be treated Food Plants in Southern Australian with extreme caution. The lemon Environments. Project no. CSL- For essential oil, specialised myrtle industry in Australia is still 11A, CSIRO Land and Water. machines cut the stems and leaves in the early stage of development RIRDC, Canberra. (in press). into smaller particle sizes. This cut and reliable statistical information material is then fed into a stainless is unavailable. Wilkinson, J.M., Hipwell, M., steel bin and placed in a steam Ryan, T., & Cavanagh, H.M.A, distillation unit. The essential oil Lemon myrtle is one of the most (2003) Bioactivityof Backhousia is very corrosive to plastics, and cultivated species of the native food citridora: antibacterial and stainless steel or glass containers industry, excluding macadamias. anti-fungal activity. Journal of are commonly used for cool-room It shows wonderful potential Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 51: storage until dispatch. as a specialist food ingredient, 76–81. functional food and cosmetic Financial information ingredient. However, its financial About the viability will depend on mainstream The estimated start-up cost food industries using the product. author per hectare, not including land, machinery, clearing, labour or Key references structures, is about $14,000– $16,000 including operating Faragher, J. (2004) Food safety costs for one year. Plants can be issues for the Australian native obtained from specialised nurseries plant, food and herb industries. for $150–$450 per hundred, Proceedings of the National Herbs, depending on size. Weed control, Native Foods and Essential Oils mulching, irrigation and fertilising Convention. Project no. TA 023– are the main costs in the two-year 36. RIRDC, Canberra. (in press) establishment phase. While the need for weed control diminishes as Fletcher, R.J. (2003) International the plants mature, harvested trees new crop development. Incentives, require application of more fertiliser barriers, processes and progress: an with age. Australian perspective. In: J. Janick Sibylla Hess-Buschmann & A. Whipkey (eds). Trends in New is Managing Director of Capital outlay for lemon myrtle Crops and New Uses. Proceedings Australian Rainforest Products cultivation needs to include tractors, of the Fifth National Symposium, Pty Ltd, a company specialising trailers and mowers. However, New Crops and New Uses, Atlanta, in growing, processing and the capital outlay for specialised Georgia, http://www.hort.purdue. marketing Australian native equipment such as custom-built edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-040.html specialised ingredients to food, harvesters, stainless steel bins, cosmetic and pharmaceutical conveyors, specially designed units http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ industries. newcrop/ncnu02/v5-040.html

19 Lemon myrtle

Native Foods Book.indb 19 18/02/2008 2:05:48 PM Key messages Key contacts

Dr Rob Fletcher • Lemon myrtle is a versatile The University of Queensland Gatton College native herb. Gatton QLD 4343 • It has multiple uses in Tel: (07) 5460 1301 different categories. Fax: (07) 5460 1112 • Promising bio-actives are Email: [email protected] present. Dr Maarten Ryder • The market is currently CSIRO Land and Water oversupplied. PMB 2 Glen Osmond SA 5064 Tel: (08) 8303 8534 Fax: (08) 8303 8684 Email: [email protected]

Southern Bushfood Association 48 Outlook Road Mt Waverley VIC 3149 Tel: (03) 9807 2834 Email: [email protected]

Dick Copeman Secretary Queensland Bushfood Association 40 Glenrosa Rd. Red Hill QLD 4059 Tel: (07) 3244 0731 ah Email: [email protected]

Sibylla Hess-Buschmann Director Australian Rainforest Products Pty Ltd PO Box 6136 South Lismore NSW 2480 Tel: (02) 6689 7414 Fax: (02) 6689 7565 Email: [email protected]

Disclaimer

Lemon myrtle 20

Native Foods Book.indb 20 18/02/2008 2:05:49 PM Native citrus

characteristics, especially relating Hugh Macintosh to salt and drought tolerance and disease resistance, were of particular interest.

Introduction Wild limes have often been cited as one of the native foods with the most potential for commercial Most Australians would be development. However, it is only surprised to learn that there are in the last 10 years that researchers seven native plant species that have been developing new crop are a true citrus. Despite this plants based on the native species. abundance, the cultivation and use of native citrus was largely ignored Commercial producers such until the 1960s when CSIRO as Australian Native Produce began investigating the use of Industries (ANPI) have seen the some species in its citrus breeding potential in these new varieties and programs. secured the right to commercialise them. Wild-harvested Citrus glauca fruit, south-west The application of these native Queensland (Photo: Australian Desert Limes species was primarily in developing At the same time other 2003) new rootstocks suited to Australian commercial producers have been conditions to support the growth developing plantations based instances these selections are being of traditional citrus species (Sykes on selections taken from better grafted onto specially selected 2000). The native species’ unique performing wild plants. In some citrus rootstock. High-quality native limes are now being harvested from orchards, reducing the need to collect limes from the wild, improving the reliability of supply and minimising any detrimental impact on wild populations.

While production issues continue to demand research attention, it is the market that ultimately determines the success or otherwise of a product. Producers, processors and marketers need to Finger lime Round lime continually ask themselves whether Russell River lime the product satisfies a demand in a Maiden’s wild lime particular target market. Mt White lime Desert lime Citrus gracilis As with many young industries, the native lime sector suffers from

21 Native citrus

Native Foods Book.indb 21 18/02/2008 2:05:50 PM • ANPI/Red Ochre • Australian Desert Limes Pty Ltd • Australian Harvest Fine Foods Pty Ltd • Byron Bay Native Produce Pty Ltd • Cherikoff Food-services Pty Ltd • Kurrajong Australian Native Foods Pty Ltd • Rainforest Foods Pty Ltd • Rainforest Liqueurs Pty Ltd • Robins Australian Foods Pty Ltd A range of Australian Desert Limes’ products at a farmers’ market in Brisbane (Photo: Australian • Desert Limes, 2003) Taylors Food Pty Ltd • a general lack of understanding of quantities of limes means that the Tuckombil Native Foods Pty existing and potential markets and industry is beginning to establish Ltd. the forces that drive these markets. a base from which to develop a Most of these companies operate This can lead to participants not reasonable market presence. at more than one level in the focusing their energies and scarce supply chain. The major processor, resources on the potentially most Market development will require a ANPI, is a grower, wholesaler, rewarding sectors of the market. significant capital base from which processor, retailer and marketer of to develop a range of products and a range of products. ANPI sources to establish an efficient marketing Markets and marketing most, if not all, of its limes from and distribution chain. Th��e plantations, predominantly from industry structure includes: plantations it owns or controls. Reliable market demand • information and statistics are wild harvesters Taylors Food is a “mainstream” difficult to obtain as the wild lime • commercial growers food processor that also produces industry remains fragmented, with • a range of native food products a significant amount of semi- or wholesalers under the “Wild Taste” brand. sub-commercial activity—for • processors example, small-scale operations There is still some product being • that collect fruit and sell it to local marketers sold directly from growers/ restaurants. Further, the industry • retailers harvesters in unprocessed form to is too small to be considered in the • restaurants. normal horticultural production nursery operators statistics. • food-service operators. The industry is constrained by a lack of critical mass, largely due to The domestic market for native Native citrus, and indeed native a lack of commercial quantities of citrus-based products is relatively foods, usually comprise only a raw material, and the lack of any small at present, but there seems small part of the business of many real supply chains. to be significant export market of these operations. potential for both processed and In common with the native food part-processed product. Until Depending on the variety, native industry generally, the main recently, most of the native citrus citrus are usually sold as either marketing issues affecting native supplies have come from wild fresh or frozen whole fruit. A citrus are: harvest, which has constrained number of specialist processors • industry expansion as annual yields are currently marketing processed the large number of brands are highly variable. The emergence native citrus products. The major relative to the size of the of significant plantation-grown companies include: industry

Native Citrus 22

Native Foods Book.indb 22 18/02/2008 2:05:52 PM • an unclear market position Prices can be highly variable due from Cape York Peninsula to the relative to the mainstream to fluctuations in supply. Indicative Clarence River on the north coast food categories price ranges are as follows: of New South Wales. Due to the impact of land clearing and urban • the relatively small volume Variety Product Wholesale encroachment, each species now of assured supply from price ($/kg) has a limited distribution, with plantations two of the species endemic to • Desert Frozen 5–15 a general lack of market lime whole Queensland currently listed as rare awareness about how to use in the wild. the raw product. Finger Whole 25–80 lime The desert lime is endemic to Despite the industry’s infancy, semi-arid regions of south-west there are some significant success The continued development of Queensland, western New South stories in achieving export sales commercial plantations will see Wales and South Australia. of processed products. ANPI and these prices fall to more reasonable Robins have been successful in levels, and will assist the market Like all citrus, native limes prefer penetrating foreign supermarkets development. a well-drained soil. They will and department stores, particularly tolerate poor soils, dry conditions in the United Kingdom. Export Native limes are an extremely (particularly the desert lime) and sales have also been established in versatile fruit. They can be used cold. Plantation-grown trees have the United States, Germany and in any product or process where been shown to respond well to Canada. “normal” limes are used, the main both irrigation and fertiliser. difference being their size and Similarly, some of the more intense flavour. The typical uses of Research into plantation established native foods processors citrus are shown below. have been able to penetrate the production is still relatively limited, and commercial growers closely domestic supermarket trade with Production their products. These include guard many of the techniques Robins and ANPI. requirements they have learned by trial and error. The CSIRO Division of The continued establishment The five rainforest species of native Land and Water has established of plantation-based production citrus are all endemic to rainforest trial plantations at a number of systems is essential to the habitats on the east coast. Their sites around Australia to research development of the native citrus distribution originally extended optimal production strategies. industry. As demand increases a reliable supply of high-quality · segments Canning Preserving · preserves produce will be required. In the · slices · brined peel past, manufacturers have needed · fruit salads · candied products · pickles to cease production or reduce FrFruituit promotion of some products due to the unavailability of raw produce. Juice extraction The failure of the desert lime · stock feed wild harvest in 1998 forced food · alcohol Bases for processors to shift to alternative · pectin · sofBaset sdrinks for raw materials or to abandon desert • soft drinks · flavonoids · preser• preserveves s Pulp Peel • confections · distilled oils lime-based products altogether · confections (Cherikoff personal comm., 1999). · soft drink base · single-strength juice Industry sources suggest that · fla• flavvoouuringsrings Essential • chemicals Juice · concentrates production of native limes is · chemicals oil · syrups · dehydrated juice around 25 t/yr, with at least 50% · bases for of this being from plantations. This excludes the harvest of hybrid - soft drinks - preserves varieties such as those used by - confections ANPI.

23 Native citrus

Native Foods Book.indb 23 18/02/2008 2:05:53 PM In the absence of specific detailed as Microcitrus (the five rainforest lime’s flesh consists of tiny, research, intending growers should varieties) and Eremocitrus (desert slightly sticky globules. Flowering treat native citrus as they would a lime). More recently there has generally occurs from February to traditional citrus orchard. been a move to re-name all seven May, with fruiting from May to varieties as Citrus species , bringing September. Production is usually Varieties and cultivars them into line with mainstream biennial. citrus varieties. Finger limes can be used as a Birmingham (1998) reports that Finger lime fresh fruit for garnish and for there is a lack of standardisation processing into a wide range of The finger lime (C. australasica) is of common names within the value-added products. There are a found wild as an understorey shrub native citrus industries, with the number of commercial plantations in the rainforests of southern seven different varieties and their in northern New South Wales, Queensland and northern New hybrids listed as ‘native citrus’ producing small quantities of fruit. or ‘wild limes’. Botanical names South Wales. Its grows naturally Wholesale prices can range from are the only positive method for in heavy shade in high-rainfall $25 to $80/kg, although $8 to $12 identifying the true native species. areas, but also appears at the edge is probably a more realistic price. of cleared forest where there is The finger lime and desert lime, more sunlight. In their natural Round lime in particular, hybridise easily environment trees can reach 6 m with traditional commercial in height. Round lime (C. australis), also citrus varieties. Cultivated called the Gympie lime, is the hybrids are generally referred The fruit is cylindrical, up to most vigorous of the Australian to by their cultivated variety 10 cm long, and can be green, native citrus, growing to a height name or origin; for example, the yellow, red, purple or black of 18 m. It is endemic to south- A Australian Blood lime is a hybrid when ripe. The pulp is usually eastern Queensland, in lowland between Citrus and Microcitrus. greenish-yellow although there is sub-tropical rainforest. a variety—Sanguinea—that is red There are two distinct genera of fleshed. The fruits are about 2–5 cm in true native citrus in Australia. diameter and have a thick, green- These were initially identified Unlike other citrus the finger to-yellow skin and pale green pulp. Note: A covered by Plant Breeders’ Rights This species flowers from August to November.

The round lime is suitable for processing into a range of value- added products. The skin is very thick (up to 7 mm) and has potential for culinary use, such as

C. australis—round lime— immature fruit C. australasica—finger lime—fruit (Photo: Mike Saalfeld) (Photo: Mike Saalfeld)

Native Citrus 24

Native Foods Book.indb 24 18/02/2008 2:05:56 PM grating into spice pastes, or for C. garrawayae is similar to C. drought tolerant and able to candied peel. The species can also australasica, but has broader withstand extremes of heat (45°C) have potential for essential oil leaves. Fruit forms from April and cold (–2 to –4°C). extraction. Recent farm-gate prices to November. The fruits are also range from $8 to $9/kg. “finger-shaped”, with a green The flower to fruiting time is the skin and greenish-white pulp on shortest of any citrus species, being Russell River lime maturity. The fruit can be used for 10–12 weeks. The species flowers mainly in spring and fruits ripen in Russell River lime (C. inodora) processing into a range of value- summer. is a fairly rare species from added products, as for the round lime. near-coastal areas in Far North Fruit can be picked when still green Queensland. Plants require and has a pleasantly refreshing and shady conditions, plenty of water tangy taste. Desert lime fruit is and organically rich, loamy soil extremely popular and becoming although they will grow in poorer well known within the native food soils. This variety is very slow industry. The fruit has a very thin growing and only reaches a height rind, is often seedless and can of 2–4 metres. be used whole in cooking. Fruit must be frozen within 24 hours of Of all the native citrus, C. inodora harvest. looks the most similar to a traditional citrus. It is unusual Wholesale prices can range from in that there is a distinct lack of $5–$15/kg. fragrance in the flowers. Citrus gracilis The fruit are green on maturity, oval (somewhat lemon-shaped) C. gracilis has recently been and up to 6.5 x 3.2 cm in size. This described and grows wild as Fruit and leaves of Mt White lime growing in a straggling tree in eucalypt species is also classified as rare Central Queensland (Photo: Mike Saalfield, woodland in the Northern and is protected. The fruit is not 2004) Territory. It has a similar growth commercially traded. Desert lime habit to the desert lime and Maiden’s Australian wild produces round fruit up to 8 cm in Also known as the wild lime or lime diameter. Fruit has not been traded native cumquat, C. glauca comes commercially. It is also known as Commonly known as Maiden’s from the semi-arid regions of the Humpty Doo or Kakadu lime. eastern Australia, from Longreach Australian lime, C. maideniana was Other types originally described as a variety or in western Queensland, south to Dubbo in central New South subspecies of C. inodora. The two There is one known native Wales and west to Quorn in species have a similar distribution, citrus hybrid, the Sydney hybrid the Flinders Ranges of South limited to a small area in Far (C. australis x C. australasica), Australia. North Queensland. Fruit is not which was developed by the US commercially traded. Department of Agriculture. This The desert lime has blue-grey species is not known to be grown Mt White lime leaves and prickles along the commercially. branches although above a height Mr White lime (C. garrawayae) of about 2 m there are no more In addition, there are four known is endemic to the foothills and prickles on the branches. cultivars of native citrus currently upland rainforest of the Cook available. District on Cape York Peninsula. Plants are usually found growing A It grows in deciduous vine thickets on clay or heavy clay soils, often Rainforest Pearl is a selection of as an understorey shrub and has in clumps. They are occasionally C. australasica var. sanguinea made been recorded at a height of 15 m. found as single large trees to by Erika Birmingham from Byron Due to its limited distribution, this 5–6metres in height. Bay Native Produce in northern species is now classified as rare and New South Wales. The Outback A is protected. The desert lime is extremely Lime is a selection of C. glauca

25 Native citrus

Native Foods Book.indb 25 18/02/2008 2:05:57 PM made by Dr Steve Sykes of CSIRO. particular management problems. glyphosate. Weed and grass control Two cultivars of partly native citrus around the base of trees or shrubs parentage have also been developed Plants can be grown from seed A is important, particularly during by Dr Sykes, the Blood Lime and (but the resulting plants can not A the early years of establishment. the Sunrise Lime . be true to type); by cuttings, which are slow; or by budding onto Before selecting a species to grow, ANPI has secured the rights to citrus rootstock. Grafting buds it is worth examining its natural commercialise the three cultivars (budding) on to citrus rootstock range and determining whether developed by Dr Sykes. is the preferred method for most your area has similar climatic commercial plantation growers. Plant stock is available from conditions. a number of nurseries around Budding allows growers to avoid While there are a number of Australia (see the list at the end of the long juvenile period, and trees research projects under way this chapter). Rainforest Pearl is can bear fruit in their second or to determine the optimum available from Byron Bay Native third year. production systems for native Produce, while the three CSIRO- citrus in a range of conditions, bred cultivars are available from Selection of the best rootstock will in the first instance new growers ANPI. need to be based on soil type and climatic conditions. should treat their native citrus as

Agronomy Many growers tend to use natural fertilisers and, if herbicides are Commercial cultivation of bush used, generally this is restricted to foods is a very young industry and the cultivation techniques being used are, to a certain extent, experimental. Plantations range from those mimicking the standard commercial orchard design to permaculture food forests. These forests have a mixture of species planted in a design that imitates the structure of a natural forest ecosystem. At the other end of the spectrum some growers are planting out using rows in the traditional orchard set-up, although until recently very few were planting monocultures. Generally, orchards have up to 10 species, either planted in different rows or grouped in a certain part of the orchard to create a mosaic of species. The rows are often interplanted with a shelter belt of native species that also provides a refuge for insects. The food forest structure is often used by growers who are using bush tucker species for revegetation programs. However, this type of orchard poses Three-year-old grafted C. glauca in south-west Queensland (Photo: Austrailan Desert Limes,

Native Citrus 26

Native Foods Book.indb 26 18/02/2008 2:05:58 PM labour costs and minimise the damage done to the product. Harvesting should take place during the cooler parts of the day so as to reduce the effects of heat on fruit quality. In any event, fruit should be refrigerated as soon as possible after harvest and/or frozen within 12–24 hours of harvest (C. glauca). Whether fruit is being supplied to food-service outlets or being used in manufacturing, it will need to be graded and cleaned of dirt, sticks and other foreign matter. In small orchards this task is done by hand, but this method becomes Wild harvesting C. glauca in south-west Queensland (Photo: Austrailan Desert Limes, 2003) impractical as volumes increase. There is no commercial grading any other commercial citrus crop. fertiliser burn and wind abrasion). equipment available, but some of the more innovative growers In these early days of commercial Dead wood that can have been have developed their own unique production, irrigation, fertilising killed by the fungus or could be grading and cleaning machines. and management processes harbouring the causal organism (pruning, and so on) need to be should be removed and burnt. All Fruit is generally packed into refined and improved based on pruning cuts should be painted. 500 g or 1 kg food-grade bags personal experience. or punnets. Occasionally, larger Copper sprays, which are often packages can be used for supply applied to control fungal diseases to manufacturers. Different Pest and disease control in citrus, are also likely to be a manufacturers can have particular successful in native citrus. Many of the pests and diseases packaging requirements, that afflict traditional commercial As far as is known, no significant depending on the end use of the citrus orchards can not affect pests or diseases have been product. native citrus. There are, however, reported in plantations of the true The majority of the native citrus pests and diseases that will afflict native varieties. crop is used for processing into native citrus orchards, particularly a range of value-added products, those that are planted as a Harvest and post- with a small amount being sold monoculture. harvest direct to restaurants. One notable disease, “sunrise lime dieback”, emerged in some Native citrus is harvested by hand, Financial information orchards during 2000. The although some of the CSIRO- disease is similar to die-backs that bred varieties reportedly may The economics of production will occasionally occur in other citrus lend themselves to mechanical depend on the production system varieties, although it appears that harvesting. Mechanical harvesting being used. at present the disease is confined will significantly reduce the labour However, the following indicative to the sunrise lime cultivar. The cost involved in harvesting and can costs are provided as a guide. disease has been shown to be be suitable for processing fruit, but These costs assume the following: caused by a Phoma sp. fungus. it is unlikely to be useful for fruit destined for the retail or food- • Plantings are in a Control is best achieved through service market where appearance is monoculture orchard. good management practices that important. minimise the incidence of twig • Spacings follow “normal” death, physical injury or plant As with any fruit, it is important horticultural practice giving a stress (for example, water stress, to minimise handling so as reduce stocking rate of 625 trees/ha.

27 Native citrus

Native Foods Book.indb 27 18/02/2008 2:06:01 PM Grafted plantstock is used. $5/kg. The marketing effort needs Develop the Native Food Industry in to be well planned and should start South Australia. DOTARS & Food • The cost of land, water well before the first fruit is picked. SA, Adelaide. storage, packing shed and plant and equipment is While native citrus-based Phelps, D.G. (1997) Feasibility excluded. products are a novelty product in of a Sustainable Bushfood Industry • Owner-operator labour is relatively short supply, they can in Western Queensland. RIRDC, used. be expected to attract a premium Canberra. price. However, in the medium to Based on these assumptions, the longer term this premium will be Seabrook, W. (1999) Methods of indicative establishment cost for a eroded as supply increases and/ growing bush tucker. Australian 1 ha desert lime orchard will be in or competing products emerge. Bushfoods Magazine. 11:14–15, the order of: The novelty value will disappear Maleny. Item Cost and native citrus-based products Swingle, W. & Reece, P. (1967) ($/ha) will have to compete on more or The botany of citrus and its wild Site preparation 500 less equal terms with other more relatives. The Citrus Industry Vol. Plant stock @ $15 per tree 9,375 conventional product lines. Planting 2,000 1. University of California, United Fencing 500 States. Irrigation 5,000 Key references Total 17,375 Sykes, S. (1997) Australian Birmingham, E. (1998) Australian native limes (Eremocitrus and Ongoing operating costs will Native Citrus: wild limes from Microcitrus)—a citrus breeder’s include chemicals, fertiliser, the rainforest to the desert. The viewpoint; Australian Bushfoods irrigation, harvesting, row Australian New Crops Newsletter Magazine No. 3; Maleny. maintenance and marketing. no. 10, July. Again, on the 1 ha example Acknowledgments orchard just outlined, the Cherikoff, V. & Isaacs, J; (1989) indicative operating costs The Bush Food Handbook: how to gather, grow, process and cook Special thanks are due to Mr Jock (excluding labour, except in Douglas of Australian Desert harvesting) will be in the order of: Australian wild foods. Ti Tree Press, Sydney. Limes, Roma and Mr Mike Item Cost Saalfeld of the United Kingdom ($/ha) Cherikoff, V. (1999) Status and (www.saalfelds.freeserve.co.uk/ Herbicide 50 Marketing Potential of the Native HobbyCitrusGrowers.htm) for Fertiliser 550 Foods Industry, RIRDC, Canberra. providing the photographs used in Irrigation (excludes water 200 this chapter. cost) Graham, C. & Hart, D. (1997) Orchard maintenance 2000 Prospects for the Australian Native Harvest, grading and packing 3500 Bushfood Industry. RIRDC, Marketing 3700 Canberra. Total 10,000 Hele, A. (2001) Australian Native Assuming an average yield from Citrus—wild species, cultivars Key statistics mature trees of 15 kg per tree and and hybrids. Fact sheet. PIRSA, a delivered price of $5/kg, the Adelaide. gross margin on this crop will be • Australia has seven varieties about $36,000. Hele, A. (2001) Sunrise Lime of true native citrus. Dieback. Fact sheet. PIRSA, • As with most businesses, Adelaide. Production of native production is the easy part: limes is around 25 t/yr, marketing is the hard part. The Low, T. (1991) Bush Tucker: with at least 50% of this big question is whether the Australia’s wild food harvest. Angus being from plantation 9.4 t of limes produced from & Robertson, Sydney. production. the theoretical orchard can be marketed at an average price of McKinna, D. (2002) A Strategy to

Native Citrus 28

Native Foods Book.indb 28 18/02/2008 2:06:01 PM About the Key messages author • Plant breeders have developed a number of new hybrids based on the native varieties. • A number of companies have developed export markets for native citrus-based products. • An increase in the area of commercial plantations is reducing the reliance on wild harvest. • CSIRO has established trial plantations at a number of sites around Australia to research optimal production strategies. • Native citrus is usually harvested by hand. • The majority of the native citrus crop is used for processing into a range of value-added products, with a small amount being sold Hugh Macintosh is Managing direct to restaurants. Director of IQ Agribusiness, • a management advisory firm Price premiums will be eroded as more plantation-grown fruit based in Brisbane. He is a becomes available. founding partner and Director of Industry Data On-line Pty Ltd, a business providing on- Disclaimer line business benchmarking services to small to medium- Whilst every care has been taken in preparing this article, neither sized enterprises and industry RIRDC nor the authors accept any responsibility or liability for groups (www.industrydataon- decisions or actions taken as a result of any data, information, line.com). statement or advice, expressed or implied, contained in this article. Readers should make their own detailed inquiries and obtain Hugh holds qualifications in professional advice before making any commercial decisions based on agricultural economics and information contained in this article. business administration.

Red finger lime C. australasica - finger lime flower (Photo: Mike Saalfeld)

29 Native citrus

Native Foods Book.indb 29 18/02/2008 2:06:05 PM Key contacts

Hugh Macintosh Mr Vic Cherikoff General Manager Director IQ Agribusiness Cherikoff Pty Ltd PO Box 2055 30 Gordon Street Toowong QLD 4066 Rozelle NSW 2039 Tel: (07) 3870 2101 Tel: (02) 9818 2800 Mob: 0416 219 750 http://www.cherikoff.net/cherikoff/ Email: [email protected] Ms Juleigh Robins Dr Steven Sykes Managing Director Plant Breeder Robins Australian Foods Pty Ltd CSIRO Plant Industries Factory 1, 8 Braeside Drive Merbein VIC 3505 Braeside VIC 3195 Tel: (03) 5051 3100 Tel: (03) 9587 8820 Email: [email protected] Australian Native Produce Industries www.robins.net.au PO Box 163 Paringa SA 5340 Queensland Bushfood Association Tel: (08) 8595 8129 Email: [email protected] www.anpi.com.au Mr Greg Trevena Mr Jock Douglas Managing Director Managing Director Rainforest Foods Australian Desert Limes PO Box 1929 PO Box 320 Byron Bay NSW 2481 Roma QLD 4455 Tel: (02) 6685 8097 Tel: (07) 4626 8100 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] www.rainforestfoods.com.au

Ms Erika Birmingham Director Byron Bay Native Produce PO Box 232 Bangalow NSW 2479 Tel: (02) 6687 1087 Email: [email protected]

Native Citrus 30

Native Foods Book.indb 30 18/02/2008 2:06:05 PM Native pepper

Chris Read

Introduction

Native, or mountain, pepper products are obtained from the species Tasmannia lanceolata, found naturally in the wet forests and shrublands of south-east Australia, and extending, at higher altitudes, as far as the Hastings River catchment in mid-north New South Wales.

The commercial appeal of the species derives largely from the presence in both leaf and fruit of a hot-tasting terpene compound, polygodial, for which a wide range of biological activity has Native pepper bush antibacterial, anti-fungal and been demonstrated, including insect anti-feedant properties. It is the hot taste to humans that has resulted in the “native pepper” description, thus the potential of both leaf and berries as culinary ingredients.

Most production currently derives from wild-harvested stands, mostly on previously disturbed sites where it flourishes as an early coloniser after removal of wet forest or rainforest canopies. Several substantial stands on previously cleared land in Victoria and Tasmania supply most of the traded product. Natural distribution Figures on gross consumption within Australia are difficult to determine since both production

31 Native pepper

Native Foods Book.indb 31 18/02/2008 2:06:08 PM operations and the present market are small and dispersed. However, it would appear likely that total domestic consumption would be no more than 3 t of dry leaf, 1 t of dry berries and a small amount of fresh or frozen fruit, certainly less than 1 t.

Markets and marketing

Both leaf and berry are traded in the culinary market principally as dried products and leaf is sold mostly in milled or ground form. There is a small market for fresh or frozen berries and fresh leaf, the latter mainly as a garnish.

Food-service manufacturers use milled leaf in a range of prepared foods including relishes, sauces, mustards, cheese, meat seasonings and flour mixes.

Most pepper berries are used as an alternative to “normal” pepper, whole, as a condiment (in grinders) or milled and blended with other spices to produce novel spice mixes and specialty blends.

There is a substantial trade in retail gourmet and gift lines and packaged products for the tourist industry.

A proportion of the leaf produced Native pepper leaves is solvent-extracted for the food flavouring market, and some data, guarantees of safe and range of producer types—from is sold as a raw material in the consistent product and avoidance hobbyists with few overheads preparation of health products and of pesticides in the production and no investment in production nutraceuticals. systems. systems to a small number of more serious producers. Prices at the All of these markets are small While these changes have farm gate can range between $6 and there is considerable “churn” increased the costs of production and $20/kg for fresh berries, from among the smaller users. and marketing in recent years, they $30–$70/kg for dry berries, the have also helped rid the trade of low $30s to over $60/kg for milled There have been major changes some unscrupulous operators and leaf, dependent on quantity, quality to quality and safety requirements led to major increases in efficiency and the specific requirements of in recent years, and most larger among the more serious producers. the customer. buyers of native pepper products now require some supporting Prices obtained for pepper From 1994 to the present the analytical and microbiological products vary widely, reflecting the average price for 25 kg of milled

Native pepper 32

Native Foods Book.indb 32 18/02/2008 2:06:09 PM pepper leaf has fallen from $48/kg to around $38/kg—in real terms a very large reduction, reflecting increased competition for a slowly growing market and improved efficiency of production.

A major issue for production and marketing is the unreliability of wild fruit production between seasons. Between 1994 and 2003 almost no fruit survived to harvest in two seasons, while bumper crops occurred twice. The reasons for this are not clear, but from an ecological perspective the pattern is not unusual, with large crops of fruit or seed often occurring only infrequently, interspersed with small or negligible fruit set in other years. Environmental factors such as late frosts, temperature extremes and drought stress will obviously be important.

Production requirements

The species is typically found in higher rainfall regions of south- east Australia and grows best in cool, sheltered environments free from water stress, on neutral to slightly acid soil, preferably well- drained and fertile.

Native pepper berries Of particular importance is Varieties protection from warm winds, and several Tasmanian growers have chosen forms either from which can kill plants even if water In the natural population, the nearby local stands or on the is being supplied at the time: species displays considerable basis of analysis of leaf extract the plant’s transport system and diversity of form, vigour and composition for yield of polygodial transpiration regulation appear chemotype, offering plenty of or the presence of undesirable unable to cope with extreme scope for selection of favourable constituents. demand on hot days. types. Several producers have Plants are available from most identified individuals with The species is quite frost hardy native plant specialist nurseries in characteristics suited to their in the natural situation, although south-east Australia, since there production location or practices, unseasonal late frost has been is a small market for the plant as and it is likely that this will observed to burn newly emerging an ornamental shrub. Propagation continue in the future. shoots in November–December, for commercial production can although the effect is slight and Producers in Victoria, for example, be easily arranged with any temporary. have chosen a “Toora form”, competent propagator.

33 Native pepper

Native Foods Book.indb 33 18/02/2008 2:06:11 PM Agronomy complete collapse of the transport twigs and other woody material. system, and shoots can not recover Most producers employ home- Most plantations have been at all, so it is important to monitor made equipment for this purpose established using rooted cuttings, soil moisture and to anticipate hot but, again, the development of for speed and convenience and to weather with extra watering, shade plantation production will enable enable introduction of uniform or shelter. mechanisation of this process. Most material from selected plants. leaf is traded as milled product. Seed germination is extremely In ideal situations, vigorous slow (more than 12 months in selections will yield fruit and Warm-air drying is typically some reports), and seedlings are limited quantities of leaf within two used to achieve better than 93% very small, slow to establish and to three years. dry matter and, as with any herb, extremely variable in habit. must be achieved with good air Pest and disease control circulation to prevent ‘stewing’ Sites should be well prepared, of the leaf. In more humid preferably on soils in the neutral While the hot compound present environments it can be necessary to slightly acid range, having good in the leaves of the plant has been to use dehumidification equipment drainage, protection from hot shown to have anti-fungal and but this has not been the case in winds and adequate provision for insect anti-feeding properties, in Tasmania and Victoria, where irrigation. In most situations, some the natural situation a variety of most leaf and berry is produced protection from browsing animals insects appear to browse on the at present. The importance or rabbits which will dig up newly species. of adequate drying must be planted material, is advisable. emphasised: high residual moisture Leaf miners and leaf rollers will allow the development of In some existing mixed plantations, consume the leaf, while a tiny grub spoilage bacteria and fungi and T. lanceolata is grown as a semi- can be found in the fruit and seed. can compromise the quality of the understorey plant, providing good None of these have been observed product. protection from exposure. This in damaging numbers, however, and the plant is typically quite free from practice reflects the common When properly dry, a handful of severe infestations of any kind in natural occurrence of the plant as berries should not yield to a firm the wild. an understorey plant in rainforests. squeeze. No work has been conducted on Weed control during establishment Product must be stored in a the ecology of these insects from is essential, and mulch mats, cool, clean, dry, dark and insect- the point of view of management hand weeding or careful use of proof environment to maintain glyphosate products are all effective of commercial pepper production. the quality, particularly of the methods. leaf, which discolours quickly in Native pepper responds well to Harvest and post- sunlight. the application of side dressings or harvest foliar application of nitrogenous Financial information fertiliser, but little is known of the At present all harvesting of fruit is long-term requirement for fertiliser by hand, while simple mechanical Intending growers should assess in the situation where substantial aids are usually used for removing the key issues below and attempt quantities of leaf and berry are leaves and other foreign matter to balance production and harvested annually. from berries. Establishment of marketing issues in their approach plantations will enable use of simple to the enterprise. Irrigation is required where natural mechanical harvest aids, as the fruit summer rainfall cannot be relied is quite robust when ripe, and can Key issues for any new producer on and, as mentioned, warm windy be shaken from the bush. should be: weather can cause serious damage • to the plant, destroying all the new Leaf material is currently either to establish a sound foliage and shoots or in extreme plucked from the plant or marketing strategy • cases killing the plant. Symptoms gathered using simple trimming to address the post-harvest of water stress are not easy to detect equipment, after which leaves are and food safety technology until too late: wilting can indicate a dried then separated from the issues for their enterprise

Native pepper 34

Native Foods Book.indb 34 18/02/2008 2:06:11 PM • to devise a plantation system Key references suited to their site and Key messages location. Menary, R.C., Dragar, V.A., Thomas, S. & Read, C.D The current market is quite small • (2003) Mountain Pepper Extract The market currently and marketing could include Tasmannia lanceolata - Quality restrains growth. product development, networking stabilisation and registration. Pub. • with existing producers or Pepper prefers a sheltered, no. 02/148. RIRDC, Canberra. moist site. approaching end users for potential • partnership arrangements. Menary, R.C., Dragar, V.A. & Production and marketing Garland, S.M. (1999) Tasmannia networks do work. At present most producers are lanceolata: Developing a New employing very simple, low-cost Commercial Flavour Product. Pub. Key statistics harvest and processing equipment no. 99/124. RIRDC, Canberra. in their operations, and any new • producer would be well advised Cherikoff, V. (1989) The Bushfood Leaf production (dry) is less to delay major investment in Handbook. Ti Tree Press, Sydney. than 3 t/year. this area until a firm market has • Berry production: been established. A cooperative – fresh less than 1 t/year approach to harvest and drying – dried 1 t/year. equipment is to be recommended, Key contacts especially if the equipment can be used for other herb crops during Gil Freeman the year. Prom Country Bushfood About the Association The cost of establishing and Tel: (03) 9416 7150 author maintaining a plantation will Email: [email protected] depend on the approach and resources of the intending Libby Anthony producer. A stand-alone plantation Southern Bushfood Association on purpose-bought land might Tel: (03) 9807 2834 (AH) cost $50,000/ha to bring into Email: [email protected] production (four years), while a low-key pepper enterprise as Chris Read part of a broader horticultural Diemen Pepper operation will be much less capital Tel: (03) 6267 5078 (BH) Dr Chris Read owns and intensive. The decision on the area Email: [email protected] operates Diemen Pepper, a for production should be made small pepper production and in the context of the identified Disclaimer marketing business, from his market and the estimated amount mixed horticultural operation in southern Tasmania. He of product demanded. Whilst every care has been taken has worked in commercial Indications are that a single tree in preparing this article, neither horticulture as a field officer, at 5 years old should produce RIRDC nor the authors accept consultant, researcher and (sustainably) at least 3 kg of fresh any responsibility or liability for commercial operator for more decisions or actions taken as a pepper leaf (about 750 g of dry than 20 years, specialising in result of any data, information, essential oils and cut flower leaf ) or 1.5 of kg fresh berries per statement or advice, expressed or production. year, depending on the season. The implied, contained in this article. mature yield will depend greatly Readers should make their own He is currently developing a on the extent to which the tree is detailed inquiries and obtain small farm tourism operation professional advice before making allowed to develop a canopy before based around a café and harvest of leaf material commences any commercial decisions based on information contained in this essential oil distillery on his —that is time to first harvest and article. property south of Hobart. annual yield.

35 Native pepper

Native Foods Book.indb 35 18/02/2008 2:06:11 PM Quandong

although the Ben Lethbridge good-quality timber of the quandong tree is prized as a craft Introduction wood, it lacks the fragrant essential oils derived from The quandong (Santalum the heartwood of acuminatum) is an Australian most Santalum native shrub or tree that produces species. a visually appealing yellow-to-red, tart tasting, dry-textured fruit that The quandong is a significant component of the is highly tolerant Ripening Powell No. 1 fruit (prov. PBR) native food industry. of saline water and The flesh is amenable to most drought but orchard production The Australian Quandong Industry culinary purposes, including pie has been limited by having only Association was formed in 1992 to fillings, liqueurs and preserves. The a rudimentary understanding of help guide the development of the kernel (nut) is also edible but as the root semiparasitic nature of industry by organising an annual yet has attained little commercial the plant, that is it requires a host conference, producing a regular significance. plant for best production. This newsletter and collating relevant has restricted successful orchard industry information. Quandong is closely related to production to those with some the arid zone sandalwood and, horticultural training. Markets and marketing

The limiting factor to quandong fruit marketing has been a lack of quantity and quality of supply. The dominant market for the quandong is as processed product, usually dried or frozen immediately after being picked. Dried halved fruit can be stored indefinitely in an airtight container. Although the fresh fruit is visually appealing, there is virtually no market for the product to be consumed as fresh fruit. Most producers have been able to dispose of all fruit product to local Natural distribution tourist outlets and speciality stores. Quandong production is currently an entirely Australian industry.

Quandongs 36

Native Foods Book.indb 36 18/02/2008 2:06:12 PM The quandong industry has the types of been rated conservatively at a environments $0.7–1.3 million industry (farm- suitable for gate gross estimates, 2001), with production. commercial planting of around 26,000 trees, which equates to Varieties 50 to 100 ha assuming average planting densities. This constitutes approximately one-third of the Two named total production of 25 t (2001), varieties, with the remainder wild harvested. Powells No.1 (provisional It is unlikely that the high prices PBR) and obtained for wild-harvested fruit Frahns in the past will continue and as Paringa Gem Nonning cultivar—3-year-old seedling and 4-year-old Kathleen orchard production rises the price (provisional is likely to fall to values more PBR) are available as grafted host for quandong. Other useful consistent with manufacturing- scions onto seedling quandong species include other acacias and grade (mainstream processing) rootstocks. There is limited supply species of Atriplex, Melaleuca, fruit. Quality product will always both in quantity and quality. Many Myoporum and Allocasuarina. command higher prices (estimates new varieties from wild or seedling Many quandong growers have of $40–60/kg dried fruit). orchard selections are expected in the coming years, so check with chosen to introduce quandongs the Australian Quandong Industry into the orchard as potted plants Production Association for latest selections whose root structure has been requirements and propagators. modified significantly and can retard the attachment to host Quandongs require a climate Agronomy plants. Young pre-attached with high light intensity and low quandongs require significant care to prevent desiccation, including relative humidity and will grow The agronomy of quandong shade and wind protection. Prior in a range of soil types, including production is enhanced by to attachment to a significant pH variation and high salinity, the horticulturally unique host (greater than 1 year old), but should be well-drained and semiparasitic nature of the quandongs require regular supplies will not tolerate waterlogged quandong. This parasitism is non- soils, where susceptibility to root specific and the exact nature of of a general-purpose, water-soluble diseases will be more prevalent. what determines a good host is not fertiliser for good growth. Some Mature quandongs have shallow completely understood, although small orchards of quandongs have root systems. The type of host drought and salt tolerance are been developed on this host- plant chosen will dictate the implicated. Because of their semi- free, simplified plan. Under this irrigation requirements of the parasitic nature, quandongs are system quandong plants usually orchard. Prior to attachment to able to indirectly adopt many only attain shrub-like proportions. host plants, young quandongs are useful adaptive features of the host The pre-attachment phase can very prone to desiccation and will plant. For example, the nutrient- be minimised by direct seeding require a regular watering regime, efficiency and atmospheric of quandong onto 1-year-old, shading and wind protection. Post- nitrogen-fixing ability of legumes dripper-fed host plants (usually attachment, the irrigation should such as Acacias make them good acacia) when soil temperatures be matched to the host plant, hosts in nutrient-starved soils, permit significant root growth of with due consideration to the which are common to many the quandong. distribution and depth of the root Australian landscapes. system and water-holding capacity After attachment of quandongs of the host and the quandong Acacia victoriae (bramble wattle) is to significant host plants tree. The map shows the natural proving highly adaptable to many management of the orchard should distribution range of the quandong climates and soil types in orchard be based on the requirements of and offers a very rough guide to situations and is a relatively good the host plant.

37 Quandongs

Native Foods Book.indb 37 18/02/2008 2:06:13 PM use of herbicides because of Harvest and post- the potential for transfer of harvest toxic compounds through the roots of the host plant to the All quandongs are currently semiparasitic quandong. Check harvested by hand. The current that annual weed roots have not scale of production does not yet been parasitised by examining warrant “cool chain” procedures a selection of hand-pulled roots to be developed. Residual pest before application of herbicides. infestations can be eliminated by heating the harvested quandong Training and pruning of quandong fruit at 60°C for 30 minutes. Most trees should be early and light to quandong varieties are free-stone improve tree structure. Where and fruit are de-stoned and halved Quandong tree (2 years old, 1.5 m) that has shading by the host plant could on manual or automatic cutting been direct seeded on to Acacia victoriae (3 years be significant this should also be old) Australian Arid Land Botanic Gardens machines based on technology addressed early in the life of the Research Area, Port August, South Australia developed for the apricot industry. orchard. The fruit is either fresh vacuumed Most propagation of selected packed and frozen or more quandong varieties has Quandong trees are predominantly cross-pollinated, so planting of commonly sun dried. Quandong been achieved using nursery at least two varieties of trees in fruit has a low moisture content techniques. Field grafting onto close proximity to each other is relative to other fruits, so drying is established seedling rootstocks recommended. a relatively simple process. is possible but the technique needs improvement to obtain a commercially satisfactory success Pest control and disease Financial information rate. This technique offers much potential: for example, sandalwood The major pest affecting quandong An economic analysis for new rootstocks (other Santalum species) fruit is the quandong moth crops should be treated with are compatible with quandong (Paraparmenia santiella), a native caution due to uncertainties in scions, allowing conversion of species common in the natural production and prices of quandong seedling orchards of Santalum to range of the quandong. Quandong and host plant products. It is specified varieties of quandongs, moth can be controlled by spraying recommended that the host plant thus combining high-value with a dimethoate-based insecticide be established at least one year sandalwood and quandong fruit when eggs are detected in the fruit prior to planting of quandong trees production. calyx or if there is obvious fruit and therefore establishment costs damage. Although there can be should be based on that of the host Weeds should be removed highly conspicuous damage from plant, plus the additional cost of manually and frequently from leaf-feeding insects, this will not quandong plants and protection around the plant, with cautious greatly affect fruit yield. Scale from desiccation. insects can be damaging to trees and are usually controlled by natural Most quandong orchards are enemies or, for heavy infestation, currently based on seedlings oil-based sprays have been found to for which yield data are highly be useful. Gall-forming insects and variable. For improved grafted bud mites (Family Eriophyidae) varieties, production is predicted have been reported to cause damage to begin in year 4, with increasing to some trees. yields of 0.5 kg dried fruit per annum to year 15 (dried Root-rot diseases such as equivalents, equals approximately Phytophthora have been implicated 25% of fresh whole weight). in poor establishment rates from Assuming 300 quandong trees/

Australian Quandong Industry Association nursery-derived plants and in ha, a farm-gate price of $40/kg conference field trip 1996. Quandong tree, inhibiting growth on poorly (first quality) of 1.5 kg dried Whyalla orchard drained sites. fruit per tree gives an estimate

Quandongs 38

Native Foods Book.indb 38 18/02/2008 2:06:14 PM of $24,800/ha (gross) at year 6. This is comparable to returns Key contacts from other new horticultural pursuits. There exist opportunities Australian Quandong Industry to include quandongs in farm Association. revegetation programs. The C/- Northern Region indirect economic benefits of Anatomy of quandong fruit Development Board. improved environmental status PO Box 1762 and seasonally dependent, Port Augusta SA 5700 manufacturing-grade quandongs www.aqia.com.au and host plant products (such Key messages as wattle seed) are difficult to • The economics of this new It is recommended that all calculate. industry are uncertain but prospective quandong growers an industry infrastructure contact the association for up- Key references is developing according to to-date information on the well-formulated plans. status of the industry. • Research into a better Australian Quandong Industry Dr Maarten Ryder understanding of the Association newsletters and CSIRO Land and Water. semiparasitic nature and information sheets. PMB2 production of quandong is Glen Osmond SA 5064 Gordon Mills, E. (2000) The occurring. Acacia victoriae is Tel: (08) 83038534 Quandong Australia’s premier showing much promise as a Fax: (08) 83038684 native fruit. Australian Quandong host in orchard situations. Email: [email protected] Industry Association. Port August, SA. Key statistics Dr Ben Lethbridge Hele, A. (2001) Quandong Lobopogon Research Production. Primary Industries (estimates) 62 Grants Gully Rd. • and Resources, South Australia, In 2001 25 t of quandong Clarendon SA 5157 Adelaid. were harvested, 33% Tel: (08) 83836181 cultivated and the remainder Fax: (08) 83836181 McKinna, D. (2002) Quandong wild harvested. Email: Industry Development Plan. [email protected] • $0.7–$1.3 million was the Northern Region Development farm-gate gross estimate for Board. Port August, SA. 2001. Relevant RIRDC publication • There are 26,000 orchard nos.—01/172, 03/110, 03/138, trees in various stages of Disclaimer 03/013, 01/28. RIRDC, Canberra. production, predominantly in South Australia. Whilst every care has been taken in preparing this article, neither RIRDC nor the authors accept any responsibility or About the author liability for decisions or actions taken as a result of any data, Dr Ben Lethbridge BAgSc. (Hons) information, statement or PhD is a private consultant and has advice, expressed or implied, been a member of the Australian contained in this article. Readers Quandong Industry Association since should make their own detailed its inception and committee member inquiries and obtain professional since 1994. He has contributed to advice before making any RIRDC-funded research projects on the commercial decisions based on quandong. information contained in this article.

39 Quandongs

Native Foods Book.indb 39 18/02/2008 2:06:15 PM The Davidson plum

Anthony Hotson

Introduction

The Davidson plum (Davidsonia spp.) is an “undomesticated” Australian native rainforest fruit well suited to commercial production. It offers new ingredient value to the global food industry and its versatility of use gives it opportunities in many food market niches. The fruit, whilst versatile, is constrained by market unfamiliarity and thus greater Davidson plums (D. jerseyana) market risk. Present production outweighs demand. There is a is better marketing and greater and must compete on price with need for improved production adoption of the fruit in the food- processing-grade fruits of other efficiencies and technologies, manufacturing sector. Being very species. These other fruits can be as well as improved post- sharply acid, Davidsonia does not cross-subsidised by fresh produce harvest processing techniques. have access to a fresh food market. sales to an extent and hence come Overall, the greatest challenge The fruit is a processing fruit onto the processing market at or below the cost of production.

Australian production of the Davidsonia is very limited but, as long as the market identity of the fruit continues to be “Australian native”, production will benefit. At present overseas production seems entirely limited to enthusiasts and researchers. Market demand is perhaps the most significant limitation at present, with many growers over the past four years having difficulty selling their crops.

The Davidson plum is a sour, plum-like fruit used in jams, Suitable for production sauces and preserves, cordials, Current production dairy products, confectionery, wines and liqueurs. Its tart flavour and intense burgundy

The Davidson plum 40

Native Foods Book.indb 40 18/02/2008 2:06:16 PM colour lend the plum to many Markets and marketing Production uses in food manufacturing requirements industries, particularly those At present the principal markets seeking to portray images of are specialty jam and sauce The commercial range of the Australiana, Indigenous Australia, manufacturers, dairy foods, the Davidsonia is as yet untested. The wilderness, nature or rainforest. hospitality and food-service tree’s natural range for New South Current market demand is industry, and wine and liqueur Wales species is from Tintenbar around 5,000 kg/yr and buyers makers. Only a very limited near Ballina to the Tweed Valley estimate growth at 5–20 % a year, amount of the crop has been in far northern New South Wales, although most are relatively young exported raw, although value- and around 30 km inland from the businesses and trends are difficult added products made with coast. This suggests the optimum to assess. Davidsonia are exported. growing area. Young trees do not tolerate frost, but trees more than Current production is The fruit is sold fresh or frozen as about 3 years old can tolerate mild predominantly in the sub-tropical whole fruit or frozen as deseeded frost to –2° or –3° C. The natural coastal regions of New South pulp or deseeded puree. Many range of the Queensland species is Wales and tropical north-east growers deseed their crop by hand in rainforest of coastal north-east Queensland. and freeze to sell as fruit pulp, Queensland; however, the species though the majority prefer to sell is grown commercially in mid- As with any new crop, a broad whole fruit. north coastal areas of New South range of skills is required to Wales. be a successful Davidsonia There is a clear need for market grower. In many cases, due to brokerage and/or a grower No data have been ascertained poor market demand, value- organisation to ensure quantity for Davidsonia requirements for adding and marketing skill and and quality of supply in order to optimal photo-period, chilling hours or diurnal variation, and commitment are necessary. A access higher volume markets. more research in this area would be strong entrepreneurial ability is Accurate industry estimates useful. Good rainfall distribution advisable. Sound horticultural are difficult in a dispersed and and volume of around 1,200– knowledge and practical abilities unorganised industry. Production 2,500 mm/yr seems appropriate. are needed. There is a need for has been estimated at between technological innovation in the 6,000 and 10,000 kg/yr, with many Davidsonia do best in deeper, industry and keen improvisational producers not harvesting their crop friable soils high in organic matter and observational skills. Growers due to lack of market demand. but naturally occur across a range can also need to be in a position or soil types. Soil moisture, and to weather financial loss due to Some growers have pulled market volatility. out their orchards in recent Table 1. Marketing chains years because of marketing or management problems. Many Value-added Sold at farm- and marketed by small orchards (100–1,000 trees, gate grower with some to 6,000) were planted in the mid to late 1990s, with very Producers Producers few operating profitably at present. Brokers Transporters Total plantings can have reached Transporters Processors 30,000 trees. Contract Processors manufacturers Prices range from $2 to $6/kg for Transporters Transporters whole fruit, $5 to $13/kg for hand Manufacturers Consumers deseeded pulp, and around $9 to Distributors $10/kg for puree. Consolidators/ providores Organically certified produce Retailers attracts a premium in certain Consumers markets. D. jerseyana fruiting when young

41 The Davidson plum

Native Foods Book.indb 41 18/02/2008 2:06:18 PM therefore water-holding capacity, Davidson plum; and D. johnsonii, fruit in winter in its natural range; are important during flowering the smooth leaved Davidson plum. the fruiting period seems less clear and fruit set, although the tree A reported hybrid cross of D. in New South Wales. The crop has can tolerate seasonal dry periods jerseyana and D. pruriens fruited minimal fruit fly pressure. Fruit once established. Irrigation is for the first time in the last year. is borne on long flower panicles, generally thought to be essential generally from upper branches, for good productivity, particularly The predominant species grown but often from the tree trunk. The at flowering and fruit set during is D. jerseyana, the New South fruit is larger and paler than that dry springs. During dry periods, Wales Davidson plum. This of D. jerseyana. competition for water from species is the smallest growing, other tree crops or nurse crops in with trunk-bearing (cauliflorous) D. johnsonii is rarely cultivated polycultural orchard plantings has characteristics, which lend and is extremely rare in the wild resulted in poor fruit set and size. themselves well to hand-harvesting but has been reported to have very from ground level. The fruit are high yields. Grafted specimens Davidsonia are able to produce in born in early to mid-summer. have been known to bear fruit semi-shaded conditions and can be Selections have been made for at year 4 in optimum conditions. appropriate to south-facing slopes. larger fruit, a leaf-free trunk and This species has significant pest However, the most productive longer flower panicles. problems from fruit fly (Dacus orchards appear to be those grown spp.) and caterpillars (Lepidoptera in full sun or east-facing slopes D. pruriens is the predominant spp.). D. johnsonii fruit, although with adequate soil fertility and crop in Queensland, with much known as “seedless” (seeds are irrigation. There are problems with production in the past coming infertile), still have a persistent losses occurring due to sunburnt from the harvesting of naturally pericarp or seedcoat, which needs fruit, which has led to suggestions occurring trees. This species bears to be removed for most processed that south-facing slopes and/or shade tree inter-plantings are appropriate. Some observations suggest that fruit will burn even in relatively shaded situations and that fruit burn seems more dependent on how abruptly high temperatures and sunny conditions follow on from cooler, overcast periods. Orchards should be protected from wind to reduce tree stress.

Varieties

No recognised varieties or cultivars are available to date. Some selections have been made by various nurseries for improved performance and manageability, but no formal breeding has been carried out on the fruit. Seed-bearing Davidsonia spp. are reasonably true to type when grown from seed and are relatively easy to propagate. There are currently three species of Davidsonia: D. pruriens, the Queensland Davidson plum; D. jerseyana, the New South Wales D. pruriens fruit is larger

The Davidson plum 42

Native Foods Book.indb 42 18/02/2008 2:06:19 PM products and the flesh of the fruit and setbacks. Planting of older • trailer is paler when compared with D. stock (at least 600 mm high) will • brushcutter or other weed jerseyana. improve successful establishment control equipment rates, although adequate care will • In the wild, Davidsonia are still be needed. Trees from selected chainsaw/loppers/machine classified by New South Wales seed source or clonally produced pruner National Parks and Wildlife will maximise orchard productivity • picking bags/boxes Service as ‘endangered’ under the and manageability. New South Wales Threatened • wash and brush system, Species and Conservation Act 1995 Pelleted poultry manure or sorting table or machine and as such a permit is required compost applied at or prior to • to pick and/or sell material from ripening trays planting will improve soil organic • these plants. Genetic pollution matter and microbiological health. ripening room, cool storage, of wild tree populations can be packing room, cold storage an issue in selecting appropriate Planting models are numerous, (optional) planting sites. There are specialist ranging from highly diverse • commercial-grade certified native food nurseries in northern plantings to monocultures. food handling kitchen if New South Wales selling selected- Monocultures will provide value-adding provenance material for fruit management efficiencies, though • production, and many rainforest can entail greater pest and disease dispatch, office and nurseries in both New South management inputs. Planting in warehousing if value-adding. Wales and Queensland stock the rows 2.5–3.5 m apart will allow for During establishment of young species or grow to order. One machinery access and plants can be orchards, adequate weed control specialist nursery in northern spaced at 1.0–1.5 m centres within is essential. As orchards mature, New South Wales offers grafted rows. a permanent groundcover should selections. be encouraged. Inter-row sward Basic equipment relevant to should be mown or slashed when Agronomy Davidsonia production is as long and directed under trees as a follows: mulch. Site selection should enable • irrigation plant—water adequate safe machinery operation As trees grow taller, canopy and the ability to irrigate (around storage, licence, pump, must be managed to keep to 100 L/tree per week during dry controller, mains, laterals and a harvestable height. Trees periods throughout the flowering emitters beyond this will not be harvested regularly and will become a and fruiting season is as a rough • tractor with ripper/auger pest haven. Trees respond to guide). Orchard sward should • be established prior to planting mower/offset slasher topping at harvestable height by if possible, and care should be exercised to avoid any chance of erosion occurring when ripping or exposing soil.

Deep ripping will improve the permeability of soil to tree roots, liming materials, fertilisers and water. Liming materials should be applied as early before planting as possible. Soil pH of around

5.2–5.5 (CaCl2) is appropriate for Davidsonia. Planting of young trees (less than 300 mm high) will need great attention to weed control, irrigation, sun and frost protection to avoid tree losses Topped D. jerseyana orchard

43 The Davidson plum

Native Foods Book.indb 43 18/02/2008 2:06:21 PM fruit—not only in ripe fruit, particularly if there are high populations of the pest. Occasional pests causing minor losses:

• Variegated hairy caterpillar (Anthela varia)—can cause damage to flowers and fruit. • Brown loopers (Lophodes sinistraria)—can cause damage to leaves. • Leaf hoppers and grasshoppers (unknown spp.) can cause damage to leaves Cauliflorous fruit on trunk of D. jerseyuana and fruit. Heavy, deep grazing chainsaw every two to three years. or composted broiler litter at is often found at all stages of 3 fruit development. Alternatively, training the trees 6 m /ha and 150 kg/ha of K2SO4 is to a multiple trunk structure and advised. • Red-shouldered leaf beetle then periodically trunk stumping (Monolepta australis)—often on a rotational basis will achieve a D. jerseyana will bear in year 3, heavily defoliates young leaves similar result. with commercial production by of the tree, particularly D. year 4 or 5. D. pruriens will bear in pruriens. Harvesting during bearing must year 5 or 6. • be done every one to three days, Fruit spotting bug (Amblypelta depending on temperature and Pest and disease control nitida)—uses its piercing cloud cover. Fruit picked just as it and sucking mouthparts to is beginning to develop its purple The following common pests have superficially damage fruit but blush will ripen off the tree readily, the potential to cause large losses: do not cause observable losses. and this will minimise pest build- • • native budworm (Heliothis Larvae of longicorn beetle—a up. Other pest control practices sp.)— high populations stem borer, have been known should be maintained from can occur rapidly and are to ringbark and kill off flowering to final harvest. particularly destructive of branches and trunks of trees. • Fertiliser requirements for flowers and fruit at all stages Rodents - (Rattus spp. and Davidsonia spp. are not well to maturity Mus spp.)—relish the seed of Davidsonia spp. but will understood or well researched. • light brown apple moth generally only use fallen or Current practices are based on (Epiphyas postvittana)—larvae over-ripe fruit. However, it individual site observations. graze on fruit skins and bore has been noted that rodents Broadly, from year 1 to 3, nutrition into fruit, often grazing on will forage on fruits in the aimed at vegetative growth should seed. Can cause significant tree, with the potential to ensure good tree establishment and and extensive damage cause substantial damage. bearing structure. Pelleted poultry • orange fruit borer moth Isolated orchards have also manure at rates of around 300 g (Isotenes mierana)—larvae will lost significant numbers of for each site twice a year or 4 L of eat into fruit and graze on trees due to rodents chewing composted broiler shed litter can fruit skins the tree bark and root be applied after harvest, along with • system. Seed-beds in nursery 10g per site of K SO . fruit fly (Dacus spp.)—in 2 4 production must be protected heavy fruit fly seasons, with from rodents with wire mesh. For bearing orchards, at year 4 poor orchard hygiene, the onwards pelletised poultry manure larvae of this common pest • King parrots (Alisterus broadcast or banded at rates of can cause heavy crop losses. scapularis)—will forage on around 2,000 kg/ha after harvest Adults can lay eggs in green the seed of the fruit and will

The Davidson plum 44

Native Foods Book.indb 44 18/02/2008 2:06:22 PM damage much of the fruit in designing orchards to include Harvest and post- the process. refuges and corridors for beneficial harvest • Flying foxes, (Pteropus spp.)— insects and insectivorous birds, will have been reported to damage assist in buffering orchards against Harvested fruit should be picked some crops recently. Generally severe pest problems. into picking bags or boxes and these native animals have field heat removed as soon as posed a minor problem to Bait spray or paint yeast autolysate possible. Food-grade approved Davidsonia crops to date. and insecticides (organic or ripening space at high humidity and low temperature (6–8°C) will otherwise) subject to compliance There are currently no registered be needed for ripening the fruit with the Pesticides Act and label preparations for pest control in to full colour. High-humidity cool Davidsonia. Good orchard practice indications can be a means of room (2–4° C) storage space for up such as maintaining high organic controlling fruit fly. to a week of harvest during peak matter, fertile, healthy soils, bearing period should be planned appropriate canopy management, Observations show that where ants (around 6m3/ha). Fruit are held regular harvest and orchard are present, generally associated in cool storage in shallow trays hygiene, and so on are the best with mealy bug (Planococcus citri) before processing or cold storage. measures to minimise the impacts on fruit stems or calxes, incidence Cold (–18°C) storage facilities can of pest problems. of caterpillar is minimal. Mealy be necessary if fruit is not being sold or processed immediately, or Integrated pest and disease bug does not observably affect the whilst adequate fruit volume is management practices such as development or quality of the fruit. accumulated for processing runs. Around 1 m3 will be needed for every 300 kg of whole fruit to be stored. This is often very costly if only seasonally used. Rental of such facilities close to the farm can be practical. Fruit pulp or puree will take less space to store than whole fruit per $ value, and sugar- stabilised puree is able to be stored at more economic temperatures than fresh frozen puree.

Post-harvest processing will vary depending on the degree to which a grower value-adds and buyer requirements. Small jam and sauce processors manufacturing boutique or cottage-style products generally prefer a hand-deseeded fruit pulp, which has a high ratio of larger fruit and skin pieces in it. There is reasonable demand for hand deseeded fruit pulp, but the process is very labour intensive and growers are often overstretched for labour. Often the hand processing is done in a domestic situation or by junior labour. At award rates and under commercial conditions, the costs are such that buyers are often not prepared to pay realistic Technical improvements in post-harvest handling are needed amounts for the resulting pulp.

45 The Davidson plum

Native Foods Book.indb 45 18/02/2008 2:06:23 PM with these other businesses. significant market development in order to be viable. Broad figures here are based on a monocultural planting on relatively flat and clean, rock-free ground, Key references with water supply, planted at 2,000 trees/ha. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (1997) General equipment and Prospects for the Australian Native infrastructure costs, excluding Bushfood Industry, RIRDC, land, will run to over $100,000. Canberra. Establishment costs, including irrigation, set-out, preparation Yopp, G. (1999) Bushfood plants planting and planting stock will for the North Coast of NSW. run to around $15,000/ha. ARBIA Technical Journal, Issue 7, Australian Rainforest Bushfood Maintenance costs run to around Industry Association, Lismore. $3,500/ha/yr, including slashing, Longer panicles occur on some speciments of Hardwick, P. (1996) Davidson’s D. jerseyana. weed control, fertiliser, fuel and canopy management. Harvest, plum—Connoisseurs, delight, ARBIA Technical Journal, Issue 3. Machine pulping to remove the grading and packing costs can run Australian Rainforest Bushfood fruit seeds and calyx has been in to over $8,000/ha. Industry Association. Lismore. development by some growers and processors for some years. Getting Given 2,000 trees/ha, a yield of a balance between removal of between 1 and 3 kg of fruit/tree the fruit calyx and keeping larger is likely—a total of 2,000 to fruit and skin pieces has been 6,000 kg/ha. difficult; however, the resulting Calculating a predicted value in puree is well suited to sauces, jams, an oversupplied market is fairly syrups and beverages and offers academic. Broadly, market prices commercial-scale volume and a of between $2 and $6/kg whole more acceptable market price. fruit give a value range of $4,000– $36,000/ha. After operating Financial information expenses of $11,500, this leaves a Disclaimer profit margin of between $(7,500 Davidsonia is a high-risk crop. It loss) and $24,500/ha. can provide an alternative crop Whilst every care has been to diversify an existing enterprise Other costs, such as cool or cold taken in preparing this article, but at this time does not offer storage and finance costs, need to neither RIRDC nor the authors a predictable or commercially be considered. The major risks to accept any responsibility or profitable business opportunity. the grower lie in the small scale liability for decisions or actions Enterprises with existing value- and vulnerability of the buyers’ taken as a result of any data, adding or tourism operations can sector. Only a limited market is information, statement or be better placed to make a viable established for the fruit, and the advice, expressed or implied, income from a Davidsonia growing market is currently oversupplied. contained in this article. Readers enterprise through integration Any further plantings would need should make their own detailed inquiries and obtain professional advice before making any commercial decisions based on information contained in this article.

Ripening fruit

The Davidson plum 46

Native Foods Book.indb 46 18/02/2008 2:06:25 PM About the Key contacts author Research into genetic characteristics of Davidsonia Ms Frances Elliot Southern Cross University [email protected] Tel: (02) 6620 3468

Wholesale nursery, grower, consultant Mr Anthony Hotson Tuckombil Native Foods PO Box 281 Alstonville NSW 2477 Tel/fax: (02) 6628 5558: Email: [email protected] Anthony Hotson operates a www.nativefood.com.au wholesale nursery at Tuckombil, near Alstonville in northern Mr David Forrest New South Wales specialising NC Institute of TAFE in sub-tropical native food Wollongbar Campus plants, rainforest reafforestation Sneaths Road and macadamia trees. He has Wollongbar NSW 2477 been growing and researching Tel: (02) 6620 4200 Davidsonia since 1995 and runs a 1,500 tree commercial orchard.

Key messages

• Davidsonia is a native rainforest species. • It is a versatile processing fruit. • There is a clear need for market development. • Improved technologies are needed. Key statistics

• Estimated production is 6,000–10,000 t/yr. • Estimated plantings are perhaps 30,000 trees. • Estimated current market is 5,000 t/yr.

47 The Davidson plum

Native Foods Book.indb 47 18/02/2008 2:06:26 PM The New Crop Industries Handbook Edited by Sue Salvin, Max Bourke AM and Tony Byrne Native foods

This publication reports on R&D into the Australian native foods industry and is an extract of RIRDC’s The New Crop Industries Handbook which provides an introduction to new crop industries in Australia and is a guide for those who want to find out more about new crop opportunities.

The native food industry has grown slowly since the mid–1980s and operates within a variety of commercial structures. Commercial horticultural cultivation of native food species is expanding; however, managed wild harvest remains an important and integral part of the commercial supply. ��This report has specific agronomic information for selected species.

The species discussed in depth here are:- bush tomato; lemon myrtle; native citrus; native pepper; quandongs; and the Davidson plum.

About RIRDC Your can discover more about the RIRDC by visiting www.rirdc.gov.au. The website holds over 1,800 research publications available for free download, or you can purchase the hardcopy on line at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop. www.rirdc.gov.au

RIRDC Level 2, PO Box 4776 Tel: (02) 6271 4100 15 National Circuit KINGSTON ACT Fax: (02) 6271 4199 BARTON ACT 2600 2604 Email: [email protected]

Native Foods Book.indb 48 18/02/2008 2:06:31 PM