Pest Risk Assessment of the Importation Into the United States of Unprocessed Pinus Logs and Chips from Australia

United States Department of Pest Risk Assessment Agriculture

Forest Service of the Importation into

Forest Health Protection the United States of

Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team Unprocessed Pinus Logs

July 2006 and Chips from Australia

FHTET 2006-06 Abstract The unmitigated pest risk potential for the importation of unprocessed logs and chips of species of Pinus (Pinus radiata, P. elliottii Engelm. var. elliottii, P. taeda L., and P. caribaea var. hondurensis, principally) from Australia into the United States was assessed by estimating the likelihood and consequences of introduction of representative insects and pathogens of concern. Eleven individual pest risk assessments were prepared, nine dealing with insects and two with pathogens. The selected organisms were representative examples of insects and pathogens found on foliage, on the bark, in the bark, and in the wood of Pinus.

Among the insects and pathogens assessed for logs as the commodity, high risk potentials were assigned to two introduced European bark beetles (Hylurgus ligniperda and Hylastes ater), the exotic bark anobiid (Ernobius mollis), ambrosia beetles (Platypus subgranosus, Amasa truncatus; Xyleborus perforans), an introduced wood wasp (Sirex noctilio), dampwood termite (Porotermes adamsoni), giant termite (Mastotermes darwiniensis), drywood termites (Neotermes insularis; Kalotermes rufi notum, K. banksiae; Ceratokalotermes spoliator; Glyptotermes tuberculatus; Bifi ditermes condonensis; Cryptotermes primus, C. brevis, C. domesticus, C. dudleyi, C. cynocephalus), and subterranean termites (Schedorhinotermes intermedius intermedius, S. i. actuosus, S. i. breinli, S. i. seclusus, S. reticulatus; Heterotermes ferox, H. paradoxus; Coptotermes acinaciformis, C. frenchi, C. lacteus, C. raffrayi; Microcerotermes boreus, M. distinctus, M. implicadus, M. nervosus, M. turneri; Nasutitermes exitiosis). A moderate pest risk potential was assigned to pine loopers (Chlenias spp.), endemic weevils (Aesiotes spp.), Sphaeropsis sapinea, and the Armillaria root rot fungi (Armillaria hinnulea, A. luteobubalina, A. novae-zealandiae, and A. pallidula). When chips were considered as the commodity, the risk potentials dropped from high to moderate for the two bark beetles and the ambrosia beetles and dropped from high to low for the Sirex woodwasp and the dampwood, giant, drywood, and subterranean termites. The risk potentials for the Diplodia shoot blight pathogen and the Armillaria root rot fungi dropped from moderate to low for the chip commodity. For those organisms of concern that are associated with logs and chips of Australian Pinus, specifi c phytosanitary measures may be required to ensure the quarantine safety of proposed importations.

Keywords: pest risk assessment, Pinus, pine, Australia, log importation, chip importation

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To ﬁ le a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Ofﬁ ce of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. PEST RISK ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPORTATION INTO THE UNITED STATES OF UNPROCESSED PINUS LOGS AND CHIPS FROM AUSTRALIA

John T. Kliejunas Harold H. Burdsall, Jr. Gregg A. DeNitto Andris Eglitis Dennis A. Haugen Michael I. Haverty Jessie A. Micales

PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

WOOD IMPORT PEST RISK ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION EVALUATION TEAM

Dr. Gregg A. DeNitto, Team Leader Forest Pathologist USDA Forest Service, CFFHP P.O. Box 7669 Missoula MT 59807

Dr. Harold H. Burdsall, Jr. Dr. Michael I. Haverty Forest Mycologist (retired) Forest Entomologist (emeritus) USDA Forest Service USDA Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory Paciﬁ c Southwest Research Station 1 Gifford Pinchot Dr. 800 Buchanan Street, West Annex Building Madison, WI 53705-2398 Albany, CA 94710-0011

Dr. Andris Eglitis Dr. John T. Kliejunas Forest Entomologist Forest Pathologist (retired) USDA Forest Service USDA Forest Service, SPF Central Oregon Insect and Disease Field Ofﬁ ce 1323 Club Drive 1001 SW Emkay Drive Vallejo, CA 94592 Bend, OR 97702 Dr. Jessie A. Micales Dr. Dennis A. Haugen Forest Pathologist Forest Entomologist USDA Forest Service USDA Forest Service, St. Paul Field Ofﬁ ce Forest Products Laboratory 1992 Folwell Avenue 1 Gifford Pinchot Drive St. Paul, MN 55108 Madison, WI 53705-2398

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Numerous individuals made valuable contributions to the success of the risk assessment project and to the site visits. At each location that the team and sub-teams visited, we were warmly received by local ofﬁ cials and consultants who helped us understand the local forestry and resource management issues. Some of the key individuals who had prominent roles in coordinating the Canberra meetings and site visits to the states and who accompanied the team are:

Canberra: Emmanuel Mireku (Biosecurity Australia) Queensland: Bruce Brown (retired), Judy King, and Ross Wylie (Queensland For- estry Research Institute) New South Wales: Jack Simpson (Research Division, State Forests of New South Wales) Victoria: Nick Collett, Simon Murphy, and Ian Smith (Victoria State Department of Natural Resources and Environment) Western Australia: Janet Farr and Richard Robinson (Department of Conservation and Land Management) Tasmania: Tim Wardlaw (Forestry Tasmania), David de Little (Gunns Ltd.) South Australia: Charlma Phillips (ForestrySA) Other individuals and organizations that provided valuable information are named in the Site Visit Reports in Appendix A.

Portions of this document were extracted from the Chilean Pest Risk Assessment (USDA Forest Service 1993), the Mexican Pest Risk Assessment (Tkacz et al. 1998), the South American Pest Risk Assessment (Kliejunas et al. 2001), and the Australian Eucalyptus Pest Risk Assess- ment (Kliejunas et al. 2003).

We thank the following colleagues for providing critical reviews of an earlier draft of this document: Mr. Dick Bashford Dr. Thomas C. Harrington Forest Entomology, Forestry Tasmania Department of Plant Pathology 79 Melville Street 221 Bessey Hall, Iowa State University Hobart, Tasmania 7000 Ames, Iowa 50011 Australia Kathleen Johnson Dr. Donald E. Bright Supervisor, Insect Pest Prevention C. P. Gillette Museum of Arthropod Diversity and Management Department of Bioagricultural Sciences Oregon Department of Agriculture, and Pest Management Plant Division Colorado State University 635 Capitol Street NE Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 Salem, OR 97310

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James LaBonte Christine Stone Survey Entomologist Program Leader – Forest Health Management Oregon Department of Agriculture, Forest Resources Research Plant Division NSW Department Primary Industries 635 Capitol Street NE 121-131 Oratava Avenue, West Pennant Salem, OR 97310 Hills, New South Wales Australia Nancy K. Osterbauer, Ph.D. Senior Plant Pathologist Dr. Dorthea Zadig Oregon Department of Agriculture, Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services Plant Division California Department of Food and Agricul- 635 Capitol Street NE ture Salem, OR 97310 1220 N Street, Room A-316 Sacramento, CA 95814 Dr Mike Ormsby Senior Adviser, Risk Analysis New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 101-103 The Terrace P.O Box 2526 Wellington, New Zealand

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this risk assessment were to identify the exotic pest organisms (insects and pathogens) that may be introduced with imported unprocessed Pinus logs and chips from Australia, assess the likelihood of the introduction and establishment in the United States of selected representative pests of Pinus, and assess the potential economic and environmental impacts that these pests may have on forest resources if established in the United States.

Current regulations require that unprocessed logs from temperate areas of Australia must be fumigated with methyl bromide or heat-treated to eliminate pests. Logs must be stored and handled to exclude access by pests after treatment (Title 7, CFR part 319.40-5(d), 319.40- 6 (a)). The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) requested that the Forest Service prepare a pest risk assessment that identiﬁ es the potential insects and pathogens of several species of Pinus (P. radiata, P. elliottii var. elliottii, P. taeda, P. pinaster, and P. caribaea var. hondurensis) throughout Australia, estimates the likelihood of their entry on Australian logs and chips into the United States, and evaluates the economic, environmental, and social consequences of such an introduction.

THE RISK ASSESSMENT TEAM

A USDA Forest Service Wood Import Pest Risk Assessment and Mitigation Evaluation Team (WIPRAMET) conducted the assessment. The team was chartered by the Chief of the Forest Service to provide a permanent source of technical assistance to APHIS in conducting pest risk assessments. WIPRAMET members and APHIS representatives traveled to Australia in September 2001. The team met with local agricultural, quarantine, and forestry ofﬁ cials, and with entomologists, pathologists, and forest industry representatives to gather information. Sub-teams toured harvest areas, inspected processing plants and ports, and viewed pest problems in eucalypt and pine plantations and forests in six states. The pest risk assessment document prepared by the team also takes into consideration comments by individuals who provided critical reviews of an earlier draft.

PEST RISK ASSESSMENT

The team compiled lists of insects and microorganisms known to be associated with Pinus species throughout Australia. From these lists, insects and pathogens that have the greatest risk potential as pests on imported logs or chips were identiﬁ ed. Eleven Individual Pest Risk Assessments (IPRAs) were prepared, nine dealing with insects and two dealing with pathogens. The objective was to include in the IPRAs representative examples of insects and pathogens found on foliage, on the bark, in the bark, and in the wood. By necessity, this pest risk assessment focuses on those insects and pathogens for which biological information is available.

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However, by developing IPRAs for known organisms that inhabit a variety of different niches on logs, effective mitigation measures can subsequently be identiﬁ ed by APHIS to eliminate the recognized pests. It is assumed that any similar unknown organisms that inhabit the same niches would also be eliminated.

CONCLUSIONS

There are potential pest organisms found on Pinus spp. in Australia that have a high probability of being inadvertently introduced into the United States on unprocessed logs and chips. The potential mechanisms of log or chip infestation by pests are complex. Differences in harvesting practices, such as debarking, can infl uence the risk potential for pests that are hitchhikers or pests that invade the inner bark. Reducing debarked logs to chips will impact the survival and subsequent risk of importation of certain pests. Most insects would be adversely impacted by chipping, and of those for which IPRAs were done, many would be rated at moderate or low risk of surviving chipping and subsequent transport. Other organisms may not be affected by chipping (Armillaria root rot fungi for example). Differences between Australian states in the occurrence and extent of certain pest organisms are noted in the individual pest risk assessments. These differences may infl uence the risk potential for certain organisms from specifi c states.

When chips were considered as the commodity, the risk potentials dropped from high to moderate for the two bark beetles and the ambrosia beetles and dropped from high to low for the Sirex woodwasp and the dampwood, giant, drywood, and subterranean termites. The risk potentials for the Diplodia shoot blight pathogen and the Armillaria root rot fungi dropped from moderate to low for the chip commodity.

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Several factors suggest that Pinus spp. logs or chips destined for export from Australia may be relatively free of most damaging organisms. There is an excellent working knowledge of forest insects and pathogens and the ability to recognize problem situations when they occur. Commercial pine plantations are generally well-managed for maximum production and closely monitored to detect and control damaging pests. However, pines from Australian plantations, depending on location, management intensity, and other factors, may have insects and microorganisms that could be of concern if introduced into the U.S.

For those organisms of concern that are associated with the Pinus species grown in Aus- tralia that were considered in this pest risk assessment, speciﬁ c phytosanitary measures may be required to ensure the quarantine safety of proposed importations. Detailed examination and selection of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk is the responsibility of APHIS and beyond the scope of this assessment.

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Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... V BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES ...... V THE RISK ASSESSMENT TEAM ...... V PEST RISK ASSESSMENT ...... V CONCLUSIONS ...... VI

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 BACKGROUND ...... 1 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE ...... 1 SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT ...... 1

PEST RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS ...... 2 1. Collect Commodity Information ...... 2 2. Catalog Pests of Concern ...... 2 3. Determine Which of the Pests of Concern to Assess ...... 3 4. Evaluate Likelihood of Introduction and Consequences of Introduction for Each IPRA ...... 3 5. Estimate Unmitigated Pest Risk Potential ...... 8

CHAPTER 2. PINUS RESOURCES OF AUSTRALIA ...... 12 PINUS PLANTATIONS IN AUSTRALIA ...... 12 GLOBAL SOFTWOOD MARKET, AUSTRALIAN SUPPLY ...... 14 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROPOSED IMPORTATION ...... 15 U.S. DEMAND FOR SOFTWOOD LOGS AND CHIPS ...... 15 LOCATION OF U.S. PULP MILLS AND WOODCHIP PORT FACILITIES ...... 16 PREVIOUS INTERCEPTIONS OF QUARANTINE ORGANISMS ...... 18

CHAPTER 3. INSECTS AND PATHOGENS POSING RISK ...... 20 INTRODUCTION ...... 20 ANALYSIS PROCESS ...... 20 TABLES OF POTENTIAL INSECTS AND PATHOGENS OF CONCERN ...... 20 INDIVIDUAL PEST RISK ASSESSMENTS ...... 21

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INSECT IPRAS ...... 39 Pine Loopers ...... 39 Exotic Bark Beetles ...... 42 Ambrosia Beetles ...... 48 Pine Bark Weevils ...... 57 Bark Anobiid of Pine ...... 62 Sirex Woodwasp ...... 66 Giant/Dampwood Termites ...... 72 Drywood Termites ...... 78 Subterranean Termites ...... 84

PATHOGEN IPRAS ...... 92 Diplodia Shoot Blight ...... 92 Armillaria Root Rot ...... 98

BACKGROUND ...... 103

PEST RISK ASSESSMENT ...... 103

CHAPTER 4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 103 PINUS SPP. LOGS AS COMMODITY ...... 104 PINUS SPP. CHIPS AS COMMODITY ...... 109 FACTORS INFLUENCING RISK POTENTIAL ...... 109 EFFECTS OF CHIPPING ON INSECTS AND PATHOGENS ...... 110 CONCLUSIONS ...... 112

CHAPTER 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 113

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A—TEAM’S SITE VISITS TO AUSTRALIA ...... 127 CANBERRA: SEPTEMBER 12-15, 2001 ...... 127 NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND: SEPTEMBER 16-25, 2001 ...... 130 VICTORIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA: SEPTEMBER 16-25, 2001 ...... 138 TASMANIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA: SEPTEMBER 16–25, 2001 ...... 143 CANBERRA: SEPTEMBER 27-28, 2001 ...... 149

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APPENDIX B—SUMMARY OF REVIEWERS’ COMMENTS AND TEAM’S RESPONSES ...... 150

INTRODUCTION ...... 150

GENERAL COMMENTS FROM REVIEWERS ...... 150

MAJOR ISSUES OF REVIEWERS ...... 151 Issue 1: Inadequacy of the Pest Risk Assessment Process ...... 151 Issue 2: Insufﬁ cient Discussion of Overall Pathway Risk ...... 153 Issue 3: Determination of Pest Risk Potentials and Use of Pest Risk Criteria ...... 154 Issue 4: Other Types of Potential Pests ...... 155 Issue 5: Unknown (Sleeper) Pests ...... 156 Issue 6: Interception Records ...... 156 Issue 7: Insect/Fungal Associations ...... 157 Issue 8: Inaccurate or Inadequate Information for the Pests Considered ...... 157 Issue 9: Inclusion of Current Pest Information ...... 158 Other Reviewer Comments ...... 159

Tables

Table 1—Description of certainty codes used with speciﬁ c elements in the individual pest risk assessment process...... 4 Table 2—Method for estimating consequences of introduction for an individual pest risk assessment...... 8 Table 3—Method for determining pest risk potential...... 9 Table 4—Area (hectares) of softwood plantations in Australian states and territories from 1999 to 2004...... 12 Table 5—Annual exports of coniferous wood chips (kilotonnes) from Australia...... 14 Table 6—Organisms recovered at U.S. ports from imported Pinus unmanufactured wood products shipped from Australia and New Zealand (USDA APHIS PIN 309)...... 19 Table 7—Pest categories and descriptions...... 21 Table 8—Potential insects of concern associated with Pinus spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category...... 22 Table 9—Potential pathogens of concern associated with Pinus spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category...... 37 Table 10—Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern for unprocessed Pinus spp. logs (on bark, in or under bark, or in wood)...... 105 Table 11—Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern for unprocessed Pinus spp. chips. ....107 Table 12—Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern, Pinus spp. logs versus chips as the commodity...... 110

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Figures

Figure 1—Area of Softwood Plantations by State in Australia – 2004...... 13 Figure 2—Export of Australian hardwood and softwood chips, 1999-2000 to 2003-2004...... 14 Figure 3—Export of Australian hardwood and softwood logs (including pulp logs), 1999-2000 to 2003-2004...... 15 Figure 4—Importation of softwood logs and chips into the United States, 1991-2002...... 16 Figure 5—Top ten countries exporting softwood chips 1996-2004...... 17 Figure 6—Top ten countries exporting softwood logs, 1996-2004...... 17 Figure 7—Production, Consumption, and Imports of Softwood Timber Products in the United States, 1982-1999...... 18

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

There is an increasing interest in import- The speciﬁ c objectives of this risk assessment ing large volumes of unmanufactured wood of Pinus spp. in Australia are to articles into the United States from abroad. The United States Department of Agriculture • identify the potential pest organisms that (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection may be introduced with imported un- Service (APHIS) is the government agency processed Pinus spp. logs and chips from charged with preventing the introduction of Australia (the baseline for this pest risk exotic pests on plant material brought into assessment is raw, unprocessed logs of the United States via international commerce. Pinus species growing in Australia, with The USDA Forest Service (FS) has provided subsequent consideration of the effect of assistance to APHIS in conducting pest risk chipping on potential pest organisms), assessments of the importation of logs from • assess the potential for introduction Russia (USDA Forest Service 1991), New (entry and establishment) in the United Zealand (USDA Forest Service 1992), Chile States of selected representative Austra- (USDA Forest Service 1993), Mexico (Tkacz lian pests of the Pinus species, and et al. 1998), South America (Kliejunas et al. 2001) and Australia (Kliejunas et al. 2003) ac- • estimate the potential economic and cording to a memorandum of understanding environmental impacts these pests may between the two agencies signed in February have on forest resources and urban trees 1992. if established in the United States.

In September 1995, the Chief of the Forest SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT Service chartered the Wood Import Pest Risk Assessment and Mitigation Evaluation Team This risk assessment estimates the likelihood (WIPRAMET), made up of FS employees that exotic pests will be introduced into the to provide a permanent source of technical United States as a direct result of the impor- assistance to APHIS in conducting pest risk tation of unprocessed Pinus spp. logs and assessments of exotic pests that may move chips from Australia. Site visits by the team with logs. In September 2002, WIPRAMET and APHIS were made to Queensland, New conducted a site visit to Australia as part of South Wales, Tasmania, South Australia, Vic- a pest risk assessment of 18 species of euca- toria, and Western Australia (see Appendix A), lypts in Australia. Because a future request to where the preponderance of pine plantations conduct a pest risk assessment of pines (Pinus and eucalypt forests in Australia occur (see spp.) in Australia was anticipated, the Team Chapter 2). As mentioned, information on also gathered information on that resource in the pine resource at each location was noted Australia during the same visit. as well. Pests addressed in this report are phytophagous insects and plant pathogens. Major emphasis is placed on pests with the potential to be transported on, in, or with unprocessed pine logs and chips destined for

1 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______export from Australia to the United States. pest interceptions or introductions asso- This assessment also estimates the economic ciated with logs and chips of Pinus spp. and environmental impact of the more poten- from Australia. tially destructive organisms if introduced into the United States. 2. CATALOG PESTS OF CONCERN This risk assessment is developed without • Determine what plant pests or potential regard to available mitigation measures. Once plant pests are associated with pine logs the potential risks are identiﬁ ed, suitable miti- and chips in Australia. A plant pest that gation measures may be formulated, if needed, meets one of the following categories to reduce the likelihood that destructive pests is a quarantine pest according to Title will be introduced into the United States on 7, CFR 319.40-11 and will be further pine logs and chips from Australia. The pre- evaluated: scription of mitigation measures, however, is beyond the scope of this assessment and is the Category 1—Nonindigenous plant responsibility of APHIS. pest not present in the United States; PEST RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS Category 2—Nonindigenous plant pest, present in the United States International plant protection organizations and capable of further dissemination (for example, North American Plant Protec- in the United States; tion Organization [NAPPO] and the Interna- Category 3—Nonindigenous plant tional Plant Protection Convention [IPPC] of pest that is present in the United the Food and Agriculture Organization of the States and has reached probable United Nations [FAO]) provide guidance for limits of its ecological range, but conducting pest risk analyses. Further guid- differs genetically (for example, ance pertinent to U.S. wood importation is as biotypes, pathovars, or strains) contained in Title 7, CFR 319.40-11. This risk from the plant pest in the United assessment conforms to the standards for plant States in a way that demonstrates a pest risk assessments as described therein. The potential for greater damage in the general process is as follows: United States; Category 4—Native species of the 1. COLLECT COMMODITY United States that has reached prob- INFORMATION able limits of its ecological range, but differs genetically from the • Evaluate permit applications and other plant pest in the United States in a sources for information describing the way that demonstrates a potential regulated article and the origin, pro- for greater damage in the United cessing, treatment, and handling of the States; regulated article—namely Pinus spp. logs Category 5—Nonindigenous or na- and chips from Australia. tive plant pest capable of vectoring • Evaluate data from United States and another plant pest that meets one of foreign countries on the history of plant the above criteria.

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In addition to these criteria for quarantine previously performed in accordance with pests as specifi ed in the log import regula- 7 CFR 319.40-11 and determine their ap- tions, WIPRAMET determined that a broader plicability to the proposed importation defi nition of genetic variation was needed for from Australia. Pests with similar biol- Category 4. The defi nition of this category ogy and that attack similar plant parts was expanded to include native species that were evaluated in the same IPRA because have reached the probable limits of their range they would react similarly to the same but may differ in their capacity for causing mitigation measures. The lack of bio- damage based on the genetic variability ex- logical information on any given insect hibited by the species (Category 4a). There are or pathogen should not be equated with uncertainties and unknowns about the genetic low risk (USDA Forest Service 1993). variability and damage potential of many pest By necessity, pest risk assessments focus organisms in forest ecosystems, because of on those organisms for which biological these unanswered questions, the team was information is available. By developing cautious in its assessments and included ad- detailed assessments for known pests ditional pests of concern not considered under that inhabit different locations on im- the requirements of the log import regulations. ported logs (for example, on the surface For defi nition of Category 2, the team added of the bark, within the bark, and deep native organisms with limited distributions within the wood), effective mitigation within the United States but capable of further measures can subsequently be developed dissemination (Category 2a); some of these to eliminate the known organisms and organisms may occupy a limited distribution any similar unknown ones that inhabit only because they have not been afforded the the same niches. opportunity to exploit additional environments. 4. EVALUATE LIKELIHOOD OF INTRODUCTION AND 3. DETERMINE WHICH OF THE PESTS CONSEQUENCES OF OF CONCERN TO ASSESS INTRODUCTION FOR EACH IPRA

• Group identiﬁ ed pests of concern ac- • Assign a risk value (high, moderate, or low) cording to cataloging criteria by location for each of seven elements. on host (such as foliage–branches, bark– cambium, sapwood, or heartwood). Risk value is based on available biological information and subjective judgment of the • Evaluate the plant pests in each location assessment team. The seven elements and the on the host according to pest risk, based rating criteria used to determine risk value for on the available biological information each element are described in Orr et al. (1993) and demonstrated or potential plant pest and are listed in the following sections. The importance. individual rating criteria were developed by • Conduct individual pest risk assessments the team that prepared the draft solid wood (IPRAs) for the pests of concern. Iden- packing material pest risk assessment (USDA tify any quarantine plant pests for which Animal Plant Health Inspection Service and plant pest risk assessments have been Forest Service 2000) to facilitate the assign-

3 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______ment of low, moderate, or high risk ratings be rated as a unit; therefore, the term “organ- to each of the seven elements. Those rating ism” as used herein may pertain to a complex criteria were used by WIPRAMET in a pre- of concern. vious pest risk assessment (Kliejunas et al. 2003) in an attempt to make the assignment Likelihood of Introduction of risk ratings more consistent, objective, and transparent. In this section, the elements pertain to estimating the likelihood that the pest will enter, The seven elements are organized into two colonize, and spread in the United States. Ex- parts: likelihood of introduction and conse- otic organisms are considered established once quences of introduction (Orr et al. 1993). Each they have formed a self-sustaining, free-living element in the assessment has different critical population at a given location (U.S. Congress components, the combination of which is used Offi ce of Technology Assessment 1993). to determine rating levels, and each element is assigned a certainty code (see Table 1). Rating Element 1. Pest with host-commodity at criteria serve as guidelines for assigning values origin potential: likelihood of the plant of high, moderate, or low to make up the fi nal pest being on, with, or in pine logs and/ assessment of pest risk potential. or chips at the time of importation. The affi liation of the pest with the host or The resulting risk value for an element may be commodity, both temporally and spa- modifi ed based upon knowledge of important tially, is critical to this element. biological characteristics not addressed by High risk = Criterion a applies, or the criteria following each element. If sci- fi ve or more of criteria b through h entifi c information is lacking for a criterion apply. Table 1—Description of certainty codes used with Moderate risk = Criterion a does not specifi c elements in the individual pest risk apply, and two to four of criteria b assessment process. through h apply. Certainty code Symbol Low risk = Criterion a does not apply, Very certain VC and one or none of criteria b through Reasonably certain RC h apply. Moderately certain MC Rating criteria: Reasonably uncertain RU a. Organism has been repeatedly Very uncertain VU intercepted at ports of entry in Source: Orr et al. 1993. association with host materials. b. Organism has capability for large- for a particular organism, an evaluation of scale population increases. the criterion’s appropriateness may be made based upon characteristics of closely related c. Populations of organism are widely organisms. Organism complexes, such as an distributed throughout range of insect vector and associated pathogen, are to host(s).

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d. Organism has multiple or overlapping Low risk = None of the following four generations per year or an extended criteria apply. period (several months or more) of colonization activity, thereby having Rating criteria: capability to infest or infect new a. Multiple interceptions of live host material throughout at least one specimens of organism have been quarter of a year. made at ports of entry in association e. One or more stages of the organism with host materials. may typically survive in the plant b. One or more stages of the organism host for an extended period of time. are likely to survive in the plant host f. Organism has active, directed host during transportation. searching capability or is vectored c. Organism is protected within host by such an organism. Colonization material or is unlikely to be dislodged activity may be directed by attraction from host or destroyed during to host volatiles, pheromones, or standard handling and shipping lights. Organism may be generally operations. associated with recently cut or damaged host material. d. Organism is difﬁ cult to detect (for example, concealment within host g. Organism has wide host range, material, small size of organism, or primary plant hosts are widely cryptic nature of organism, random distributed in several regions of the distribution of organism in, on, or world. associated with host material). h. Organism is unlikely to be dislodged from host or destroyed during Element 3. Colonization potential: likeli- standard harvesting and handling hood that the plant pest will successfully operations. colonize once it has entered the United States. Some characteristics of this ele- Element 2. Entry potential: likelihood of ment include the number and life stage the plant pest surviving in transit and of the pest translocated, host speciﬁ city, entering the United States undetected. and likelihood of encountering a suit- Important components of this element able environment in which the pest can include the pest’s ability to survive reproduce. transport, which includes such things as High risk = Criterion a applies, or the life stage and number of individuals criterion b and two or more of expected to be present in or on the logs, criteria c through e apply. chips, or transport vehicles. Moderate risk = Criterion a does not High risk = Criterion a applies, or apply; criterion b applies, or two or two or more of criteria b through d more of criteria c through e apply. apply. Moderate risk = Criterion a does not Low risk = Criteria a and b do not apply, and one of criteria b through apply; none or only one of criteria c d applies. through e apply.

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Rating criteria: b. Organism has demonstrated ability for redistribution through human- a. Organism has successfully established assisted transport. in location(s) outside its native distribution. c. Organism has a high reproductive potential. b. Suitable climatic conditions and suitable host material coincide d. Potential hosts have contiguous with ports of entry or major distribution. destinations. e. Newly established populations c. Organism has demonstrated ability may go undetected for many years to utilize new hosts. due to cryptic nature, concealed activity, slow development of damage d. Organism has active, directed host- symptoms, or misdiagnosis. searching capability or is vectored by an organism with directed host- f. Eradication techniques are unknown, searching capability. infeasible, or expected to be ineffective. e. Organism has high inoculum potential or high likelihood of reproducing g. Organism has broad host range. after entry. h. Organism has potential to be a more efﬁ cient vector of a native or Element 4. Spread potential: likelihood introduced pest. of the plant pest spreading beyond any colonized area. Factors to consider include the pest’s ability for natural dis- Consequences of Introduction persal, the pest’s ability to use human In this section, the elements pertain to estimat- activity for dispersal, the pest’s ability to ing the potential consequences if the pest were develop races or strains, the distribution to become established in the United States. and abundance of suitable hosts, and the estimated range of probable spread. Element 5. Economic damage potential: estimate of the potential economic High risk = Five or more of the following impact if the pest were to become es- eight criteria apply. tablished. Factors to consider include Moderate risk = Two to four of the economic importance of hosts, crop following eight criteria apply. loss, and effects on subsidiary industries, Low risk = One or none of the following and availability of eradication or control eight criteria apply. methods. Rating criteria: High risk = Four or more of the a. Organism is capable of dispersing following six criteria apply. more than several kilometers per year Moderate risk = Two or three of the through its own movement or by following six criteria apply. abiotic factors (such as wind, water, Low risk = One or none of the following or vectors). six criteria apply.

6 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Rating criteria: Moderate risk = One of criteria c through f applies, and neither criterion a nor a. Organism attacks hosts or products b applies. that have signifi cant commercial value (such as timber, pulp, wood products, Low risk = None of the following six wooden structures, Christmas trees, criteria apply. fruit or nut trees, syrup-producing trees, etc.). Rating criteria: b. Organism directly causes tree a. Organism is expected to cause mortality or predisposes host to significant direct environmental mortality by other organisms. effects, such as extensive ecological disruption or large-scale reduction c. Damage by organism causes a decrease of biodiversity. in value of the host affected—for b. Organism is expected to have direct instance, by lowering its market impacts on species listed by federal price; increasing cost of production, or state agencies as endangered, maintenance, or mitigation; or threatened, or candidate. An example reducing value of property where it would be feeding on a listed plant is located. species. d. Organism may cause loss of markets c. Organism is expected to have indirect (foreign or domestic) due to presence impacts on species listed by federal of pests and quarantine-signifi cant or state agencies as endangered, status. threatened, or candidate. This may e. Organism has demonstrated ability include disruption of sensitive or to develop more virulent strains or critical habitat. damaging biotypes. d. Organism may attack a host with f. No known control measures exist. limited natural distribution. e. Introduction of the organism Element 6. Environmental damage po- would probably result in control or tential: estimate of the potential envi- eradication programs that may have ronmental impact if the pest were to potential adverse environmental become established in the United States. effects. Factors to consider include potential for ecosystem destabilization, reduction f. Organism has demonstrated ability in biodiversity, reduction or elimina- to develop more virulent strains or tion of keystone species, reduction or damaging biotypes. elimination of endangered or threatened Element 7. Social and political consider- species, and nontarget effects of control ations: estimate of the impact from social measures. and/or political infl uences, including the High risk = Criterion a or b applies, or potential for aesthetic damage, consumer two or more of criteria c through f concerns, and implications for domestic apply. and international trade.

7 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

High risk = Two or more of the following compilation of the risk values for the seven four criteria apply. risk elements. The method for compilation is Moderate risk = One of the following presented in Orr et al. (1993). four criteria applies. Low risk = None of the following four • Determine the likelihood of introduc- criteria apply. tion. The overall risk rating for the likelihood of introduction acquires the Rating criteria: same rank as the single element with the a. Damage by organism would probably lowest rating. result in public concerns (for example, • Determine the consequences of intro- aesthetic or recreational concerns, or duction. Table 2 presents a method for concern about urban plantings). ascertaining consequences of introduc- b. Presence of organism would likely tion for a speciﬁ c pest organism or group have domestic trade implications. of organisms with similar habits based on the individual ratings for economic c. Presence of organism would likely and environmental damage potentials interfere with or burden domestic and social and political considerations. interstate commerce, trade, or trafﬁ c. • Determine the pest risk potential. The pest risk potential for each IPRA is de- d. Known effective control measures are termined based on the ratings for likeli- likely to have limited acceptance. hood of introduction and consequences of introduction (Table 3). 5. ESTIMATE UNMITIGATED PEST RISK POTENTIAL For this assessment, the team considered pine logs and pine chips as two separate commodi- The assessment team developed an estimate ties, and a separate pest risk potential was esti- of the unmitigated plant pest risk for each mated for each. Because the rating for Element individual pest risk assessment based on the 1 (the likelihood of the pest being on, with,

Table 2—Method for estimating consequences of introduction for an individual pest risk assessmenta.

Economic damage Environmental damage Social and political Consequences of potential potential considerations introduction H L, M, or H L, M, or H H L, M, or H H L, M, or H H M M L, M, or H M M L L, M, or H M L M L, M, or H M L L M or H M L LLL a L = low; M = moderate; H = high. Source: Orr et al. 1993.

8 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Table 3—Method for determining pest risk potentiala.

Likelihood of Consequences of Pest risk introduction b introduction potential HHH MHH L H M or L c HMH MMM L M M or L c HLM MLM LLL aL = low; M = moderate; H = high. bThe overall risk rating for the likelihood of introduction acquires the same rank as the single element with the lowest risk rating. cIf two or more of the single elements that determine likelihood of introduction are low, pest risk potential is considered low, rather than moderate, for this assessment.

Source: Orr et al. 1993. or in the commodity at the time of importa- tial organisms of concern was compiled and tion) and for Element 2 (likelihood of the pest mailed to individuals for review. Suggested surviving in transit and entering the United revisions to the list were incorporated into the States undetected) may change depending fi nal list prepared by WIPRAMET. on whether the commodity is logs or chips, separate ratings for each of these two elements Site Visits were estimated. Any differences in rating for the two elements based on commodity was Site visits to the subject countries were an in- then refl ected in separate pest risk potentials tegral part of previous pest risk assessments. for logs and for chips. Teams of FS and APHIS specialists traveled to Russia (USDA Forest Service 1991), New Zealand (USDA Forest Service 1992), Chile Outreach (USDA Forest Service 1993), Mexico (Tkacz In an effort to gather information pertinent et al. 1998), and South America (Kliejunas et to the pest risk assessment, WIPRAMET al. 2001) while working on pest risk assess- contacted scientists and specialists in the fi elds ments of those countries. Those site visits of forestry, forest entomology, forest pathol- allowed the assessment teams to meet with ogy and the timber industry throughout the local agricultural, quarantine, and forestry United States, Australia, Canada, England, officials and entomologists, pathologists, France, New Zealand, and the Republic of and forest industry representatives to gather South Africa. A preliminary list of poten- information on the proposed importation.

9 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

The teams also visited harvest areas, inspected The forests of the United States cover in processing plants and ports, viewed pest prob- excess of 295 million hectares, varying from lems in plantations and forests, and evaluated sparse noncommercial forests of the interior mitigation procedures. The site visits allowed West to the highly productive forests of the assessment teams to gather information that Pacifi c Coast and the South, and from pure is not readily available in the literature and to hardwoods forests to multispecies mixtures verify pest risk assessments. (USDA Forest Service 1990). Log and chip importation of Pinus spp. from Australia For this pest risk assessment, eight members could have serious adverse impacts on the of WIPRAMET and two APHIS officials economic and ecological value of these for- conducted a site visit to Australia from Sep- ests if destructive tree pests were introduced tember 12 to September 28, 2001. The entire with the logs or chips. Because of the pos- team met in Canberra with various Australian sibility of pine logs and chips from Australia offi cials from September 12 through Septem- being imported to any region of the United ber 14. The team then split into three sub- States, WIPRAMET has chosen to consider teams or groups, with one group traveling to the forest resources throughout the United Queensland and New South Wales, the second States as being at risk from pest establishment. group to Victoria and Western Australia, and Although this risk assessment generally used the third group to Tasmania and South Aus- specifi c examples from limited regions when tralia. In addition to eucalypt plantations and discussing impacts associated with introduced eucalypt natural forests, the sub-teams also pests, we recognize that forests throughout the looked at Pinus radiata and other Pinus spp. United States are potentially at risk, and that, plantations in anticipation of a future pest risk in addition to economic values, other forest assessment of Pinus spp. The team reconvened aspects (aesthetic, recreational, and ecological) in Canberra September 27 for a closeout ses- are also important. sion with Australian offi cials. See Appendix A for the trip report. In addition to the extensive natural stands of conifers and hardwoods in the United States, Resources at Risk there is a very sizable industry devoted to production of ornamentals and Christmas trees The commodity being assessed for its potential that could be affected by introduced pests. to introduce plant pests into the United States The potential impact on trees with limited is unprocessed logs and woodchips of Pinus range or genetic variability, as well as impacts spp. being grown in Australia. Therefore, the on trees in the urban environment, also could domestic resources at risk include, but may be signifi cant. not be limited to, the genus Pinus and related species. The nature of the impacts of concern Descriptions of the dominant tree resources (e.g., mortality or reduced yield) and the sus- at risk within various regions of the country ceptible hosts (Pinus or non-Pinus) are pest- follow. More detailed descriptions of these specifi c and are addressed by the individual regions can be found in USDA Forest Service pest risk assessments. (1990) and USDA APHIS (1994).

10 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Eastern deciduous forest region. This re- (D. Don) Endl.), and other minor species gion, which encompasses the Mid-Atlan- occur in localized areas. tic states, the Northeast, and parts of the Pacific Southwest region. Although Southeast, includes oak (Quercus)-pine mostly desert and shrub land, the area (Pinus)-hickory (Carya), oak-hickory, comprising mid-coastal California south sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.)- and east into the desert of the Southwest beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.), hem- contains several pine species, including lock (Tsuga), white pine (Pinus strobus Pinus radiata, Douglas-fi r, and incense- Engelm.), and spruce (Picea) forests, and cedar (Libocedrus decurrens Torr.). northern hardwood forests. Rocky Mountain region. At lower eleva- Southeast region. The southeastern coast- tions, dominant trees are broad-leaved al plain region extends from the Texas deciduous species. Higher elevations Gulf Coast to southern New Jersey, are characterized by ponderosa pine including the lower Mississippi River (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. Ex. Laws var Basin. Oak, pine, and mixed oak-pine scopulorum) woodlands, mixed pine-oak forests are characteristic. woodlands, and Douglas-fi r and spruce- fi r-hemlock forests. North Central and Great Plains regions. The predominant forest types of these regions include aspen (Populus)-birch (Betula), oak hickory, northern hardwoods [maple (Acer), beech (Fagus), and basswood (Tilia)], lowland hardwoods [elm (Ulmus), cottonwood (Populus), oak, and maple], lowland conifers [black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.), northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.), and larch (Larix)], and mixed pines. Pacific Northwest region. Extending from mid-coastal California to southern Alaska, this region is characterized by predominantly mixed conifer forest composed of pines, true fi r (Abies), hemlock, and Douglas-fi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco). Pure pine forests occur in the southern Cascades and on the easern slop of the Sierra Nevada. Other softwoods, including western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.), western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex. D. Don), redwood (Sequoia sempervirens

11 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

CHAPTER 2. PINUS RESOURCES OF AUSTRALIA PINUS PLANTATIONS IN (58 percent) are softwood species, mostly P. AUSTRALIA radiata, and 715,531 hectares (1,768,113 acres) (42 percent) are hardwood species, mostly eu- Pinus is a genus exotic to Australia. It was calypts (National Forest Inventory 2005). The fi rst introduced as a plantation tree in 1876 area of conifer plantations varies by state (Fig. at Bundaleer, north of Adelaide. Five pine 1). More than 80 percent of plantation wood species were noted as promising in this plant- is domestically processed. Plantation timber ing, including P. radiata D. Don. In 1880, exceeds timber from native forests in volume the fi rst commercial plantation of P. radiata and value and represents about two-thirds of was established in Victoria. Later, additional all forest products. plantations of P. radiata and other Pinus species were planted in other states of Australia. Australia’s total plantation inventory has This included species of P. elliottii Engelm. been increasing most every year, including var. elliottii, P. taeda L., and P. caribaea var. hardwood and softwood species (National hondurensis. The planting of Pinus increased Forest Inventory 2005). Hardwood species dramatically after the Second World War as have made up the bulk of that increase, but plantations were established to meet future the area of softwoods exceeded one million pulpwood demand. Legislation in the 1960s hectares in 2004. Most of the softwoods are encouraged the development of State-owned various species of Pinus. A minor amount of plantations from 1967 to 1977 (Australian area is planted with native Araucaria species. Academy of Technological Sciences and En- The area of softwoods by state and territory gineering 1988). from 1999 to 2004 is identifi ed in Table 4. The largest area of softwood plantations is in Australia has approximately 1.7 million New South Wales, followed by Victoria and hectares (4.2 million acres) of plantations, of Queensland (Figure 1). These three states which 1,000,642 hectares (2,472,636 acres) comprise 67 percent of the national plantation

Table 4—Area (hectares) of softwood plantations in Australian states and territories from 1999 to 2004a.

State 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Australian Capital Territory 15,269 14,585 14,516 15,713 5,264 5,363 New South Wales 246,934 270,672 269,536 270,467 280,251 287,302 Northern Territory 5,235 5,235 3,817 3,817 3,817 3,817 Queensland 185,555 178,620 181,303 181,598 181,088 180,158 South Australia 106,153 113,871 114,670 116,768 120,493 124,313 Tasmania 75,412 75,630 75,313 78,162 76,104 74,420 Victoria 219,197 215,110 217,253 217,285 211,961 214,874 Western Australia 94,500 98,441 102,559 104,054 109,246 110,395 Total 948,255 972,164 978,967 987,864 988,223 1,000,642

aSource: National Plantation Inventory Australia, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.

12 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Australian Capital Western Territory Australia

New South Wales

Victoria

Northern Territory

Tasmania

Queensland South Australia

Figure 1—Area of Softwood Plantations by State in Australia – 2004. Source: National Forest Inventory 2005. National Plantation Inventory 2005, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra. total of softwoods. The decline in area in Aus- Early use of plantation pine was for lumber. tralian Capital Territory and Victoria in 2003 Following the Second World War, pines were is a result of plantations burned in wildﬁ res increasingly planted as a future source of that year that had not been replanted. Overall, pulpwood. Currently, Australian plantations Australia has increased its area of softwood (hardwoods and softwoods) supply more than 50 percent of the domestic demand. However, plantations during the past six years by 5.5 Australia’s imports of forest products were percent. Most of this increase has been in New more than double its exports in 1999-2000. South Wales (16 percent), South Australia (17 Most of the imports (70 percent) were pulp percent), and Western Australia (17 percent). and paper. This trade deﬁ cit is expected to continue unless manufacturing capacity is In October 1997, the Commonwealth, state increased in pulp and paper manufacturing. governments, and the Australian timber industry launched the “Plantations for Aus- Australia exports both manufactured wood tralia: 2020 Vision,” which aims to increase products and raw products, including logs the Australian area in plantations to 3 million and wood chips. The primary recipient of hectares (7.4 million acres) by 2020. Achieving wood chips from Australia is Japan. Australia exported 848.5 kilotonnes of coniferous wood this objective will require an average planting chips to Japan in 2001-02; 994.8 kilotonnes in of around 80,000 hectares (197,684 acres) per 2002-03; and 1,098.8 kilotonnes in 2003-04 year. This goal is very ambitious, as the aver- (ABARE 2005). An additional 0.1 kilotonnes age annual planting during the peak plantation were exported to other countries in 2001- period of the 1970s and early to mid-1980s 02. The largest exporting state for each of was 30,000 hectares (74,132 acres) (Foreign these three years was Victoria, followed by Agriculture Service 1999). Queensland (Table 5).

13 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

Table 5—Annual exports of coniferous wood chips (kilotonnes) from Australia.

State 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 New South Wales 5.4 0.0 0.0 Victoria 575.0 751.9 777.9 Queensland 244.7 235.3 308.4 South Australia 0.0 0.0 0.0 Western Australia 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tasmania 23.4 7.6 12.4 Northern Territory 0.0 0.0 0.0 Source: ABARE 2005.

GLOBAL SOFTWOOD MARKET, product exports in the 1990s and reached a AUSTRALIAN SUPPLY record $646 million in 1997-1998 (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Eco- Australia is predominantly an import market nomics 1999). Japan took about 95 percent of for forest products, with the major excep- the 3.9 million tons of wood chips exported in tion of wood chips. The Australian Bureau 1998-1999 (Foreign Agriculture Service 1999). of Agricultural and Resource Economics Most Australian wood exports are destined (ABARE) estimated that approximately 80 for nations in the Asia-Paciﬁ c region, with percent of Australian hardwood woodchips the major markets being Japan ($600 million), and 30 percent of softwood woodchips are New Zealand ($316 million), and other Asian exported. In 2004, exports of softwood chips countries (excluding Japan) ($312 million). and logs reached 1.7 million metric tons (UN Statistics Division). Woodchips, including Australia’s woodchip exports remained rela- softwood chips, have generally accounted for tively stable from 1999-2000 through 2003- just over half the value of Australian forest 2004 (Fig. 2), with hardwood chips domi-

1400 1200 1000 800 600 Exports 400 200 (1,000 cubic metres) 0 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 Financial Year Softwood Hardwood

Figure 2—Export of Australian hardwood and softwood chips, 1999-2000 to 2003-2004. Source: Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE) 2002 and 2005.

14 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA nating (ABARE 2002 and 2005). Australia’s U.S. DEMAND FOR SOFTWOOD pulpwood supplies are expected to increase LOGS AND CHIPS rapidly and peak in 2009 (Flynn and Shield 1999). Softwood log exports from Australia United States consumption of softwood showed continued growth during the period timber products slowly increased during the 1999 to 2004 (Fig. 3). Hardwood log exports 1990s following a drop to a low in 1991. This were considerably lower and stable. Exports increase continued into the 21st century. Mean- of Australian forest products in 2003-2004 while, softwood production in the United totaled Aus$2,055.6 million; this included States declined from its highs in the late 1980s Aus$185.7 million of round and sawn wood and stabilized. The difference between con- products, Aus$148.5 million in wood based sumption and production has been made up panels, Aus$794.4 million of wood chips, and by increasing imports of softwood materials. Aus$713.3 million of paper and paperboard The increase has been in manufactured wood (ABARE 2005). products and softwood logs (Fig. 4). Most of the increased softwood timber product im- CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ports have come from Canada (93 percent of PROPOSED IMPORTATION all sawn softwood imports), although Europe increased their share of the market (Howard APHIS has received written and verbal in- 2002). dication of interest to import Pinus logs and chips from Australia into the United States. The strong United States housing market in The commodity proposed for import into 2001-2002 led to increases in domestic sawn the United States is wood chips, but could softwood production, increases in imports, include unprocessed logs in the future. The and decreases in exports of softwood materi- chips would be expected to arrive by marine als. Most softwood logs are used for structural transport to any port of entry in the United lumber and milled wood products, such as States. The amount of Pinus commodities moldings, plywood, and doors. exported from Australia to the United States is unpredictable and will depend on, among Softwood chip imports have decreased other factors, market prices, currency values, through 2002 (Fig. 4). Softwood chips are and demand from other countries, especially mainly used for lower quality paper and pa- Japan. perboard, as well as composite wood products

) 5000 4000 3000 2000 Exports 1000 (Kilotonnes 0 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Sof tw ood Financial Year Har dw ood

Figure 3—Export of Australian hardwood and softwood logs (including pulp logs), 1999-2000 to 2003-2004. Source: Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE) 2002 and 2005.

15 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

Softwood logs Softwood chips

2,500,000 800,000 700,000 2,000,000 600,000

1,500,000 500,000 400,000 1,000,000 300,000 200,000 Log Imports (m3) Log Imports 500,000 100,000 Chip Imports (metric tons) 0 0

1 2 6 7 8 9 0 2 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 1 1 19931994 1995 1 1 1 1 2 2001 2

Figure 4—Importation of softwood logs and chips into the United States, 1991-2002. Source: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service 2003. (such as oriented strandboard, particleboard, domestic production plus net imports. For the and medium density ﬁ berboard). Other than past several years, the United States paper in- oriented strandboard, the production of these dustry has been characterized by overcapacity products declined in the early 21st century and low commodity prices. Declining prices (Howard 2002). have led to contraction in both softwood and hardwood pulp demand. Between 1992 and Even though paper and paper product produc- 1997, the number of pulp mill establishments tion declined, the United States is still the larg- [Standard Industrial Classiﬁ cation (SIC) 2611] est consumer of these products in the world. declined by 13 percent (U.S. Census Bureau The United States continued to be the largest 2000), and eight of the nation’s 186 pulp mills single exporting country of softwood chips in shut down in 1999 (Howard 2001). Since the world during the past decade (Fig. 5). The then, further erosion in pulpwood demand second largest exporter was Australia. New has continued. Zealand was the largest exporter of softwood logs, with the United States and Australia a distant third and tenth, respectively (Fig. 6). LOCATION OF U.S. PULP MILLS AND WOODCHIP PORT Since peaking in 1995, total pulpwood produc- FACILITIES tion and pulp mill consumption have declined in the United States (Fig. 7) (Howard 2001). The location of United States pulp mills and Total pulpwood consumption in United States woodchip port facilities provides some in- mills of 86.7 million cords (314.2 million cubic dication of the most likely exposure routes meters) in 1999 was met by approximately 82.0 associated with potential Pinus pulpwood million cords (297.2 million cubic meters) of and woodchip imports. Pulp mills are lo-

16 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

2.00 1.80 1.60 1.40 kilotonnes)

6 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

ia ia ion nd tria tral la s USA s atv u u L FranceA A Canada Estoniaderat Germany wZea Fe e N ian s Median annual exports (10 annualMedian exports s u R

Figure 5—Top ten countries exporting softwood chips 1996-2004. Source: United Nations Statistics Division.

120.00

100.00 kilotonnes)

6 80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00

d a e n ny p. vi c lia tion a e lan a USA at an ra a rm L st e Fr Swede u G A Median annual exports (10 ew Ze Feder Czech R Switzerland N n ssia Ru

Figure 6—Top ten countries exporting softwood logs, 1996-2004. Source: United Nations Statistics Division.

17 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

14,000

12,000

10,000 Total Softwood Production 8,000 Total Softwood Imports 6,000 Total Softwood 4,000 Consumption Million Cubic Feet Cubic Million

2,000

4 6 8 0 4 6 8 9 9 98 98 99 1982 1 19 1 19 1992 1 19 1998

Figure 7—Production, Consumption, and Imports of Softwood Tim- ber Products in the United States, 1982-1999. Source: Howard 2001. cated primarily in regions of the country tion. Oregon leads the Paciﬁ c Coastal region where pulpwood is harvested. Traditionally, in pulpwood production (Johnson 2001). As pulpwood production has been concentrated of 1999, United States Paciﬁ c Coastal wood- in the southern United States. In 1996, nine chip export facilities included Homer, Alaska; of the top ten pulpwood producing states Port Angeles, Washington; Tacoma, Washing- were in the southern region (Johnson 2001). ton; Coos Bay, Oregon; Eureka, California; Southern mills had more than 70 percent of and Sacramento, California (Neilson and the U.S. pulping capacity in 2003 (Johnson Flynn 1999). and Steppleton 2005), when the highest con- centration of softwood-utilizing pulp mills was in Alabama and Georgia (Johnson and PREVIOUS INTERCEPTIONS OF Steppleton 2005). QUARANTINE ORGANISMS

Woodchip export facilities generally have the A search of the APHIS PIN 309 database infrastructure to accommodate imports as (Port Information Network) was made for well. As of 1999, southern woodchip export Pinus materials imported from Australia and facilities included Beaumont, Texas; Lake New Zealand. Few records were identifi ed. Charles, Louisiana; Reserve, Louisiana; Con- The organisms identifi ed as having been in- vent, Louisiana; Mobile, Alabama; Savannah, Georgia; Wilmington, South Carolina; and tercepted at U.S. ports from Australian and Morehead City, North Carolina (Neilson and New Zealand Pinus material are listed in Table Flynn 1999). Although the Pacifi c Coastal 6. Although this PRA does not address com- region (California, Oregon, Washington, and modities from New Zealand, that country Alaska) has a substantial pulp industry, most has similar conditions to Australia, and it was of the wood raw material is chips produced as believed information from this source might byproduct from timber and lumber produc- provide further information and insights.

18 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Table 6—Organisms recovered at U.S. ports from imported Pinus unmanufactured wood products shipped from Australia and New Zealand (USDA APHIS PIN 309).

Host Origin Pest Date Pinus radiata Australia Pineus sp. 2003 Pinus sp. (fruit) Australia Pseudococcidae, species of 1996 Pinus sp. (fruit) Australia Mycosphaerella sp. 2000 Pinus sp. (seed) Australia Lygaeoidea, species of 1985 Pinus sp. (seed) Australia Pentatomidae, species of 1995 Pinus sp. Australia Pissodes sp. 1993 Pinus ponderosa New Zealand Scolytidae, species of 1996 Pinus radiata New Zealand Hylurgus sp. 1991 Pinus radiata New Zealand Monochamus sp. 1997 Pinus radiata New Zealand Scolytidae, species of 1991 Pinus radiata (fruit) New Zealand Phyllosticta sp. 1999

In addition to the search of the PIN 309 da- resulting in misidentifi cation. Utilizing DNA tabase, Oregon Department of Agriculture techniques would provide a confi rmation of provided information from evaluations of im- actual species identifi cation. ported Pinus lumber that was received in Or- egon in 2000. Green, air-dried, and kiln-dried Other fungi isolated included cosmopolitan lumber shipments from Australia were exam- mold fungi and other saprophytes. Several ined and sampled for insects, fungi, bacteria, genera with phytopathological members were and nematodes from 18 different lots received recovered, but species identifi cation was not during the year. A few insects, live and dead, made so it is uncertain if any pathogens were and evidence of insect damage were discov- present. Searching for bacteria and nematodes, ered. The insects identifi ed included mites, a likewise, did not fi nd any known pathogens. Carabid beetle, Diptera larvae, Brachypeplus sp., a gall gnat, and a yellowjacket. Because most of the Pinus resource exported from Australia is shipped to Japan and Korea, Isolations for fungi from the lumber identifi ed inquiries were made with quarantine offi cials several wood-decaying organisms, including there. Japan requires quarantine inspection Phaeolus schweinitzii, Inonotus dryadeus, by MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Fomitopsis pinicola, Bjerkandera adusta, and and Fisheries of Japan) for both dry (logs Coniophora puteana. All of these are native and chips) and fresh (foliage) Pinus, but only to the forests of the United States. The iden- fresh imports require certifi cation from AQIS tifi cation of these fungi was based on cul- (Australian Quarantine and Inspection Ser- tural characteristics using Noble’s key (Noble vice). Korea requires mandatory fumigation 1965). This key was developed using North prior to import as a condition of entry. They American species of wood decay fungi. It is do not have any interception records for this possible that similar fungi from other parts of commodity. We were unable to obtain import the world may have the same characteristics, interception records from Japan.

19 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

CHAPTER 3. INSECTS AND PATHOGENS POSING RISK INTRODUCTION liminary list prepared by the team, and from information described in Chapter 1. These The probability of pest introduction is deter- organisms were catalogued in one of the cat- mined by several related factors, including the egories of quarantine pests deﬁ ned in the log likelihood of a pest traveling with and surviv- import regulations (Title 7, CFR 319.40-11). ing on a shipment from the place of origin, The team broadened some of the categories the likelihood of a pest colonizing suitable to include a broader definition of genetic hosts at the point of entry and along transport variation (Table 7). The organisms were also routes to processing sites, and the likelihood identiﬁ ed as to the part of the plant they affect: of subsequent pest spread to adjacent terri- nursery seedlings, surface of foliage or bark, tories. Many insects and pathogens could be in or under the bark, and in the wood. From introduced on logs or chips of Pinus spp. from these lists, organisms were selected for further Australia into the United States. Because it analysis. Organisms were selected from each would be impractical to analyze the risk of all of the plant parts affected (except for nursery of them, some form of selection was necessary. seedlings). Organisms were selected because of Selection was based on the likelihood of the the amount of damage they cause in Australia, pest being present on or in the logs or chips, the availability of information available on the and on their potential risk to resources in the organism, and the pathway they represent. United States. The pest risk assessment team For each organism selected, a thorough indi- compiled and assessed pertinent data using vidual pest risk assessment was developed (as the methodology outlined in Pest Risk As- described previously in Chapter 1 under Pest sessment Process in Chapter 1 and as used in Risk Assessment Process). previous pest risk assessments (Kliejunas et al. 2001, Kliejunas et al. 2003, Tkacz et al. 1998, TABLES OF POTENTIAL INSECTS USDA Forest Service 1991, 1992, and 1993). AND PATHOGENS OF CONCERN

ANALYSIS PROCESS The species of insects and pathogens associated with Pinus species in Australia and The general analysis process used is explained identifi ed as potential pests of concern are in Chapter 1. For this risk assessment, in- presented in Tables 8 and 9. The lists include formation was collected from an array of 104 insects and 10 pathogens. The organ- sources on the organisms associated with isms listed in Tables 8 and 9 are not meant to Pinus species grown in Australia that have the be a defi nitive or all-inclusive list, but are a potential to be exported commercially to the result of literature searches and information U.S. Lists of insects and pathogens that have provided by colleagues in Australia. In order been reported to inhabit the Pinus species in for an organism to be listed in Table 8 or in Australia were compiled from the literature, Table 9, it must have been identifi ed with one from information provided by Australian of the Australian Pinus hosts, either through forest entomologists and pathologists, from the literature or through communication with information received from reviewers of a pre- Australian entomologists or pathologists.

20 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Table 7—Pest categories and descriptions.

Category Description 1 Nonindigenous plant pest not present in the United States. Nonindigenous plant pest present in the United States and capable of further 2 dissemination in the United States. Native plant pest of limited distribution in the United States but capable of further 2a dissemination in the United States.

Nonindigenous plant pest present in the United States that has reached probable limits 3 of its ecological range but differs genetically from the plant pest in the United States in a way that demonstrates a potential for greater damage potential in the United States.

Native species of the United States that has reached probable limits of its ecological 4 range but differs genetically from the plant pest in the United States in a way that demonstrates a potential for greater damage potential in the United States. Native pest organisms that may differ in their capacity for causing damage, based on 4a genetic variation exhibited by the species. Nonindigenous or native plant pest that may be able to vector another plant pest that 5 meets one of the above criteria

That host is listed in Table 8 or 9, as are any found on the bark, in the bark, and in the additional hosts known to harbor the insect wood that would have the greatest potential or pathogen. Those insects or pathogens risk to forests and other tree resources of whose hosts are listed simply as “Pinus spp.” the United States. The organizations team are ones suspected of being associated with recognized that these might not be the only Pinus species in Australia, but where speciﬁ c organisms associated with the Pinus species in hosts are not deﬁ nitively known. Bold type is Australia. They are, however, representative used in Tables 8 and 9 to highlight the insects of the diversity of insects and pathogens that or pathogens treated in Individual Pest Risk inhabit logs and chips. By necessity, the IP- Assessments (IPRAs). The tables represent a RAs focus on those insects and pathogens for list of potential pests of concern, and do not which biological information is available. The represent, or judge, quarantine status of any assessments of risks associated with known of the organisms listed. organisms that inhabit a variety of niches on logs and chips will be used by the U.S. De- INDIVIDUAL PEST RISK partment of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant ASSESSMENTS Health Inspection Service (APHIS) to identify effective mitigation measures to eliminate Eleven IPRAs were prepared: nine dealing both the known organisms and any similar with insects and two with pathogens. The heretofore-unknown organisms that inhabit objective was to include in the IPRAs repre- the same niches. Summary tables of the IPRA sentative examples of insects and pathogens results can be found in Chapter 4.

21 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood X1 X1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood Foliage/ branches X1 X1 XXXXX1 1 1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus , , spp. Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Pinus radiata halepensis P. elliottii, P. Pinus caribaea, taeda, P. montezumae, P. Araucaria cunninghamii, Agathis bidwillii, A. robusta A. palmerstonii, Pinus radiata SA SA SA VIC QLD QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts (Burmeister) a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Agrotis munda (Lepidoptera: Walker Noctuidae) Agrotis infusa (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Acropolitis rudisana Acropolitis (Lepidoptera: (Walker) Tortricidae) Adoryphorus couloni (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) leucurus Aesiotes (Coleoptera: Pascoe Curculionidae) notabilis Aesiotes (Coleoptera: Pascoe Curculionidae) Species ergophora Acropolitis (Lepidoptera: Meyrick Tortricidae) Table 8 Table

22 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 X1 X1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 Foliage/ branches X1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in , Pinus ., Corymbia ., , spp spp., spp. Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Pinus radiata Pinus Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus acmenioides, camaldulensis E. propinqua, E. piperita, E. saligna, E. rostrata, E. Eucalyptus Pinus radiata pinaster, P. elliottii, P. Juniperus sericea, Hakea sp. citriodora, C. maculata, maculata, C. citriodora, Angophora intermedia Pinus radiata c SA SA SA VIC VIC VIC VIC WA TAS QLD QLD QLD (NZ) NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts ) (Meyrick) (Meyrick)

Reitter a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential ditermes =Chryocephalus Species Amasa truncatus (Erichson) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) Arhopalus ( guttulosa Austracris (Orthoptera: (Walker) Acrididae) Biﬁ condonensis (Hill) (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) syriacus syriacus (Coleoptera: (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Arachnographa micrastrella (Lepidoptera: Oechophoridae) Anthela nicothoe (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Anthelidae) Table 8 Table

23 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches XX 1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in spp., Pinus spp. Eucalyptus spp. spp., spp. Nothofagus Cupressus Pinus Pinus radiata, Pinus spp., Pinus radiata Eucalyptus marginata, Eucalyptus marginata, Corymbia calophylla, Pinus maculata, C. Melia azedarach, pinaster, robusta, Grevillea populneus, Brachychiton Delonix regia Pinus radiata taeda, P. caribaea, P. Pinus Pinus radiata SA SA SA VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC WA TAS TAS QLD QLD NSW State/ Territory Hosts

(Blackburn) (Blackburn) spp. =C. =C. a (Fabricius) —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential ) (Lepidoptera: ) (Lepidoptera: Chlenias zonaea Chlenias zonaea Guest (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Chlenias (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Chlenias auctaria Guenée ( C. pachymela, pini Geometridae) Cacodacnus planicollis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) rubens Ceroplastes Maskell (Homoptera: Coccidae) Chermes borneri (Ann.) (Homoptera: Adelgidae) Species Bostrychopsis jesuita (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) Table 8 Table

24 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 XX1 XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches X1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in

Pinus spp., spp., spp. spp. spp. spp. Eucalyptus Pinus Eucalyptus Pinus Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, pilularis, E. grandis, E. Eucalyptus Pinus Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata SA SA SA NT VIC VIC VIC VIC WA WA WA ACT (NZ) (NZ) QLD QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts Meyrick Meyrick (Walker) (Walker) Fabricius Fabricius (Isoptera: (Isoptera: (Isoptera: (Isoptera:

a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential (Isoptera: (Isoptera:

Coptotermes Coptotermes acinaciformis raffrayi (Froggatt) Rhinotermitidae) frenchi Coptotermes Hill Rhinotermitidae) Coptotermes Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) Rhinotermitidae) Coccus hesperidum Coccus Linnaeus (Hemiptera: Coccidae) Clania tenuis (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) Chrysolopus spectabilis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Species Chortoicetes terminifera (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Table 8 Table

25 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 XX2 XX1 XX1 XX1 XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 Foliage/ branches Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus spp., spp. Eucalyptus softwoods and Seasoned hardwood softwoods softwoods softwoods and Seasoned hardwood softwoods Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus SA VIC ACT ACT QLD QLD QLD and Seasoned hardwood QLD and Seasoned hardwood QLD NSW NSW and Seasoned hardwood NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts (Isoptera: (Isoptera:

a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Rhinotermitidae) brevis Cryptotermes (Isoptera: (Walker) Kalotermitidae) Cryptotermes domesticus (Isoptera: (Haviland) Kalotermitidae) dudleyi Cryptotermes Banks (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) primus Cryptotermes Hill (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) Digglesia australasiae (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) Diphucephala colaspidoides Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Species lacteus Coptotermes (Froggatt) Table 8 Table

26 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX 2 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches X1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in spp., Pinus , , Quercus . . spp. spp spp spp., Pinus radiata Pinus Betula Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Larix Pinus caribea x elliottii, muricata, P. elliottii, P. radiata, P. patula, P. taiwanensis, P. taeda, P. Pinus Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata SA SA SA VIC VIC VIC WA ACT ACT QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts

(Lepidoptera: (Lepidoptera:

a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential (Homoptera: (Homoptera: . Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) Ernobius molllis Epiphyas postvittana Epiphyas (Walker) Tortricidae) Erythroneura sp Cicadellidae) Eulachnus thunbergii (Hemiptera: Wilson Aphididae) radians Euxoa (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Epiphyas caryotis Epiphyas (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Ectropis excursaria Ectropis excursaria Guenée (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Species terminalis Ecrizothis Oken (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Table 8 Table

27 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X2 Foliage/ branches X1 XXX1 1 X1 X1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus , P. taeda , P. spp., spp. Eucalyptus Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata, menziesii Pseudotsuga Pinus radiata Pinus pinaster Pinus SA VIC VIC WA WA ACT (NZ) QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts

Turner Turner sp. (Hübner) a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Haploceros sphenotypa Species Glyptotermes tuberculatus (Isoptera: Froggatt Kalotermitidae) (Lepidoptera: Geomeetridae) Helicoverpa Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Heliothis punctigera Wallengren (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Bouché (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) obesus Heteronyx (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Heteronyx (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Table 8 Table

28 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 XX1 XX1 X2 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 Foliage/ branches XX 1 Seedlings in nursery

spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Abies Pinus Pseudotsuga spp. spp., spp., spp. spp., spp. spp., Larix Picea spp. spp. Pinus radiata, canariensis, P. halepensis, P. elliottii, P. nigra, P. montezumae, P. pinaster, P. patula, P. strobus, P. pinea, P. Pinus Eucalyptus spp., Eucalyptus Pinus radiata Pinus Pinus radiata, muricata, P. canariensis, pinaster, P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. ponderosa, P. sylvestris, P. Pinus spp., Pinus Eucalyptus Pinus SA SA SA SA SA NT VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC WA WA TAS ACT (NZ) QLD QLD QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts

a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Hylurgus ligniperda (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) banksiae Kalotermes Hill (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) Heterotermes paradoxus (Isoptera: (Froggatt) Rhinotermitidae) huebneri Hyalarcta (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) Hylastes ater (Coleoptera: Paykull Scolytidae) Species Heterotermes ferox (Froggatt) (Isoptera: (Isoptera: (Froggatt) Rhinotermitidae) Table 8 Table

29 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 XX1 XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches XX 1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus spp., spp., spp., spp. spp. Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Pinus inus radiata P. Pinus Pinus radiata Pinus elliottii caribaea P. Pinus radiata SA NT NT VIC VIC VIC WA WA TAS QLD NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts

notum .

(Isoptera: (Isoptera: sp

Blackburn Blackburn a Hill —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Hill (Isoptera: Hill (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) arctiella Lepidoscia (Lepidoptera: (Walker) Psychidae) Merimnetes oblongus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) divulsana Merophyas (Lepidoptera: (Walker) Tortricidae) Microcerotermes boreus Termitidae) Species ruﬁ Kalotermes Lepispilus sulcicollis Lepispilus Boisduval (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) Lichenaula Mastotermes darwiniensis (Isoptera: Froggatt Mastotermitidae) (Lepidoptera: (Lepidoptera: Xyloryctidae) Table 8 Table

30 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 XX1 XX1 XX1 XX1 XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood Foliage/ branches XX 1 X1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus

, spp., spp., spp., spp., spp. spp., ., spp spp. spp. spp. spp. spp. Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Pinus Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Eucalyptus menziesii Pseudotsuga Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus SA SA SA NT NT VIC VIC VIC WA WA WA QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts

spp. Hill Blackburn Blackburn Silvestri Silvestri Hill a (Froggatt) (Froggatt) —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Mordella inusiata Blackburn (Coleoptera: Mordellidae) Mythimna (Lepidoptera: (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) (Isoptera: Termitidae) Neomerimnetes obstructor (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (Isoptera: Termitidae) (Isoptera: Microcerotermes implicatus Termitidae) (Isoptera: Microcerotermes nervosus Termitidae) (Isoptera: Microcerotermes turneri Termitidae) (Isoptera: Species Microcerotermes distinctus Table 8 Table

31 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches X1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus spp., Liquidambar , spp. spp. ., Prunus domestica, domestica, Prunus ., Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Eucalyptus delegatensis, nitens, E. diversicolor, E. regnans, E. obliqua, E. Betula Schinus molle, pendula sp Ligustrum Quercus robur, Pinus radiata vulgare, Pinus radiata Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus globulus, Pinus radiata Pinus radiata, Acacia Eucalyptus Pinus SA SA SA VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC WA WA WA WA TAS TAS ACT QLD QLD QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts

Saunders a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Oiketicus Oiketicus elongatus (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) centrolineataOmyta Westwood (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Opodiphthera helena (White) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich-Schaffer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) Nysius vinitor Nysius Bergroth (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Ochrogaster contraria (Lepidoptera: Walker Notodontidae) Species Neotermes insularis (Isoptera: (Walker) Termitidae) Table 8 Table

32 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX 1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches XX 1 XX 1 Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in , Pinus

, , , P. taeda , P. oribunda spp. Pinus radiata , , Pinus radiata patula P. Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Angophora ﬂ Pinus radiata Eucalyptus globulus Pinus radiata Pinus radiata E. nitens E. Pinus radiata SA SA SA VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC WA WA WA WA TAS ACT ACT ACT QLD QLD QLD QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts Maskell . sp (Sjostedt) a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Boheman Panacela lewinae lewinae Panacela (Lewin) (Lepidoptera: Eupterotidae) Perperus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) ewingii Persectania (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Orthorrhinus klugi (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Phaulacridium vittatum (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Pineus laevis Homoptera: Adelgidae) Pineus pini (Macquardt) (Homoptera: Adelgidae) Species Orgyia australis (Lepidoptera: Walker Lymantriidae) Table 8 Table

33 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category X1 X1 Heartwood XX1 XX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X X1 Foliage/ branches XX 1 Seedlings in nursery ; spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus Pinus spp., spp. spp., spp. E. saligna, Nothofagus saligna, E. Pinus cunninghamii, radiata Eucalyptus Araucaria radiata, cunninghamii, apetalum, Ceratopetalum Nothofagus cunninghamii Pinus radiata Eucalyptus delegatensis, Eucalyptus delegatensis, nitens, E. goniocalyx, E. regnans E. obliqua, E. Pinus radiata, Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Pinus Pinus radiata SA SA SA SA NT VIC VIC VIC VIC VIC WA TAS TAS ACT QLD QLD QLD NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts . . )

sp sp Hetschko Hetschko a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Lepidoptera: Lepidoptera: Porotermes adamsoni Porotermes (Froggatt) (Isoptera: Termopsidae) Pycnomerus blackburni (Coleoptera: Colydiidae) Species Platypus subgranosus (Coleoptera: Schedl Platypodidae) Procometis Procometis Pseudaletia (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Pseudococcinae (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Schedorhinotermes intermedius (Isoptera: (Brauer) Rhinotermitidae) ( Xyloryctidae Table 8 Table

34 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category Heartwood XX1 X2 X1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 X1 X1 X1 Foliage/ branches Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus ., . spp. spp., spp spp spp. Pinus radiata Pinus radiata Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus Pinus radiata Eucalyptus Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus Eucalyptus diversicolor, Pinus radiata Pinus Cupressus SA SA SA VIC VIC VIC VIC WA WA WA TAS TAS TAS TAS QLD QLD QLD NSW NSW NSW NSW State/ Territory Hosts Walker Walker ) Boheman Turner Turner Walker sp. a Orgyia —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential (= Scotasmus carinirostris (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) noctilio Sirex Fabricius (Hymenotera: Siricidae) Teia anartoides (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) Trigonocyttara clandestina (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) Species Schedorhinotermes reticulatus (Isoptera: (Froggatt) Rhinotermitidae) Tortricopsis Tortricopsis semijunctella (Lepidoptera: Oechophoridae) Toxeutes (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Table 8 Table

35 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category Heartwood X1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X1 Foliage/ branches Seedlings in nursery spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest category. including host range, Australia, spp. in Pinus ., Corymbia ., spp Pinus radiata Pinus elliottii, Eucalyptus Pinus elliottii, deglupta, drepanophylla, E. intermedia, E. grandis, E. tereticornis, E. seeana, E. Eucalyptus variegata C. maculata, VIC QLD State/ Territory Hosts Walker Walker a —Potential insects of concern associated with —Potential Zermizinga Zermizinga indocilisaria (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Species Xyleborus perforans Wollaston (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) See Table 7 for pest category descriptions. Table See Australian states or New Zealand in parentheses indicates state or country into which introductions of the pest have occurred. introductions of the pest have states or New Zealand in parentheses indicates state country into which Australian Insect species in bold type are treated in Individual Pest Risk Assessments. Risk Pest Insect species in bold type are treated Individual Table 8 Table a b c

36 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA b Pest Pest Category ory. Heartwood XX1 XX 1 XXX1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood X saprophyte other Foliage/ Seedlings in nursery ., P ., spp . spp P. radiata P. Pinus radiata Eucalyptus P. ponderosa, P. engelmannii inus SA SA VIC VIC TAS ACT NSW State/ Australia broad host rangeAustralia broad host rangeAustralia broad host rangeAustralia X X X X X X 1 X X 1 X 1 Territory Hosts

Kile &

(G. Stev.) (G. Stev.) (Chaillet) —Potential pathogens of concern associated with Pinus spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest categ including host range, Australia, pathogens of concern associated with Pinus spp. in —Potential Loranthus pendulas Loranthus (Santalales, Loranthaceae) Species Amylostereum areolatum Boidin (Russulales, Stereaceae) Kile & Watling Watling Kile & (Agaricales, Marasmiaceae) Armillaria hinnulea Watling Kile & (Agaricales, Marasmiaceae) Armillaria luteobubalina (Agaricales, Watling Marasmiaceae) Armillaria novae zealandiae Herink (Agaricales, Marasmiaceae) Armillaria pallidula W. Stahl ex W. Minter & Millar (Rhytismatales, Rhytismataceae) canberrianum Lophodermium Table 9 Table

37 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______b Pest Pest Category ory. Heartwood XX1 XX 1 Bark/ cambium Sapwood XXX 4a other Foliage/ Seedlings in nursery . spp Pinus Pinus radiata Pinus radiata QLD NSW State/ Australia Territory Hosts

(DC.) l.] Diplodia —Potential pathogens of concern associated with Pinus spp. in Australia, including host range, location on host, and pest categ including host range, Australia, pathogens of concern associated with Pinus spp. in —Potential (Desmaz.) Sphaeropsis sapinea Dyko & (Fr.:Fr.) Sutton [ pinea ﬁ J. Kickx (Coelomycetes) (Comer) GH Cunn. (Hymenochaetales, Hymenochaetaceae) Phellinus noxius Species Muellerina eucalyptoides (Santales, Barlow Loranthaceae) See Table 7 for pest category descriptions. See Table Pathogen species in bold type are treated Individual Pest Risk Assessments. Table 9 Table a b

38 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

INSECT IPRAS settle upon. First instar larvae feed on the foliage surface, while later instars PINE LOOPERS consume entire leaves. Sixth instar larvae move down from the foliage and settle Assessor—Dennis Haugen in the litter layer to pupate in silken co- Scientifi c name of pest—Chlenias spp., coons. Development from egg to pupa including C. auctaria, C. banksiaria, and takes approximately 140 days. Pupae are C. zonaea (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). present from December to July (Britton However, considerable confusion oc- and New 2004; Madden and Bashford curs to the specifi c identity of Chlenias 1977a, Elliott et al. 1998). species that feed on pines in Australia (Britton and New 2004). Specifi c information relating to risk Scientifi c names of hosts—Native hosts elements include a wide range of trees and shrubs, A. Likelihood of introduction such as Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp., 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin Grevillea spp., Hakea spp., Nothofagus potential: spp., and Cupressus macrocarpa. Non- native host: Pinus radiata. Logs – Moderate (RC). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: b, Distribution—New South Wales, Victo- g. ria, Tasmania, and South Australia Chips – Low (VC) Applicable rating Summary of natural history and basic criteria from Chapter 1: none) biology of the pest—Chlenias species Infrequent localized outbreaks of have one generation per year. Adult this moth have occurred through- moths are present from mid-April until out its native range on P. radiata, early August. Females do not fl y very far so it has the potential of large-scale from where they emerge; they release a population increases, but these ap- pheromone to attract males for mating. pear to be rare. An abundance of Oviposition occurs on foliage, with a suitable food, such as high intensity cluster of about 100 eggs laid in two to nursery stock or very dense natural four rows. Fecundity averages 366 eggs regeneration, appears to be a neces- per female, and most eggs are laid within sary prerequisite for an outbreak in three days after emergence. Females pine (Madden and Bashford 1977b). show a preference for high density stands It is unlikely that this organism versus isolated trees in open situations, would be prevalent on logs or chips, and they generally select the terminal since no life stage is associated with foliage for oviposition. Eggs hatch after the boles of pine trees. The egg and 35 to 80 days. There are six larval in- larval stages only occur on foliage. stars, and larvae are present from July Pupae occur in the litter layer on to December. First instar larvae disperse the soil surface. Adult females are by spinning silk threads and ballooning short-lived (average of six days) and to other plants. Adult females appear to oviposit on foliage. The chipping have little effect on what hosts the larvae process would further reduce any

39 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

likelihood of any life stage surviving dity would increase its colonization on the commodity. Chips would potential. not be attractive to any life stage or provide a suitable substrate for 4. Spread potential: Moder- survival. ate (RC). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: 2. Entry potential: a, c, d, g. Logs – Low (VC). Applicable rating The ballooning behavior of the ﬁ rst criteria from Chapter 1: none. instar larvae greatly increases the Chips – Low (VC). Applicable spread potential Chlenias species. rating criteria from Chapter 1: As with lymantriids, these young none. larvae could disperse from several hundred meters to many kilometers It is unlikely that any life stages of depending on topography and wind Chlenias species would be trans- speed. With a broad host range, ported or could survive transpor- landing on a suitable host is greatly tation on logs or chips. Eggs are increased, especially in areas of high exposed on the foliage surface, so diversity of plant species. Coupled normal handling of logs would with a high fecundity, rapid popula- eliminate extraneous foliage or tion expansion would be expected crush the eggs. First instar larvae re- following initial colonization. Po- quire young succulent foliage within tential also exists for inadvertent two days after hatching for survival. movement of egg clusters on nurs- Older larvae also require succulent ery stock, as nurseries would supply foliage for development. an abundant food resource (Madden and Bashford 1977b). 3. Colonization potential: High (RC). Applicable rat- B. Consequences of introduction ing criteria from Chapter 1: 5. Economic damage potential: Moder- b, c, e. ate (VU). Applicable rating criteria Chlenias species are highly polypha- from Chapter 1: a, b. gous, thus finding suitable host The occurrence of population out- plants at the importation destina- breaks and impact of resulting tion of commodities is likely. It has defoliations in the United States is already shown adaptability to new a great unknown. The host range hosts by attacking P. radiata in Aus- in the United States is unknown, tralia: a signiﬁ cant expansion of its but it could span many families of host range. Its native climatic range hardwoods and conifers. Chlenias is temperate, so it has the potential species have caused localized de- to establish in many parts of the foliation on P. radiata in Australia, United States. Also, its high fecun- but the suitability of other North

40 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

American pines and conifers is un- Ornamental plantings would be known. Even though these loopers at a low risk for defoliation based have defoliated P. radiata, it is a on the oviposition preference of substandard host compared to two the females (Madden and Bashford of the native host plants (Britton and 1977a). Regulations and quarantines New 2004). No extensive defoliation are unlikely if no major economic has been reported on its native hosts damage occurs. An insecticide spray (Madden and Bashford 1977a). Even program would not be likely for this though this geometrid has a broad exotic geometrid. host range spanning many plant C. Pest risk potential families, it does not reach outbreak populations on its native hosts. Logs – Moderate (Likelihood of introduction = Low; Consequences 6. Environmental damage potential: of introduction = Moderate). Moderate (VU). Applicable rating Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- criteria from Chapter 1: d. duction = Low; Consequences of introduction = Moderate). Chlenias species are highly polyphagous, but they rarely reach outbreak populations. Environmental factors Selected Bibliography appear to keep the populations Britton, D.R.; New, T.R. 2004. Exotic pine regulated. From observations of plantations and indigenous Lepidoptera the major outbreak in Tasmania, the in Australia. Journal of Insect Conserva- pine looper population collapsed tion 8:263-274. due to a reduction in suitable food, Elliott, H.J.; Ohmart, C.P.; Wylie, F.R. 1998. increased parasitism and preda- Insect Pests of Australia Forests: Ecol- tion, and a virus epidemic (Madden ogy and Management. Inkata Press. and Bashford 1977b). If any of the Melbourne, Sydney, Singapore. 214 p. Chlenias species became established Madden, J.L.; Bashford, R. 1977a. The life in the United States, the natural history and behaviour of Chlenias sp., controls for native geometrids po- a geometrid defoliator of radiata pine in tentially would regulate this exotic Tasmania. Journal of Australian Ento- species as well. However, there is mological Society 16:371-378. potential that a Chlenias species could ﬁ nd a suitable host plant with Madden, J.L.; Bashford, R. 1977b. Popula- a limited natural distribution and tion biology of Chlenias sp., a geometrid have a signiﬁ cant impact on that defoliator of Pinus radiata in Tasmania. plant population. Journal of Australian Entomological Society 16:379-388. 7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC). Applicable rating crite- Reviewers’ Comments ria from Chapter 1: none. None received.

41 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

EXOTIC BARK BEETLES as temperature and moisture conditions remain favorable (Boomsma and Adams Assessor—Andris Eglitis 1943). Following clearcutting of pine Scientifi c names of pests—Hylurgus ligni- stands, the populations of H. ater can perda (Fabricius), Hylaster ater Paykull reach “epidemic proportions” in the (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) slash, stumps, and other material that remains after a harvest (Adams 1950). Scientific names of hosts—Hylurgus Neumann and Marks (1976) list H. ater ligniperda: Pinus radiata D. Don, P. ca- as a nursery pest of seedlings. Sexually nariensis, P. elliottii, P. halepensis, P. mon- immature adults of H. ater will feed on tezumae, P. nigra, P. patula, P. pinaster, seedlings of other genera besides Pinus, P. pinea, P. strobus, and other Pinus spp.; including Pseudotsuga, Larix, Abies Hylaster ater: Pinus radiata D. Don, P. and Picea (Milligan 1978; USDA Forest canariensis, P. halepensis, P. muricata, P. Service 1993). On occasion, the level of pinaster, P. nigra, P. ponderosa, P. sylves- seedling mortality caused by H. ater has tris, Pinus spp., Picea spp., Abies spp., Pseudotsuga spp., and Larix spp. been very impressive, with large numbers of one- and two-year old seedlings Distribution—Hylurgus ligniperda and being killed in plantation settings and, to Hylaster ater: South Australia, New a lesser degree, in naturally regenerated South Wales, and Victoria stands (Boomsma and Adams 1943). Summary of natural history and basic When both bark beetle species occur biology of the pests—Boomsma and together in a P. radiata plantation, H. Adams (1943) stated that Hylastes ater ligniperda tends to outnumber H. ater was fi rst observed in the Mount Burr (Neumann 1987), an observation that area of South Australia in 1936, although was also made in Chilean populations of it was probably present in Australia well these bark beetles (USDA Forest Service before then. Another early record of 1993). Even though H. ligniperda and H. these two exotic bark beetles in Austra- ater have been less problematic in pine lia was made in 1942 when Swan (1942, plantations than the exotic Ips grandicol- cited by Brimblecombe 1953) reported lis, they have on occasion caused some H. ligniperda in association with H. ater impressive damage. Neumann (1987) damaging a young plantation of Pinus cites authors who reported a case in 1962 radiata after breeding in nearby felled in which H. ater killed all of the pine trees. Since that time they have become seedlings planted over 3.2 hectares in widely distributed across southern Aus- Victoria in the winter of 1962. In South tralia (Elliott et al. 1998). Australia, H. ligniperda built up in slash In Australia, Neumann (1987) reported generated after fi re salvage harvesting in that H. ligniperda and H. ater utilize 1983, and by 1985, beetles had dispersed thick-barked logs of large diameter that up to 25 km from the fi re area and killed are in contact with the ground or stumps several hundred P. radiata trees between and dead trees with thick bark at ground four and 14 years old, concentrating their level. In down material, several genera- attacks in the root collars and stems near tions can occupy the same log as long the ground level (Neumann 1987).

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Adults of H. ater are found throughout It is difﬁ cult to envision that the the entire year and probably have three chip commodity would be likely to generations per year, as they do in New harbor life stages of either of these Zealand (Swan 1942). The life cycle of bark beetle species. If infested logs H. ligniperda in Australia is likely to be were chipped, the immature life the same, given the climatic similarities stages either would probably not with Chile, where three generations per survive the processing or would per- year are reported (Cogollor 1991; USDA ish soon afterwards due to desicca- Forest Service 1993). Adults of both spe- tion of the chip or from the extreme cies appear to favor host material that heat associated with the interior of is in contact with the ground (Eldridge a chip pile. Even though uninfested 1983) and their adult and larval galleries chips might be attractive via their often extend into below-ground portions olfactory signals, they would not of the host. Both species can develop provide a suitable substrate for in material that is somewhere between colonization. The risk criterion h freshly-cut and down nearly one year may apply to some degree to those (Cogollor 1991; Swan 1942). few adult insects that possibly could survive the chipping process if they were beneath the bark when the Speciﬁ c information relating to risk infested logs were chipped. elements A. Likelihood of introduction 2. Entry potential: 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin Logs – High (VC). Applicable rating potential: criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d. Chips – Moderate (RU). Applicable Logs – High (VC). Applicable rating rating criteria from Chapter 1: c. criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h. All of the life stages of bark beetles Chips – Low (MC). Applicable rat- are well-protected beneath the bark ing criteria from Chapter 1: h. of host logs, and survival during shipment of at least a few individu- The transportability of both species als would be expected. The entry has been clearly demonstrated by potential on a commodity such as their introduction into several coun- pine logs has already been demon- tries of the southern hemisphere. A strated for H. ligniperda. Schroeder broad distribution throughout the (1990) reported the interception of host type, a strong attraction to logs larvae and adults of H. ligniperda and other freshly cut host material, in 10 of 14 shipments of debarked and the ability to produce multiple pulp logs to Sweden from Chile and generations per year virtually as- France. Haack (2001) lists both H. sures that adult beetles would be ligniperda and H. ater among the present when host material is har- top ten scolytid species intercepted vested and prepared for shipment. in the U.S. between 1985 and 2000.

43 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

For chips, the risk criterion c is as- the U.S. also ﬁ gures to aid in the signed because there is a very small spread of these insects if introduced possibility that some adults could elsewhere. survive beneath the bark of chips if the logs were already infested prior B. Consequences of introduction to chipping. Nonetheless, the like- 5. Economic damage potential: Moder- lihood of successfully transporting ate (RC). Applicable rating criteria these insects in the chip commodity from Chapter 1: a, d. seems very low. Neither of these bark beetles ap- 3. Colonization potential: High (VC). pears to be as aggressive or capable Applicable rating criteria from of being primary tree-killers, as are Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e. many of the indigenous bark beetles associated with Pinus spp. in the Hylurgus ligniperda has become U.S. Hylastes ater has been associ- established in several countries, ated primarily with seedling mortal- including the U.S. Additional intro- ity (Neumann 1987), and Hylurgus ductions could occur based on the ligniperda appears to be a tree-killer fact that the insect has demonstrated only after building up in down or the capability of surviving within damaged material and when live a broad climatic band, such as oc- hosts are under some form of stress curs within its distribution in Chile (Neumann 1987). Furthermore, (Ciesla 1988), and because potential Neumann and Marks (1990) point pine hosts are widely distributed out that, even though both scolytids throughout the U. S. Because both are widely distributed throughout species breed predominantly in pine the P. radiata plantations of Victoria, and are capable of utilizing stumps damage has been minimal. and fallen branches, their colonization potential is very high. In the pest risk assessment of Chil- ean P. radiata (USDA Forest Service 4. Spread potential: High (RC). Ap- 1993), the greatest concern associ- plicable rating criteria from Chapter ated with the introduction of these 1: a, b, c, d, e, f, h. two species was for their potential Almost all of the criteria apply for as vectors of black stain root disease. this risk element, and several of Two species of Leptographium have them have already been demonstrat- been isolated from the New Zealand ed within the U.S. The population populations of H. ligniperda and of H. ligniperda that was discovered H. ater (MacKenzie 1992). This recently in New York was believed fungal-insect association is very to have been established 10 years strong, with the fungus having been before being detected. At this point, isolated from more than 70 percent eradication of the population is no of the beetles examined (MacKenzie longer possible. The abundance of 1992). Typically, only 1 percent to 5 potential host material throughout percent of the insect vectors of black

44 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

stain root disease in Douglas-fir Chips – Moderate (Likelihood of in- in the U.S. are carrying the fungus troduction = Low; Consequences (Witcosky et al. 1986) and probably of introduction = Moderate). less than 1 percent in ponderosa pine (Donald J. Goheen, 2005, USDA Selected Bibliography Forest Service, pers. comm.). As Adams, A.J.S. 1950. Control of the pine such, there was concern that H. bark beetle (Hylastes ater) at Mt. Burr, ligniperda and H. ater could be South Australia. Australian Forestry more effi cient vectors of blackstain 14:111-112. root disease than the bark beetles endemic to the U.S. Bain, J. 1977. Hylurgus ligniperda (Fab.). Forest and Timber Insects in New Zea- 6. Environmental damage potential: land No. 18. Rotorua: Forest Research Moderate (MC). Applicable rating Institute, New Zealand Forest Service. 6 criteria from Chapter 1: d. p. Risk criterion d could apply if these Boomsma, C.P.; Adams, A.J.S. 1943. Pine bark beetles were introduced into bark beetle (Hylastes ater) at Mount the small natural U.S. stands of P. Burr, South Australia. Australian For- radiata. estry 7:33-37. Brimblecombe, A.R. 1953. An annotated As potentially more effi cient vectors list of the Scolytidae occurring in Aus- of black stain root disease, these in- tralia. Queensland Journal of Agricul- sects could introduce an additional tural Science 10:167-205. (Reprinted as burden on susceptible native tree Queensland Department of Agriculture species with limited ranges. and Stock Bulletin No.71. 39 pp.) 7. Social and political considerations: Ciesla, W.M. 1988. Pine bark beetles: a new Moderate (MC). Applicable rating pest management challenge for Chilean criteria from Chapter 1: a. forests. Journal of Forestry 86(12):27-31. If H. ater of H. ligniperda became Cogollor, G. 1991. Estudio de los anteced- established as successful vectors of centes biologicos para el control de black stain root disease, there would Hylurgus ligniperda e Hylastes ater certainly be concern from private (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) en plantaciones forest industries and public land de Pinus radiata D. Don., propiedad de management agencies. Forestal Cholguan. Chile: Bosque de Ingenieria, Ltda., informe fi nal. 69 p. C. Pest risk potential Eldridge, R.H. 1983. Introduced pine bark Logs – High (Likelihood of intro- beetles in New South Wales. Forestry duction = High; Consequences of Commission of New South Wales, For- introduction = Moderate). est Protection Series No. 5: 1-3.

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Elliott, H.J.; Ohmart, C.P.; Wylie, F.R. 1998. Swan, D.C. 1942. The bark beetle Hylas- Insect pests of Australian forests: Ecol- tes ater Payk. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) ogy and Management. Inkata Press, attacking pines in Australia. Journal of Melbourne, Sydney, Singapore. 214 p. Agriculture South Australia 46:86-90. Haack, R.A. 2001. Intercepted Scolytidae USDA Forest Service. 1993. Pest risk as- (Coleoptera) at U.S. ports of entry: sessment of the importation of Pinus 1985-2000. Integrated Pest Management radiata, Nothofagus dombeyi, and Lau- Reviews 6:253-282. relia philippiana logs from Chile. Miscel- MacKenzie, M. 1992. Potential forest ex- laneous Publication 1517. Washington, ports and pests from New Zealand. In: D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Log imports and introduced forest pests Forest Service. 248 p. into the Pacifi c Northwest. Symposium Proceedings. Oregon State University, Witcosky, J.J.; Schowalter, T.D.; Hansen, Corvallis; 21-23 April, 1992. 7 p. E.M. 1986. Hylastes nigrinus (Coleop- Milligan, R.H. 1978. Hylastes ater (Paykull), tera: Scolytidae), Pissodes fasciatus, and black pine bark beetle. Forest and Tim- Steremnius carinatus (Coleoptera: Cur- ber Insects in New Zealand No. 29. culionidae) as vectors of black stain root Rotorua: Forest Research Institute, New disease of Douglas-fi r. Environmental Zealand Forest Service. 7 p. Entomology 15:1090-1095. Neumann, F.G. 1987. Introduced bark beetles on exotic trees in Australia with Reviewers’ Comments special reference to infestations of Ips “An individual PRA was prepared for H. grandicollis in pine plantations. Austra- ligniperda as a pest by itself. However, this lian Forestry 50(3):166-178. beetle is also a known vector for fungal plant Neumann, F.G.; Marks, G.C. 1976. A syn- pathogens. When considering the economic opsis of important pests and diseases in and environmental impact of this insect, the Australian forests and nurseries. Austra- potential impact this pest could have as a vec- lian Forestry 39:83-102. tor for native or exotic pathogens should be Neumann, F.G.; Marks, G.C. 1990. Status considered. Leptographium wageneri is an and management of insect pests and dis- example of a native root rot and tree killer eases in Victorian softwood plantations. that would benefi t from the introduction of Australian Forestry 53(2):131-144. a new vector.” (Oregon Department of Ag- Schroeder, L.M. 1990. Occurrence of insects riculture) in coniferous roundwood imported to Sweden from France and Chile. EPPO “Hylastes ater and Hylurgus ligniperda are (European and Mediterranean Plant Pro- very common and wide-spread in radiata tection Organization) Bulletin 20:591- stumps and dying trees in Tasmania and should 596. be added to the State listing.” (Bashford)

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Response to Comments One of the key concerns for the introduction of Hylurgus ligniperda was for its potential as a more efﬁ cient vector of black stain root disease. The association of H. ligniperda with Leptographium spp. has been documented by Mackenzie (1992) and was referenced in this IPRA under “Economic damage potential” as a basis for that concern.

Tasmania was added to the distributions of H. ligniperda and Hylastes ater.

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AMBROSIA BEETLES of these beetles attack freshly cut logs, stumps, and fallen trees having suffi - Assessor—Andris Eglitis cient moisture to support the associated Scientific names of pests—Platypus fungus that provides food for the devel- subgranosus Schedl (Coleoptera: Platy- oping larvae. Attacks may also occur in podidae); Amasa (=Xyleborus) truncatus live trees that have been wounded or are (Erichson); Xyleborus perforans (Wol- in poor condition (Froggatt 1926b), or laston) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in some cases, in live trees that are not damaged (Harris et al. 1976). Species at- Scientific names of hosts—Platypus tacking live trees can be found in south- subgranosus: Pinus radiata D. Don , eastern Australia (Neumann and Harris Eucalyptus delegatensis, E. goniocalyx, E. 1974, Elliott et al. 1998). The platypodid nitens, E. obliqua, E. regnans, E. saligna, beetles bore deeply into the wood and Corymbia maculata, and Nothofagus then form transverse galleries with char- cunninghami; Amasa truncatus: Pinus acteristic oval chambers in double rows radiata D. Don , Eucalyptus acmenioides, that will be occupied by the developing E. camaldulensis, E. piperita, E. propin- larvae. Attacks occur in the summer and qua, E. rostrata, E. saligna, Eucalyptus are easily recognized by the boring dust spp., Corymbia citriodora, C. maculata, surrounding the main gallery into the and Angophora intermedia; Xyleborus wood (Froggatt 1926b). The symbiotic perforans: Pinus elliottii Engelm., Eu- fungi are carried by the beetles in spe- calyptus deglupta, E. drepanophylla, cialized repositories (mycangia) and are E. grandis, E. intermedia, E. seeana, E. introduced into the wood as the beetles tereticornis, Eucalyptus spp., Corymbia construct their tunnels (Neumann and maculata, and C. variegata Harris 1974). Only moist wood is infest- Distribution—Platypus subgrano- ed; as soon as the host material reaches sus: Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria; a certain stage of dryness, adults leave Amasa truncatus: New South Wales, the wood and immature stages die in Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia, the galleries (Froggatt 1926b). Neumann Victoria, New Zealand; Xyleborus per- and Harris (1974) found that the risk of forans: Queensland infestation is minimal when moisture content of host material drops below 40 Summary of natural history and basic percent, but 20 percent moisture content biology of the pests—Ambrosia beetles may be suffi cient to sustain a colony that belong to the families Platypodidae is already present. and Scolytidae. The platypodid family of semi-tropical ambrosia beetles is The life cycles of platypodid ambrosia well represented in Australia and New beetles are quite variable. Tropical beetles Zealand. Froggatt (1926b) discusses fi ve may complete a generation in four to ten Australian species of Platypus that have weeks while in temperate forests life cy- a variety of hosts, including Eucalyptus cles can vary from 15 months to 5 years in some cases. One of these species (P. (Neumann and Harris 1974). One of subgranosus) has also been reported on the two most important Australian spe- Pinus radiata (Elliott et al. 1998). Some cies associated with eucalypts (Platypus

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subgranosus) requires two to three years (Hogan 1948). The maximum number to complete a generation (Neumann of beetles reported emerging from one and Harris 1974). Colonies may contain gallery system is 34 (Hogan 1948). The various developmental stages within the rate of beetle development is controlled same infested host (Neumann and Har- by temperature, and duration of a ris 1974). generation is believed to vary between ten months and fi ve years. An average Hogan (1948) studied P. subgranosus in length of the life cycle in Victoria in the the Central Highlands of Victoria and Central Highlands is from two to three described its life cycle as follows. Adult years (Hogan 1948). The food source for emergence begins in October and con- developing broods is a fungus, identifi ed tinues until April, with the peak fl ights as Leptographium lundbergii, which is occurring in January and March. Flight introduced by the beetles and grows capability of both sexes is described as inside the gallery (Hogan 1948). Yeast “weak and slow” (Hogan 1948). Male is also present in the gallery and may beetles fi nd new host material and make be of equal importance to the fungi as a the initial entry into the wood by con- food source for the beetles (Hogan 1948). structing a short gallery about one-half Platypus subgranosus infests both living inch long (Hogan 1948). They wait for trees and fresh logs and causes wood females to arrive, and mating takes place degradation in the process (Neumann outside the gallery. The females then and Marks 1976). Neumann and Harris continue the remaining gallery excava- (1974) found long-established colonies tion and lay their eggs near the far end of P. subgranosus in pure stands of live of the gallery (Hogan 1948). Relatively Eucalyptus nitens in eastern Victoria. few eggs are laid by each female: six to ten per gallery at any one time, and ovi- Neumann and Marks (1976) reported position is spread over a long time period that P. subgranosus has been associated (Hogan 1948). There is no additional with widespread death of myrtle beech, gallery construction by the female once Nothofagus cunninghamii, in Tasmania. oviposition has begun, but once larvae The ambrosia beetle has proven to be are full-grown, they will extend the an inadvertent vector of a pathogenic galleries. The total gallery produced by fungus Chalara australis that causes P. subgranosus is relatively short when wilt disease (Ian W. Smith, Victoria compared to galleries typical of the Department of Natural Resources and platypodid family and are typically 4 to Environment, 2001, pers. comm.). P. 6 inches (10 to 15 cm) in length (Hogan subgranosus infests trees that are dying 1948). Larvae produce fine granular from wilt disease and, in the process of frass, whereas adults produce a “splin- constructing tunnels, produces copious tery” frass (Hogan 1948). The mature amounts of frass that contains the wilt larvae construct pupal chambers and fungus. The frass accumulates outside use those to transform into new adults. the infested tree and is transported by Only one generation occurs in a given the wind, along with the fungus, into gallery, and new adults emerge from the wounds of otherwise healthy myrtle original entry hole made by the parents beeches. These trees then become suf-

49 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

fi ciently weakened by the wilt fungus 1982). Some mating between siblings also to make them susceptible to ambrosia occurs in the brood chambers. The devel- beetle attack, and the cycle continues. oping larvae help to enlarge the galleries (In the absence of the ambrosia beetle, that can sometimes be highly complex the fungus causing wilt disease spreads and branched, or may be much simpler by root contact [Ian W. Smith, Victoria in some beetle species (Wood 1982). Department of Natural Resources and The genus Xyleborus includes an array of Environment, 2001, pers. comm.]). insects whose hosts range from healthy In Australia, the scolytid ambrosia trees to old logs, but most of the species beetles have habits similar to the platy- prefer recently cut, injured, or unthrifty podids (Elliott et al. 1998). Some dif- material (Wood 1982). All of the species ferences do exist, however, including a feed on an associated ambrosial fungus sex ratio in the scolytids that is strongly that grows on the walls of their tunnels. skewed toward females, the host-fi nd- The moisture content of host material is ing sex (Elliott et al. 1998). Females are critical in order to insure proper growth considerably larger than the males. The and survival of this associated fungus; if females mate after emergence and fl y off host material is too dry, the fungus dies; to establish new broods, which they tend if too wet, the fungal growth overwhelms to maturity (Elliott et al. 1998). the galleries and the developing insects The important Australian species of sco- suffocate. Damage associated with these lytid ambrosia beetles are currently (or at insects is in the form of wood degrada- least were) in the genus Xyleborus. Wood tion due to the fungal staining that oc- (1982) describes the genus Xyleborus as curs in association with adult and brood being exceedingly large and complex. tunneling. Ambrosia beetles in this genus Over 70 species occur in North and are generally not considered to be tree Central America, but these represent a killers. small portion of the species occurring Xyleborus perforans is considered one worldwide (possibly 1,500 species). Most of the most important ambrosia beetle of the American species are tropical or species in eastern Australia (Elliott et al. subtropical, although numerous species 1998), attacking dead and dying trees, also occur in the northernmost states of green logs, and newly sawn lumber. the U. S. The taxonomy of the genus is Less commonly, live trees can also be also extremely complex, owing in part to attacked through wounds or diseased the beetles’ unique reproductive behavior patches of bark (Elliott et al. 1998). Frog- (arrhenotokous parthenogenesis), which gatt (1925) reported fi nding life stages can lead to diffi culties in distinguish- of X. perforans in logs that had been ing species (Wood 1982). The males are cut “months earlier” and submerged relatively rare and are fl ightless. Females in a river for some time before ship- select new host material and establish ment to their destination. Elliott et al. galleries. An unmated female apparently (1998) reported that these polyphagous produces only male offspring. She may beetles infested fi re-killed Pinus elliottii later mate with some of these offspring in a plantation and caused considerable to produce additional females (Wood damage to wood intended for poles. The

50 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

beetles do not discriminate with respect by the ambrosia beetle are followed by to size of their host: branches as well as rapid wilting of the foliage, leading to large logs can be infested (Elliott et al. the conclusion that an associated fun- 1998). The females construct a tunnel gus other that the ambrosia fungus may with numerous branches but no brood be responsible for killing the sapwood chambers. Eggs are laid in the parent gal- (Zondag 1977). Despite this capability of leries and the larvae move freely within producing branch dieback and infesting these tunnels, consuming the ambrosia numerous hosts, A. truncatus is consid- fungus (Elliott et al. 1998). During the ered of little economic importance in summer, the life cycle can be completed New Zealand (Zondag 1977). in two to three months (Elliott et al. The adult female of A. truncatus bores an 1998) and sometimes in as little as four entry tunnel into the wood to a depth of weeks (Peters et al. 1996). These insects about 30 mm. There may be one or two are widely distributed throughout the short additional tunnels that branch from world and have produced considerable the main tunnel (Zondag 1977). Eggs are economic loss (Elliott et al. 1998). laid in the far end of the tunnel, and small A Eucalyptus-inhabiting species in New larvae make a small excavation called a Zealand since 1930, Xyleborus truncatus “keyhole chamber,” where they feed and (now Amasa truncatus) is thought to develop. Eggs are apparently laid over a have a life cycle of less than one year long period of time given that larvae of and may complete two generations in a all sizes, pupae, and young adults can year (Zondag 1977). Amasa truncatus ap- all be found in the gallery at the same pears to have considerably more hosts in time (Zondag 1977). Most of the larvae New Zealand than in its native Australia, develop into females, which emerge in where it is only recorded on Eucalyptus the spring and summer (Zondag 1977). saligna and E. rostrata (Froggatt 1926a). In New Zealand, the ambrosia beetle has Speciﬁ c information relating to risk been found breeding in Leptospermum elements ericoides, L. scoparium, Knightia excelsa, Metrosideros robusta, M. excelsa, Wein- A. Likelihood of introduction mannia racemosa, Albizzia lophanta, 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin Acacia verticillata, A. decurrens, and potential: several species of Eucalyptus, including Logs – High (RC). Applicable rat- E. botryoides, E. globulus, E. obliqua, ing criteria from Chapter 1: a, d, E. ovata and E. viminalis (Zondag e, f, g, h. 1977). Several other hosts including Chips – Moderate (VU). Applicable Pinus radiata have also been attacked rating criteria from Chapter 1: e, but no broods were produced in them h. (Zondag 1977). Zondag (1977) reports that the only living trees to be attacked Both of the families of ambrosia by A. truncatus are eucalypts, especially beetles possess a strong ability to E. globulus, in which severe branch locate and colonize hosts, be they dieback can occur. Attacks on live trees standing trees or freshly cut mate-

51 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

rial, and if log moisture remains suit- temperatures that could be lethal. able, they can survive in this material Nonetheless, lacking clear evidence for some time (Neumann and Harris to the contrary, it does seem con- 1974, Wright and Harris 1974). P. ceivable that a small percentage of subgranosus has a fl ight period that mature individuals could survive in extends over a signifi cant portion of chips, making criteria e (“organism the year. Host material available in likely to survive”) and h (“organ- log form could readily be colonized ism unlikely to be dislodged during by P. subgranosus, if not already handling”) applicable. In the case infested as a standing tree prior to of material not previously infested, felling. A “High” rating for the log the only risk criterion that applies commodity is derived from the fact for the chip commodity is the at- that Xyleborus ambrosia beetles are tractiveness due to the host volatiles frequently intercepted in foreign emanating from the material. How- ports, and risk criterion a applies. In ever, this criterion is not signifi cant an analysis of interception records, because chips would not be a suit- Haack (2001) reports that Xyleborus able substrate for colonization. is the fi fth-most commonly intercepted scolytid genus in the U.S. 2. Entry potential: from Australia. Logs – High (RC). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: b, c. If infested logs/trees were chipped, Chips – Moderate (VU). Applicable it is extremely unlikely that any early developmental stages of am- rating criteria from Chapter 1: b. brosia beetles could survive for any Neumann and Harris (1974) pointed length of time. It is possible that a out that platypodids can survive in small percentage of mature adults their host material if the moisture could survive the chipping process, content is above 20 percent. Given based on their small size. McNee et the previously stated fact that Xy- al. (2002) found a small number of leborus ranks high in interceptions similarly sized insects (Pityophtho- for the Scolytidae (Haack 2001), it is rus spp.) surviving the chipping of clear that they too could survive in branches infected with pitch canker a substrate such as a pine log. fungus. The relevance of those observations is a matter of speculation, Because of the importance of mois- however, because ambrosia beetles ture content for the successful are generally intolerant of changes colonization and survival of these in the moisture content of the wood, insects, it seems extremely unlikely and if surviving the chipping pro- that chips would harbor live insects cess, those near the surface of the after they have been stockpiled and pile might be inclined to leave the transported, as the moisture levels chips. If they survived chipping would likely be altered. However, but were well within the pile, they criteria b and c could technically would be subjected to extreme apply for a small portion of adults

52 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

surviving the chip process and being B. Consequences of introduction somewhere near the surface of the 5. Economic damage potential: High pile during transport. A rating of (MC). Applicable rating criteria “Moderate” is assigned for chips, from Chapter 1: a, c, d, f. given the possibility that some The damage associated with platy- adults could survive transport in podid and scolytid ambrosia beetles chips. is primarily wood degradation caused by their galleries and the 3. Colonization potential: Moderate localized staining by the symbiotic (MC). Applicable rating criteria fungi. Neumann and Harris (1974) from Chapter 1: b, d. point out that heavy costs have been A number of pine hosts for both incurred throughout the world from platypodids and scolytids occur the enforcement of stringent quar- in California and in other parts of antine regulations for insects such the U.S. where introductions could as these. Controls are currently not occur. available for these insects. There is also concern over the association 4. Spread potential: High (MC). Ap- of these insects with fungi that are plicable rating criteria from Chapter clearly pathogenic (e.g., Chalara 1: b, e, f, g, h. australis with Platypus subgranosus and a fungus with Amasa truncatus) The reproductive potential of these in their natural environment. Similar insects is fairly low, and their innate associations or vector relationships dispersal capability is unknown. could be expressed or discovered in Platypodids and scolytids are fairly other members of this group once cryptic insects. Boring dust on the introduced into a new environ- bole of infested trees would be ment. evident, but would probably be 6. Environmental damage potential: noticed only by close examination Moderate (MC). Applicable rating of an attacked tree. Infested material criteria from Chapter 1: d. may inadvertently be transported by humans to a new location and new The hosts of the scolytid ambrosia infestation centers could be estab- beetles are primarily from the family Myrtaceae, although one species lished if suitable hosts were present. (Xyleborus perforans) has been asso- Criterion h is added because of the ciated with Pinus elliottii. With two capabilities demonstrated by P. sub- exceptions, the hosts of P. subgrano- granosus for assisting the spread of sus are all eucalypts that are exotic Chalara wilt disease in two Austra- in the U.S. Platypus subgranosus has lian states and by Amasa truncatus a beech (Nothofagus cunninghami) for causing dieback in E. globulus as a host, but this genus occurs only through an associated fungus that it rarely, as an ornamental in some introduces as it infests live hosts. parts of the U.S. However, attacks

53 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

of P. subgranosus have also occurred their hosts prior to chipping, and on damaged Pinus radiata (Elliott et secondly, for chip attractiveness al. 1998), although the details of this as a substrate for colonization. In association are unknown. Criterion the fi rst case, it does not seem that d is applied to this element based immature life stages could survive on the limited range of P. radiata, in chips because moisture content a potential host for P. subgranosus, is such a critical factor in develop- in the U.S.. ment of these insects. Conceivably, 7. Social and political considerations a mature life stage could survive Moderate (MC). Applicable rating in a chip if that chip were on the criteria from Chapter 1: a. surface of a pile, but in reality, that Although these platypodids and stage of the insect would be likely to scolytids are not usually agents of be dispersing from the host at that mortality, their establishment in na- time and might not be present for tive forests or in recreational settings that reason. Elsewhere within the could be of importance, especially if pile, the heat and moisture that is infested live hosts are weakened by generated should be unfavorable for decay fungi to the point of causing any life stage of these insects. In the branch breakage, presenting safety second case, there may be attraction hazards. to a chip pile created by the release C. Pest risk potential of host volatiles, but the substrate would be unfavorable for coloniza- Logs – High (Likelihood of intro- tion due to moisture content being duction = High; Consequences of introduction = High) different from a host tree or log and due to diminished opportunities for Chips – Moderate (Likelihood of egg-laying. For the chip commod- introduction = Moderate; Conse- ity, both of the fi rst two elements (: quences of introduction = High) pest with host at origin potential” An evaluation of the pest risk poten- and “entry potential”) would drop tial based on chips rather than logs to “Moderate,” causing the overall as the commodity entails revisiting Likelihood of Introduction to drop the fi rst two elements of the likeli- to “Moderate” and the Pest Risk Po- hood of introduction: tential to also drop to “Moderate.” 1. pest with host at origin potential The “Moderate” Pest Risk Potential and rating for the chip commodity is 2. entry potential. derived from the possibility that a These elements for the chip com- very small portion of mature beetles modity can be evaluated in two surviving the chipping process could ways: fi rst, for potential survival also survive transport to their new of insects that had already infested environment.

54 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Selected Bibliography Neumann, F.G.; Harris, J.A. 1974. Pinhole borers in green timber. Australian For- Elliott, H.J.; Ohmart, C.P.; Wylie, F.R. estry 37:132-141. 1998. Insect pests of Australian forests: Ecology and management. Inkata Press, Neumann, F.G.; Marks, G.C. 1976. A syn- Melbourne, Sydney, Singapore. 214 p. opsis of important pests and diseases in Australian forests and nurseries. Austra- Froggatt, W.W. 1925. Forest insects. No. lian Forestry 39:83-102. (12) 13. The island pinhole borer (Xy- leborus perforans Wolliston), Australian Peters, B.C.; King, J.; Wylie, F.R. 1996. Pests Forestry Journal 8:232-234. of timber in Queensland. Queensland, Australia: Queensland Forest Research Froggatt, W.W. 1926a. Forest insects. No. Institute, Department of Primary Indus- 21. The ridge-tailed borer. Amasa trun- tries. 175 p. cata, Erichson. Australian Forestry Journal 9:144-146. Wood, S.L. 1982. The bark and ambrosia beetles of North and Central America Froggatt, W.W. 1926b. Forest insects. No. (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), a taxonomic 25. Shot hole borers (ambrosia beetles) monograph. Great Basin Naturalist belonging to the genus Platypus. Austra- Memoirs No. 6. Brigham Young Univer- lian Forestry Journal 9:256-260. sity, Provo UT. 1359 p. Haack, R. A. 2001. Intercepted Scolytidae Wright, G.G.; Harris, J.A. 1974. Ambrosia (Coleoptera) at U.S. ports of entry: beetle in Victoria. Forests Commis- 1985-2000. Integrated Pest Management sion Victoria, Forestry Technical Papers Reviews 6:253-282. 21:47-57. Harris, J.A.; Campbell, K.G.; Wright, G.M. Zondag, R. 1977. Xyleborus truncatus Er- 1976. Ecological studies on the horizon- ichson (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Forest tal borer Austroplatypus incompertus and timber insects in New Zealand. New (Schedl) (Coleoptera: Platypodidae). Zealand Forest Service, Forest Research Journal of the Entomological Society of Institute, Rotorua. No. 21. 4 p. Australia (N.S.W.) 9:11-21. Reviewers’ Comments Hogan, T.W. 1948. Pin-hole borers of ﬁ re- killed mountain ash. The biology of the “Recent work we have done in the south- pin-hole borer – Platypus subgranosus S. eastern USA with the introduced Xyleborus Journal of Agriculture, Victoria 46:373- glabratus has shown that the symbiotic fungal associate of this beetle can cause a serious wilt 380. disease on Lauraceae. No redbay or sassafras McNee, W.R.; Wood, D.L., Storer, A.J.; are surviving where the ambrosia beetle has Gordon, T.R. 2002. Incidence of the become established, and the fungus/beetle pitch canker pathogen and associated appear capable of wiping out these species insects in intact and chipped Monterey and other Lauraceae as they spread through pine branches. The Canadian Entomolo- the Americas. Because we know so little about gist 134:47-58. the symbionts of ambrosia beetles, I think

55 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

that the risk of environmental damage due to utilizes. Our convention in these pest risk as- introductions of ambrosia beetles should be sessments has been to assume that if a known considered high.” (Harrington) host and a known distribution coincide then “The record of Amasa truncatus from radiata that pest/host association could occur in that in Tasmania is very doubtful. We have had location and mitigation measures would be thousands of Sirex logs go through the insec- based on that possibility, even if the associa- tary over the past 35 years and never had any tion had not been established in that particular emerge. Emerged from Eucalyptus globulus in Tasmania.” (Bashford) location.

“Finally, in the ambrosia beetle IPRA, we In the ambrosia beetle IPRA, the cost of don’t understand why the costs to industry control is considered as a criterion within the because of the lack of control measures has risk element of “Economic damage potential” not been considered in assessing the potential economic risk of introducing this pest.” (Or- which received a “High” rating. egon Department of Agriculture) The insect table was updated to include species “The Ambrosia beetle group is probably the that were not listed in the draft document. most diverse and complex of all the groups presented. Several dozens of Scolytid and platypodid species have been identiﬁ ed associated with Pinus logs in Australia (e.g., Dr Judy King, Queensland Dept. Primary Industries, & Fisheries, pers. comm.) and this is not reﬂ ected in Table 8.” (Stone)

Response to Comments The comment about the damage in the southeastern U.S. caused by Xyleborus glabratus and its associated fungal symbiont is an important reminder that pest complexes can become more severe in new environments. However, in the case of the IPRA for ambrosia beetles, the Pest Risk Potential is already rated as “High” and would not be increased by rais- ing the Environmental damage potential from “Moderate” to “High.”

The insect table does not directly state that Amasa truncatus occurs on Pinus radiata in Tasmania; rather, it lists Tasmania among the states where the insect occurs and lists P. radiata among the many hosts that the insect

56 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

PINE BARK WEEVILS ning slash can also serve as suitable hosts (Brimblecombe 1945; Elliott et al. 1998). Assessor—Andris Eglitis In fact, Brimblecombe (1945) reported Scientifi c names of pests—Aesiotes leucu- that Aesiotes weevils develop almost as rus Pascoe; A. notabilis Pascoe (Coleop- well in some of the exotic Pinus slash as tera: Curculionidae) they do in their native hosts (Araucaria and Agathis). Slash of hoop pine (A. Scientifi c names of hosts—Aesiotes leucu- cunninghamii) was found to remain at- rus: Pinus radiata, P. halepensis, and Cal- tractive to A. notabilis for about three litris spp.; A. notabilis: Pinus caribaea, P. weeks after felling (Brimblecombe 1945). elliottii, P. montezumae, P. patula, P. ra- In addition to being well-known on P. diata, P. taeda, Araucaria cunninghamii, radiata, A. leucurus is common on or- A. cunninghamii var. glauca, A. bidwillii, namental Cupressus in the Sydney area Agathis palmerstonii, and A. robusta (Taylor and Hadlington 1948). Seedlings Distribution—Aesiotes leucurus and in nursery settings are sometimes at- A. notabilis: Queensland, New South tacked by A. notabilis, with larvae tun- Wales. neling in the main roots (Wylie and Yule 1978). Despite the fairly broad range Summary of natural history and basic of hosts for these Aesiotes weevils, the biology of the pests—The two Austra- genus appears to be obligate to conifers lian species of Aesiotes are commonly (Brimblecombe 1945). referred to as “pine bark weevils” based on feeding habits that are very similar to The life cycle and habits of A. notabilis those of scolytid bark beetles. Aesiotes are described by Brimblecombe (1945) notabilis appears to be more well-known and Taylor and Hadlington (1948). Most than A. leucurus (Taylor and Hadlington attacks occur in the summer and fall. 1948) and has a host range that includes Beginning in October, female weevils several species of Pinus exotic to Aus- lay eggs in open wounds in the bark. tralia. The principal host for A. notabilis Oviposition appears to be greatest in is Araucaria cunninghamii, but it has the months with high moisture; ac- also been recorded on Pinus caribaea, cordingly, egg-laying increases from P. elliottii, P. montezumae and P. taeda November-December through March (Elliott et al. 1998). The less well-known and then declines rapidly in the dry A. leucurus, with a narrower host range, month of April (Brimblecombe 1945). is still of potential signifi cance because There is never a complete cessation of one of its hosts is P. radiata. Both species egg-laying as adult weevils are pres- are sometimes economically important ent in plantations throughout the year (Taylor and Hadlington 1948). Aesiotes (Brimblecombe 1945). The larvae hatch notabilis is most commonly associated from the eggs in one to three weeks. with wounds on the host tree (Wylie Larvae that hatch during the fi rst three 1982); as such, there is great potential for days following pruning are the most damage to occur on hosts that are being likely to become established in the host pruned in a plantation setting. Down (Brimblecombe 1945). Young larvae feed material such as logging debris and thin- within the inner bark for approximately

57 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

60 days and are capable of eventually gir- Specifi c information relating to risk dling and killing their hosts. Once fully elements grown, the larvae construct a small chip A. Likelihood of introduction cocoon in the sapwood where pupation takes place. Adults emerge by drilling a 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin hole out through the bark (Taylor and potential: Hadlington 1948). A complete life cycle Logs – High (MC). Applicable rat- requires about three months during the ing criteria from Chapter 1: b, d, summer and fi ve to seven months dur- e, f, h. ing the winter, which means that two to Chips – Low (MC). Applicable three generations can be completed in a rating criteria from Chapter 1: year (Brimblecombe 1945). Adult wee- none. vils have well-developed wings and can disperse over considerable distances (El- Bark weevils possess many of the liott et al. 1998). Brimblecombe (1945) same attributes of scolytid bark pointed out that adults of A. notabilis beetles and as such, are considered may live for 18 months or more, and dur- very likely to be associated with a ing that time, females could lay as many commodity such as freshly cut logs. as 700 eggs (a high number for weevils). Given their fl ight capability (Elliott Attacks are easily recognized by frass et al. 1998) and the longevity of the ejected from the wound in conjunction adult stage (Brimblecombe 1945), with a dark brown seepage down the they would have the ability to in- trunk (Brimblecombe 1945; Taylor and fest new host material throughout a Hadlington 1948). signifi cant portion of the year. The Aesiotes species do not have particu- A. leucurus probably has a very similar larly broad host ranges, and they biology, but the details are less well- are not found beyond the states of known (Taylor and Hadlington 1948). In Queensland and New South Wales the case of Cupressus, wounding of the which limits their importance to host may not be a necessary precursor plantations near the northeastern for infestation by A. leucurus (Taylor rain forests of Australia. Being and Hadlington 1948). Trees that are protected beneath the bark, the infested have usually experienced some developmental stages of the weevils form of stress, such as drought or other would not likely be dislodged dur- unfavorable growing conditions (Taylor ing the processing and handling of and Hadlington 1948). These weevils logs. also readily infest felled timber (Froggatt 1923, Elliott et al. 1998). In fact, Frog- If logs or trees were previously gatt (1923) speculated that a population infested and were then chipped, it buildup in down logs may have been is extremely unlikely that any early the precursor to the mortality of 40 un- developmental stages of the weevils healthy young P. halepensis trees along a could survive for any length of time street in Sydney. Tree stress was blamed after the chipping was complete. In as additional predisposing factor. the case of material not previously

58 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

infested, the only risk criterion that Given the substantial size of Aesio- applies for the chip commodity is tes weevils (Brimblecombe 1945) it the attractiveness due to the host seems unlikely that the insects could volatiles emanating from the mate- survive either the chipping process rial. However, this criterion is not or the host desiccation that would signiﬁ cant because chips would not follow chipping of infested logs. be a suitable substrate for coloniza- Accordingly, the entry potential for tion. chips would be rated as “Low.”

2. Entry potential: 3. Colonization potential: High (MC). Logs – High (MC). Applicable rat- Applicable rating criteria from ing criteria from Chapter 1: b, c, Chapter 1: b, d, e. d. The natural distribution of Aesiotes Chips – Low (MC). Applicable spp. includes the rain forest areas of rating criteria from Chapter 1: Queensland and New South Wales none. with rainfall exceeding 50 inches Subcortical insects seem to be very per year (Brimblecombe 1945). The well-adapted for surviving within Aesiotes weevils could potentially their host material, even when this ﬁ nd suitable climate and hosts in material is processed and transport- the southeastern U.S. given that they ed over great distances. One of the have been associated with some of more impressive documentations of the southern pine species such as this fact was by Schroeder (1990), P. elliottii and P. taeda (Taylor and who reported on the interception of Hadlington 1948). numerous species of Chilean bark 4. Spread potential: Moderate (MC). weevils, bark beetles, and wood bor- Applicable rating criteria from ers in pulp logs shipped to Sweden. Chapter 1: c, d, e, f. It is important to note that these pulp logs were considered “well-de- The spread potential is rated as barked”; yet enough bark remained “Moderate” based on the similarity to permit the successful transport of these weevils’ ecological niches of some life stages of several sub- to those of bark beetles, which cortical insect species. As such, the have demonstrated time and again transportability of Aesiotes weevils that they have the capabilities for is considered high for the log com- redistribution, host finding, and modity. Risk criterion d (degree of establishment in new environments difﬁ culty in recognizing infested before eventually being discovered. material) is somewhat debatable In addition, most of the eradication because of the brown seepage and efforts that have been undertaken frass associated with live trees under against recent invasive insects in the attack. U.S. have been unsuccessful.

59 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

B. Consequences of introduction Chips – Low (MC) (Likelihood of 5. Economic damage potential: Moder- introduction = Low; Consequenc- ate (MC). Applicable rating criteria es of introduction = Moderate). from Chapter 1: a, b, d. Selected Bibliography The southern pines are economi- Brimblecombe, A.R. 1945. The biology, cally very important in the U.S. and economic importance and control of the could be hosts at least for A. nota- pine bark weevil Aesiotes notabilis Pasc. bilis. It does appear, however, that Queensland Journal of Agricultural Sci- the Aesiotes weevils are secondary ence 2:1-88. (Reprinted as Queensland insects, and that host trees would be Forest Service Bulletin No. 14. 88 p.) colonized only if they were under stress from drought or other debili- Elliott, H.J.; Ohmart, C.P.; Wylie, F.R. tating agents. 1998. Insect pests of Australian forests: Ecology and management. Inkata Press, 6. Environmental damage potential: Melbourne, Sydney, Singapore. 214 p. Moderate (MC). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: d. Froggatt, W.W. 1923. Forest Insects of Aus- tralia. (Government Printer: Sydney). Criterion d would most likely ap- 171 p. ply for A. leucurus, which has Pinus radiata, a species with limited natu- Hadlington, P. 1951. Bark beetles. Forestry ral range in the U.S. The criterion Commission of New South Wales, Divi- would not apply for A. notabilis if sion of Wood Technology, Technical it became established on P. taeda in Notes 5:26-30. the South. Schroeder, L.M. 1990. Occurrence of insects in coniferous roundwood imported to 7. Social and political considerations: Sweden from France and Chile. EPPO Low (MC). Applicable rating crite- (European and Mediterranean Plant Pro- ria from Chapter 1: a. tection Organization) Bulletin 20:591- There would likely be public con- 596. cern with the introduction of yet Taylor, K.L.; Hadlington, P. 1948. Forest another exotic species into the U.S., insects in New South Wales: The mottled but criterion a is probably the only cup-moth (Doratifera vulnerans). New one that would apply in this case, South Wales Forestry Record 1:42-47. giving this risk element a rating of “Low.” Wylie, F.R. 1982. Insect problems of Arau- caria plantations in Papua New Guinea C. Pest risk potential and Australia. Australian Forestry Logs – Moderate (Likelihood of 45:125-131. introduction = Moderate; Conse- Wylie, F.R.; Yule, R.A. 1978. Pine bark wee- quences of introduction = Moder- vil. Queensland Department of Forestry, ate). Advisory Leaﬂ et No. 12. 3 p.

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Reviewers’ Comments “In addition, the ability of bark weevils to attack non-native hosts suggests that more pines may be at risk than just those in the southeastern U.S. This could impact this pest’s risk rating.” (Oregon Department of Agriculture)

Response to Comments The demonstrated ability to utilize new hosts is considered under the element for “Coloni- zation potential,” which was already rated as “High” for the Aesiotes weevils.

61 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

BARK ANOBIID OF PINE unimportant (Neumann 1979, Peters et al. 1996). In the southern United States Assessor—Michael Haverty and Canada, this beetle occurs in bark Scientifi c name of pest—Ernobius mollis beetle-killed trees (Baker 1972) or as a L. (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) minor wood products pest in pine or spruce fl ooring (Craighead 1949). At- Scientific names of hosts—Pinus ra- tack of logs or fresh-cut lumber can be diata, P. nigra, P.canariensis, P. pinaster, prevented by removing all bark. This P. sylvestris, P. taeda, and Pseudotsuga beetle is not expected to be a mortality menziesii agent. However, because of its associa- Distribution—Queensland (Brimble- tion with moribund trees, it may play a combe 1957, Peters et al. 1996), New role in the dispersal of pathogenic fungi South Wales (Casimir 1958), as well (Seybold 2001). as Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, A.C.T. (Anonymous Specifi c information relating to risk 2005). Native to Europe; introduced into elements Chile, New Zealand (Brockerhoff and A. Likelihood of introduction Bain 2000), southeastern Canada, and eastern and southern United States; also 1. Pest(s) with host-commodity at now established in California (Seybold origin potential: 2001, Seybold and Tupy 1993). Logs – High (RC). Applicable rat- Summary of natural history and biol- ing criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, ogy of the pest—Anobiidae are often c, e, f, g, h. referred to as powderpost beetles be- Chips – Low (RC). Applicable cause their larvae reduce wood to a mass rating criteria from Chapter 1: of powdery or pelleted frass (Ebeling none. 1975). However, this species acts more like a classic bark beetle. Ernobius mollis The distribution of E. mollis refl ects is associated with fi re-scarred trees and that of a successful, introduced in- logging slash that has aged for at least one sect. It is found in every state of Aus- year (Billings and Holsten 1969, Billings tralia, but has not yet been verifi ed et al. 1972). This species undergoes a in the Northern Territory. However, one-year life cycle. Adults appear during if well-aged logs are exported with the spring and early summer (December bark intact, there is a moderate pos- through March), and new eggs are laid at sibility that infested material could the end of summer (Peters et al. 1996). be included. In Sweden, where 14 The females deposit eggs under bark shipments of debarked Pinus radiata scales, and larvae develop in the subcor- pulpwood logs from Chile were tical layer of the host or in the wood if inspected at the port of entry, seven the bark is thin (Baker 1972). The pres- contained either live larvae or adults ence of bark is essential for development of E. mollis (Schroeder 1990). It is (Peters et al. 1996). In Australia, this easy to imagine similar infestations bark beetle is considered economically reaching the United States from

62 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

Australia. The frequency of occur- California (Seybold 2001, Seybold rence of this secondary bark beetle and Tupy 1993). with P. radiata sawlogs would be less common than with well-aged 4. Spread potential: High (RC). Ap- pulpwood, particularly if the logs plicable rating criteria from Chapter are shipped while fresh. 1: b, c, d, e, g, h.

2. Entry potential: The spread potential for E. mollis in the United States would depend on Logs – High (RC). Applicable rating the array of hosts that are suitable criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d. for the beetle and competition from Chips – Low (RC). Applicable secondary bark beetles indigenous rating criteria from Chapter 1: to the United States. The known none. host range takes in many conifer Larvae and adults are protected genera (Gardiner 1953, Milligan beneath the bark during their entire 1977), most of which are found in development cycle and thus could the United States, either in natural be effectively transported from forests or trees planted as ornamen- the Southern Hemisphere. Their tals. frequent interception in Sweden in shipments from Chile (Schroeder B. Consequences of introduction 1990) and the number of countries 5. Economic damage potential: Moder- in which it has become established ate (RC). Applicable rating criteria (Hildebrand 2001) are testimonials from Chapter 1: a, b. to the high likelihood of entry. Craighead (1949) refers to E. mollis 3. Colonization potential: High (RC). damage to pine and spruce ﬂ ooring Applicable rating criteria from and other woodwork in the eastern Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e. United States. If this insect were to become established in additional These beetles breed in slash and areas of the United States, damage logs, which could be found around the port of entry. If infested logs would most likely be restricted to are transported to areas contain- logging slash, down material, and ing the slash of host trees, there is some dry wood products. The in- the potential for colonization of E. sect would not be expected to kill mollis. The host range of this beetle trees. It is already established in the includes tree species that grow in southern and eastern United States, northern California and the Pa- as well as in California, so additional cific Northwest (Gardiner 1953, damage would be negligible in these Hildebrand 2001). The beetle has areas. However, there is a suspicion already become established in the that E. mollis could be implicated eastern and southern United States in the transfer of pathogenic fungi (Baker1972) and more recently in (Seybold 2001).

63 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

6. Environmental damage potential: Billings, R.F.; Holsten, E.H. 1969. Progreso Moderate (MC). Applicable rating realizado en la investigación de insectos criterion from Chapter 1: d. forestales de pino insigne (Dic. 1967 Due to the secondary nature of this hasta Agosto 1969). Santiago: División insect, environmental damage is ex- Forestal, Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero, pected to be minimal. However, if it Universidad de Chile, Cuerpo de Paz. 49 were to facilitate the transmission of p. (Mimeographed report.) pathogenic fungi in Monterey pine, Billings, R.F.; Holsten, E.H.; Eglitis, A. with its limited natural distribution 1972. Insects associated with Pinus rain California, the risk of environ- diata D. Don in Chile. Turrialba (Costa mental damage would increase. Rica) 22(1):105-108. 7. Social and political considerations: Brimblecombe, A.R. 1957. The pine bark Low (RC). Applicable rating criteria anobiid. Queensland Agricultural Jour- from Chapter 1: none. nal 83:637-639. There is a remote possibility that E. Brockerhoff, E.G.; Bain, J. 2000. Biosecurity mollis could become associated with implications of exotic beetles attacking ornamental pines or other trees in trees and shrubs in New Zealand. New urban settings (Seybold 2001, Sey- Zealand Plant Protection 53:321-327. bold and Tupy 1993), but it would probably have a minimal effect. Casimir, J.M. 1958. Ernobius mollis Linn., an Perceived damage would be greater introduced bark beetle. Forestry Com- if this insect becomes established in mission of New South Wales, Division wood products in use. of Wood Technology, Technical Notes 11:24-27. C. Pest risk potential Craighead, F.C. 1949. Insect enemies of east- Logs – High (Likelihood of intro- ern forests. Miscellaneous Publication duction = High, Consequences of 657. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department introduction = Moderate). of Agriculture, Forest Service. 679 p. Chips – Low (Likelihood of introduction = Low, Consequences of Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban entomology. Uni- introduction = Moderate). versity of California, Division of Agri- cultural Sciences. 695 p. Selected Bibliography Gardiner, P. 1953. The biology and mor- Anonymous. 2005. Australian Insect Com- phology of Ernobius mollis L. (Cole- mon Names. CSIRO. http://www.ento. optera: Anobiidae). Trans. Roy. Entom. csiro.au/aicn/index.htm. Soc. Lond. 104:1-24. Baker, W.L. 1972. Eastern forest insects. Hildebrand, D.M. 2001. Ernobius mol- Miscellaneous Publication 1175. Wash- lis. Pest Reports – EXFOR Database. ington, D.C; U.S. Department of Agri- http://spfnic.fs.fed.us/exfor/data/pestre- culture, Forest Service. 642. p. ports.cfm.

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Milligan, R.H. 1977. Ernobius mollis Lin- naeus (Coleoptera: Anobiidae), pine bark anobiid. Forest and Timber Insects in New Zealand 17. Rotorua: Forest Research Institute, New Zealand Forest Service. 7 p. Neumann, F.G. 1979. Beetle communities in eucalypt and pine forests in northeastern Victoria. Australian Forestry Research 9:277-293. Peters, B.C.; King, J.; Wylie, F.R. 1996. Pests of timber in Queensland. Queensland Forest Research Institute, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland. 175 p. Schroeder, L.M. 1990. Occurrence of insects in coniferous roundwood imported to Sweden from France and Chile. EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization) Bulletin 20: 591-596. Seybold, S.J. 2001. Ernobius mollis (L.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae): an exotic beetle colonizes Monterey pine, Pinus radiata D. Don, in northern California. Pan-Pa- ciﬁ c Entomologist 77:51-53. Seybold, S.J.; Tupy, J.L. 1993. Ernobius mollis (L.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) established in California. Pan-Paciﬁ c Ento- mologist 69:36-40.

Reviewers’ Comments None received.

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SIREX WOODWASP a tree native to the southeastern United States. Other known host species include Assessor—Dennis Haugen Pinus elliottii, P. echinata, P. palustris, Scientifi c name of pest—Sirex noctilio F. P. patula, P. ponderosa, P. contorta, P. (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) banksiana, P. caribaea, P. kesiya, and P. strobus var. chiapensis (Durafl ora 1993, Scientifi c names of hosts—Pinus spp., Maderni 1998). Under stress condition, especially P. radiata any Pinus spp. appears to be susceptible Distribution—New South Wales, Victo- to attack by S. noctilio. ria, Tasmania, South Australia Much of the research on S. noctilio has Summary of natural history and basic been conducted in Australia and New biology of the pest—Sirex noctilio is Zealand, so the following information endemic to Europe, Asia and northern relates to the situation in these coun- Africa, and reaches its greatest density tries. Sirex noctilio normally completes in the Mediterranean zone (Spradbery one generation per year in southeastern and Kirk 1978, Medvedev 1993). Sirex Australia, but in the cooler climates of noctilio is generally considered to be Tasmania and New Zealand, a portion of a secondary pest of trees in its native a population may take two years (Tay- range (Spradbery and Kirk 1978). It is lor 1981). In Australia, adults emerge established in New Zealand (1900), Tas- from early summer to early winter, with mania (1952), the Australian mainland peak emergence in late summer or early (1961), and more recently, in Uruguay autumn. Males usually predominate, (1980), Argentina (1985), Brazil (1988), with sex ratios of 4:1 to 7:1 (Morgan and South Africa (1994). In Australia and Stewart 1966, Neumann and Minko and South America it causes signifi cant 1981). Females are attracted to physi- tree mortality and is considered a major ologically stressed trees after an initial pest (Taylor 1981, Oliveira et al. 1998). In fl ight, which is usually less than two June 2005, an established population of miles’ distance, but with the potential of S. noctilio was confi rmed near Oswego, up to 125 miles (Bedding and Iede 2005). New York. Female wasps drill their ovipositors into Tree species attacked by S. noctilio in its the outer sapwood to inject a symbiotic native range are almost exclusively pines fungus (Amylostereum areolatum) and (e.g., Pinus pinaster, P. sylvestris, P. nigra, toxic mucus (Talbot 1964, 1977). If the and P. pinea), but it also has been record- tree is suitable, eggs are laid into the ed in fi r and spruce (Spradbery and Kirk sapwood (up to three separate eggs at 1978). Sirex noctilio has been reported a drill site). The fungus and mucus act in larch and Douglas-fi r (Krombein et together to kill the tree and create a al. 1979), but these reports are very rare suitable environment for the develop- occurrences or mis-identifi cations. In ing larvae (Coutts 1969a, 1969b, 1969c). New Zealand and Australia, the main Crown wilt does not occur until a cross host is Pinus radiata, a tree native to section of wood in at least one part of the California. In Argentina, Brazil, and stem has been invaded and killed by the Uruguay, the main host is Pinus taeda, fungus. Fecundity ranges from 21 to 458

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eggs, depending upon size of the female lumber, S. noctilio already has been (Neumann and Minko 1981). The eggs transported to many parts of the usually hatch within 10 to 15 days, but world. The chipping process would in cooler climates, some may overwinter. prevent survival by killing large lar- Unfertilized eggs develop into males, vae and pupae or by destroying the while fertilized eggs produce females. substrate required for eggs or small All larval instars feed on the fungus as larvae to complete development. they tunnel through the wood. Larval galleries may penetrate to the center of a 2. Entry potential: tree. The number of instars varies from 6 Logs – High (VC). Applicable rating to 12, and the larval stage generally lasts criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d. from 10 to 11 months. Mature larvae pu- Chips – Low (VC). Applicable pate close to the bark surface, and adults rating criteria from Chapter 1: emerge about three weeks later (Madden none. 1988, Taylor 1981). Survival of S. noctilio life stages in Specifi c information relating to risk logs can be very high. Survival great- elements ly depends on a suitable moisture content for fungal growth—e.g., A. Likelihood of introduction above 20 percent oven-dried weight 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin (Talbot 1977)—but even eggs and potential: young larvae are likely to complete Logs – High (VC). Applicable rat- development in logs. Because its life ing criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, cycle is generally a year or longer, c, e, f, g, h. S. noctilio could easily survive the Chips – Low (VC). Applicable rat- transit period within the logs. All ing criteria from Chapter 1: c. life stages that occur in the log are likely to escape detection at ports- Sirex noctilio is likely to be found of-entry, while only emerging adults in pine logs that are produced in the are likely to be noticed. Chips infested Australian states. The prob- would not be a suitable environment ability is even greater if outbreaks for survival. are occurring. Low-quality trees harvested from a fi rst thinning of 3. Colonization potential: High (VC). pine plantations have a higher risk Applicable rating criteria from of being infested with S. noctilio Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e. than the fi nal crop of trees for high- Sirex noctilio has established in quality saw timber and veneer. The many countries outside of its na- larval stage of S. noctilio is found at tive range. It can successfully attack all depths in the wood and would many species of Pinus, including be expected in untreated milled pine species not from its native lumber from infested trees. Through range. A high probability of colo- the transport of infested logs and nization is expected for pines near

67 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

ports-of-entry and/or destinations S. noctilio caused up to 80 percent of infested pine logs. Abundance of tree mortality in Pinus radiata plan- pine plantations in the susceptible tations. In one year, S. noctilio killed age class within close proximity 1.75 million trees in 141,000 acres to the entry location would sig- of plantations aged 10 to 30 years niﬁ cantly increase the colonization (Haugen and Underdown 1990). potential. Based on its native range The potential damage due to S. in Europe and Asia, S. noctilio could establish in any climatic zone of the noctilio in Australia was estimated at continental United States with pine between US$16 and US$60 million species (Carnegie et al. 2005). per year (Bedding and Iede 2005).

4. Spread potential: High (VC). Ap- Loblolly pine plantations in the plicable rating criteria from Chapter southeastern United States would 1: a, b, c, d, e, f, g. potentially have signifi cant econom- If S. noctilio became established, it ic losses from an introduction of S. is likely to spread throughout the noctilio. Pine forests of the western United States. Natural dispersal of United States could be impacted S. noctilio has been estimated at 20 by S. noctilio establishment. Even to 30 miles per year in Australia with a conservative estimation of (Haugen et al. 1990). Adult females tree mortality, an economic analysis are capable of long dispersal fl ights projected losses of $24 million to and have high fecundity. Also, pop- $130 million (USDA Forest Service ulations could be transported and 1992). A later analysis projected established throughout the United losses at three introduction points States by movement of infested logs over 30 years with the following re- and lumber. Newly established populations are also diffi cult to detect sults: $48 million to 607 million for because suppressed and low vigor Georgia, $7 to $76 million for Min- trees are attacked fi rst. So before a nesota, and $7 million to $77 million population is detected, it will have for California (USDA 2000). spread over a large area (thousands of square miles), making eradication However, an efficient biological infeasible. control agent is available that can reduce and maintain S. noctilio popu- B. Consequences of introduction lations below the economic damage 5. Economic damage potential: High threshold. A parasitic nematode, (VC). Applicable rating criteria Deladenus siricidicola Bedding, can from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d. be mass-produced and inoculated Sirex noctilio has the potential into S. noctilio populations as they to cause significant mortality in invade and colonize new territo- overstocked pine plantations and ries (Bedding 1972, Bedding and stressed forest stands. In Australia, Akhurst 1974, 1978).

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6. Environmental damage potential: 7. Social and political considerations: High (RC). Applicable rating cri- High (RC). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: a, c, d. teria from Chapter 1: b, c. The effect of Sirex noctilio on the Sirex noctilio has caused great con- native pine forests of the United cern around the world. Australia developed a national research pro- States could be signiﬁ cant. Changes gram and a national fund for a bio- in stand composition could occur logical control program in response with the selective mortality of pines to S. noctilio establishment on the due to an invasion of S. noctilio. The mainland. Brazil views S. noctilio potential damage to these stands as the number one threat to its pine would be increased during droughts plantations and is implementing an or other climatic events that reduce intensive biological control program tree vigor. Also, an increase in S. (Iede et al. 1998). Establishment in noctilio-associated tree mortality the United States would impact interstate commerce and would likely may increase the populations of require domestic quarantines, as other destructive pests, such as bark well as have implications for inter- beetles or root rot pathogens. The national trade. establishment of S. noctilio in the forests of the United States would C. Pest risk potential affect the populations of other Logs – High (Likelihood of intro- insects. Sirex noctilio would be in duction = High; Consequences of competition with native siricids, introduction = High). and because S. noctilio is more ag- Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- gressive, it may reduce populations duction = Low; Consequences of of native species. An expanding S. introduction = High). noctilio population would result in population increases of the native Selected Bibliography parasites of siricids (e.g., Rhyssa Bedding, R.A. 1972. Biology of Deladenus spp., Megarhyssa nortoni, Schlet- siricidicola (Neotylenchidae) an ento- tererius cinctipes, and Ibalia spp.), mophagous- mycetophagous nematode which could further decrease the parasitic in siricid woodwasps. Nemato- native siricid fauna (Kirk 1974, logica 18:482-493. 1975). A signiﬁ cant reduction in the Bedding, R.A.; Akhurst, R.J. 1974. Use of genetic base of Pinus radiata and P. the nematode Deladenus siricidicola in torreyana could occur if S. noctilio the biological control of Sirex noctilio became established in the remaining in Australia. Journal of the Australian native stands. Entomological Society 13:129-135.

69 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

Bedding, R.A.; Akhurst, R.J. 1978. Geo- Haugen, D.A.; Underdown, M.G. 1990. Si- graphical distribution and host prefer- rex noctilio control program in response ences of Deladenus species (Nematoda: to the 1987 Green Triangle outbreak. Neotylenchidae) parasitic in siricid Australian Forestry 53:33-40. woodwasps and associated hymenopter- Haugen, D.A.; Bedding, R.A.; Underdown, ous parasitoids. Nematologica 24:286- M.G.; Neumann, F.G. 1990. National 294. strategy for control of Sirex noctilio in Bedding, R.A.; Iede, E.T. 2005. Application Australia. Australian Forest Grower of Beddingia siricidicola for sirex wood- 13(2): special liftout section No. 13. 8 p. wasp control. Pp. 385-399. In: Grewal, Iede, E.T.; Penteado, S.R.C.; Schaitza, E.G., P.S.; Ehlers, R.-U.; Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., 1998. Sirex noctilio problem in Brazil: eds. Nematodes as biological control detection, evaluation, and control. Pp. agents. CABI Publishing. 45-52. In: Proceeding of a Conference: Carnegie, A.J.; et al.. 2005. Predicting the Training in the Control of Sirex noctilio potential distribution of Sirex noctilio by the Use of Natural Enemies. USDA (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), a signifi cant Forest Service, FHTET 98-13. exotic pest of Pinus plantations. Annals Kirk, A.A. 1974. Siricid woodwasps and of Forest Science 63:1-9. their associated parasitoids in the south- Coutts, M. P. 1969a. The mechanism of eastern United States (Hymenoptera: pathogenicity of Sirex noctilio on Pinus Siricidae). Journal of the Georgia Ento- radiata. I. effects of the symbiotic fungus mological Society 9:139-144. Amylostereum spp. (Thelophoraceae). Kirk, A.A. 1975. Siricid woodwasps and Australian Journal of Biological Science their associated parasitoids in the south- 22:915-924. western United States (Hymenoptera: Coutts, M. P. 1969b. The mechanism of Siricidae). Pan-Pacifi c Entomologist. 51: pathogenicity of Sirex noctilio on Pinus 57-61. radiata. II. effects of S. noctilio mucus. Krombein, K.V.; et al.. 1979. Catalogue Australian Journal of Biological Science of Hymenoptera in America north of 22:1153-1161. Mexico, Vol. 1, (Symphyta and Ap- Coutts, M. P. 1969c. The formation of poly- ocrita). Washington, D.C., Smithsonian phenols in small blocks of Pinus radiata Institution Press. sapwood with and without the fungal Madden, J.L. 1988. Sirex in Australia. Pp. symbiont of Sirex. Australian Forestry 407-429. In: Berryman, A.A., ed. Dy- Research 4(l):29-34. namics of forest insect populations. New Durafl ora, E.T. 1993. Susceptibilidade de York: Plenum. toras de pinheiros tropicais ao ataque Maderni, J.F.P. 1998. Sirex noctilio F.: pres- da vespa-da-madeira Sirex noctilio (Hy- ent status in Uruguay. Pp.81-82. In: Pro- menoptera: Siricidae). Pp. 97-109. In: ceeding of a Conference: Training in the Conferencia Regional da Vespa da Ma- Control of Sirex noctilio by the Use of deira, Sirex noctilio, na America do Sul. Natural Enemies. USDA Forest Service, EMBRAPA, Colombo, PR, Brasil. FHTET 98-13.

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Medvedev, G.S. 1993. Keys to the Insects of USDA. 2000. Pest risk assessment for im- the European Part of the USSR. Vol. 3 portation of solid wood packing materi- Hymenoptera, Part 4 Symphyta. Amer- als into the United States. Draft August ind. Pub. Co., New Delhi. 2000, unpublished report. 275 p. www. Morgan, F.D.; Stewart, N.C. 1966. The aphis.usda.gov/ppq/pra/swpm/ biology and behaviour of the woodwasp Sirex noctilio F. in New Zealand. Trans- USDA Forest Service. 1992. Pest risk as- actions of the Royal Society of New sessment of the importation of Pinus Zealand (Zoology) 7:195-204. radiata and Douglas-ﬁ r Logs from New Neumann, F.G.; Minko, G. 1981. The Sirex Zealand. USDA Forest Service Miscella- woodwasp in Australian radiata pine neous Publication No. 1508. Washington plantations. Australian Forestry 44:46- D.C.: USDA Department of Agricul- 63. ture, Forest Service. Oliveira, E.B.; Penteado, S.R.C.; Iede, E.T. 1998. Forest management for the pre- Reviewers’ Comments vention and control of Sirex noctilio in None received. Pinus radiata. Pp.67-75. In: Proceeding of a Conference: Training in the Control of Sirex noctilio by the Use of Natural Enemies. USDA Forest Service, FHTET 98-13. Spradbery, J.P.; Kirk, A.A. 1978. Aspects of the ecology of siricid woodwasps (Hy- menoptera: Siricidae) in Europe, North Africa and Turkey with special reference to the biological control of Sirex noctilio F. in Australia. Bulletin of Entomologi- cal Research 68:341-359. Talbot, P.H.B. 1964. Taxonomy of the fungus associated with Sirex noctilio. Aus- tralian Journal of Botany 12:46-52. Talbot, P.H.B. 1977. The Sirex-Amyloste- reum-Pinus association. Annual Review of Phytopathology 15:41-54. Taylor, K.L. 1981. The sirex woodwasp: ecology and control of an introduced forest insect. Pp. 231-248. In: Kitching, R.L.; Jones, R.E., eds. The ecology of pests - some Australian case histories. Melbourne: CSIRO.

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GIANT/DAMPWOOD TERMITES construct mounds. Mastotermes and Porotermes live in diffuse nests, usually Assessor—Michael Haverty within one piece of wood. Generally, Scientifi c name of pest—Giant termite: there are fi ve types of individuals in a Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt colony: immatures or larvae, workers, (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae; dampwood soldiers, reproductives, and nymphs termite: Porotermes adamsoni (Froggatt) (Miller 1969). Nymphs will eventually (Isoptera: Termopsidae) metamorphose into adults with wings (alates) that serve to disperse and estab- Scientifi c names of hosts—M. darwini- lish new colonies a signifi cant distance ensis will attack or infest just about any from the natal colony. Colonies contain hardwood or softwood species, includ- a large proportion of wingless workers ing live fruit trees. Colonies of P. adam- whose role is the care of the immatures soni infest live trees in eucalypt forests, and reproductives, whereas the soldiers particularly in high quality Eucalyptus defend the colony from predators. These delegatensis and E. regnans forests. workers are the individuals that damage This species can also cause damage to wood. Flights of the future reproductives the heartwood of Pinus radiata (Minko (alates) generally occur during summer. 1965), Araucaria cunninghamii, Cera- In Mastotermes and Porotermes, work- topetalum apetalum, and Nothofagus ers and nymphs are capable of becoming cunninghamii. replacement (or supplementary) repro- Distribution—Mastotermes darwiniensis ductives and assuming the reproductive is a tropical species that is widely dis- role if their subunit is permanently sepa- tributed in the Northern Territory, north rated from the main colony. If a colony Queensland, and Western Australia. is somehow broken into one or more The southern limit of its distribution is subunits, even without reproductives, approximately the Tropic of Capricorn, these subunits are capable of continu- both in coastal and inland localities (Gay ing all of the functions of the parent and Calaby 1970, French 1986, Elliott colony. It is primarily this capacity for et al. 1998). Porotermes adamsoni has a establishing new colonies (by budding) wide distribution in southern Australia. from subcolonies that makes dampwood It is found in coastal and adjacent high- termites a threat for introduction into land areas from southern Queensland non-endemic sites. west to South Australia and south to The Mastotermitidae (Mastotermes Tasmania (Gay and Calaby 1970, French darwiniensis) and the Termopsidae (Po- 1986, Elliott et al. 1998). rotermes adamsoni) are thought to be the Summary of natural history and biol- most primitive living termites (Thorne ogy of the pest—All species of termites and Carpenter 1992). Mastotermes is one are social insects and live in colonies. of the most destructive Australian ter- Some species of the higher termites, mites, although its total economic impact such as Coptotermes or Nasutitermes, on forests and timber is less than several are found in discrete nest structures and others because of its limited distribution.

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It attacks wood in use, as well as grow- radiata attacked by Porotermes seldom ing trees, shrubs, and vegetables (Peters show any outward sign of damage 0.6 et al. 1996). Mastotermes is not a mound to 1.2-m long butt log. Trees are at- builder, and normally it nests in or under tacked below the ground level with the the boles of trees or in logs or stumps entrance through living bark. Colonies (Elliott et al. 1998). Under natural condi- are small, and the extent of their gallery tions, colonies of M. darwiniensis attain system depends on how much of the population levels less than 100,000, but root material is decomposed by fungi. may sometimes have colonies of more than 1,000,000 (Gay and Calaby 1970). Winged adults occur in colonies in the Knowledge of the foundation of new summer (December to early February in colonies is scant. Colonies are normally Australia). Colonizing fl ights take place headed by replacement reproductives; in the early evening; the entire popula- primary queens have only been seen tion of winged adults appear to leave at once. Neither the primary nor replace- once. Replacement reproductives are ment reproductives are significantly commonly produced, especially where physogastric. The rarity of primary gallery systems are very extensive and reproductives and the prevalence of rela- diffuse. tively small colonies containing replacement queens suggests that new colonies Several species of dampwood termites are likely formed by budding from the are mentioned by Edwards and Mill parent colony (Gay and Calaby 1970). (1986) as signifi cant pests of wood in buildings. Occasionally they have been Porotermes adamsoni lives mainly in hardwood forests, where it forms mod- exported to other countries, but rarely erately large colonies in both dead and have they become established. Masto- living trees, as well as in logs. In living termes has become established in New trees, colonies begin in scars caused by Guinea and has been found attacking fi re or mechanical damage near the base structural timber, posts, and numerous of tree trunks, but may also originate in living trees and shrubs (Gay 1969). Po- branch stub holes up to 30 m above the rotermes has been introduced to New ground. Infestation rarely occurs until Zealand on at least four occasions in trees have attained a diameter of ca. 0.3 wood other than Eucalyptus logs, but m, and never occurs in undamaged liv- has not become established. Similarly, ing tissue of the tree. Colonies can also the dampwood termite, Zootermopsis be founded in wood in use, particularly angusticollis (Hagen), from the Pacifi c when it is damp through contact with soil and/or poor ventilation. In Tasma- coastal area of the United States has nia, Victoria, and New South Wales, been introduced to numerous locali- P. adamsoni is considered a signifi cant ties throughout the world (Gay 1969), pest in indigenous forests, especially in and has now become established on the older trees (Greaves et al. 1965, Greaves island of Maui, Hawaii (Woodrow et al. 1959, Elliott and Bashford 1984). Pinus 1999, Haverty et al. 2000).

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Specifi c information relating to risk Mastotermes darwiniensis has been elements introduced and is established in A. Likelihood of introduction New Guinea. Porotermes has been introduced numerous times into 1. Pest(s) with host-commodity at New Zealand, but has not yet be- origin potential: come established. Viable colonies of Logs – High (RC). Applicable rat- either M. darwiniensis or P. adam- ing criteria from Chapter 1: a, c, soni would likely survive the 14-day d, e, f, g, h. journey to port cities in the United Chips – Low (RC). Applicable States, although they should be de- rating criteria from Chapter 1: tectable within the moist cavity in none. the log by the presence of the packed fecal material or an extensive gallery Pinus carribaea and P. radiata could system. Recently cut logs and the supply harborage for M. darwini- moist fecal material would provide ensis and P. adamsoni, respectively conditions suitable to dampwood (Paton and Creffi eld 1987, Minko termites during transit. The greatest 1965). The likelihood of association danger exists if items are shipped of dampwood termites with freshly from plantations in Australia with cut logs is greater in plantations in these species present and remain which silvicultural practices include in storage at the import site, in a precommercial thinning and use of suitable habitat such as Hawaii or prescribed fi re. Mastotermes has a Puerto Rico, for extended periods limited distribution for pines that of time. Wood chips are not likely to are harvested for wood chips. Poro- harbor viable groups of termites. termes occurs throughout much of the range of Pinus radiata harvested 3. Colonization potential: High (RC). for wood chips. However, the dam- Applicable rating criteria from age done by these termites can be Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e. detected in logs and should result Mastotermes has become established in redirecting logs to a local chip in New Guinea, but P. adamsoni has mill rather than shipping the logs not become established elsewhere. overseas. Colonies or subcolonies Neither M. darwiniensis nor P. ad- of neither M. darwiniensis nor P. amsoni are restricted by hosts. M. adamsoni would survive the chip- darwiniensis can infest numerous ping process. species of live trees. Even partial colonies can contain many individu- 2. Entry potential: als capable of differentiating into Logs – High (RC). Applicable rating a reproductive caste. If a colony criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c. contains alates and they were to fl y Chips – Low (RC). Applicable after arriving in the United States, rating criteria from Chapter 1: incipient colonies could easily be none. established. Because these damp-

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wood termites can infest numerous be large before the fi rst evidence of tree species and wood in use, the their activities is apparent. By this presence of an acceptable host is not time, multiple colonies can already the critical factor. Rather, a suitable be established adjacent to the invad- environment with an adequate sup- ing colony and additional wood or ply of wood and appropriate tem- plants could become infested and perature and moisture conditions distributed within the continental are the key factors. The initiation of United States or its possessions. a colony is a slow process, but wood Furthermore, dampwood termite in ground contact, moist wood in infestations could be misdiagnosed structures, and suitable host trees or confused with endemic species. with scars or wounds at ports and storage facilities may provide an in- B. Consequences of introduction festation site. The adults (alates) fl y 5. Economic damage potential: High only about 100 m, but are capable (VC). Applicable rating criteria of moving up to 1 km depending from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, f. on wind conditions and weather. Long-range (> 10 km) establishment Dampwood termites will attack of colonies from alates has a very untreated wood and live trees. Nei- low probability. Colonization po- ther of these termites discussed here tential would depend on the genus; would do well in extremely cold warm, moist conditions would be climates, but could be a problem conducive to Mastotermes, and cool, in moist, warm climates along the moist conditions would likely favor western, southern, and southeastern Porotermes. coasts of the continental United States and subtropical and tropi- 4. Spread potential: High (RC). Ap- cal locations of the United States plicable rating criteria from Chapter and its protectorates and posses- 1: b, c, d, e, f, g. sions. These termites could pose a Termites spread slowly (15 to 300 signifi cant hazard to the numerous m per year), and less than 1 percent eucalypts and pines planted as or- of the alates eventually establish a namentals, for windbreaks, or for new colony. However, an impor- fi ber. Furthermore, many of these tant factor concerning dampwood same areas are known for fruit termites is that infested wood or and nut trees. Control methods plants in containers with soil, moved for termites are available, but can by humans in commerce, spreads be expensive and could be a risk termites at a much faster rate than to environmental quality through their natural spread. Also, once es- increased pesticide use. tablished at the receiving seaport or inland destinations, dampwood ter- 6. Environmental damage potential: mites are often not detected because Moderate (MC). Applicable rating of their cryptic habits; colonies can criterion from Chapter 1: d.

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These termites would not likely French, J.R.J. 1986. Termites and their cause large outbreaks or kill an economic importance in Australia. Pp. excessive number of trees. Trees at 103-129. In: Vinson, S.B., ed. Economic greatest risk would be fruit trees, impact and control of social insects. street trees, or native trees with a Praeger: New York. limited distribution, such as Torrey Gay, F.J. 1969. Species introduced by man. pine (Pinus torreyana). Pp. 459-494. In: Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Volume I. 7. Social and political considerations: New York, NY: Academic Press. High (RC). Applicable rating cri- Gay, F.J.; Calaby, J.H. 1970. Termites of teria from Chapter 1: a, c. the Australian Region. Pp. 393-448. In: Damage to wood in structures and Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Volume II. New York, NY: to fruit or ornamental trees would Academic Press. cause signifi cant concerns, adding to concerns about other exotic termite Greaves, T. Termites as forest pests. Austra- species. lian Forestry 23:114-120. Greaves, T.; McInnes, R.S.; Dowse, J.E. C. Pest risk potential 1965. Timber losses caused by termites, Logs – High (Likelihood of intro- decay, and fi re in an alpine forest in New duction = High; Consequences of South Wales. Australian Forestry 29:161- 174. introduction = High). Haverty, M.I.; Woodrow, R.J.; Nelson, L.J.; Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- Grace, J.K. 2000. Cuticular hydrocar- duction = Low; Consequences of bons of termites of the Hawaiian Islands. introduction = High). Journal of Chemical Ecology 26:1167- 1191. Selected Bibliography Miller, E.M. 1969. Caste differentiation Edwards, R.; Mill, A.E. 1986. Termites in in the lower termites. Pp. 283-310. In: buildings: their biology and control. East Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology Grinstead: Rentokil Limited. 261 p. of termites, Volume I. New York, NY: Academic Press. Elliott, H.J.; Bashford, R. 1984. Incidence Minko, G. 1965. Termites in living Pinus and effects of the dampwood termite, radiata. Forests Commission Victoria, Porotermes adamsoni, in two Tasmanian Forestry Technical Papers 15:1-3. east coast eucalypt forests. Australian Forestry 47:11-15. Paton, R.; Creffi eld, J.W. 1987. The tolerance of some timber insect pests to at- Elliott, H.J.; Ohmart, C.P.; Wylie, F.R. 1998. mospheres of carbon dioxide and carbon Insect pests of Australian forests. Inkata dioxide in air. International Pest Control Press, Melbourne. 214 p. 29:10-12.

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Peters, B.C.; King, J.; Wylie, F.R. 1996. Pests of timber in Queensland. Queensland Forestry Research Institute, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland. Thorne, B.L.; Carpenter, J.M. 1992. Phy- logeny of the Dictyoptera. Systematic Entomology 17:253-268. Woodrow, R.J.; Grace, J.K.; Yates, J.R. III. 1999. Hawaii’s termites – an identiﬁ cation guide. Cooperative Extension Ser- vice, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, HSP-1. 6 p.

Reviewers’ Comments None received.

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DRYWOOD TERMITES New South Wales, and South Australia, and has also been recorded from New Assessor—Michael Haverty Zealand (Gay and Calaby 1970, Bain and Scientifi c name of pest—Drywood ter- Jenkin 1983, French 1986). Ceratokalo- termes is a genus that is endemic to Aus- mites (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) are tralia. C. spoliator is the only species in represented by six genera: Neotermes this genus and occurs in the coastal and Holmgren [specifically N. insularis adjacent highland areas from New South (Walker)], Kalotermes Hagen [specifi - Wales to northern Queensland (Gay and cally K. rufi notum Hill and K. banksiae Calaby 1970). Glyptotermes tuberculatus Hill], Ceratokalotermes Krishna [specifi - occurs in New South Wales and has been cally C. spoliator (Hill)], Glyptotermes introduced to New Zealand, but is not Froggatt [specifi cally G. tuberculatus established there (Gay and Calaby 1970, Froggatt], Bifi ditermes Krishna [specifi - Bain and Jenkin 1983). Bifi ditermes con- cally B. condonensis (Hill)], and Crypto- donensis is the only Australian species termes Banks [specifi cally Cryptotermes of this genus. It is distributed in coastal primus Hill, C. brevis (Walker), C. do- areas from southern Queensland to mesticus (Haviland), C. dudleyi Banks, Western Australia and has been collected and C. cynocephalus Light] from low-rainfall areas (< 30 cm/year), Scientific names of hosts—Just about an unusual habitat for kalotermitids in any hardwood or softwood species can Australia (Gay and Calaby 1970). Cryp- be infested. totermes primus is found from northern Queensland to southern New South Distribution—Neotermes insularis is the Wales (Gay and Calaby 1970). Cryp- only species of this genus in Australia. totermes domesticus, C. dudleyi, and Its distribution extends from Victoria C. cynocephalus are found in northern to Torres Strait and across to Darwin, Queensland; Cryptotermes domesticus Northern Territory, and it has been has also been reported from the Aus- introduced into New Zealand, appar- tralian Capital Territory. Cryptotermes ently in shipments of hardwood poles. domesticus occurs widely throughout the However, N. insularis is not considered Indo-Malayan Region and in numerous to be established in New Zealand. All islands and island groups over a wide reports of this species in New Zealand area of the Pacifi c, but its exact origin concern imported Australian hardwood is not known. It has been introduced poles, some of which have been in service into Panama and Guam (Gay 1969). for up to 20 years. No infestations have Cryptotermes cynocephalus is endemic been found in locally grown (New Zea- to the Philippine Islands, where it at- land) material (Bain and Jenkin 1983). tacks isolated boards in houses, and has Almost all collections of this species are recently been reported established in from forests within 80 km of the coast Hawaii (Woodrow et al. 1999, Haverty (Gay and Calaby 1970, French 1986). et al. 2000). Cryptotermes brevis is a Kalotermes rufinotum is distributed cosmopolitan species, has been reported from Victoria to southern Queensland. from Queensland and New South Wales, Kalotermes banksiae occurs in Victoria, and has become established in numerous

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regions throughout the world (Gay 1969, would remain viable during transpor- Weesner 1970, French 1986, Peters et al. tation across vast stretches of land or 1996); it has had signifi cant economic water. impact in Hawaii and Florida (Bess All species of drywood termites are so- 1970, Weesner 1970, Su and Scheffrahn cial insects and live in colonies. They do 1990). not live in discrete nest structures, but in Summary of natural history and biol- a diffuse gallery system entirely within ogy of the pest—Of the 2,300 species one or more pieces of wood. Individuals of termites known to exist in the world, within this gallery system, including the only 183 are known to cause damage reproductives, are mobile and can move to structures, and of these, 83 have a within this system to areas with the most signifi cant economic impact. Drywood suitable environmental conditions. Gen- termites account for less than 20 percent erally there are fi ve types of individuals of the economically signifi cant species, in a colony: immatures or larvae, work- and the genus Cryptotermes contains ers, soldiers, reproductives, and nymphs the largest number of economically (Miller 1969). Nymphs will eventually signifi cant species (Gay 1969, Edwards metamorphose into adults with wings and Mill 1986). (alates) and serve to disperse and estab- Drywood termites live entirely within lish new colonies a signifi cant distance wood, do not need to maintain a con- (about 100 m) from the natal colony. nection with the ground or soil, and do Colonies contain a large proportion of not absolutely require free water. In fact, workers and nymphs, whose role is the some species, such as C. brevis, do not care of the immatures, feeding and for- survive under conditions of high relative aging, and cleaning, whereas the soldiers humidity or water content in the wood defend the colony from predators. The (Collins 1969): this species produces workers and younger nymphs are the in- metabolic water from wood and cannot dividuals that damage the wood. Flights excrete enough water to survive under of the future reproductives (alates) can high humidity. Most drywood termites occur anytime during the year in tropical are heavily protected from water loss by environments. cuticular hydrocarbons and the cement Mature colonies can contain up to several layer on the cuticle. They adjust their thousand individuals, but even mature water retention or excretion by absorb- colonies never reach the size of mature ing water from their feces (Haverty et subterranean termite colonies (Mampe al. 2005). In high humidity conditions, 1990, Thorne 1998). Colonies as young they excrete liquid fecal material; under as four years old can produce alates that dry conditions, water is resorbed in the fl y off to establish new colonies. Incipi- rectum and fecal material is excreted as a ent colonies can reinfest the same piece pellet (Collins 1969). Due to their ability of wood occupied by the natal colony or to survive in wood with little moisture other suitable wood nearby. To initiate a content, drywood termites can maintain new colony, alates need only fi nd a gap viable colonies or portions of colonies or hole big enough for them to enter, for extended periods, and these colonies seal off, and begin to excavate. Most

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drywood species in Australia establish which silvicultural practices include colonies in dead wood on trees, within pruning and use of prescribed ﬁ re. branch stubs, or in wounds or scars in The damage done by these termites the bark. Occasionally, the exit holes may not be easily detected in logs. of wood-boring beetles are utilized to Termites would not survive the establish an incipient colony site. Colo- chipping process. nies can be established low on the bole or high into the canopy of trees (Gay 2. Entry potential: and Calaby 1970). Wood species is not Logs – High (RC). Applicable rating a critical factor for pest species of dry- criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d. wood termites. Many drywood species Chips – Low (RC). Applicable utilize seasoned wood as host material rating criteria from Chapter 1: (Mampe 1990, Peters et al. 1996). Work- none. ers and nymphs are capable of becoming replacement (neotenic) reproductives Drywood termites could survive and assuming the reproductive role if quite well during transit and may the reproductives die or a portion of the not be detected if they are within the colony is permanently separated from wood. The most likely indication of the main colony. It is this capacity for the presence of drywood termites establishing new colonies from partial would be piles of characteristic fe- colonies or subcolonies that makes dry- cal pellets on horizontal surfaces, wood termites a threat for introduction but these pellets are usually not into non-endemic sites. discharged until colonies are well established in the wood. The great- Speciﬁ c information relating to risk est danger exists if items are shipped elements from plantations in Australia with these species present and remain A. Likelihood of introduction in storage at the import site, in a 1. Pest(s) with host-commodity at suitable habitat such as Hawaii or origin potential: Puerto Rico, for extended periods Logs – High (RC). Applicable rat- of time. Wood chips are not likely to ing criteria from Chapter 1: a, c, harbor viable groups of termites. d, e, f, g, h. 3. Colonization potential: High (RC). Chips – Low (RC). Applicable Applicable rating criteria from rating criteria from Chapter 1: Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e. none. Even partial colonies can contain Any of the commercial Pinus spe- many individuals capable of differ- cies could supply harborage for entiating into a reproductive caste. drywood termites. The likelihood If a colony contains alates and they of association of drywood termites were to fly after arriving in the with freshly cut logs is greater in United States, incipient colonies older trees grown in plantations in could easily be established. Because

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these drywood termites can infest is apparent. By this time, multiple numerous tree species and wood colonies will already be established in use, the presence of an accept- adjacent to the invading colony, able host is not the critical factor. and additional wood or trees could Rather, a suitable environment with become infested and distributed an adequate supply of wood and ap- within the continental United States propriate temperature and moisture or its territories and possessions. conditions are the key factors. The Furthermore, drywood termites initiation of a colony is a slow pro- could be misdiagnosed or confused cess, but dry wood in structures and with endemic species. suitable trees with scars or wounds at ports and storage facilities might B. Consequences of introduction provide an infestation site. The 5. Economic damage potential: Moder- adults (alates) ﬂ y only about 100 ate (VC). Applicable rating criteria m, but are capable of moving up to from Chapter 1: a, c, d. 1 km depending on wind conditions Termites will attack untreated wood. and weather. Long-range (> 10km) Their damage to wooden houses can establishment of colonies from be severe if not detected at an early alates has a very low probability. stage. Once they are in a structure, Colonization potential is greatest at spread of drywood termites to ports with warm, moist conditions, other parts of the structure can such as those in Hawaii, southern be rapid and its economic impact California, the Gulf Coast, and the can be quite high. Most species of southern Atlantic coast. Cryptotermes probably would not do well in extremely cold climates, 4. Spread potential: High (RC). Ap- but could be a problem in moist, plicable rating criteria from Chapter warm climates along the western, 1: a, b, c, d, e, g. southern, and southeastern coasts Termites spread slowly (15 to 300 of the continental United States. m per year), and less than 1 percent Drywood termites cause a small of the alates eventually establish a portion of the economic losses due new colony. However, an important to wood-destroying insects in the factor concerning drywood termites United States. However, where they is that infested wood, moved by hu- are abundant (Florida, California, mans in commerce, spreads termites and Hawaii), the costs for control at a much faster rate than their natu- and repair of their damage rivals ral spread. Also, once established at that of subterranean termites. Po- the receiving seaport or inland desti- tential economic losses caused by nations, drywood termites are often all species of Cryptotermes could not detected because of their cryptic be comparable with those currently habits; colonies can be large before caused by the exotic C. brevis and the ﬁ rst evidence of their activities the endemic Incisitermes minor (piles of characteristic fecal pellets) (Hagen). If C. primus or C. domes-

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ticus were to be as aggressive as C. Any species of Cryptotermes be- brevis and I. minor, it could cause coming successfully established in an additional $100 million in damage the United States or in one of its and control costs within 30 years. protectorates or possessions would Control methods for termites are probably be as damaging as C. bre- available, but can be expensive. vis or I. minor. 6. Environmental damage potential: C. Pest risk potential Low (MC). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: none. Logs – High (Likelihood of introduction = High; Consequences of These termites would not likely cause large outbreaks or kill an introduction = Moderate). excessive number of trees. Dry- Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- wood termites would most likely duction = Low; Consequences of feed on dead wood in live trees or introduction = Moderate). dead wood on the ground. Control efforts could be a risk to environ- Selected Bibliography mental quality through increased pesticide use. Bain, J.; Jenkin, M.J. 1983. Kalotermes banksiae, Glyptotermes brevicornis, and other 7. Social and political considerations: termites (Isoptera) in New Zealand. Moderate (RC). Applicable rating New Zealand Entomologist 7:365-371. criterion from Chapter 1: a. Bess, H.A. 1970. Termites of Hawaii and the Drywood termites do not cause aesthetic damage in forests. They can oceanic islands. Pp. 449-476. In: Krishna, infest live trees by attacking pruning K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of ter- and ﬁ re scars. This could degrade the mites, Volume II. New York, NY: Aca- value of timber species grown where demic Press. drywood termites live. Damage to Collins, M.S. 1969. Water relations in ter- wood in use would cause the con- mites. Pp. 433-458. In: Krishna, K.; sumer the greatest concern, adding Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, to concerns about other termite spe- Volume I. New York, NY: Academic cies. Control methods for termites are available but can be expensive. Press. Spot treatments do not eliminate Edwards, R.; Mill, A.E. 1986. Termites in the problem; fumigant gases stop the buildings. their biology and control. East infestation, but provide no residual Grinstead: Rentokil Limited. 261 p. protection. Furthermore, one of the fumigant gases (methyl bromide) French, J.R.J. 1986. Termites and their is being phased out of product due economic importance in Australia. Pp. to concerns over adverse effects 103-129. In: Vinson, S.B., ed. Economic to environmental quality through impact and control of social insects. depletion of the ozone layer. Praeger: New York.

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Gay, F.J. 1969. Species introduced by man. Thorne, B.L. 1998. Biology of subterranean Pp. 459-494. In: Krishna, K.; Weesner, termites of the genus Reticulitermes. Pp. F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Volume I. 1-30. In: NPCA research report on sub- New York, NY: Academic Press. terranean termites. Dunn Loring, VA: National Pest Control Association. Gay, F.J.; Calaby, J.H. 1970. Termites of Weesner, F.M. 1970. Termites of the Nearc- the Australian Region. Pp. 393-448. In: tic Region. Pp. 477-525. In: Krishna, K.; Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, of termites, Volume II. New York, NY: Volume II. New York, NY: Academic Academic Press. Press. Haverty, M.I.; Woodrow, R.J.; Nelson, L.J.; Woodrow, R.J.: Grace, J.K.; Yates, J.R. III. Grace, J.K. 2000. Cuticular hydrocar- 1999. Hawaii’s termites – an identiﬁ ca- bons of termites of the Hawaiian Islands. tion guide. Cooperative Extension Ser- Journal of Chemical Ecology 26:1167- vice, College of Tropical Agriculture and 1191. Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, HSP-1. 6 p. Haverty, M.I.; Woodrow, R.J.; Nelson, L.J.; Grace, J.K. 2005. Identiﬁ cation of Reviewers’ Comments termite species by the hydrocarbons in None received. their feces. Journal of Chemical Ecology 31:2119-2151. Mampe, C.D. 1990. Termites. Pp. 201-262. In: Mallis, A., ed. Handbook of pest control: the behavior, life history and control of household pests. Cleveland, OH, Franzak and Foster, Co. Miller, E.M. 1969. Caste differentiation in the lower termites. Pp. 283-310. In: Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Volume I. New York, NY: Academic Press. Peters, B.C.; J. King, J.; Wylie, F.R. 1996. Pests of timber in Queensland. Queensland Forestry Research Insti- tute, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland. 175 p. Su, N.-Y.; Scheffrahn, R.H. 1990. Economi- cally important termites in the United States and their control. Sociobiology 17(1):77-94.

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SUBTERRANEAN TERMITES are extremely plastic and exhibit a wide range of variation, both from region to Assessor—Michael Haverty region and among colonies within the Scientifi c name of pest—Subterranean same region. Third, the characters that termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae and prove useful are differences in range of size of parts or of the entire individual Termitidae) in the genera Schedorhi- or differences in size relations (i.e., in the notermes Silvestri [specifi cally Schedo- proportions of parts), which characteris- rhinotermes intermedius intermedius tics can be subjective. Defi nitive species (Brauer), S. i. actuosus (Hill), S. i. breinli determinations of the Australian fauna (Hill), S. i. seclusus (Hill), and S. reticu- will require the use of modern diagnos- latus (Froggatt)], Heterotermes Froggatt tic techniques, such as characterization [specifi cally Heterotermes ferox (Frog- of cuticular hydrocarbons (Brown et gatt), and H. paradoxus (Froggatt)], al. 1996) or cladistics (Miller 1997). Coptotermes Wasmann [specifically Therefore, the distributions reported in Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt), the literature for a given species may, in C. frenchi Hill, C. lacteus (Froggatt), and fact, represent a combined distribution C. raffrayi Wasmann], Microcerotermes of sibling species with either sympatric, Silvestri [specifi cally Microcerotermes parapatric, or allopatric distributions. boreus Hill, M. distinctus Silvestri, M. implicadus Hill, M. nervosus Hill, and In Australia Schedorhinotermes is M. turneri (Froggatt)], and Nasutitermes represented by two species, one of Dudley [specifi cally Nasutitermes exi- which is made of up to four subspecies. tiosis (Hill)] Schedorhinotermes intermedius intermedius occurs from New South Wales Scientific names of hosts—Just about into southern Queensland. Schedorhi- any hardwood or softwood could be notermes intermedius actuosus occurs in infested. all of the mainland states except Victoria. Distribution—Schedorhinotermes, Het- Schedorhinotermes intermedius breinli is erotermes, Coptotermes, Microcero- present in Queensland and the Northern termes, and Nasutitermes are all pantrop- Territory and is abundant in arid inland ical genera. Many of the individual taxa districts and areas of low rainfall near the in these genera are diffi cult to identify. coast. Schedorhinotermes intermedius se- The taxonomy of several of the subter- clusus extends from northern New South ranean genera in Australia is in desperate Wales to north Queensland. Schedorhi- need of taxonomic revision (Gay and notermes reticulatus is widely distributed Calaby 1970, Watson et al. 1989, Brown on the mainland, but appears to be absent et al. 1994). Light (1927) suggested that from the Northern Territory (Gay and several factors make species determina- Calaby 1970, French 1986). tions in termites diffi cult. First, termites Heterotermes ferox extends from south- are practically lacking in ornamentation ern Queensland through southeastern and have few defi nite differences in po- and southern areas of mainland Australia sition or number of parts that facilitate across to Western Australia. All four species diagnosis. Second, termite species subspecies of Heterotermes paradoxus

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are distributed mainly in northern Aus- to north Queensland (Gay and Calaby tralia (Gay and Calaby 1970, French 1970, French 1986). 1986). Nasutitermes, which has 19 currently Coptotermes is represented by at least described species from Australia, is one six species in Australia and is widely of the most successful genera in Australia distributed throughout the mainland. and one of the few that has penetrated With the exception of one species, the the cool temperate southeastern portion genus is largely dependent on eucalypts of the continent. Nasutitermes exitiosus for food; Coptotermes species are found is the best known species of the genus. in abundance only in eucalypt communi- It extends from southern Queensland ties. Coptotermes acinaciformis is widely around the southeastern and southern distributed throughout Australia, but is regions of the continent across to West- absent from alpine areas of southeastern ern Australia. Over most of its range, its Australia and from Tasmania. It shows northern limit of distribution coincides a wide tolerance of climatic conditions with the boundary of eucalypt commu- and has been collected from localities nities. Nasutitermes exitiosus is absent with annual rainfall ranging from as from the wetter coastal country and from low as 20 cm up to more than 150 cm. the colder higher parts of the southern The putative subspecies Coptotermes highlands (Gay and Calaby 1970, French acinaciformis raffrayi occurs only in 1986). southwestern Australia. Coptotermes frenchi extends from north Queensland Summary of natural history and biol- to Western Australia in eucalypt com- ogy of the pest—Subterranean termites munities. Coptotermes lacteus is very must maintain a connection with the common in eastern Australia, from Vic- ground or soil unless a supply of water toria to southern Queensland (Gay and is otherwise available. When free water is Calaby 1970, French 1986). available or wood is saturated with water, species in these genera can maintain vi- Microcerotermes species are found all able colonies or portions of colonies for over mainland Australia with the ex- extended periods and remain alive dur- ception of the southeastern portion of ing transportation across vast stretches the continent. Microcerotermes boreus of land or water. They can also establish is conﬁ ned to the northwest of Western aerial colonies in buildings. To attack Australia and the Northern Territory. wood above the ground, shelter tubes Microcerotermes distinctus is widely composed of wood, soil, and termite distributed in all mainland states, more excrement are constructed to connect particularly in drier inland areas. Microc- the colony from the soil to the source of erotermes implicadus is distributed from wood they are exploiting (Mampe 1990, southern Queensland through Victoria. Thorne 1998). Microcerotermes nervosus is common in the northern parts of Western Australia All species of subterranean termites and the Northern Territory. Microc- are social insects and live in colonies. erotermes turneri is restricted to coastal Some species of Coptotermes are found districts from central New South Wales in discrete nest structures and can con-

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struct mounds. Heterotermes and Sche- Coptotermes species generally occur in dorhinotermes, as well as some species tropical or subtropical areas, and numer- of Coptotermes, live in diffuse nests, a ous species are known to infest build- dispersed aggregation of subnests. These ings. Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki subnest units are mobile and allow the and C. havilandi (Sjöstedt) have most entire colony, including the reproduc- frequently been introduced to new lo- tives, to move to areas with the most suit- calities (Edwards and Mill 1986). Where able environmental conditions (Thorne these species occur in exotic locations, 1998). Generally there are fi ve types of they cause extensive damage to build- individuals in a colony: immatures or ings. Coptotermes formosanus was fi rst larvae, workers, soldiers, reproductives, discovered in the Hawaiian Islands in 1907 (Bess 1970) and on the mainland and nymphs (Miller 1969). Nymphs will of the United States in 1965 (Weesner eventually metamorphose into adults 1970), but was likely established many with wings (alates) and serve to disperse years before both in Hawaii and on the and establish new colonies a signifi cant mainland of the United States. Copto- distance from the natal colony. Colonies termes formosanus has recently become contain a large proportion of wingless successfully established in La Mesa near workers whose role is the care of the San Diego, California (Rust et al. 1998), immatures, feeding and foraging, and and C. havilandi has recently been re- cleaning, whereas the soldiers defend ported to be established in Florida (Su the colony from predators. The work- et al. 1997). Coptotermes acinaciformis ers are the individuals that damage the and C. frenchi have become established wood. Flights of the future reproductives in New Zealand, likely introduced from (alates) generally occur during spring, Australia in imported logs (Bain and summer, or fall after rain, but can oc- Jenkin 1983). Coptotermes formosanus, cur anytime during the year in tropical C. havilandi, C. acinaciformis, and C. environments. frenchi often feed on live trees and may eventually kill them, or damage the root Mature colonies contain several thou- system, causing the trees to fall in heavy sands to millions of individuals (Thorne winds. Coptotermes lacteus feeds primar- 1998). Satellite colonies of the larger ily on wood on the ground or wood in colonies can also be of a size that is contact with the ground. Schedorhino- equivalent to an immature or young termes, Heterotermes, Microcerotermes, colony. Workers and nymphs are capable and N. exitiosus also feed on wood in of becoming replacement reproductives contact with the ground, but will bridge and assuming the reproductive role if gaps with foraging tubes to reach wood their satellite colony or subunit is perma- above ground. Recently, a species of nently separated from the main colony. It Microcerotermes has been discovered in is primarily this capacity for establishing San Diego County, California, further new colonies (by budding) from satellite indicating that species of this genus could colonies or subcolonies that makes sub- become established in North America terranean termites a threat for introduc- (Setter and Myles 2005). Likewise, Na- tion from nonendemic sites. sutitermes costalis has been introduced

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and established in Florida (Scheffrahn 2. Entry potential: et al. 2002). For the purposes of this Logs – High (RC). Applicable rating assessment, all species of Heterotermes criteria from Chapter 1: a, c. and Coptotermes should be considered Chips – Low (RC). Applicable dangerous if arriving at U.S. ports. rating criteria from Chapter 1: none. Speciﬁ c information relating to risk Viable colonies of various subter- elements ranean termite species would likely A. Likelihood of introduction survive the 14-day journey to port 1. Pest(s) with host-commodity at cities in the United States, although origin potential: they should be detectable within logs by the presence of foraging tubes or Logs – High (VC). Applicable rating an extensive gallery system under criteria from Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, the bark. Recently cut logs with e, f, g, h. bark beetle galleries would provide Chips – Low (RC). Applicable conditions suitable to subterranean rating criteria from Chapter 1: termites during transit. The greatest none. introduction danger exists if logs are Just about any of the commercial shipped from Australia with sub- pine species could supply harbor- terranean species present and then age for subterranean termites. The remain in storage at the import site likelihood of association of subter- for extended periods of time. This is ranean termites with freshly cut how C. acinaciformis and C. frenchi logs is much greater in plantations became established in New Zealand. in which silvicultural practices Wood chips are not likely to harbor include precommercial thinning viable groups of termites. and use of prescribed fire. Trees infested by bark beetles could easily 3. Colonization potential: High (RC). be attacked and infested by subter- Applicable rating criteria from ranean termites. Logs stacked after Chapter 1: a, b, c, d, e. harvest and left in place for several Coptotermes acinaciformis and C. months would also be susceptible. frenchi have become established in Damage done by subterranean New Zealand, and C. formosanus, termites would likely be under the C. havilandi, and C. vastator Light bark and easily detected. These logs have become established in exotic should be redirected to a chip mill locations (Gay 1969, Su and Schef- rather than being shipped overseas frahn 1998a). Nasutitermes species as whole logs. Termite colonies have been intercepted upon intro- or subcolonies would not survive ductionprior to being established the chipping process, the process (Gay 1969). Not one of the subter- of moving the chips from the mill ranean termites examined in this to the ship, or from the ship to the report is restricted by host. Even processing plant. partial colonies can contain many

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individuals capable of differentiating in commerce spreads termites at a into a reproductive caste. If a colony much faster rate than their natu- contains alates and they were to fl y ral spread. Also, once established after arriving in the United States, at the receiving seaport or inland incipient colonies could easily be destinations, subterranean termites established. Because these subter- are often not detected because of ranean termites can infest numerous their cryptic habits; colonies can tree species and wood in use, the be large before the fi rst evidence of presence of an acceptable host is not their activities is apparent. By this the critical factor. Rather, a suitable time, multiple colonies can already environment with an adequate sup- be established adjacent to the invad- ply of wood and appropriate tem- ing colony, and additional wood or perature and moisture conditions plants could become infested and are the key factors. The initiation of distributed within the continental a colony is a slow process, but wood United States or its possessions. in ground contact, moist wood in Furthermore, exotic subterranean structures, and suitable host trees termite infestations could be misdi- with scars or wounds at ports and agnosed or confused with endemic storage facilities may provide an in- species. festation site. The adults (alates) fl y only about 100 m, but are capable B. Consequences of introduction of moving up to 1 km depending on 5. Economic damage potential: High wind conditions and weather. Long- (VC). Applicable rating criteria range (> 10km) establishment of from Chapter 1: a, b, c, f. colonies from alates has a very low Of the 2,300 species of termites probability. Colonization potential known to exist in the world, only would depend on the genus; warm, 183 are known to cause damage to moist conditions would be condu- structures, and of these, 83 have a cive to Heterotermes, Coptotermes, signifi cant economic impact. Sub- and Schedorhinotermes, and cool, terranean termites account for about moist conditions would likely favor 80 percent of the economically im- N. exitiosus. portant species (Gay 1969, Su and Scheffrahn 1990), and the genus 4. Spread potential: High (RC). Ap- Coptotermes contains the largest plicable rating criteria from Chapter number of economically important 1: b, c, d, e, f, g. species (Su and Scheffrahn 1998b). Termites spread slowly (15 to 300 Of the 183 species noted for their m per year), and less than 1 percent potential for economic damage, of the alates eventually establish a only 17 occur in the United States new colony. However, an important (Su and Scheffrahn 1990). Control factor concerning subterranean ter- of subterranean termites and repair mites is that movement of infested of their damage in the United States wood (or plants in soil) by humans results in a total economic impact of

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about $6.0 billion (billion = X109) These termites would not likely per year [$1.5 to 2.0X109 for control cause large outbreaks or kill an of subterranean termites and $4X109 excessive number of trees. Trees at for repair of damage] (Nan-Yao Su, greatest risk would be street trees, University of Florida, Ft. Lauder- such as the ones injured by C. dale, FL, 1999, pers. comm.). formosanus in Honolulu and New Orleans. They could conceivably Subterranean termites will attack compete with native termites that untreated wood and some will degrade and decompose wood in attack live trees. None of these use. In fact, where C. formosanus termites discussed here would do is established in Florida and New well in extremely cold climates, Orleans, they successfully compete but could be a problem in moist, with the native termite fauna. warm climates along the western, southern, and southeastern coasts 7. Social and political considerations: of the continental United States and Moderate (RC). Applicable rating in subtropical and tropical locations criterion from Chapter 1: a. of the United States and its protec- These termites generally do not torates and possessions. They could cause aesthetic damage in forests, pose a signifi cant hazard to the nu- although most Coptotermes species merous Eucalyptus trees planted as will consume the heartwood of live ornamentals, as windbreaks, or for trees. However, damage to wood fi ber. Control methods for subter- in use would cause signifi cant con- ranean termites are available, but sumer concerns, adding to concerns can be expensive and could be a risk about other exotic termites species to environmental quality through already established in the United increased pesticide use. The exotic States. Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki is out of control in New Orleans, C. Pest risk potential Louisianna. In some situations it can be controlled or managed with baits, Logs – High (Likelihood of intro- however, in the French Quarter, it duction = High; Consequences of has proven very diffi cult to control. introduction = High). Given that some of the species of Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- Coptotermes in Australia occur in duction = Low; Consequences of temperate climates, they could eas- introduction = High). ily become established in the United States and perhaps confused with C. Selected Bibliography formosanus. Bain, J.; Jenkin, M.J. 1983. Kalotermes bank- 6. Environmental damage potential: siae, Glyptoterems brevicornis, and other Moderate (MC). Applicable rating termites (Isoptera) in New Zealand. criterion from Chapter 1: d. New Zealand Entomologist 7:365-370.

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Bess, H.A. 1970. Termites of Hawaii and Mampe, C.D. 1990. Termites. Pp, 201-262. the oceanic islands. ) Pp. 449-476. In In: Mallis, A., ed. Handbook of pest Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology control. The behavior, life history and of termites, Volume II. New York, NY: control of household pests. Cleveland, Academic Press OH: Franzak and Foster, Co. Brown, W.V.; Watson, J.A.L.; Lacey, M.J. Miller, E.M. 1969. Caste differentiation 1994. The cuticular hydrocarbons of in the lower termites. Pp. 283-310. In: workers of three Australian Coptotermes Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology species, C. michaelseni, C. brunneus and of termites, Volume I. New York, NY: C. dreghorni (Isoptera: Rhinotermiti- Academic Press. dae). Sociobiology 23:277-291. Miller, L.R. 1997. Systematics of the Austra- Brown, W.V.; Watson, J.A.L.; Lacey, M.J. lian Nasutitermitinae with reference to 1996. A chemosystematic survey using evolution within the Termitidae (Isop- cuticular hydrocarbons of some species tera). Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National of the Australian harvester termite genus University, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Drepanotermes (Isoptera: Termitidae). 170 p. Sociobiology 27:199-221. Rust, M.K.; Reierson, D.A.; Paine, E.O.; Edwards, R.; Mill, A.E. 1986. Termites in buildings. Their biology and control. Kellum, K.; Haagsma, K. 1998. Raven- East Grinstead: Rentokil Limited. 261 p. ous Formosan subterranean termite per- sists in California. California Agriculture French, J.R.J. 1986. Termites and their 52:34-37. economic importance in Australia. Pp. 103-129. In Vinson, S.B., ed. Economic Scheffrahn, R.H.; Cabrera, B.J.; Kern, W.H., impact and control of social insects. Jr.; Su, N.-Y. 2002. Nasutitermes costalis Praeger: New York. (Isoptera: Termitidae) in Florida: ﬁ rst record of a non-endemic establishment Gay, F.J. 1969. Species introduced by man. by a higher termite. Florida Entomolo- Pp. 459-494. In: Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Volume I. gist 85:273-275. New York, NY: Academic Press. Setter, R.R.; Myles, T.G. 2005. First record Gay, F.J.; Calaby J.H. 1970. Termites of of Microcerotermes (Isoptera: Amitermi- the Australian Region. Pp. 393-448. In: tinae: Termitidae) from the continental Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology United States, with observations on its of termites, Volume II. New York, NY: unique ecology. American Entomologist Academic Press. 51:96-103. Light, S.F. 1927. A new and more exact Su, N.-Y.; Scheffrahn, R.H. 1990. Economi- method of expressing important speciﬁ c cally important termites in the United characters of termites. Univ. California States and their control. Sociobiology Publ. Entomol. 4:75-88. 17(1):77-94.

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Su, N.-Y.; Scheffrahn, R.H.; Weissling, T. 1997. A new introduction of a subterranean termite, Coptotermes havilandi Holmgren (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), in Miami, Florida. Florida Entomologist 80(3):408-411. Su, N.-Y.; Scheffrahn, R.H. 1998a. Copto- termes vastator Light (Isoptera: Rhino- termitidae) in Guam. Proc. Hawaiian Entomol. Soc. 33:13-18. Su, N.-Y.; Scheffrahn, R.H. 1998b. A review of subterranean termite control practices and prospects for integrated pest management programmes. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 3(1):1-13. Thorne, B.L. 1998. Biology of subterranean termites of the genus Reticulitermes. Pp. 1-30. In: NPCA research report on subterranean termites. Dunn Loring, VA: National Pest Control Association. Watson, J.A.L.; Brown, W.V.; Miller, L.R.; Carter, F.L.; Lacey, M.J. 1989. Taxonomy of Heterotermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermiti- dae) in southeastern Australia: cuticular hydrocarbons of workers, and soldier and alate morphology. Systematic Ento- mology 14:299-325. Weesner, F.M. 1970. Termites of the nearc- tic region. Pp. 477-525. In: Krishna, K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Volume II. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Reviewers’ Comments None received.

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PATHOGEN IPRAS expanding in the spring. Stems become infected through wounds caused by hail, DIPLODIA SHOOT BLIGHT insects, or other wounding agents. A blue to black stain of the wood is often Assessor—John Kliejunas associated with stem infection (Aguilar Scientifi c name of pest—Sphaeropsis sap- 1985, Chou and MacKenzie 1988). Col- inea (Fr.:Fr.) Dyko & Sutton [Diplodia lar rot results when the pathogen invades pinea (Desmaz.) J. Kickx fi l.] (Coelo- tissue in the root collar area. mycetes) The pathogen readily fruits on diseased Scientifi c names of hosts—Pinus radiata tissue, slash, and cones (Peterson 1981). in Australia; Abies spp. (A. alba, A. pro- Fruiting bodies (pycnidia) of the fungus cera), Araucaria spp., Chamaecyparis form at the base of the stunted, current lawsoniana, Cedrus spp., Cupressus spp., year needles in late summer or fall. The Juniperus spp., Larix laricina, Picea spp. fruiting structures are also formed on (P. pungens, P. sitchensis), Pinus spp. the scales of two-year-old cones. The (P. canariensis, P. contorta, P. elliottii, P. fungus overwinters on dead needles, on mugo, P. nigra, P. palustris, P. patula, P. bark, and on wood and cones. During ponderosa, P. radiata, P. resinosa, P. stro- wet spring weather, spores are produced and spread by wind or rain splash to bus, P. sylvestris, P. taeda), Pseudotsuga young needles and buds. Spread occurs macrocarpa, P. mensiesii, and Thuja spp. primarily by rain splash of the spores in other countries. (Peterson 1981), but spores can also be Distribution—Australia (Australian distributed by air currents. Germinating Capitol Territory, New South Wales, conidia invade new buds or new needles Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, by stomatal penetration or through Victoria, Western Australia), Canada, wounds. Second year seed cones may Central America, South America, Eu- also become infected. Dieback symp- rope, Africa, Asia, New Zealand, Mexi- toms appear several weeks or more after co, and the United States. infection. The fungus is capable of acting Summary of natural history and basic bi- as an endophyte, existing in living tissue ology of the pest—Sphaeropsis sapinea is without causing symptoms (Smith et al. a cosmopolitan, opportunistic pathogen 1996, Stanosz et al. 1997), and as a sap- associated with a wide range of conifer- rophyte, colonizing dead needle tissue. ous hosts (Swart and Wingfi eld 1991). In Australia, Sphaeropsis sapinea has It causes a stem and foliage disease that been reported on P. radiata. The fungus can result in defoliation, dieback, shoot has seriously damaged extensive exotic blight, cankers, and mortality (Peterson plantations of P. radiata in Australia, 1982). Root infection has been reported New Zealand, and South Africa (Pe- in South Africa (Wingfi eld and Knox- terson 1982). Infection intensity varies Davies 1980). Infection of shoot tips re- with environmental and host conditions. sults in stunting, yellowing, and curling Outbreaks are associated with stress of the tips. Infection occurs directly in conditions such as drought, and physical unwounded, succulent shoots as they are damage caused by insects, hail, and other

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agents. Dieback tends to decrease with Any differences in strain characteristics increasing tree size (Chou 1976a and b, must be determined between any strains Gibson 1979). that might be introduced and those already present in the United States. If the Sphaeropsis sapinea is a highly variable strains are the same, then there is no ad- species. Although Chou (1976b) did ditional pest risk. However, it is known not find differences in pathogenicity that the North American strains are or virulence among 18 New Zealand signifi cantly different among themselves isolates, others have found differences (Palmer et al. 1987) and that differences among isolates in cultural characteris- also exist between an isolate from New tics, conidial size and morphology, and Zealand and one from the United States pathogenicity (Wang et al. 1985, Palmer (G. Stanosz, University of Wisconsin, et al. 1987, Swart et al. 1988). Two dis- Madison, 1996, pers. comm.). tinct types of S. sapinea, denoted Types A and B, were identifi ed from north central United States (Palmer et al. 1987) Specifi c information relating to risk based on conidial morphology and elements cultural characteristics and confi rmed A. Likelihood of introduction using randomly amplifi ed polymorphic 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin DNA (RAPD) markers (Smith and potential: Stanosz 1995). On red pine (P. resinosa Aiton) isolates of the A morphotype Logs – Moderate (RC). Applicable are more aggressive than isolates of the rating criteria from Chapter 1: b, B morphotype (Blodgett and Stanosz c, e, g. 1997). De Wet et al. (2000) described Chips – Low (RC). Applicable rat- a ‘C’ morphotype of S. sapinea from a ing criteria from Chapter 1: b, g. collection of isolates from Sumatra based The pathogen is common in Aus- on spore morphology, RAPDs, and ITS tralian plantations of P. radiata. sequence data. An ‘I’ morphotype was Because limbs and branches will identifi ed among Canadian isolates of be removed at harvest, only stem the fungus (Hausner et al. 1999). These infections will remain on the logs. ‘I” isolates were later found to be identi- However, most pines with stem in- cal to Botryosphaeria obtusa using simple fection will not reach rotation age or sequence repeat (SSR) markers (Burgess be harvested for sawlog export. The et al. 2001). The general pattern of iso- normal chipping process removes zymic diversity refl ects relatively high most of the young shoots and twigs levels of genetic variation within local before chipping. Much of the bark, populations, but a lack of sharp dissimi- the crevices of which could contain larity between geographic populations pieces of infected leaf tissue, is also (Swart et al. 1992). The fungus may be removed before chipping. There- a highly variable species that represents fore, the likelihood of propagules a continuum without defi ned types or of S. sapinea being associated with strains (Swart and Wingfi eld 1991). chips is assessed as “Low.”

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2. Entry potential: 4. Spread potential: Moderate (RC). Applicable rating criteria from Logs – High (RC). Applicable rating Chapter 1: a, c, d, g. criteria from Chapter 1: b, d. Chips – Low (VU). Applicable rat- If colonization by S. sapinea occurs ing criteria from Chapter 1: d. in native stands, it would spread principally on trees that are stressed The pathogen could survive transit and in locations where environmen- to the United States in infected tal conditions are conducive for needles remaining on any shoots infection. The continuity of hosts transported with logs or in needles in the United States would permit a lodged in bark crevices. Points of moderate rate of continual spread. infection include sapwood, crevices in the bark, and forest fl oor debris B. Consequences of introduction adhering to the logs. Although transit of logs would not affect fungus 5. Economic damage potential: Moder- survival, chipping would reduce ate (RC). Applicable rating criteria chances of survival of the pathogen from Chapter 1: a, c, e. in the host during transportation. Sphaeropsis sapinea is present in Because the spores of the pathogen the United States. It causes damage are microscopic and would be un- primarily to ornamental and land- detectable, risk criterion d would scape trees and can be particularly apply. However, the likelihood of devastating to trees planted off-site. propagules of S. sapinea being both In forest situations, damage is usu- associated with chips and surviving ally scattered and minimal (Sinclair transport is assessed as “Low.” et al. 1987). However, because of the known strain differences and 3. Colonization potential: Moderate virulence within the species, there is (RC). Applicable rating criteria the potential for increased economic from Chapter 1: a, b, e. damage if a more virulent strain Pines and other hosts grow near were to be introduced. ports of entry. Infection of these hosts would require the develop- 6. Environmental damage potential: ment of fruiting bodies of the fungus Moderate (RC). Applicable rating and subsequent spread of the spores criteria from Chapter 1: f. to susceptible tissues. The pathogen Sphaeropsis sapinea causes signifi - has spores that are both waterborne cant damage only in stressed trees. and sometimes windborne that Affected trees are commonly local- could effectively inoculate suscep- ized and widely scattered on poor tible hosts. However, favorable sites and even in such situations, environmental conditions, including death rarely occurs (Sinclair et al. moisture and temperature, would 1987). Therefore, the impact on need to be present for infection and associated ecosystems will be in- colonization to occur. signifi cant. However, strains of the

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pathogen are genetically different chips and surviving transport with and have varying degrees of viru- chips. lence. If Australian strains are more virulent than those already present Selected Bibliography in the United States, the potential Aguilar, A. 1985. Descripción e identifi - for environmental damage would cación de organismos asociados al azu- be moderate. lado de la madera aserrada en pino isigne 7. Social and political considerations: (Pinus radiata D. Don). Valdivia: Ing- Low (MC). Applicable rating crite- eniería Forestal Universidad Ausatral de ria from Chapter 1: none. Chile. Tesis. 67 p. Perceived damage potential follow- Blodgett, J.T.; Stanosz, G.R. 1997. Sphaerop- ing successful establishment of S. sis sapinea morphotypes differ in aggres- sapinea in new locations as a result siveness, but both infect nonwounded of importation would be low. Based red or jack pines. Plant Disease 81:143- on date regarding pathogenicity 147. and virulence of the known strains Burgess, T.; Wingfi eld, B.W.; Wingfi eld, M.J. of the pathogen, further introduc- 2001. Comparison of genotypic diversity tion of the species will not cause in natural and introduced populations of major impact on forest ecosystems. Sphaeropsis sapinea isolates from Pinus Thus, the social and political impact radiata. Mycological Research 105:1331- should be minimal. However, the in- 1339. troduction of a more virulent strain Burgess, T.; Wingfi eld, M.J.; Wingfi eld, B.W. of this fungus would have greater 2001. Simple sequence repeat mark- impact, particularly in ornamental ers distinguish among morphotypes of plantings. Sphaeropsis sapinea. Applied and Envi- ronmental Microbiology 67:354-362. C. Pest risk potential Chou, C.K.S. 1976a. A shoot dieback in Logs – Moderate (Likelihood of Pinus radiata caused by Diplodia pinea. introduction = Moderate; Conse- I. Symptoms, disease development, and quences of introduction = Moder- isolation of pathogen. New Zealand ate). Journal of Forestry Science 6:72-79. Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- Chou, C.K.S. 1976b. A shoot dieback in duction = Low; Consequences of Pinus radiata caused by Diplodia pinea. introduction = Moderate). II. Inoculation studies. New Zealand The pest risk potential was reduced Journal of Forestry Science 6:409-420. from “Moderate” with logs to Chou, C.K.S.; Mackenzie, M. 1988. Effect of “Low” with chips. The removal of pruning intensity and season on Diplodia bark during the chipping process pinea infection of Pinus radiata stems reduces the likelihood of propagules through pruning wounds. New Zealand of S. sapinea being associated with Journal of Forestry Science 12:425-437.

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De Wet, J.; Wingfi eld, M.J.; Coutinho, T.A.; Smith, H.; Wingfi eld, M.J.; Crous, P.W.; Wingfi eld, W.D. 2000. Characteriza- Coutinho, T.A. 1996. Sphaeropsis sapinea tion of Sphaeropsis sapinea isolates from and Botryosphaeria dothidea endophytic South Africa, Mexico and Indonesia. in Pinus spp. and Eucalyptus spp. in Plant Disease 84:151-156. South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 62:86-88. Gibson, I.A.S. 1979. Diseases of forest trees Stanosz, G.R.; Smith, D.R.; Guthmiller, widely planted as exotics in the trop- M.R.; Stanosz, J.C. 1997. Persistence of ics and Southern hemisphere. II. The Sphaeropsis sapinea on or in asymptom- genus Pinus. Oxford, England: Com- atic stems of red pine nursery seedlings. monwealth Mycological Institute, Kew Mycologia 89:525-530. Surrey, and Commonwealth Forestry Swart, W.J.; Wingfi eld, M.J. 1991. Biology Institute, University of Oxford. 135 p. and control of Sphaeropsis sapinea on Hausner, G.; Hopkin, A.A.; Davis, C.N.; Pinus species in South Africa. Plant Dis- Reid, J. 1999. Variation in culture and ease 75: 761-766. rDNA among isolates of Sphaeropsis Swart, W.J.; Wingfi eld, M.J.; Knox-Da- sapinea from Ontario and Manitoba. vies, P.S. 1988. Relative susceptibility Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology of Sphaeropsis sapinea of six Pinus spp. 21:256-264. cultivated in South Africa. European Palmer, M.A.; Stewart, E.L.; Wingfi eld, M.J. Journal of Forest Pathology 18:184-189. 1987. Variation among isolates of Sphae- Swart, W.J.; Grant, W.S.; Wingfi eld, M.J. ropsis sapinea in the north central United 1992. Allozyme variation among geo- States. Phytopathology 77:944-948. graphic isolates of Sphaeropsis sapinea. Abstract. Proceedings, 1992 joint APS/ Peterson, G.W. 1981. Control of diplodia MSA meeting, Portland, OR. and dothistroma blight of pines in the Wang, C.G.; Blanchett, R.A.; Jackson, W.A.; urban environment. Journal of Arbori- Palmer, M.A. 1985. Differences in conid- culture 7:1-7. ial morphology among isolates of Sphae- Peterson, G.W. 1982. Diplodia blight of ropsis sapinea. Plant Disease 69:838-841. pines. Forest Insect and Disease Leafl et Wingfi eld, M.J.; Knox-Davies, P.S. 1980. As- 161. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department sociation of Diplodia pinea with a root of Agriculture, Forest Service. 7 p. disease of pines in South Africa. Plant Sinclair, W.A.; Lyon, H.H.; Johnson W.T. Disease 64:221-223. 1987. Diseases of trees and shrubs. Itha- Reviewers’ Comments ca, NY: Cornell University Press. 574 p. “The Armillaria and Diplodia shoot blight Smith, D.R.; Stanosz, G.R. 1995. Confi r- IPRAs seem to include a lot more personal mation of two distinct populations of opinion than data. This can be crucial for some Sphaeropsis sapinea in the north central issues (e.g., survival in chips) that may relate to United States using RAPDs. Phytopa- the overall risk rating for the pest.” (Oregon thology 85:699-704. Department of Agriculture)

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Response to Comments Assessor judgment was used in assigning risk for pest with host-commodity at origin potential and for entry potential with the chip commodity. The reasons and the information that supports that decision for the risk assigned by the author varying from the strict application of the risk criteria are given.

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ARMILLARIA ROOT ROT Rishbeth 1972, Shaw 1975). Under the right conditions, the fungus in the in- Assessor—Harold H. Burdsall, Jr. fected root—or in the case of the more Scientific name of pest—Armillaria saprophytic species, in infested woody hinnulea Kile & Watl., Armillaria lu- debris—produces mushrooms, the teobubalina Kile & Watl., Armillaria source of the reproductive basidiospores. novae-zealandiae (G. Stev.) Herink, Ar- These spores are discharged and are carried by air currents to wounds in unin- millaria pallidula Kile & Watl. fected trees or to forest woody debris. Scientific names of host—Plantation In other cases, rhizomorphs may travel Pinus radiata and other Pinus spp. along infested roots and pass to another Distribution—All pine-growing regions tree by root-to-root contact. Armillaria of Australia are infected. species are known for the production of rhizomorphs in the soil that grow out Summary of natural history and basic from a nutrient source and infest another biology of the pest—Australia is home substrate. There seems to be a positive to at least six Armillaria species. Of correlation between the saprophytic these, four are known to occur on Pinus nutritional state and the production of spp. Armillaria pallidula is known only rhizomorphs. Most pathogenic species, from pine. Only A. hinnulea and A. such as A. luteobubalina and A. hinnulea, luteobubalina have been demonstrated produce limited rhizomorphs. They are to be a primary pathogens in pine (Kile carried to a new host plant through root- 1981). But A. novae-zealandiae may also to-root contact. This characteristic leads be a mild pathogen (G. Kile, Forest and to a slower spread rate than would be at- Wood Products Research and Develop- tained by means of basidiospore disper- ment Corporation, 2005, pers. comm.). sion, but it appears that the importance Other species are known as secondary of the basidiospores in dissemination pathogens, attacking stressed trees. In varies among species (Kile 1986, Smith plantations, the Armillaria root rot at- et al. 1992). However, for the establish- tacks the very young plantings and is ment of new infection foci, whether in not a problem once the trees are well es- plantations in Australia or in a foreign tablished and are more mature. Because ecosystem, basidiospores would be very of the approximately 30 year rotation important. How these species would of most pine plantations, Armillaria function in the North American ecosys- root rot does not become a problem on tem is of course unknown, but to date all older trees (G. Kile, Forest and Wood Australian Armillaria species are known Products Research and Development to have some pathogenic capability and Corporation, 2005, pers. comm.). All a rather broad host range. Chipping species examined to date have the abil- logs will have little impact on whether ity to cause disease in some situations, Armillaria is present. Incipient infec- frequently in a broad range of host spe- tions in the sapwood will be carried in cies. They are also adept at surviving as the chips into the chip piles. However, saprophytes in dead wood or root tissues the potential for fruiting and the produc- for long periods of time (Kile 1980, 1986, tion of inoculum (basidiospores) on such

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a substrate is low. The effect of drying, spores-producing mushrooms on heat in the chip piles, and the presence of harvested logs. a myriad of competing molds will all act to reduce the viability of any Armillaria 2. Entry potential: in the wood chips. Logs – High (VU). Applicable rating criteria from Chapter 1: c, d. Speciﬁ c information relating to risk Chips – Low (RC). Applicable rat- elements ing criteria from Chapter 1: d. A. Likelihood of introduction Armillaria species are capable of 1. Pest with host-commodity at origin surviving well in wood for extended potential: periods of time. Being located in the sapwood and deeper in the wood Logs – Moderate (RC). Applicable tissues of the butts of infested logs, rating criteria from Chapter 1: c, the fungus would be protected from e, g. desiccation. However, Armillaria Chips – Moderate (RC). Applicable species are not known for producing rating criteria from Chapter 1: c, basidiospore-producing mushrooms e, g. on harvested logs. It is unlikely that Logs for export from Australia are they would fruit in such substrates. all plantation-produced and are The ability of Armillaria species mostly not from initial plantings to maintain themselves in chips is on a formerly native forest site. not known. However, the drying With each rotation, the severity of of chips in piles and the heat gener- attack by Armillaria is reduced and ated in the depths of piles may be is never considered more than a detrimental to the fungus’s survival. nuisance. The attacks are restricted Decay tests performed on A. mellea to young stock, and by the time of (unpublished data) demonstrated harvest, the fungus is considered that it was not well adapted to de- innocuous. In each rotation, the caying small pieces of wood; this severity is lessened. Because most may indicate that chipping would of the logs are produced on at least select against an Armillaria species second-rotation sites and the fact surviving in chips. Although it is there is little in the way of new P. still not certain, Armillaria species radiata plantations, the fungus is not would probably not survive well in very likely to be present on exported transported chips. logs. The fact that decayed butt sections are cut off during harvesting 3. Colonization potential: Low (RC). (personal observation during site Applicable rating criteria from visit) is comforting, but incipient Chapter 1: b, c. attack is not obvious enough that it These fungi, in order to produce would be noticed in the ﬁ eld. This basidiospores, would have to de- is balanced by the unknown ability velop basidiomes (mushrooms) after of Armillaria to produce basidio- arrival in the US. The effectiveness

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of the basidiospores in establishing particularly pathogenic to some of the fungus would depend on that the conifers in the western U.S., the event, favorable environmental introduction could wreak havoc in conditions (including moisture and the western forests. temperature), and the presence of suitable hosts growing near ports of 6. Environmental damage potential: Low entry. The host range of the species (MC). Applicable rating criteria from in question comes into play here as Chapter 1: none. well. The extent of host range for the If a species of Armillaria were in- Australian Armillaria species is of troduced that was pathogenic to concern when considering import- conifers in the U.S., the environ- ing logs. A susceptible host would mental impact would depend on need to be present for infection and the virulence and the host range of colonization to occur. the pathogen. Such an introduction would have the potential of having 4. Spread potential: High (RC). Ap- a major impact by causing root rot plicable rating criteria from Chapter in numerous conifer species. With 1: a, c, d, e, f, g. effective basidiospore dispersal, new The spread of these fungi would infection centers might arise rapidly, depend on the presence of hosts near and spread could be rapid. Armil- the ports or the location where the laria species tend to not spread rap- logs are being stored. Once spores idly, but in a new ecosystem where are produced, susceptible hosts the host species are not adapted, it within several miles are within range is unknown how the new pathogen of the spore dissemination. Just as in would progress. Australia, these propagules could be effective in inciting new infections. 7. Social and political considerations: Low (MC). Applicable rating crite- B. Consequences of introduction ria from Chapter 1: none. 5. Economic damage potential: High Perceived damage potential follow- (RC). Applicable rating criteria ing successful establishment of an from Chapter 1: a, b, c, f. Armillaria on a conifer as a result The broad host range noted for of log importation would be low. Australian Armillaria species is of If, however, that pathogen were considerable concern. Several of the particularly virulent to other hosts, species are known to attack several especially other western conifers or species of pine as well as other co- a particularly rare species, the results nifer hosts. With regard speciﬁ cally could be much more serious. to P. radiata, attack of mature trees C. Pest risk potential: is not likely. However, whether this characteristic applies to other na- Logs – Moderate (Likelihood of in- tive U.S. conifers is unknown. If an troduction =Low; Consequences introduced Armillaria species were of introduction = High).

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Chips – Low (Likelihood of intro- (or more) before harvesting. However many duction =Low; Consequences of pine plantations now occur on second rotation introduction = High). sites.” (Stone)

Selected Bibliography “The Armillaria and Diplodia shoot blight IPRAs seem to include a lot more personal Kile, G.A. 1980. Behavior of an Armillaria opinion than data. This can be crucial for some in some Eucalyptus obliqua - Eucalyptus issues (e.g., survival in chips) that may relate to regnans forests in Tasmania and its role the overall risk rating for the pest.” (Oregon in their decline. European Journal of Department of Agriculture) Forest Pathology 10:278-296. Kile, G.A. 1981. Armillaria luteobubalina: Response to Comments a primary cause of decline and death in mixed species eucalypt forests in central The comment is correct with regard to the Victoria. Australian Forest Research length of rotation in pine plantations. The 11:63-77. length of rotation slipped through the authors review incorrectly. The fact remains that Ar- Kile, G.A. 1986. Genotypes of Armillaria millaria species affecting pine plantations in hinnulea in wet sclerophyll eucalypt Australia are not problems with rotations of forest in Tasmania. Transactions of the this length, especially when the species are British Mycological Society 87:312-314. not present in the native forest removed for Rishbeth, J. 1972 The production of rhi- plantation establishment. Armillaria is not zomorphs by Armillaria mellea from known as a problem in pine plantations except, stumps. European Journal of Forest occasionally, in newly established plantations Pathology 2:193-205. retrieved from the native forest. In addition the pines appears to develop resistance with Shaw, C.G. III. 1975. Epidemiological age (G. Kile, Forest and Wood Products Re- insights into Armillaria mellea root rot search and Development Corporation, 2005, in a managed ponderosa pine forest. Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. pers. comm.) and root rot is not found in the 201 p. Ph.D dissertation. more mature plantations. Smith, M.L.; Bruhn, J.N.; J.B. Anderson, Much of the reason for the lack of data on J.B. 1992. The fungus Armillaria bulbosa Australian species of Armillaria as a forest is among the largest and oldest living pathogen is because it is not much of a prob- organisms. Nature 356:428-431. lem. Even less is known regarding the survival ability of Armillaria species on chips, no mat- Reviewers’ Comments ter what nationality. However, unpublished “In the IPRA for Armillaria root rot it is data (Burdsall and Banik, pers. obs.) indicates claimed that ‘Because of the short rotation that Armillaria mellea grows and decays wood (10-20 years) of most pine plantations, Ar- chips poorly in the laboratory even under ideal millaria root-rot does not become a problem conditions. It would not be expected to thrive on older trees or in later rotations’ In NSW in chip piles, especially considering the treat- (and in other states) most pine plantations are ment of such piles (e.g., the amount of heat in actually managed for approximately 30 years the piles and the stirring of the piles several

101 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______times after chipping). A study of 16 shipments of chips from Chile found no Armillaria cultures and, in fact, found little other than common molds, especially Trichoderma.

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CHAPTER 4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS BACKGROUND from APHIS, the USDA Forest Service, and the government of Australia assisted the team. Several forest industries propose to import In September 2001, eight members of the team logs and chips of Pinus spp. from Australia for and two APHIS representatives traveled to processing in various localities in the United Australia. Biosecurity Australia coordinated States. Current regulations require that unpro- the site visit. The team split into smaller sub- cessed logs from temperate areas of Australia groups and visited numerous plantings and must be fumigated with methyl bromide or natural forests of eucalypts in various parts heat-treated to eliminate pests. Logs must be of the country. They also visited processing stored and handled to exclude access by pests mills and ports. The team spoke with various after treatment (Title 7, CFR part 319.40-5(d), government offi cials, industry representatives, 319.40-6 (a)). The Animal and Plant Health and academia to discuss the risk assessment Inspection Service (APHIS) requested that the and conditions in Australia. Although the pri- Forest Service prepare a pest risk assessment mary focus of this site visit was to evaluate the that identifi es the potential insects and patho- eucalypt resource in Australia, the team used gens of several species of Pinus (P. radiata, the opportunity to learn about Pinus as well. P. elliottii var. elliottii, P. taeda, P. pinaster, and P. caribaea var. hondurensis) throughout The team began the risk assessment process Australia, estimates the likelihood of their by compiling a list of organisms reported to entry on logs or chips of the pine species into be associated with several Pinus species in the United States, and estimates the potential Australia. From this list, insects and pathogens for these pests to establish and spread within having the greatest risk potential as pests on the United States. The pest risk assessment logs or chips were identifi ed using risk analysis also evaluates the economic, environmental, procedures recommended by APHIS (Orr et social, and political consequences of any in- al. 1993). This pest risk assessment expanded troduction. This risk assessment includes the two of the fi ve criteria for identifying poten- conterminous United States and Hawaii as tial pests of concern (Table 7). Criterion 2a potential ports of entry. The assessment and includes pests that are present in both Austra- conclusions are expected to be applicable to lia and the United States, but with restricted these areas. distribution in the United States and little chance of being internally spread within the PEST RISK ASSESSMENT United States because of the lack of reason for movement of contaminated material from The Wood Import Pest Risk Assessment and the restricted area. Imports of such materials Mitigation Evaluation Team, a group of pest could well traverse and break these barriers. specialists from various USDA Forest Service Criterion 4 was expanded to include 4a: native offi ces, compiled this pest risk assessment. The species that have reached the probable limits team of specialists provided technical expertise of their range, but may differ in their capacity from the disciplines of forestry, entomology, for causing damage based on the genetic varia- plant pathology, and mycology. All team tion exhibited by the species. The team used members worked on previous pest risk assess- a set of criteria to determine the level of risk ments related to log imports. Representatives associated with each risk element.

103 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

Eleven individual pest risk assessments (IP- ater), and the exotic bark anobiid (Ernobius RAs) were prepared for pests of the pine spe- mollis). These were rated as having “Moder- cies, nine dealing with insect pests and two ate,” “High,” and “High” pest risk potential, with pathogens. The organisms from these respectively. The weevils were rated “Moder- assessments are grouped in Table 10 according ate” because they are considered secondary to the substrate they are likely to occupy (on insects in their natural environment and rarely bark, in or under bark, or inside wood). Table cause significant damage. The exotic bark 10 summarizes the pest risk potential with beetles and the anobiid bark beetle received logs as the commodity, while Table 11 sum- a “High” rating because of their potential to marizes the pest risk potential with chips as the possibly be more effi cient vectors of the black commodity. The team recognizes that these stain root disease pathogen (Leptographium organisms may not be the only ones associated spp.) or other pathogenic fungi (Ernobius with logs or chips, but they are representative mollis). of the diversity of insects and pathogens that inhabit logs. The lack of biological informa- Of the seven groups of insects and pathogens tion on a given insect or pathogen should that occur in the wood, six were rated with a not be equated with low risk (USDA Forest high risk potential. Ambrosia beetles (Platypus Service 1993). However, by necessity, this pest subgranosus, Amasa truncatus; Xyleborus per- risk assessment focuses on those insects and forans) infestations result in wood degradation pathogens for which biological information caused by their galleries and by the localized is available. By developing IPRAs for known staining from the associated symbiotic fungi. organisms that inhabit a variety of niches on As controls are not currently available and logs, APHIS can subsequently identify ef- costs of quarantine enforcement would be fective mitigation measures to eliminate the high, economic damage potential could be sig- recognized pests and any similar unknown nifi cant. The dampwood termite (Porotermes organisms that inhabit the same niches. adamsoni) and the giant termite (Mastotermes darwiniensis) will attack untreated wood PINUS SPP. LOGS AS COMMODITY and live trees of numerous hardwood and softwood species and could cause signifi cant Some of the organisms of concern on pines damage in moist, warm climates. Drywood would only be associated with logs as hitch- termites (Neotermes insularis; Kalotermes hikers, most likely confi ned to the bark sur- rufi notum, K. banksiae; Ceratokalotermes spo- face. liator; Glyptotermes tuberculatus; Bifi ditermes condonensis; Cryptotermes primus, C. brevis, Insects and pathogens that inhabit the inner C. domesticus, C. dudleyi, and C. cynocepha- bark and wood have a higher probability of lus) damage untreated wood in structures and being imported with logs than do organisms result in considerable economic loss. Subter- on the bark, particularly in the absence of ranean termites (Schedorhinotermes interme- mitigation measures. Three groups of subcor- dius intermedius, S. i. actuosus, S. i. breinli, S. tical insects were identifi ed as having a high i. seclusus, S. reticulatus; Heterotermes ferox, likelihood of being associated with logs of H. paradoxus; Coptotermes acinaciformis, C. Pinus spp. These include the endemic weevils frenchi, C. lacteus, C. raffrayi; Microcero- (Aesiotes spp.), the two introduced European termes boreus, M. distinctus, M. implicadus, bark beetles (Hylurgus ligniperda and Hylastes M. nervosus, M. turneri; and Nasutitermes

104 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA . 1. Risk Potential Social/ Political mental damage Environ- MMMH damage Economic spp. logs (on bark, in or under wood) Pinus Spread Spread potential zation Coloni- potential tial Entry Entry poten- Likelihood of introduction Consequences of introduction Pest ML HMMML M HHHH MHMMMML M HHMHHMMH HHHHHHHH HHHHHMHH HHHMMML M HHHHMML H Host association ) ) ) ) Sphaeopsis spp.) Porotermes Porotermes ) c name c Platypus Ernobius mollis Aesiotes notabilis, notabilis, Aesiotes Chlenias Amasa truncatus; Amasa truncatus; Hylurgus ligniperda, Hylurgus ligniperda, Sirex noctilio Sirex ) , Scientiﬁ

) ); Giant termite ) leucurus —Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern for unprocessed Australian —Summary of risk potentials for

Mastotermes darwiniensis Xyleborus perforans adamsoni Pine loopers ( None Hylastes ater Ambrosia beetles ( subgranosus ( wasp Wood termites ( Dampwood ( Bark beetles ( sapinea Bark weevils ( Bark anobiid ( Diplodia shoot blight ( A. Insects Pathogens Insects Insects Pathogens Common name ( On bark In or under bark In wood Table 10 Table

105 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______. 1. Risk Potential Social/ Political mental damage Environ- damage Economic spp. logs (on bark, in or under wood) Pinus Spread Spread potential zation Coloni- potential tial Entry Entry poten- Likelihood of introduction Consequences of introduction Pest HHHHHMMH MHLHHLLM HHHHML MH Host association ; ; ; , )

) A. S. i. i. S. , , , ,

, notum ; C. raffrayi C. pallidula ) S. reticulatus S. ruﬁ

, H. paradoxus H.

, Armillaria c name c Neotermes , A. , , ) ditermes C. dudleyi C. , M. implicadus M. Cryptotermes Biﬁ M. turneri M. S. i. actuosus i. S. luteobubalina , Ceratokalotermes Ceratokalotermes ; ;

, Scientiﬁ , ; C. lacteus C. A. Glyptotermes , Kalotermes , ; C. brevis C. ; S. i. seclusus i. S. , , —Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern for unprocessed Australian —Summary of risk potentials for Schedorhinotermes intermedius hinnulea Armillaria root rot ( novae-zealandiae M. nervosus M. Nasutitermes exitiosis Coptotermes acinaciformis Coptotermes frenchi C. Microcerotermes boreus distinctus M. condonensis primus domesticus C. termites Subterranean ( intermedius breinli Heterotermes ferox spoliator tuberculatus cynocephalus C. K. banksiae K. Drywood termites ( Drywood insularis Pathogens Common name ( H=high rating; M=moderate rating; L=low rating L=low rating; M=moderate H=high rating; Table 10 Table 1

106 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA Pest Risk Potential Social/ Political mental damage Environ- . 1 damage Economic spp. chips Pinus Spread Spread potential zation Coloni- potential tial Entry Entry poten- Likelihood of introduction Consequences of introduction LLHMMMLL L MHHMMMM LLHMMMLL LLHHMMLL L L MMMM L L L L HHHHH L L L HHHMH L L L HHHMH L MMMHHMMM Host associ-ation ) ) ) ) spp.) Sphaeopsis Porotermes Porotermes ) c name c Platypus Chlenias Ernobius mollis Aesiotes notabilis, notabilis, Aesiotes Amasa truncatus, Amasa truncatus, Hylurgus ligniperda, Hylurgus ligniperda, Sirex noctilio Sirex ) , ) Scientiﬁ ) ) leucurus —Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern for unprocessed Australian —Summary of risk potentials for

Mastotermes darwiniensis sapinea Pine Loopers ( None Bark beetles ( Hylastes ater Diplodia shoot blight ( A. Bark weevils ( Bark anobiid ( Ambrosia beetles ( subgranosus Xyleborus perforans Wood wasp ( wasp Wood Dampwood termite ( Dampwood adamsoni Giant termite ( Insects Pathogens Insects Pathogens Insects Common name ( On bark In or under bark In wood Table 11 Table

107 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______Pest Risk Potential Social/ Political mental damage Environ- . 1 damage Economic spp. chips Pinus Spread Spread potential zation Coloni- potential tial Entry Entry poten- Likelihood of introduction Consequences of introduction L LHHMLML L L HHHMML ML LHHLLH Host associ-ation ; ; , ; , , )

) S. i. i. S. , ,

, notum ) ;

C. raffrayi C. ) S. reticulatus S. ruﬁ A. , H. paradoxus H.

, , c name c Neotermes , C. domesticus C. novae-

, ditermes pallidula A.

M. implicadus M. Cryptotermes , Biﬁ M. turneri M. S. i. actuosus i. S. Ceratokalotermes Ceratokalotermes , ; ; , Scientiﬁ , C. cynocephalus C. A. ; C. lacteus C. hinnulea ,

, Glyptotermes , Kalotermes ; C. brevis C. ; S. i. seclusus i. S. , , —Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern for unprocessed Australian —Summary of risk potentials for Armillaria Schedorhinotermes intermedius condonensis primus dudleyi C. Armillaria root rot ( spoliator tuberculatus nervosus M. Nasutitermes exitiosis luteobubalina K. banksiae K. termites Subterranean ( intermedius breinli Heterotermes ferox acinaciformis Coptotermes frenchi C. Microcerotermes boreus distinctus M. zealandiae Drywood termites ( Drywood insularis Pathogens Common name ( H=high rating; M=moderate rating; L=low rating L=low rating; M=moderate H=high rating; Table 11 Table 1

108 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA exitiosis) attack untreated wood and some at- potential for ambrosia beetles dropped from tack live trees. They could compete with native high to moderate. The high risk potential for termites that degrade and decompose wood the Sirex wood wasp, dampwood termite, in use, and could pose a signifi cant hazard to the giant termite, the drywood termites, and street trees. The introduced wood wasp (Sirex the subterranean termites dropped from high noctilio) has demonstrated its capacity for to low. For host material infested with those being a signifi cant mortality agent in stressed insects before chipping, it was thought un- pines in many countries and merits a high rat- likely that any life stage that would pass suc- ing of pest risk potential on that basis. cessfully through the chipping process could subsequently survive in chips due to altered The deep-wood Armillaria root rot fungi moisture and temperature. The two groups (Armillaria hinnulea, A. luteobubalina, A. retaining a moderate rating (ambrosia beetles novae-zealandiae, and A. pallidula) were and exotic bark beetles) do so on the remote rated as moderate risk potential rather than likelihood that small adults would survive the high because of the low likelihood of these chipping process in host material previously fungi producing badidomes and basidiospores infested prior to chipping. needed for colonization upon arrival in the United States. The changes in risk potentials for the two commodities, logs and chips, are compared In assessing the risk of potential pests, the fact directly in Table 12. that insects and microorganisms invade logs in a predictable temporal sequence, dictated by We recognize that other potential pathways ex- the condition of the host, is important. At the ist for the introduction of forest pests. Though time of felling, logs will contain any pathogens deserving of examination, these pathways may and borers present in the bole of the living be diffi cult if not impossible to predict and are tree. Certain life stages of defoliating insects not a focus of this assessment. may be attached to the bark. Within the fi rst several weeks after felling, beetles and borers FACTORS INFLUENCING RISK may colonize logs. Also, certain woodborers POTENTIAL may deposit eggs on the bark of logs shortly after harvest. Whether bark- and wood-boring During site visits we were informed about insects will be common on export logs will and observed differences in harvesting and depend in part on how rapidly the logs are processing practices among regions of Aus- removed from harvest sites and loaded onto tralia. These differences, such as debarking ships, trains, or trucks for transport to the effi ciency, can infl uence the risk potential United States. for certain pests, especially hitchhikers and those that invade the inner bark. In addition PINUS SPP. CHIPS AS COMMODITY to harvesting practices, some differences were noted among regions of Australia in the oc- When chips rather than logs are considered currence and extent of certain pest organisms. as the commodity, the risk potential changes These differences are noted in the individual for several of the groups of organisms (Table pest risk assessments. They may infl uence 11). Ratings for the insects that occur in the the risk potential for certain organisms from wood change considerably. The high risk specifi c regions.

109 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

Table 12—Summary of risk potentials for Australian pests of concern, Pinus spp. logs versus chips as the commodity1.

Organisms Logs Chips On bark Pine loopers M L

In or under bark Bark weevils (Hylurgus ligniperda, HM Hylastes ater) Diplodia shoot blight M L

In wood Ambrosia beetles H M Sirex noctilio H L Dampwood termites H L Giant termite H L Drywood termites H L Subterranean termites H L Armillaria root rot M L

1H=high rating; M=moderate rating; L=low rating

EFFECTS OF CHIPPING ON vary from virtual elimination to various levels INSECTS AND PATHOGENS of reduction, depending on insect size and life stage, operating characteristics of the chipping Other practices, such as chip production, can machinery, and other factors. also inﬂ uence the likelihood of pest presence and transport. The risk rating of potential Other organisms, such as fungi, may not be pest species examined the difference between affected by chipping or could be positively whole log importation and chip importa- or negatively affected. The production of tion. Clearly, debarking and reducing logs chips will result in considerably more surface to chips will seriously impact the survival area on which fructiﬁ cations could develop. and hence the risk of importation of certain It would also make it impossible to visually pests. Some pests, primarily insects, will be inspect for certain defects, such as cankers adversely affected by chipping either by the and decay. The smaller the size of the wood actual destruction of living organisms or by chips, the quicker they would dry out, and the disruption of host material as it affects the lower the risk of potential pests survival. completion of life stages. Thus, of the insects Smaller size chips would probably not provide for which IPRAs were done, all except the an adequate food base to permit fruiting of ambrosia beetles and smaller bark beetles are decay fungi, but these fungi could survive as at moderate likelihood of surviving chipping mycelia or rhizomorphs. Also, large piles of and transport, thereby retaining a “Moder- chips will generate heat internally and possibly ate” pest risk potential. The extent of insect have large areas under anaerobic conditions population reduction due to chipping would that may be damaging to fungal pathogens,

110 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

either directly or through the encouragement spontaneous heating to 60oC (140oF). Dwinell of thermophilic fungi that may be antagonistic (1987) and Leesch et al. (1989) investigated to the pathogens. Internal temperatures of the population dynamics of the pinewood hardwood chip piles have been reported to nematode in southern pine chips stored in the reach 49 to 82oC after 5 to 7 days (Fuller 1985), hold of ships during transport from Georgia temperatures sufﬁ ciently high to inhibit or kill to Sweden. Chips in the bottom of holds av- most fungal pathogens. Heat treatments rang- eraged temperatures of 35oC (95oF) and con- ing from 65.6oC for 75 minutes to 100oC for tained high levels of the pinewood nematode. 5 minutes generally have been regarded as the Few pinewood nematodes were found in the minimal times and internal wood temperatures middle of holds, where temperatures averaged required for wood sterilization. However, 48oC (118oF). Dwinell concluded that the bot- some fungi isolated from woodchip piles have tom of the holds served as an incubator for the been found to survive exposure to tempera- nematode during the 17- to 19-day voyages. tures of 65oC or greater for times ranging from In laboratory studies, population densities 8 to 72 hours (Zabel and Morrell 1992), while of the pinewood nematode declined rapidly chips on the surface of undisturbed chip piles at temperatures above 45oC (113oF), and the will be unaffected by internal heating. While nematode was not recovered after 1 and 3 days chipping, piling, storage, and transporting at 50 and 48oC (122 and 118oF), respectively pines may alter the risk of pest importation, (Dwinell 1990). there is little or no information on the mag- nitude of risk reduction. Other risks, such as In a study of Monterey pine infected with the insect hitchhikers on transport vehicles, would pitch canker pathogen Fusarium circinatum remain unchanged. Nirenber and O’Donnell, chipping branches reduced the emergence of twig beetles (Pity- The temperature, moisture, and air content ophthorus spp. and associates) by about 95 in wood chip piles vary with the pile volume percent, compared with emergence from intact and over time. Although the piles may rest branches (McNee et al. 2002). The frequency undisturbed for extended periods, they also of pathogen isolation from branch chips was undergo repeated mixing during transporta- highly variable and increased with increasing tion, storage, and distribution. These dynam- severity of disease symptoms. Pathogen isola- ics may affect insect and pathogen survival, tion frequencies from one-year-old chips were reproduction, and population levels, as well lower than in fresh chips, but the reduction as community composition. Heat generated was not signiﬁ cant in chips with low initial during the decomposition process favors ther- isolation frequencies. motolerant and thermophilic organisms over mesophilic organisms. Dwinell (1986) found Micales and Burdsall (2002) analyzed sam- that in piled southern pine chips, the pine- ples from 16 shipments of unprocessed wood nematode [Bursaphelenchus xylophi- Pinus radiata chips exported from Chile to lus Steiner and Buhrere) Nickel] primarily Bellingham, Washington. Six fungal genera inhabits fresh chips and chips located in the (Geotrichum, Gloeocladium, Paecilomyces, outer shell of the pile due to heat generated Penicillium, Phanerochaete, and Trichoderma) during the decomposition process, whereas were consistently recovered and represented chips in the interior of the pile do not harbor nearly 90 percent of the isolates. Species of the nematode when oxidative processes cause Trichoderma accounted for nearly half of the

111 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______total species isolated. Graphium, a genus of potential bluestain or vascular wilt pathogens, was recovered from only 0.32 percent of the specimens. They concluded that species of Trichoderma appear to competitively inhibit other fungi in woodchip shipments.

CONCLUSIONS

There are numerous potential pest organisms found on Pinus spp. in Australia that have a high likelihood of being inadvertently introduced into the United States on unprocessed logs or chips. Some of these organisms are attracted to recently harvested logs while others are afﬁ liated with logs in a peripheral fashion, but nonetheless pose serious threats to pines or other hosts in the United States. Thus, the potential mechanisms of log and chip infestation by nonindigenous pests are complex.

The array of potential hosts in the U.S. is not fully known. Until more speciﬁ c information is available, caution seems prudent.

For those organisms of concern that are associated with the species of Pinus considered in this PRA, speciﬁ c phytosanitary measures may be required to ensure the quarantine safety of proposed importations. Detailed examination and selection of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk is the responsibility of APHIS as part of the pest risk management phase (Orr et al. 1993) and is beyond the scope of this assessment.

112 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA

CHAPTER 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY This is an inclusive bibliography meant to Bain, J. 1977. Hylurgus ligniperda (Fab.). provide the reader with an extensive list of Forest and timber insects in New Zea- possible sources of information on the sub- land No. 18. Rotorua: Forest Research ject of pests of Pinus in the United States and Institute, New Zealand Forest Service. 6 Australia. p. Bain, J.; Jenkin, M.J. 1983. Kalotermes bank- ABARE. 2002. Australian Forest and Wood siae, Glyptotermes brevicornis, and other Product Statistics, September and De- termites (Isoptera) in New Zealand. cember quarters 2001. Canberra, ACT: New Zealand Entomologist 7:365-371. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Baker, W.L. 1972. Eastern forest insects. Resource Economics. 67 p. Miscellaneous Publication 1175. Wash- ABARE. 2005. Australian Forest and Wood ington, D.C; U.S. Department of Agri- Product Statistics, September and De- culture, Forest Service. 642. p. cember quarters 2004. Canberra, ACT: Bedding, R.A. 1972. Biology of Deladenus Australian Bureau of Agricultural and siricidicola (Neotylenchidae) an ento- Resource Economics. 60 p. mophagous- mycetophagous nematode Adams, A.J.S. 1950. Control of the pine parasitic in siricid woodwasps. Nemato- bark beetle (Hylastes ater) at Mt. Burr, logica 18:482-493. South Australia. Australian Forestry Bedding, R.A.; Akhurst, R.J. 1974. Use of 14:111-112. the nematode Deladenus siricidicola in Aguilar, A. 1985. Descripción e identiﬁ - the biological control of Sirex noctilio cación de organismos asociados al azu- in Australia. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 13:129-135. lado de la madera aserrada en pino isigne (Pinus radiata D. Don). Valdivia: Ing- Bedding, R.A.; Akhurst, R.J. 1978. Geo- eniería Forestal Universidad Ausatral de graphical distribution and host prefer- Chile. Tesis. 67 p. ences of Deladenus species (Nematoda: Neotylenchidae) parasitic in siricid Anonymous. 2005. Australian Insect Com- woodwasps and associated hymenopter- mon Names. CSIRO. http://www.ento. ous parasitoids. Nematologica 24:286- csiro.au/aicn/index.htm. 294. Australian Academy of Technological Sci- Bedding, R.A.; Iede, E.T. 2005. Application ences and Engineering. 1988. Technol- of Beddingia siricidicola for sirex wood- ogy in Australia 1788-1988. Melbourne, wasp control. Pp. 385-399. In: Grewal, VIC: Australian Science and Technology P.S.; Ehlers, R.-U.; Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., Heritage Centre, The University of Mel- eds. Nematodes as biological control bourne. 958 p. agents. CABI Publishing.

113 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

Bess, H.A. 1970. Termites of Hawaii and the Brimblecombe, A.R. 1957. The pine bark oceanic islands. Pp. 449-476. In: Krishna, anobiid. Queensland Agricultural Jour- K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of ternal 83:637-639. mites, Volume II. New York, NY: Aca- Brockerhoff, E.G.; Bain, J. 2000. Biosecurity demic Press. implications of exotic beetles attacking Billings, R.F.; Holsten, E.H. 1969. Progreso trees and shrubs in New Zealand. New realizado en la investigación de insectos Zealand Plant Protection 53:321-327. forestales de pino insigne (Dic. 1967 hasta Agosto 1969). Santiago: División Brown, W.V.; Watson, J.A.L.; Lacey, M.J. Forestal, Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero, 1994. The cuticular hydrocarbons of Universidad de Chile, Cuerpo de Paz. 49 workers of three Australian Coptotermes p. (Mimeographed report.) species, C. michaelseni, C. brunneus and C. dreghorni (Isoptera: Rhinotermiti- Billings, R.F.; Holsten, E.H.; Eglitis, A. dae). Sociobiology 23:277-291. 1972. Insects associated with Pinus radiata D. Don in Chile. Turrialba (Costa Brown, W.V.; Watson, J.A.L.; Lacey, M.J. Rica) 22(1):105-108. 1996. A chemosystematic survey using cuticular hydrocarbons of some species Blodgett, J.T.; Stanosz, G.R. 1997. Sphaerop- of the Australian harvester termite genus sis sapinea morphotypes differ in aggres- Drepanotermes (Isoptera: Termitidae). siveness, but both infect nonwounded Sociobiology 27:199-221. red or jack pines. Plant Disease 81:143- 147. Burgess, T.; Wingfi eld, B.W.; Wingfi eld, M.J. 2001. Comparison of genotypic diversity Boomsma, C.P.; Adams, A.J.S. 1943. Pine in natural and introduced populations of bark beetle (Hylastes ater) at Mount Sphaeropsis sapinea isolates from Pinus Burr, South Australia. Australian For- estry 7:33-37. radiata. Mycological Research 105:1331- 1339. Britton, D.R.; New, T.R. 2004. Exotic pine plantations and indigenous Lepidoptera Burgess, T.; Wingfi eld, M.J.; Wingfi eld, B.W. in Australia. Journal of Insect Conserva- 2001. Simple sequence repeat mark- tion 8:263-274. ers distinguish among morphotypes of Sphaeropsis sapinea. Applied and Envi- Brimblecombe, A.R. 1945. The biology, ronmental Microbiology 67:354-362. economic importance and control of the pine bark weevil Aesiotes notabilis Pasc. Carnegie, A.J.; et al. 2005. Predicting the Queensland Journal of Agricultural Sci- potential distribution of Sirex noctilio ence 2:1-88 (Reprinted as Queensland (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), a signifi cant Forest Service Bulletin No. 14. 88 p.) exotic pest of Pinus plantations. Annals of Forest Science 63:1-9. Brimblecombe, A.R. 1953. An annotated list of the Scolytidae occurring in Aus- Casimir, J.M. 1958. Ernobius mollis Linn., an tralia. Queensland Journal of Agricul- introduced bark beetle. Forestry Com- tural Science 10:167-205 (Reprinted as mission of New South Wales, Division Queensland Department of Agriculture of Wood Technology, Technical Notes and Stock Bulletin No.71. 39 p.) 11:24-27.

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Swan, D.C. 1942. The bark beetle Hylas- Thorne, B.L.; Carpenter, J.M. 1992. Phy- tes ater Payk. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) logeny of the Dictyoptera. Systematic attacking pines in Australia. Journal of Entomology 17:253-268. Agriculture South Australia 46:86-90. Tkacz, B.M.; Burdsall, H.H. Jr.; DeNitto, Swart, W.J.; Wingfi eld, M.J. 1991. Biology G.A; Eglitis, A; Hanson, J.B.; Kliejunas, and control of Sphaeropsis sapinea on Pinus species in South Africa. Plant Dis- J.T.; Wallner, W.E.; O’Brien, J.G.; Smith, ease 75:761-766. E.L. 1998. Pest risk assessment of the importation into the United States of Swart, W.J.; Wingfi eld, M.J.; Knox-Da- vies, P.S. 1988. Relative susceptibility unprocessed Pinus and Abies logs from of Sphaeropsis sapinea of six Pinus spp. Mexico. General Technical Report FPL- cultivated in South Africa. European GTR-104. Madison, WI: U.S. Depart- Journal of Forest Pathology 18:184-189. ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Swart, W.J.; Grant, W.S.; Wingfi eld, M.J. Forest Products Laboratory. 116 p. 1992. Allozyme variation among geo- UN Statistics Division. Commodity trade graphic isolates of Sphaeropsis sapinea. statistics database (UN Comtrade). Abstract. Proceedings, 1992 joint APS/ MSA meeting, Portland, OR. US Census Bureau. 2000. 1997 Economic Talbot, P.H.B. 1964. Taxonomy of the fun- census: comparative statistics for United gus associated with Sirex noctilio. Aus- States. tralian Journal of Botany 12:46-52. USDA. 2000. Pest risk assessment for im- Talbot, P.H.B. 1977. The Sirex-Amyloste- portation of solid wood packing materi- reum-Pinus association. Annual Review als into the United States. Draft August of Phytopathology 15:41-54. 2000, unpublished report. 275 p. www. Taylor, K.L. 1981. The sirex woodwasp: aphis.usda.gov/ppq/pra/swpm/ ecology and control of an introduced forest insect. Pp. 231-248. In: Kitching, USDA Forest Service. 1991. Pest risk assess- R.L.; Jones, R.E., eds. The ecology of ment of the importation of larch from pests - some Australian case histories. Siberia and the Soviet Far East. Miscel- Melbourne: CSIRO. laneous Publication 1495. Washington, Taylor, K.L.; Hadlington, P. 1948. Forest D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, insects in New South Wales: The mottled Forest Service. cup-moth (Doratifera vulnerans). New South Wales Forestry Record 1:42-47. USDA Forest Service. 1992. Pest risk assessment of the importation of Pinus radiata Thorne, B.L. 1998. Biology of subterranean and Douglas-fi r logs from New Zealand. termites of the genus Reticulitermes. Pp. 1-30. In: NPCA research report on sub- Miscellaneous Publication 1508. Wash- terranean termites. Dunn Loring, VA: ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agri- National Pest Control Association. culture, Forest Service.

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USDA Forest Service. 1993. Pest risk as- Wood, S.L. 1982. The bark and ambrosia sessment of the importation of Pinus beetles of North and Central America radiata, Nothofagus dombeyi, and Lau- (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), a taxonomic relia philippiana logs from Chile. Miscel- monograph. Great Basin Naturalist laneous Publication 1517. Washington, Memoirs No. 6. Brigham Young Univer- D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, sity, Provo UT. 1359 p. Forest Service. 248 p. Woodrow, R.J.; Grace, J.K.; Yates, J.R. III. 1999. Hawaii’s termites – an identifi ca- USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. 2003. tion guide. Cooperative Extension Ser- Wood Products: International Trade and vice, College of Tropical Agriculture and Foreign Markets Annual Statistical Trade Human Resources, University of Hawaii Issue. Circular Series WP 01-03, tab 112- at Manoa, HSP-1. 6 p. 113. Wright, G.G.; Harris, J.A. 1974. Ambrosia Wang, C.G.; Blanchett, R.A.; Jackson, W.A.; beetle in Victoria. Forests Commis- Palmer, M.A. 1985. Differences in conid- sion Victoria, Forestry Technical Papers ial morphology among isolates of Sphae- 21:47-57. ropsis sapinea. Plant Disease 69:838-841. Wylie, F.R. 1982. Insect problems of Arau- Watson, J.A.L.; Brown, W.V.; Miller, L.R.; caria plantations in Papua New Guinea Carter, F.L.; Lacey, M.J. 1989. Taxonomy and Australia. Australian Forestry of Heterotermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermiti- 45:125-131. dae) in southeastern Australia: cuticular Wylie, F.R.; Yule, R.A. 1978. Pine bark wee- hydrocarbons of workers, and soldier vil. Queensland Department of Forestry, and alate morphology. Systematic Ento- Advisory Leafl et No. 12. 3 p. mology 14:299-325. Zondag, R. 1977. Xyleborus truncatus Er- Weesner, F.M. 1970. Termites of the nearc- ichson (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Forest tic region. Pp. 477-525. In: Krishna, K.; and timber insects in New Zealand. New Weesner, F.M., eds. Biology of termites, Zealand Forest Service, Forest Research Volume II. New York, NY: Academic Institute, Rotorua. No. 21. 4 p. Press. Wingfi eld, M.J.; Knox-Davies, P.S. 1980. As- sociation of Diplodia pinea with a root disease of pines in South Africa Plant Disease 64:221-223. Witcosky, J.J.; Schowalter, T.D.; Hansen, E.M. 1986. Hylastes nigrinus (Coleop- tera: Scolytidae), Pissodes fasciatus, and Steremnius carinatus (Coleoptera: Cur- culionidae) as vectors of black stain root disease of Douglas-fi r. Environmental Entomology 15:1090-1095.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A—TEAM’S SITE VISITS TO AUSTRALIA

In September 2001, WIPRAMET traveled SEPTEMBER 12 to Australia as part of an assessment of pests of concern that might be transported on logs The Team arrived in Canberra, Australian and chips of Eucalyptus to the United States. Capital Territory. During that visit and from discussions with APHIS, we determined that there was a need SEPTEMBER 13 to also assess pests that may be associated with unprocessed logs and chips of Pinus exported The Team met with offi cials from Australia’s from Australia. These notes are edited from Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (AFFA). The AFFA Department in- the trip report that was prepared for the “Pest cludes the Australian Quarantine and Inspec- Risk Assessment of the Importation Into the tion Service (AQIS) and an area called Market United States of Unprocessed Logs and Chips Access and Biosecurity (MAB), which con- of Eighteen Eucalypt Species From Australia.” tains the Plant and Animal Quarantine Policy Although that site visit focused primarily on Division. Also present at the meeting was the eucalypt resource of Australia, there was USDA-APHIS Area Director for Oceania, some information gathered on exotic pines as Dennis Hannapel who is an APHIS attaché in well, and that information is highlighted here, Australia. We were welcomed by Dr. Simon with most of the information on eucalypts Hearn, Executive Manager of Market Access removed. and Biosecurity. Dr. Hearn described the roles of AQIS (inspections) and Biosecurity Aus- tralia (scientifi c aspects of policy). His offi ce CANBERRA: SEPTEMBER 12-15, has carried out a number of risk assessments 2001 for imports coming to Australia. Dr. Hearn pointed out that they have the same debates in WIPRAMET members Borys Tkacz, John Australia as in the U.S. over the issue of what Kliejunas, Gregg DeNitto, Harold Burd- constitutes “reasonable risk.” sall, Jessie Micales, Dennis Haugen, Michael Haverty, and Andris Eglitis traveled to Aus- Dr. Hearn also discussed forestry in Australia, tralia with APHIS representatives Jane Levy pointing out that there are 1.5 million hect- and Edward Podleckis. The Team departed ares (3.7 million acres) of plantations in the the U.S. from San Francisco on September country (70 percent softwoods and 30 percent hardwoods, mostly Eucalyptus). The major 10, 2001, and arrived in Sydney, Australia on issues in Australian forestry are economic, September 12. The team met in Canberra for environmental, and recreational. Currently, 2 days of discussions with Australian offi cials the management of forest plantations is mostly and then divided into three sub-teams that vis- at the State level, with a number of common ited two states each for several days. Once the agreements regarding planting and harvest- state visits were concluded, the Team gathered ing developed across the tiers of government again in Canberra for a closeout session before in Australia. Forestry is seen as being very returning to the U.S. important for the future of Australia.

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Mellissa Wood, Database Manager for the on cleared agricultural land rather than on National Forest Inventory, Bureau of Rural cleared forest land. The plantation resource Sciences (AFFA), gave the Team a presenta- has increased dramatically in recent years, tion on the forest and plantation resources with 30,000 hectares (74,131 acres) planted in of Australia. The National Forest Inventory 1995; 55,000 hectares (135,900 acres) in 1997; (NFI) collects and communicates information and 120,000 hectares (296,500 acres) planted about Australia’s forests. This is a collab- in 2000. 92 percent of the plantations were orative effort between the governments of the established since 1970; 47 percent have been Commonwealth and the individual states and planted since 1990. About 46 percent of the territories. NFI has been in existence for 12 plantations are privately owned, including years and provides a framework for the states cases where the land is owned by one party to report information on their native forests but the trees are owned by another through a and plantations. The data gathered, collated, lease arrangement. The recent dramatic trends and reported by NFI include the extent of in plantations are toward private ownership native forest cover and changes in cover over and toward hardwood species. Much of the time: the extent, location, and species involved hardwood plantation resource is owned by in plantations; the extent and representation Japanese corporations, and the wood will of forest types in conservation reserves; and go directly there as chips once the trees are the tenure of forests by region. The National harvested. Forest Inventory makes information available through GIS maps, tables and graphs. SEPTEMBER 14

Plantations, 1.5 mm hectares, represent 0.8 The Team met with forest pathologists Dr. percent of the country’s total forest cover. Glen Kile and Mark Dudzinski at the of- Data from this resource are managed by the ﬁ ces of the Commonwealth Scientiﬁ c and National Plantation Inventory (NPI), a com- Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), ponent of the NFI that tracks ownerships Division of Forestry and Forest Products in greater than 1,000 hectares (2,471 acres) in Yarralumla, A.C.T. Mr. Dudzinski has worked size. Data from plantation holdings smaller on Phytophthora cinnamomi in the jarrah (E. than 1,000 hectares are tracked through the marginata) forests, banksia woodlands, and National Farm Forest Inventory, a subset of native heath lands in southwestern Australia; NPI. Farm forestry represents about 5 percent on foliar pathogens of eucalypts and acacias of the current plantation total. Although 66 in Australia and Southeast Asia; and on is- percent of the current area in plantations is in sues relating to stem defect in residual trees softwoods, there has been a dramatic increase following stem wounding during mecha- recently in hardwood plantations. 62 percent nized thinning of regrowth eucalypt forests of the current hardwood plantation resource in southeastern Australia. Dr. Kile, Chief of is Tasmanian blue gum, Eucalyptus globulus, this research division of CSIRO (Forestry and grown for short-rotation pulp production. Forest Products), serves as the Chairman of Pinus radiata, grown mostly in southern the National Forest Health Committee. This Australia, represents about 74 percent of Committee is currently focused on develop- the softwood plantation resource. Most ing a generic incursion management strategy new plantations are now being established for Australia.

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Dr. Kile discussed some foreign organisms that We learned that many exotic tree species have are of concern to Australia. He expressed an been planted in Canberra since 1913, and that interest in pine pitch canker from California. some have experienced pest problems. Die- Current pest problems of concern in Australia back has been noted on Pinus ponderosa, and include some mysterious nematodes in Pinus Botryosphaeria has been found on Sequoia sp. radiata near Melbourne and a fi re ant problem Other signifi cant exotics include the elm leaf in Queensland that is the subject of an eradi- beetle (Pyrrhalta luteola) in Victoria and a can- cation program. These recent problems have ker fungus on Platanus street trees. An aphid led to increased funds to manage the country’s native to California, Essigella californica, has borders for pest introductions. Another prob- become widely established on Pinus radiata lem of signifi cance in forestry is Dothistroma and is problematic in the Mt. Gambier area needle disease [caused by Dothistroma septos- where pines are under stress. We learned that pora (Dorog.) Morelet] in Pinus radiata. This Rob Floyd (CSIRO) has a student working disease is a periodic problem that limits P. on this aphid. radiata in high rainfall areas. Dothistroma has not yet spread to Western Australia or New The Team inquired about other organisms that South Wales, and a program is now underway have adapted to Pinus radiata in Australia. to breed for resistance to the disease. In Febru- Dr. Kile responded that Australia’s situation ary of 2000, Bursaphelenchus-like nematodes is comparable to New Zealand, where all of were found in a dying tree in the suburbs of the organisms associated with P. radiata are Melbourne. These have not yet been identi- ones that have been introduced. He listed the fi ed, and a Monochamus vector has not been aphid Essigella californica, Ips grandicollis, found, even though there have been some Sirex noctilio and Dothistroma septospora as Monochamus interceptions associated with the agents of greatest concern on Monterey solid wood packing material from China. An pine. Of all these organisms, Mark Dudzin- interception unrelated to the nematode is of a ski felt that Dothistroma needle blight was new species of the wood-boring beetle Arho- the most important. Armillaria has not been palus. Australia is very concerned about Asian found on P. radiata in Australia, even though gypsy moth and is carrying out pheromone A. luteobubalina may occur where P. radiata trapping near ports and high-risk areas. In has been planted. addition, a post-barrier surveillance program is in place for the Asian gypsy moth. SEPTEMBER 15 Dr. Kile pointed out that, since 1971, there have been 5 to 6 million tonnes of chips ex- The team spent a day off in Canberra. ported to Japan, and no pathogens have been reported during that time period. Dr. Kile SEPTEMBER 16 felt that wood decay fungi would be even less of an issue in plantations than in regrowth Each of the three sub-teams began their State forests because coppice growth is likely to be site visits. Borys Tkacz, Michael Haverty, and less common than replanting with genetically Jessie Micales departed for New South Wales improved material. He informed us that Tim and Queensland; Harold Burdsall, Jane Levy, Wardlaw is working on wood decay fungi as- and Andris Eglitis traveled to Victoria and sociated with regrowth in Tasmania. Western Australia; and Dennis Haugen, Gregg

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DeNitto, John Kliejunas, and Ed Podleckis the rotation. The conservationists object to traveled to Tasmania and South Australia. this practice and would rather see little to no management. Currently there are heavy NEW SOUTH WALES, restrictions on logging, including a ban on log- QUEENSLAND: SEPTEMBER 16- ging within 50 meters (164 feet) of a stream or known endangered species. Logging permits 25, 2001 involve approval from three different agen- The team that traveled to New South Wales cies and are expensive to obtain. Thinnings and Queensland was composed of Dr. Jessie are generally sent to chip mills. The logging Micales, Dr. Michael Haverty, and Mr. Borys is done by private contractors. Tkacz. We stayed overnight in Cooma.

SEPTEMBER 16: CANBERRA TO EDEN SEPTEMBER 18: COOMA TO TUMUT TO In the morning, we met Jack Simpson, a plant CANBERRA pathologist with the Research Division of the State Forests of New South Wales (SFNSW). We drove from Cooma toward Tumut on Emmanuel Mireku from Biosecurity Australia the Snowy Mountain Highway. We passed accompanied us. We drove south from Can- through the Kosciuszko National Park in berra to Cooma, east-southeast to Bega, then which all non-native species have been re- south to Merrimbula and Eden. moved. Not much fuel reduction management is being done in any of the national parks. As The fi rst part of the trip between Canberra we drove through the Snowy Mountains, we and Cooma took us through woodlands and saw phasmid defoliation of E. delegatensis grasslands with many sheep and cattle. Pinus (alpine ash) and E. paucifl ora (snow gum), radiata was being grown as shelterwood for which is not a commercial species. Acacia rust, livestock refuge. Many old, large Eucalyptus caused by Uromycladium, was also present trees in pastures had Amyema mistletoe infes- in the plants along the highway. There were tations, an indication of tree stress. also large plantings of P. radiata along the We stayed overnight in Eden along the south- ridges of the mountains. They were showing ern coast of New South Wales. evidence of Dothiostroma septosporum colonization, but there were obvious variations in resistance. The pines are very sensitive to SEPTEMBER 17: EDEN TO COOMA microclimate variations. In many cases, one We fi rst went to the offi ces of SFNSW in Eden observes Dothiostroma in the valleys, but not and met Phil Goldberg, a staff forester. He along the ridgetops. Many U.S. diseases and guided us to the Nadgee State Forest outside insects of radiata pine are now present in Aus- of Eden. Because of danger from wildfi re, the tralia, including Ips grandicollis, Ceratocystis, native forests are highly managed by thinning and Ophiostoma stain. Additional insects and and prescribed burning. Eucalypts stand up diseases of pines could be imported easily if well to fi re damage, so thinning and hazard Australia continues to import whole logs (with reduction burns are conducted throughout bark) from Canada and the U.S.

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In Tumut, we visited the SFNSW offi ce and separate kiln. The kilns can treat up to 600 then went to a mill operated by Weyerhauser cubic meters (21,189 cubic feet) of wood with Australia Pty. Ltd., where we were hosted by CCA per day. Peter Stiles. This mill produces sawtimber exclusively from Pinus radiata. All logs are After kiln-drying, the boards are fi nished in initially scanned, debarked, and sorted into the planing mill, where they are sorted, graded, bins by size. When enough logs are in a certain and wrapped for shipment. The amount of bin, they are moved to the sawmill for a saw- wood converted to lumber is about 40 per- ing run. The logs are generally in the logyard cent of the original 400,000 cubic meters (14.1 for only three to fi ve days before processing, million cubic feet) of logs per year. Often, the but they can sit in the bush for two to three centers of the logs cannot be cut into timber weeks (less time in the summer) before being because of the high percentage of juvenile brought into the mill. Ideally, they would like wood that would cause extensive warping the logs to sit in the bush for less than a week and cracking. Approximately 40 percent of because of the rapid development of bluestain. the material is recovered on-site and burned The logs that we saw were very clean, with for energy. Off-cuts are either chipped or the little insect damage, decay, or bluestain. The fi ber is sent to a new composite board fac- debarking operation was about 90 to 95 per- tory. All of the lumber is sold for domestic cent effi cient, which is not an issue for lumber construction. production. This could cause problems if raw logs were imported to the U.S. as even small We then met Duncan Watt, Planning Forester amounts of bark can harbor the three types of with SFNSW, and traveled to pine plantations bark beetles found in Australia, Ips grandicol- near Tumut. The primary planted species is P. lis, Hylastes ater (Paykull) and Hylurgus lig- radiata. The Tumut Region contains 84,000 niperda (Fabricius). The latter two species are hectares (207,569 acres) of radiata pine on state from Europe; H. ligniperda has recently been lands and 24,000 hectares (59,305 acres) on introduced to New York State in the U.S. private lands. This is half of the total population of radiata pine of NSW. Currently, there Once enough logs of a particular length and diameter are accumulated, they are sawn to are no root rot or heart rot fungi of P. radiata fi ll a specifi c order. Sawing and sorting were in Australia. It would be very detrimental if largely automated. Stress grading is done fungi such as Phellinus pini or Veluticeps spp. automatically by the computer. The rough were to be introduced. At the plantation, we boards were then kiln-dried overnight at saw test plantings of fi ve to ten different pine 140oC with temperature and humidity regu- species, including P. lambertiana (sugar pine), lated by computer. Railroad ties (“sleepers”) P. ponderosa (ponderosa pine), and P. jeffreyi are dried for 48 hours. The target moisture (Jeffrey pine). At 3,000 feet (1,000 meters) content for all material is 12 percent. The mill elevation, radiata pine suffers a large amount has 11 kilns. Logs are quite variable in their of snow damage and is not the ideal species moisture content, especially in the winter, and for planting. The test plots were set out to comprise a mixture of young and old material. determine if other alternatives would be bet- Therefore, computer regulation is necessary ter, but the market demand is for radiata pine. to achieve uniform drying. Some of the sawn Mills no longer favor P. ponderosa because it timber is treated with CCA and is dried in a takes too long to dry.

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Within the plantation, the stands were being In ponderosa pine, we saw tip and shoot blight thinned and the logs usually sit out in the caused by Sphaeropsis. Sphaeropsis is also log decks for one to seven days. It is best to found on radiata pine and is very common in get them out of the forest quickly because of drought-stressed and hail-stressed trees. Root bluestain fungi. There are rarely any internal infections can also occur when trees are under defects in these logs, although needles are drought stress. Secondary fungi then move often damaged by Dothistroma blight. The in, including Phomopsis. Crown damage can most important species of bluestain fungus also occur in the crown due to cold damage. is Sphaeropsis sapinea, but introduced spe- We sawnumerous trees with extensive dieback cies of Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma are also in the crown, but were not able to determine common. Blue stain in the wood decreases the the cause. The lower branches appeared not quality of the logs for chips as more processing to be so affected. It seemed more extensive than one would associate with Dothistroma is required to brighten the fi ber. In this area, needlecast or the Monterey pine aphid, Es- Hylastes ater bark beetles were swarming all sigella californica. over the logs that had just been cut. These beetles can carry ophiostomoid fungi. Another We then visited a clearcut of radiata pine. The problem beetle is Hylurgus ligniperda. slash was left in the fi eld and is later wind- rowed and burned. The area is then replanted During the thinning process, the branches, in the following year. These trees are thinned needles, and fl ared butt ends of the trees are when they are 12 years old. At this time, they left in the forest until replanting. This helps are the proper size for the chipper. Only one with erosion control. At planting, the slash is thinning is made. Again, there was much dis- piled and burned. coloration in the crowns of the trees. Some of the trees were 32 to 33 years old and were At a second stop, the forest was primarily quite large. The logs in the stack were very composed of P. contorta (lodgepole pine) and clean with no indications of insects or disease. a species of Picea. Many of these trees had The bark is kept on the logs in the bush and died from drought and herbicide damage. removed at the mill. Cultivating other species, including the fi ve- needle pines: P. monticola (western white We returned to Canberra in the evening. pine), P. lambertiana (sugar pine), and P. strobus (eastern white pine), in this area had been SEPTEMBER 19: CANBERRA TO attempted, but changing to these species will GRAFTON probably not work because of market demand for extensive quantities of a single species (i.e., In the morning, we traveled to Hume, ACT, P. radiata). The 70-year-old sugar pines were on the outskirts of Canberra and visited Inte- immense. New sugar pine cannot grow to this grated Forest Products, where we were hosted size in the U.S. because of white pine blister by Paul Job, the Sawmill Production Manager. rust caused by Cronartium ribicola. Unfortu- This plant is currently processing both P. radi- nately, Ribes is imported into Australia as an ata for the domestic structural timber market ornamental, so the introduction of C. ribicola and P. ponderosa, some of which it exports as is a good possibility. kiln-dried lumber to the U.S. The two species

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are kept separate throughout the production new plant will be opening soon that will be line. All logs are from the Canberra region. closer to this one.

Bob McGovern, the Log Yard Manager, The logs are debarked and sorted into differ- showed us the mill. Ponderosa pine are de- ent bins by size. Sometimes the base of the barked. Blue stain will develop in ponderosa log will fl are out. These will be sawn off by pine if it is kept too long before kiln drying. the machine and then sent back through the In the summer, the pine logs need to be pro- debarking process. The debarking machine can cessed within two weeks, but they can go as handle 130 logs per hour. The bark is carried long as fi ve weeks in the winter. No decay by a conveyer belt underneath the log carriage or borers were observed in the log yard; the and dumped onto a waste pile. This is sold to trees appeared very healthy. There is a termite nurseries for mulching material. Undersized problem in Australia with structural lumber material is sold to a neighboring pallet manu- made from radiata pine, but not in trees on facturer. the stump. The radiata pine logs are dried at 140oC, but the ponderosa pine must be dried Once the logs are debarked, they are kept off at a lower temperature (100oC) to prevent in- of the ground and are stacked until enough ternal checking and collapse of the boards. accumulate of a certain size to be sawn. Pon- derosa pine logs are kept separate from the The trees arrive from the state government de- radiata pine logs. The logs in the saw yard partment and are measured for their diameter should be turned over every two weeks to and width. They are scanned with a computer reduce the development of blue stain. Some and also measured by hand. Samples are taken logs may be kept as long as three months while by government inspectors on Tuesdays and waiting for other logs of the same dimension Thursdays as spot-checks to make sure that to collect a suffi cient number for sawing. Dur- the volume calculations are accurate. They ing this time, the wood will darken and a little usually sample three to fi ve loads. Some logs blue stain will start coming onto the surface are rejected by the mill. The size limit for of the log. There were very few obvious insect this mill is 580 mm (22.8 inches) in diameter problems on the logs. Debarking technology – those that are larger are rejected and taken is not 100 percent effi cient, with some bark away to another mill for cutting as big logs will remaining around the branch stubs and ir- destroy their saw. The logs are sold by weight, regularities in the bole. so it is important to return the logs as soon as possible so they do not lose too much weight The mill is currently running two shifts to from drying. They are resold by the state to operate the dry kilns and three shifts for the a different company that will turn them into planer. Pinus radiata is dried at 140o C with a railroad sleepers. Logs will also be rejected if 12 hour drop; Pinus ponderosa needs 33 hours they have defects or if they are too short. The at 100o C. In older kilns, this would have taken rejected logs are stockpiled for two weeks and 65 hours. Pinus ponderosa is especially subject then collected by the state supplier and sent to splitting, so water is added back to prevent for chips or to other yards that can handle overly rapid drying. After kiln-drying, the bigger material. Some logs need trimming if wood is run through a planer. Scraps of wood branches are left on. The waste and undersized that would normally be discarded are fi nger- material is chipped and sold to a pulp mill. A jointed together to make a salable product.

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We then ﬂ ew from Canberra to Grafton where of Queensland. They have a web page with we stayed overnight. information about diseases and insects at http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/forestry/.

SEPTEMBER 20: GRAFTON, NEW SOUTH They told us that there was very little radiata WALES pine in Queensland, but there were more tropical conifers, such as hoop pine (Araucaria The Team spent the day collecting information cunninghamii). There is some radiata pine on on the Eucalyptus resource and, in the evening, the southern border with New South Wales. fl ew to Brisbane, Queensland. Pines are being used for chips, but Eucalyptus are not. This is a political decision since the SEPTEMBER 21 public does not want to turn native trees into wood chips. In recent years, the housing mar- We visited the Queensland Forestry Re- ket in Queensland has been quite bad. Several search Institute (QFRI) in Indooroopilly, sawmills have closed down for weeks at a time Queensland, a suburb of Brisbane. We met because of the low demand for lumber. with Drs. Judy King, Senior Entomologist, Forest Protection Program, and Ross Wylie, In Queensland, there is an agreement between Program Leader and Forest Entomologist, the Greens (i.e., environmentalist groups) and Forest Protection Program. The QFRI is a the timber industry to phase out harvesting of state government organization that is partly native trees in favor of plantation trees over supported by external funding. They are a the next 20 years. These groups are working commercial institute and are externally funded together to form a hardwood plantation indus- by industry. They just received a major con- try. The Institute is doing research on how to tract to bait large portions of Queensland for establish a hardwood industry within the next fi re ants. The Institute employs about 130 20 years. They have established substantial people: half of these are scientists and the rest lists of pests of these species for analysis. are research support. They are housed in two locations. The majority of scientists are split We then went to the AQIS Queensland Of- between Brisbane and Gympie, about 180 km fi ce at the Port of Brisbane and met with Bill (111.8 miles) north of Brisbane. Another 10 Crowe, Senior Quarantine Entomologist. scientists are 2.5 hours away in Atherton in He told us that all timber that is imported northern Queensland. The northern facility is into Queensland is already debarked and is more concerned with tropical problems. fumigated with methyl bromide upon arrival. Unfortunately, the methyl bromide does not The Institute has six primary programs: penetrate deeply into the wood. AQIS has Genetic Resources, Sustainability, Silvicul- intercepted some pests from packing material ture, Timber Protection, Forest Protection, and dunnage, including Monochamus alter- and Wood Products. Forest Protection has natus, a wood-boring beetle. Once a beetle four entomologists, three pathologists, and is detected in one container, all of the other two in forest health surveillance. Their main containers from that source are tracked down work is in forestry, and they provide techni- and checked. To monitor for pests, pheromone cal advice and research on native pines (i.e., traps are placed in the port area, and any dead Araucaria spp.), cypress, and the hardwoods trees in the area are felled and examined. AQIS

134 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA has isolated two species of the Bursaphelen- The screener can handle 200 tonnes of chips chus nematode, but neither of these has been per hour. The chip pile holds about 45,000 to B. xylophilus, the pinewood nematode. There 50,000 tonnes of chips. The ships hold 36,000 have been no interceptions of Asian longhorn to 40,000 tonnes and take 50 hours to load. beetle in Brisbane, although there were one or This is done by pushing the chips into a col- two interceptions in Sydney. Monitoring mea- lection hole by the chip pile. They are then sures collect large quantities of beetle larvae carried up through a series of conveyors to the that are very diffi cult to identify. ship. Before loading, the chips are automatically sampled and the amount of bark, decay, We then toured a chip mill at the Port of size of the chip, and fi ber analysis (percent Brisbane called “Queensland Commodity moisture) determined. This is important to Exports.” Our host was Andrew Dawson. determine the value of the chips loaded onto The mill is currently chipping P. elliottii (slash the ship as they are bought based on weight. pine). This company is a partnership of three Asian companie, and is contracted to sell chips The logs that we observed did not show signs to Japan. In the future, the company is plan- of much insect or disease damage. There were ning to switch to eucalypt chips with the aim a few old Ips grandicollis galleries (native to the of acquiring 400,000 tonnes/year from plan- U.S., and imported to Australia). Some of the tations. The mill is not planning on shipping chips had some blue stain, which can develop any chips to the U.S. as is serves the Japanese in just a few days. Temperatures within the market exclusively. chip pile are quite hot and have a steaming effect according to the mill operators. They have Currently, the company receives chips as ei- not had any problems with combustion. The ther mill residue (approximately 40 percent) chips are usually exported within three months or as whole trees that are chipped on-site after chipping. Recently, the chips have stayed (approx. 60 percent). In the past, debarking on the chip pile for about six months due to and chipping were performed in the fi eld, but lack of demand for the material in Japan as a volumes were too low to sustain the operation. result of their downward economic turn. If Trucks with mill residue are turned up on end they are kept too long, the chips oxidize and for discharge of chips. A truck can contain 25 turn dark. This is bad because more bleaching tonnes of chips, and it takes 16 minutes to un- chemicals are needed to brighten up the pulp. load a single truck. The chipper is designed for The chips lose moisture in the pile – usually small-diameter material and can handle over from about 50 percent moisture down to 45 1,000 tonnes per day. The logs are only kept percent moisture. One problem with the loss in the yard for one day. They are debarked, of moisture is that the chips are lighter that and the bark is sold for landscape material, expected, and the ship does not ride as deep in while the sawdust is sold for animal bedding. the water as it should. There were no reports After debarking, the boles are chipped. The of the chip insects as we observed in the mill chips pass by a magnet to remove any metallic in Eden. objects. They are then passed through a siz- ing screen, and anything oversize is sent back Exporters are trying to increase the export of to the chipper. Small material and sawdust hoop pine from the port of Brisbane. Cur- are collected, and properly sized chips are rently, very few logs are imported through carried by conveyer belt out to the chip pile. this port—only some specialty logs from New

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Guinea—though some chipboard is exported. acquired the mill in 2000; it was formerly an No North American logs arrive in Brisbane. Australian-owned mill. It produces approximately 350,000 cubic meters (12.4 million SEPTEMBER 24 cubic feet) of wood per year. Weyerhauser also has an export chip business at the Port of In the morning, we met Bruce Brown and Brisbane (which we visited on September 21) Judy King, who took us to Grant Timbers in that exports 250,000 cubic meters (8.8 million Woodford, Queensland. On the way to the cubic feet) of wood chips per year. The chips mill, Bruce told us about his database on mi- are produced both from pulp logs and as by- croorganisms of Eucalyptus. It currently has products of this mill and others. 20,000 records, and he printed out copies and gave them to us. We discussed several of these The trees are obtained from private forests that pathogens in more detail. Armillaria pallidula have contracts with the mill. Growers own was originally collected by Brown. It was the trees, but not the land, and the resource associated with losses in a Eucalyptus planta- is becoming limited. Initially Weyerhauser tion over several years, and fruited in May for had access to 20,000 ha (49,421 acres) of trees, several years in a row. It hasn’t been collected but this has dropped down to 3,000 to 4,000 since. Although Armillaria can be a problem hectares (7,413 to 9,843 acres). The land is in certain local situations, in general it is not essentially being cleared for real estate due a major problem in Queensland. Armillaria is to the high value of shorefront property. The moderately signiﬁ cant in fruit orchards and trees are almost entirely P. elliottii, but they ornamental plantings in the granite belt area are slowly changing to P. caribaea and clonal of southeast Queensland. hybrids of P. elliottii and P. caribaea, which are propagated from cuttings rather than be- We then went to the Weyerhaeuser Australia ing grown from seed. The principal product is Pty Ltd. Mill in Caboolture, Queensland. structural timber for the domestic market. The On the way, Bruce told us how a lot of acre- mill has been hit hard by the downward turn in age was burned in the mid-1980s. The wood housing and has reduced production from the was salvaged, but because of the massive normal two shifts to one shift. The company quantities collected, it has to be stored under does not plan to ship raw logs to the U.S. be- sprinklers to prevent the infestation by borers. cause this would not be economically feasible. The trees were mostly P. elliottii, P. caribaea, The offcuts are burned as fuel for the boilers and some other species of pine. After about that heat the dry kilns. The wood is dried at 15 months under wetting, severe decay by o Rigidoporus lineatus destroyed much of the 116 C for eight hours, although the internal wood. It is thought that the basidiomycete wood does not achieve that temperature. The started to grow after bacteria had destroyed current requirement to kill Sirex, for example, o the pit membranes, allowing the decay fungus is a core temperature of 65 C for two hours. easy access. Literature reports had suggested The mill wants the dry kiln hot enough to that R. lineatus can grow under conditions of “plasticize” the wood in order to set it straight limited oxygen. without warp. The target moisture is 8 to 12 percent, and the wood later stabilizes at 13 At the Weyerhaeuser mill, we met Craig percent. The wood is kiln-dried immediately Morris, Resources Manager. Weyerhaeuser without sitting around for air-drying in order

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to have uniform moisture content within the We then visited a pine plantation in Beerbur- kiln charge. rum/Beerwah with Denis Maloney, with the Department of Public Industry (DPI) We walked through the log yard, which holds Forestry group. The DPI is a self-sustaining enough logs for about a week’s worth of saw- organization. The money obtained by selling ing. The logs are debarked in the yard and the trees pays for expenses, land acquisition, might sit for a while before sawing. The log and plantation expansion; a payment is also supply is diffi cult to maintain in this region made to the government. The plantation is because much of the bush is very wet during currently planting P. elliottii X P. caribaea hy- certain times of the year, making it diffi cult to brid cuttings. The pine is cut and processed in transport logs. Blue stain can develop within a the fi eld leaving the slash behind. The material week and is often associated with wounds in being harvested during our visit was 36-year- the bark caused by the mechanical harvesting. old P. elliottii. Only the new plantations are Logs are transported from as far away as 200 hybrids. km (124.3 miles). Transport of logs is a major expense. In the log yard, the trees appeared After the trees are harvested, as much litter very clean and were nearly free of insects and is left in the field as possible. It is gener- pathogens. Some logs did have extensive blue ally chopped up and many of the old stumps stain. Bruce explained later that the normal pushed up. In wet, low sites, windrows are blue stain fungus was Sphaeropsis sapinea, built up and new trees are planted at 5-meter but species of Ceratocystis started to show up (16.4 feet) by 2.4-meter (7.9 feet) intervals. once Ips grandicollis was introduced from the One thinning is done at about 17 years, and U.S. Ips is currently restricted to southeast- the entire plantation is harvested at 20 years. ern Queensland. This blue stain is probably The goal is to have about 450 stems/hectare Sphaeropsis because there was no sign of beetle (2.47 acres, or about 182 stems/acre) for the activity. Needles and branches arrive on the fi nal cut. These trees are selected for wood cut logs, but these are removed during the properties and fast growth. The company is debarking process. sacrifi cing a little size by harvesting before 30 years, but it is thought to be worth it in We then followed the process of cutting the productivity. Different levels of cultivation are debarked logs into boards, which was done done depending on the wetness of the site. In with multiple bandsaws. The boards were very wet areas, continuous mounding is done sorted and stacked into piles with stickers with water between the rows. Better-drained between board courses for kiln-drying. The sites have strip cultivation where the trees are mill has four kilns available for drying and planted behind a skidder at 5-meter intervals. some older kilns for reconditioning. Before planting, the sites are cleaned up with Roundup®. The seedlings are containerized After kiln-drying, the boards are planed with and can be planted all year with the heaviest a high-speed, 30-weight “molder.” They are planting occurring from December to Au- sorted, graded, and stacked by hand. The mill gust during the summer rains. After planting, will be putting a new machine in to do this and monoammonium phosphate is applied as a make the process more automated. Everything fertilizer. Weed growth is prevented by a top is tracked by computer, and the fi nal packs are spray of simazine, which prevents weed seeds labeled and barcoded. from sprouting, and then the area is treated

137 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

® again with Roundup in late spring. The weeds SEPTEMBER 26 that do grow are kept in check with contract mowing. In the past, the trees were pruned, The team returned to Canberra. but this may be discontinued because the trees grow so quickly that it is hard to keep the core VICTORIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA: trunk to 15 cm (5.9 inches). In the past, the SEPTEMBER 16-25, 2001 trees were pruned at age four to fi ve years to a height of about 5 meters (16.4 feet). At age 5, the fi rst prescribed burn is done. The trees are SEPTEMBER 16 about 10 meters (32.8 feet) high at this time. The WIPRAMET sub-team of Dr. Harold The canopy closes within six to seven years. Burdsall, Jane Levy, and Dr. Andris Eglitis Ips is known to attack stressed trees, including fl ew from Canberra to Melbourne. those affected by fi re damage and mechanical wounds. After a major fi re, Ips can get SEPTEMBER 17 into trees within six weeks. After Ips, the Xyleborus pinhole borer invades trees that The sub-team was met at the hotel by Mr. are very sick or dying. No evidence of Doth- Simon Murphy of the State Department of istroma was seen, although it could develop Natural Resources and Environment. Mr. over a long protracted winter that is cold and Murphy is head of the Forest Science Center wet. Sphaeropsis does not seem to be a major and manages the Research and Development concern: as a shoot blight, it is usually associ- Group at the Heidelberg facility of the depart- ated only with stressed trees. Pinus caribaea ment. Mr. Murphy led our tour through for- does seem to be susceptible to Sirex, but that ested lands northeast of Melbourne, including has not yet been introduced to Queensland. the areas of Toolangi and Narbethong. Along Pinus elliottii is resistant to Sirex, and the the way we had an opportunity to learn more P. elliottii X P. caribaea hybrids are just be- about the ecology and management of euca- ing tested. Phytophthora has been found lypt forests from Mr. Murphy. on isolated spots and in nurseries, where it We traveled to Kingslake West where we met stays active for many years. A government Dr. Ian Smith, Forest Pathologist and orga- plan will shortly be released that deals with nizer of our trip in Victoria, and Mr. Nick managing for Phytophthora. This may change Collett, Entomologist. Both work for the some forestry practices. It is a national plan State Department of Natural Resources and under endangered species legislation, and has Environment in Heidelberg, Victoria. They been about fi ve years in the making. It is not were accompanied by Paul Barber, a graduate known what the effect will be on Queensland student in forest pathology at Latrobe Uni- forestry. versity. We drove to a plantation of 3-year old Eucalyptus globulus that has been established SEPTEMBER 25 as a progeny trial to examine the performance of 44 families of seed sources. The Team spent the day learning about several local eucalypt species and hoop pine, Arau- In the same area, we saw plantations of Pinus caria cunninghamii. radiata and inquired about its uses and the

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associated pest problems. Monterey pine has The Hancock holdings in the Marysville area been planted extensively in the area, with the total 6,000 hectares (14,826 acres), of which primary use being for sawlogs that yield struc- 4,000 hectares (9,884 acres) are planted in P. tural grade framing lumber, studs, and trusses radiata. The trees on these lands are either very that are easier to use than eucalypts. In the old or very young. Many of the older stands past, native forests were cleared to make room were not thinned because of prevailing market for plantations of P. radiata. The recently in- conditions at the time. Given the fact that thin- troduced aphid (Essigella californica) is now ning had not occurred on time, we inquired very widespread in the country, occurs in the if Sirex noctilio had been a problem in these Kingslake area, and causes some defoliation. plantations. We learned that this insect was a Host trees are most susceptible from 15 years big problem in Victoria in the 1960s and in of age onwards; younger trees are generally the Mt. Gambier area in the 1980s, when over not defoliated. Damage appears to be confi ned one million trees were killed. Currently, a trap to old needles and is greatest in the top half tree program originally developed by Fred of the tree. There also appears to be a con- Neumann is being conducted in cooperation nection with nutrient levels; aphid damage with the Forest Science Centre. The trapping increased with increased soil nitrogen. We calls for the weakening of trees by injecting inquired about bark beetles and learned that them with banvel herbicide and cutting them Ips grandicollis has been in the Mt. Gambier after the fl ight period of the wood wasp. In area since 1983 and produces four generations the Marysville plantations, some damage has per year there. Apparently, the beetle confi nes occurred from E. californica, and in some cases its attacks to slash and does not usually infest a phosphorus defi ciency has aggravated this living trees. Two other exotic species of bark damage. The older trees were currently being beetles, Hylurgus ligniperda and Hylastes ater, harvested with a four-day period between fell- breed in old slash and sometimes feeds on ing and transporting of the logs. Tree felling is seedlings. However, they are not considered done with a harvester-forwarder with a chain- more than a local nuisance in Victoria. Nick saw blade. The trees are partially debarked Collett pointed out that as long as the timing on site, with further debarking done at the of slash creation is managed, then these beetles port. Slash is removed fairly promptly after do not present a problem. the harvest. Typically, harvesting operations can be carried out all year using ground-based Next, the team traveled to Marysville to visit equipment. The second rotation is beginning plantations of P. radiata that are currently on leased lands, with hand-planting between managed by Hancock Victorian Plantations May and August (1,100 stems per hectare Pty Ltd. The plantations were fi rst established [445 stems per acre]) followed by an herbicide in 1938 by the state government and until treatment 6 weeks later. A 30-year rotation recently were managed by the Department of is normal for softwood sawlog production. Natural Resources and Environment. Many of Hancock’s holdings total 150,000 hectares the plantations have been converted into pri- (370,657 acres) of plantations, which includes vate holdings such as Hancock. In some cases, eucalypts (E. globulus and E. nitens) for fi ber the trees are owned by the private company production, as well as Monterey pine. while the state retains ownership of the land and leases it to the company. After the trees Other pest problems that were discussed are harvested, the land reverts back to the state. in connection with P. radiata included the

139 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______nematode that has been found in the Mel- for pulp logs. The current harvest rate for P. bourne area. At the same time, entomologists radiata is 170,000 cubic meters (6 million cubic intercepted a longhorn borer, Arhopalus sp., feet) per year; 22 percent for domestic use, 24 a beetle that infests dead and dying trees. percent for export sawlogs, and 54 percent Dothistroma needle disease was extensive in for export pulpwood. Annual export volumes Victoria during the 1970s and 1980s. Cuttings have steadily increased from 1985, to 700 from resistant trees are being used in anticipa- metric tonnes in 2000. Midway Pty Ltd only tion of an increased Dothistroma problem in exports chips, and other companies ship their the next rotation. logs to Japan. The softwoods are transported from the forest with bark on, and the bark is removed at the port with a chain fl ail. Less SEPTEMBER 18 than 0.75 percent of the chips contain bark The Team traveled to Geelong to the port fa- and the bark constitutes 0.4 to 0.5 percent of cility at Corio Bay. The port has traditionally the chip weight. Eucalypts are not debarked been used for trade in wool and wheat, and at the port; the bark generally comes off easily during harvest (except during two months in now handles wood chips as well. We were met the summer). We were told that there is very at the port facility by Steve Roffey, Resources little bark that goes into Eucalyptus chips; Manager for Midway Proprietary, Ltd. His even less than for softwood chips. Chips are company ships P. radiata logs through the port made from solid wood only; if decay is found, to Korea, Japan and India. The company was the log is still processed but the contractor is formed in 1980 by sawmillers from Victoria notifi ed of noncompliance. who contracted with the Japanese fi rm Mitsui to provide chips for export. Midway Pty Ltd Steve Roffey inquired about current regula- sent its fi rst shipment of hardwood chips to tions for treatment of wood, and Jane Levy a Japanese paper company in 1986. In 1991 explained the procedure that is being em- the company obtained residual roundwood, ployed in Chile for P. radiata chips. The chips supplied by a network of sawmills, and in are sprayed with chlorpyriphos and a fungi- 1995 diversifi ed into pine plantations. Now cide as they are being loaded onto the ship. Midway owns 10,000 hectares (24,100 acres) Eucalyptus logs could be brought in only if of P. radiata plantations. In a joint venture they are treated with a heavy dose of methyl they also established plantations of E. globulus bromide, so that is not currently being done. (currently 3,500 hectares [8,649 acres] with a We inquired about the turnover rate of chip goal of 8,000 hectares [19,768 acres]) for export piles and logs handled by Midway. It is pos- chips. Some plantation lands are owned by sible to stockpile two shiploads of hardwood Midway, and other lands are leased. All of the chips, and at most, a load of chips would be holdings are within 150 km (90 miles) of Gee- three months old by the time it is loaded. As long. Eucalypts are currently being planted such, there may be considerable heat gener- where Monterey pine is harvested. The cost of ated in the piles. Log stock also normally has reestablishing a plantation is $1,700 per hectare a 3-month turnaround. Some departures will ($688 per acre), with an eventual yield of 800 occur outside of that timeframe, given that tonnes of product per hectare. Pinus radiata the harvesting period is only from October is grown on a 30-year rotation for saw logs, to May. Thus, some hardwood material may and E. globulus is grown on a 12-year rotation be held for nine months to provide an even

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fl ow. Softwoods are most typically on a 6- Cunnington, Pathologist, Dr. Mali Malipatil, week turnaround cycle in order to minimize Senior Systematic Entomologist for Crop bluestain. Health Services, and Paul Barber, Pathologist from Latrobe University. We discussed our The team also visited another facility in the lists of “Pests of Concern” with these special- port that deals in logs of P. radiata. Mr. Ian ists from the Institute and University and were Sedger from Softwood Plantation Exporters shown some of the Institute’s insect and fungal (SPE) discussed the company’s operations specimen collections. and pointed out that they ship 1.3 million metric tonnes of logs per year from the Port of Geelong. The company has a four-week SEPTEMBER 20 turnaround on P. radiata stock shipped to In- The team traveled from Melbourne to Perth, dia and Korea, primarily for core veneer. They Western Australia. We were met at the airport also ship logs for other companies including some from New Zealand. Additional species by Dr. Richard Robinson, Pathologist, (our exported by SPE include P. ponderosa, P. pin- host for the Western Australia portion of the aster, P. elliottii, and Pseudotsuga menziesii. site visit) and Dr. Janet Farr, Entomologist. We inspected some of the pine logs at the site Richard and Janet both work for the Science and found evidence of bark beetle galleries and Information Division in the Department and late-instar larvae that appeared to be Ips of Conservation and Land Management grandicollis. Ian Sedger said that he had also (CALM) for the State of Western Australia. seen associated woodborers in the forest. Ian Smith pointed out that the woodborer Arho- SEPTEMBER 21 palus has also been seen in association with P. radiata. When markets are down, the logs are In the morning, the team went to the of- sometimes kept on site for four to fi ve months fi ces of CALM in Perth and met with several so that they will dry out and will be easier to people from the Forest Products Commission. sell at a lighter weight. Commission members present at the meeting were Terry Jones, Manager of Industry De- velopment, Trevor Butcher, and Dr. Graeme SEPTEMBER 19 Siemon, Timber Scientist. CALM members in The team met with personnel from the In- attendance included Mike Stukely and Colin stitute for Horticultural Development. The Crane. Also present at the meeting were Dr. Institute is part of Agriculture Victoria, Elaine Davison, Mycologist, Curtin Univer- which is a division of the State Department sity of Technology, Mike Grimm, Quarantine of Agriculture, Energy and Minerals. The Entomologist for AQIS, Brea Read, Forest Institute is located in Knoxfi eld, Victoria, Industries Federation of Washington, Dr. and provides diagnostic services to various Giles Hardy, Pathologist, Murdoch Univer- individuals and agencies, including AQIS. sity, and Andrew Loch, Entomologist with The Institute maintains a collection of insect CSIRO, located in the CALM Research Cen- and disease specimens that include organisms tre in Manjimup. We learned that the Forest associated with agriculture and forestry in Products Commission was originally a part of addition to horticulture. We met Mr. Gordon CALM, but was recently split off into its own Berg, Manager of Crop Health Services, James department to manage the commercial side of

141 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______

the forest resource. The Commission main- SEPTEMBER 22 tains the Research Centre, which employs 11 scientists who evaluate wood properties and We visited the Port of Bunbury and toured a how industry utilizes the resource. chipping facility operated by WA Plantation Resources. The General Manager of Wood- Terry Jones gave a presentation on the status chip Operations, Mr. Ian Telfer, showed us of the wood products industry for Western the facility, owned by Marabini, a Japanese Australia. In 1999-2000, there were 397,000 trading company that is a major exporter of cubic meters (168 million board feet) of tim- chips. This port has been exporting chips of ber produced in Western Australia: 221,000 marri (Corymbia calophylla) and karri (E. cubic meters (94 million board feet) of hard- diversicolor) since 1976. All of the chips sent wood and 176,000 cubic meters (74 million from here are destined for the Japanese paper board feet) of softwood. There will probably market. be a cap of 400,000 cubic meters (169 million board feet) of softwood for a mill in the southern part of the state, although structural SEPTEMBER 23 softwoods are gradually replacing structural The team drove from Bunbury to Man- hardwoods. Most of the softwood resource jimup. is P. radiata, with some P. pinaster and P. ma- ritima. Besides structural lumber, some other uses for softwoods include medium density SEPTEMBER 24 ﬁ berboard (150,000 cubic meters [63.6 million board feet] per year), particleboard (150,000 The team met with personnel from Wash- cubic meters [63.6 thousand board feet] per ington Plantation Resources in Manjimup year), and pallets. Although softwoods have and learned about the plantation resource been replacing hardwoods for structural wood, there is a concern that P. radiata will and associated harvest operations in the area. not be replanted when it is harvested. There The team returned to the CALM offices is a tendency to replant P. radiata sites with for a closeout session with personnel from faster-growing shorter-rotation hardwoods Washington Plantation Resources and CALM (e.g., E. globulus) for pulp production. Terry specialists on what we had seen during the day. Jones felt that planting incentives might be We also had an opportunity to examine insect needed in order to avoid a shortfall of sawlog specimens collected by Andrew Loch from E. resource in the future. In some low-rainfall globulus plantations. Dr. Janet Farr provided sites that do not lend themselves to competi- the names of scientists she had worked with tive pulpwood production, there is an effort in Japan at the Forest Products Research In- being made to grow eucalypt sawlogs on a stitute who have developed a pheromone for 25- to 30-year rotation. There may also be a Monochamus spp. woodborers. veneer plant set up in the northern portion of the state to deal with the dry site P. pinaster SEPTEMBER 25 resource. The state also plans to import sawn lumber from New Zealand and Douglas-ﬁ r In the afternoon, the tour of Western Aus- from California. Some softwood is now being tralia concluded and the team traveled from shipped to India in spite of the low supply. Manjimup to Perth.

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SEPTEMBER 26 plantation resource is becoming a more important component. Plantation species include The sub-team returned to Canberra. E. nitens and E. globulus. The species selected for planting depends on elevation and site TASMANIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA: characteristics. SEPTEMBER 16–25, 2001 Forestry Tasmania is now a government- business enterprise that oversees about 1.5 The Tasmania/South Australia sub-team was million hectares (3.7 million acres) of multiple comprised of Dr. Dennis Haugen, USDA For- use state forestlands and 178,000 hectares est Service Entomologist, Drs. Gregg DeNitto (439,848 acres) of forest reserves. Approxi- and John Kliejunas, USDA Forest Service mately 830,000 hectares (2.1 million acres) are Plant Pathologists, and Dr. Ed Podleckis, available for wood production. The remainder APHIS Plant Pathologist. (about 40 percent of the total) is under some reserve designation (World Heritage, National SEPTEMBER 16 Park, and other). Currently, there are about 72,000 hectares (178,000 acres) of state forests We departed Canberra early in the morning in plantation, with 50,000 hectares (123,553 for the ﬂ ight to Hobart, Tasmania. We were acres) of softwoods (mainly Pinus radiata) and met in Hobart by Tim Wardlaw, Forest Pa- 22,000 hectares (54,363 acres) of hardwoods. thologist, Forestry Tasmania. Tim and Dr. Hardwoods are by far the most common type Humphrey Elliott, Chief of Forest Research of plantation being established. Softwood and Development, Forestry Tasmania, took plantations are still being established, but at us on a tour up Mt. Wellington overlooking a much lower rate than eucalypt plantations. Hobart. About 6,000 hectares (14,826 acres) of plantations are being established each year, mainly SEPTEMBER 17 through the conversion of native forests and pasture land. Forestry is the second largest The morning was spent at the headquarters of- employer in Tasmania after mining. ﬁ ce of Forestry Tasmania, where we received an overview of Forestry Tasmania and forest As stated above, Forestry Tasmania manages industry operations. In addition to Tim and both natural forests and plantations. The main Humphrey, we were greeted by Dr. David de hardwood plantation species are E. globulus Little, entomologist with Gunns Ltd. Tasma- (85 percent) and E. nitens (15 percent). Forest- nia has a temperate maritime climate. No place ry Tasmania has begun managing its hardwood on the island is more than 115 km (72 miles) plantations for the production of high quality from the water. The main ports are Hobart, saw logs. They manage on a 20-year rotation. Davonport, Burnie, Bell Bay, and Triabunna. Pruning of the lower 2.8 meters (9.2 feet) is The latter three are the ports from which done at about age 3. Only those plantations wood chips are exported. The main timber in good condition and growing at appropri- resource in Tasmania is the wet sclerophyll ate rates are pruned. About 300 trees/ha are eucalypt forest. The principal species include pruned as future crop trees. Trees selected Eucalyptus regnans, E. delegatensis, and E. for pruning are based on growth and quality obliqua. In addition to native forests, the rather than spacing. At age 8 to 10, plantations

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are thinned of non-pruned individuals. These Dr. David de Little presented information on trees are sold as pulp logs and for poles. Chips the forest resources and operations of Gunns are currently exported primarily to Japan, Ltd., the largest private forest landowner in but also to Indonesia, Korea, and Taiwan. Tasmania. They are the largest hardwood Plantations of P. radiata are managed for saw sawmiller and producer of decorative wood log production with an average rotation age veneer in Australia. The veneer logs are har- of 25 years. Some new P. radiata plantations vested from natural forests and are processed are being planted by Forestry Tasmania, but at mills in Boyer and Somerset. They are also at a low rate. Natural forests that are managed the largest exporter of wood chips in Australia. are primarily younger forests that regener- Gunns owns 175,000 hectares (432,434 acres) ated following stand-replacing fires. Logs of freehold land. Most is in the northwest harvested through commercial thinning from part of the state, but holdings are found scat- these coupes are classifi ed as regrowth and are tered throughout. They have 65,000 hectares considered of higher quality for pulpwood (160,618 acres) in plantation with 60,000 than those from old-growth forests. Native hectares (148,263 acres) of E. nitens and 5,000 forests are managed on an 80- to 100-year hectares (12,355 acres) of P. radiata. Gunns is rotation, which can be reduced to 55 years planting about 6,000 hectares (14,826 acres) per year solely of Eucalyptus. They produce with thinning. When the drier, more open about 13 million Eucalyptus seedlings per year forests are regenerated as natural forests, ad- at their nursery in Burnie. Most are planted vanced regeneration is often retained during on their lands, but they do sell to other pri- logging. Clearfalling is still the primary means vate forest landowners. They also have a of harvesting wet eucalypt forests, although research section, which is involved in Euca- research is being conducted on alternatives to lyptus genetics research and breeding, forest clearfalling in wet forests. Seed for regenera- health surveillance and management, and tion are collected from local trees to maintain fi ber technology. Gunns has fi ve export chip local genetic characteristics. Seed of species are mills; one at Triabunna, two at Long Reach, pooled to mimic preharvest species composi- one at Hampshire, and one at Bell Bay. These tion and proportions. mills produce more than 4.5 million tonnes (= metric ton) per year of Eucalyptus chips Approximately 40 percent of the state of from both plantations and natural forests. The Tasmania is in reserve status, mainly in the foreign markets for these mills include Japan, west. About 17 percent of State Forest land is China, Korea, Indonesia, and Taiwan. They managed by Forestry Tasmania, and contains have expansion capacity planned of 2.5 metric both production forests and protection for- million tonnes of plantation chips by 2008, a ests (forests where logging is excluded, such 50 percent increase over current production. as wildlife habitat strips and riparian strips). Private land comprises 39 percent of the forest Only limited studies of decay have been done land in Tasmania. Half of the wood harvested in plantation forests. There is concern about an in Tasmania comes from private forest lands, increased incidence of decay associated with which contain 1,031,000 hectares (2.5 million pruning for production of high quality saw acres). At maximum development, it is esti- logs. In limited surveys on moister sites (above mated only 5 percent of the State Forest land about 1,100 mm [43.3 inches] annual rainfall), in Tasmania will be in plantation. a high incidence of decay was associated with

144 ______PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA pruned branches, and the larger the branch In the afternoon, we returned to Hobart and diameter, the higher the incidence. This work visited with Dr. Caroline Mohammed, Forest was done on older trees of marginal quality. It Pathologist, and some of her students at the is hoped that the incidence of decay will drop University of Tasmania. Dr. Mohammed has with current management of pruning higher a joint appointment with the university and quality trees at age 3 years with one lift. with CSIRO.

David de Little discussed a complex of in- We spent the night 8 km (5 miles) south in the sects that preferentially occupy chip piles. coastal town of Orford. These include members of the Staphylinidae, Nitidulidae, and Lathridiidae. Insects in this SEPTEMBER 19 complex are primarily fungus feeders, but they do lay eggs on the chips. To date they have On the morning of September 19, our group not resulted in problems for ports in Japan visited a harvest site in dry, east coast sclero- and are remarkably similar to the complex of phyll forest. We were met by Tony O’Malley, insects recently described on softwood chips Gunns Ltd. Forester. The land is government- in British Columbia by David Evans. owned and managed by Forestry Tasmania. The primary species being removed included SEPTEMBER 18 E. obliqua, E. globulus, and E. amygdalina.

On September 18, we met with Dave Robson, In the afternoon we visited two Gunns chip Sales and Operations Forester for Forestry mills near Launceston. These are the Long Tasmania. The team traveled with Dave and Reach mills. We were accompanied by Alistair Tim to a native forest-harvesting site man- McKendrick, Gunns Ltd., Kevin Jordan, aged by Forest Tasmania. Operations were AQIS Quarantine Offi cer, and Sharon Harrot, harvesting E. obliqua, E. delegatensis, and E. AQIS Shipping Offi cer. We were told that no regnans from the wet sclerophyll forest on a special endorsements are required on phyto- 70- to 80-year rotation. sanitary certifi cates for log and chip exports. AQIS does a visual inspection of chips prior We traveled to a 15,900-hectare (39,290 acre) to shipment. They principally look for living LTER (long term ecological site) site at Warra, insects. They have more concern with the about 60 km (37 miles) southwest of Hobart. potential entry of any exotic organism from The Warra site, which is a sister site to other the ships and the loading of chips into ships LTER sites around the world, was established holds that previously carried other materials, in 1995 with two objectives: to foster long- such as grain. term (fi ve or more years) ecological research monitoring, and to facilitate the develop- SEPTEMBER 20 ment and demonstration of sustainable forest practices. The site is managed by a Policy We traveled to the Gunns Ltd. and Coopera- Committee, which includes representatives tive Research Centre for Sustainable Produc- from Forestry Tasmania, the University of tion Forestry offi ces in Ridgely. We received Tasmania, and other agencies. a tour of the chip quality-testing laboratory

145 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______where all of the chips collected from the fi ve lot yard processes about 2,000 tonnes per week Gunns mills are tested. from State Forest lands. The principal species received is E. obliqua coming from coupes up We traveled to the port of Burnie from the to 40 km (25 miles) away. Different methods of Hampshire mill. John Barber, Gunns Ltd., met bar coding and labeling are also being tested. us. Most of the chips at this port (95 percent) Forestry Tasmania is proposing to establish come from the Hampshire mill. The remain- merchandising yards in three areas in the state: ing chips come from local sawmills. They are near Geeveston, Bell Bay, and Smithton. These tested for quality and added to the appropri- are the main areas of plantation development. ate mix. The port site can store 80,000 tonnes When an operational yard is established, For- of mixed forest chips, 80,000 tonnes of E50, estry Tasmania wants to achieve production and 60,000 tonnes of E54. Each ship holds of 200,000 tonnes per year. 40,000 to 45,000 tonnes. The port loads on average 28 vessels each year. They previously In the afternoon, we returned to the Burnie exported pine chips, but have not for the past port and met with Jeff Angel of Forestry Tas- three years. They have also exported some mania to view export logs, both eucalypt and eucalypt logs from this port, but not regularly. P. radiata. Gunns and Rayonier have a joint Pinus radiata logs are exported from the port agreement to ship P. radiata logs. The eucalypt to Korea and Japan. These are debarked at the logs are exported by Forestry Tasmania. Logs destination port. are individually identifi ed with bar codes that contain information on species and volume. We spent the evening at Boat Harbour. Logs are shipped in holds, not in containers. Korea is the main destination for the P. radiata SEPTEMBER 21 logs. There is no debarking requirement by Korea. Logs are fumigated upon arrival in We traveled to Wiltshire and viewed a Forestry Korea. The primary quarantine issue we ob- Tasmania merchandising yard trial with Mike served was that the logs were sitting directly Farrow. The purpose of the yard is to receive, on the soil. Bottom logs with soil are washed sort, and prepare logs for their maximum prior to loading. Efforts are being made by value. Only logs that can be sawn or made into Forestry Tasmania to get the Port of Burnie veneer are processed. Expert sawyers exam- to hard surface the yard. ine each log to determine the best utilization. They saw logs into the appropriate lengths and Our last stop of the day was to visit Andy remove defective portions. Segments that are Warner, Private Forests Tasmania (PFT). The defective or too short are sold as fi rewood. primary role of Private Forests Tasmania, a Defective logs are sent to a chip mill. The main Tasmanian government authority established product desired is export-quality veneer logs. under the Private Forests Act in 1994, is to The aim is to recover veneer (rotary peeled) promote sustainable native forest management logs from logs that would traditionally be and encourage the expansion of plantations graded as pulpwood. About one-third of the on private land. Andy provides governmental logs they receive are veneer quality. The other assistance to smaller landowners similar to the two-thirds is split equally between sawlogs U.S. Cooperative Extension Service. About 80 and pulp logs. This trial was started in April percent of the private forest lands are in small 2000 and will close at the end of 2001. This pi- ownership. PFT encourages landowners to

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grow high value products on their small areas both softwood and hardwood chips for pulp to obtain acceptable economic returns and production. Kimberly Clark does not own a provides planning and policy advice. Andy Eucalyptus resource, but buys timber from sees increasing opportunities for farmers to ForestrySA and private owners. A rotation enter the export log market. Because of the of 10 to 13 years is expected, depending on small volumes private owners have avail- soil condition. A geographic area in southeast able, a tree growing cooperative, Farmwood, South Australia and western Victoria, known has been formed that combines timber from as the Green Triangle, is receiving attention for various owners for sale. Our last evening in the growing of Eucalyptus globulus because of Tasmania was spent in Burnie. the region’s good soils, high rainfall, and mild winters. Investment companies are buying or leasing lands in this area for the production of SEPTEMBER 22 Eucalyptus plantations. ForestrySA and joint We ﬂ ew via Melbourne to Adelaide, and spent venturers (Mitsui Plantation Development the night. Pty. Ltd., Nippon Paper Treefarm Australia Pty. Ltd., and MCA Afforestation Pty. Ltd.) are managing a Green Triangle Tree Farm pro- SEPTEMBER 23 gram for production of plantation E. globulus chips for export through the port of Portland. The next day we drove approximately 500 km The E. globulus plantations will be within a (311 miles) southeast to Mt. Gambier in the 150 km (93 mile) radius of the port. lower southeast of South Australia, adjacent to the state of Victoria. We spent the night in We went to a 9-year-old Eucalyptus planta- Mt. Gambier. tion just inside the border of Victoria with Charlma and Peter Lock, Kimberly Clark SEPTEMBER 24 forester. Kimberly Clark deals mainly with pulp logs to feed their mill. They need 25,000 We met with Dr. Charlma Phillips, Forest tonnes/year of Eucalyptus chips for the mill. Health Scientist with ForestrySA. Forest- They keep their Eucalyptus and P. radiata rySA, (formerly the Woods & Forests Depart- chips separate because of different pulping ment) has been privatized, and much of their requirements. Peter expects the pulp mill ca- work is done under contract for industry. pacity to be exceeded within several years as They also manage smaller areas for private the recently planted Eucalyptus comes of age. owners. There is no harvesting of native for- The current exports are all P. radiata. About ests in South Australia. The primary focus 1 million tonnes are exported annually. Chips of plantation species remains P. radiat,a and go to Japan and roundwood pulp and sawlogs there is no conversion to Eucalyptus. The vast are shipped to Korea. Three companies are in majority of government land is to stay in P. line to export Eucalyptus chips to Japan when radiata, although there are experimental plots they become available. of Eucalyptus. Plantation Eucalyptus is a result of the conversion of pastureland and has in- A mechanized harvesting operation was un- creased during the past ﬁ ve years. A major user derway in the plantation. A Timbco proces- of Eucalyptus chips is Kimberly Clark, which sor cut, debarked, delimbed, and then cut the has a pulp mill near Millicent. This mill uses trees to length. A forwarder then picked up

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the bundles and moved them to the chipper. Insurance Company. The native forests in A chipper processed the logs and blew them the area are what is referred to in the rest of into vans for hauling to the mill. This equip- Australia as “scrub” forest. They are comment will be changing soon as a smaller feller posed of primarily E. obliqua and E. ovata. buncher is used with a skidder, and a ﬂ ail There are also E. camaldulensis growing in debarker/delimber at the chip machine will the paddocks. These native trees are highly be added. Much of the bark was removed protected and, except for rare occasions, from the logs, but strips sometimes remained cannot be harvested. According to Phillips, attached. When the forwarder picked up the the most common diseases found in these bundles, limbs were incorporated. We saw plantations include the leaf pathogens in the many logs with a thin layer of soil on them. genera Mycosphaerella (especially M. cryptica) All of this contamination went into the chip- and Aulographina. Because the plantations in per at the landing. There are four workers per the area are still young, decays are relatively shift on the site plus the truck driver. Working two shifts per day, they harvest an estimated uncommon. Phillips believes the low disease 300 tonnes per day. This plantation will be incidence is probably also due in part to the regenerated through coppicing. When shoots low humidity. are about 3 to 4 meters (9.8 to 13.1 feet) tall, We returned to the ofﬁ ce and discussed the they will be thinned to two shoots per stump. Since additional sprouts will come up, this forest health situation with Charlma. Forest- thinning is repeated in 1 to 2 years. Planta- rySA does aerial detection over the P. radiata tion trees are not pruned because chips are plantations mainly looking for patches of the product. Even when sawlogs might be mortality. These are examined by ground the objective, pruning is not done because of crews to determine if sirex woodwasp (Sirex decay entry. They estimate that there are three noctilio) is present. Other surveys are not rou- rotations of eucalypts for every one rotation tinely performed. ForestrySA provides forest of pine. Even so, pine plantations are not, for health services on the lands they manage and the most part, being planted with eucalypts. to larger owners under contract. This includes New eucalypts are being planted on converted assessment of insects and pathogens that are pasture, but with the expansion of the wine observed or submitted for analysis. The focus grape industry, land is at a premium. Kim- in Eucalyptus is on younger trees up to three berly Clark is harvesting about 500 hectares years old when growth impacts are most prob- (1,236 acres) per year and 300 tonnes per day able. The primary focus is on agents damaging to feed their mill. To meet this demand, some foliage, especially defoliators. All of the insect 30-year-old E. regnans plantations in Victoria pests are native to Australia. are being harvested and chips hauled 600 km (373 miles). SEPTEMBER 25 Lock and Phillips were split on their opinions as to whether eucalypt acreage would exceed We drove back to Adelaide (with a stop in that of pines, with Lock believing it would Kingston to view the giant lobster), and visited and Phillips disagreeing. Interestingly, all of the Waite Campus, University of Adelaide. We Victoria’s state-owned plantations have been met with Dr. Gary Taylor, entomologist and sold to a subsidiary of the John Hancock taxonomist of psyllids.

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SEPTEMBER 26

We ﬂ ew back to Canberra and rejoined the WIPRAMET group.

CANBERRA: SEPTEMBER 27-28, 2001

The three WIPRAMET sub-teams reas- sembled in Canberra at the ofﬁ ces of Plant Biosecurity for a closeout session. Each group discussed some of the highlights of things they learned during their state visits. The sub-team that traveled to Queensland and New South Wales (Michael Haverty, Borys Tkacz, and Jessie Micales) made the following observations: termites were swarming in some areas, and logs with termites were seen in some log decks. The team learned that the termite Cop- totermes acinaciformis was introduced from Australia into New Zealand in logs. Adults of Hylurgus ligniperda were seen swarming at a log deck with various species of pines. Some clonal hybrids of pine (P. caribaea and P. elliottii) are being managed intensively for sawlogs, using herbicides and fertilizers. The newly introduced woodborer Arhopalus sp. was also seen on pines.

The other two sub-teams that traveled to Tasmania and South Australia (Dennis Hau- gen, Gregg DeNitto, John Kliejunas, and Ed Podleckis) and to Victoria and Western Aus- tralia (Hal Burdsall, Jane Levy, and Andris Eglitis) also offered some highlights of their state trips.

SEPTEMBER 28

The team departed Canberra and returned to the U.S.

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APPENDIX B—SUMMARY OF REVIEWERS’ COMMENTS AND TEAM’S RESPONSES INTRODUCTION representative sample of reviewer comments is listed below. A draft of the Australian Pinus pest risk assessment was provided to 101 reviewers in vari- “The authors did a very good job of sum- ous countries, including Australia, Canada, marizing the literature and in reviewing the New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, pest status of the scolytids and platypodids.” and the United States. Individual reviewers (Bright) were selected on the basis of their interest and participation in previous pest risk assessments “Overall the Report was complete, well writ- for imported logs and chips, their expertise in ten and addressed thoroughly the scope and specifi c taxonomic groups of pest organisms, objectives of the Assessment. The WIPRA or their knowledge of pests of Pinus radiata team used the format and methodologies and other pines. that have been successfully applied to other recent pest risk assessments associated with Responses were received from seven reviewers the importation of unprocessed logs and or organizations (see Acknowledgments for chips into the US. The visit to Australia by their names and addresses): two from Aus- WIPRA members during September 2001 tralia, one from New Zealand, and four from was a critical component of their informa- the United States. tion gathering task. They spent time with key forest entomologists and pathologists who The pest risk assessment team read all reviewer are familiar with forest health issues in their responses and, as a group, discussed the com- respective forest/plantation growing regions ments or concerns of each reviewer. Where within in Australia. This Report demonstrates deemed appropriate, the team made changes to the benefi ts of the collaborative cooperation the document using information derived from between forest health specialists in Australia the reviewers’ comments as well as additional and the United States.” (Stone) information the team members had developed after distribution of the draft. Comments “The chapter on Pinus resources of Australia from reviewers that pertain to specifi c pests (Chapter 2) is well referenced and a good syn- are included at the end of individual pest risk opsis of the data available (e.g., data collated assessments, followed by a brief response from by ABARE and NFI for 2005).” (Stone) the assessment team. “I believe that the list of potential insects and pathogens associated with Pinus spp. logs and GENERAL COMMENTS FROM chips in Australia (Tables 7 and 8) is compre- REVIEWERS hensive and the eleven groups selected by the team for Individual Pest Risk Assessments In summarizing their general impressions are representative of the potential pest organ- of the draft document, most reviewers were isms that may be introduced with imported favorably impressed with the quality and unprocessed Pinus spp. logs and chips from comprehensiveness of the draft document. A Australia.” (Stone)

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“The assessment for entry and establishment ISSUE 1: INADEQUACY OF THE PEST in the US and estimated potential economic RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS and environmental impacts of unprocessed logs and woodchips for each of the eleven Reviewers’ Comments groups of organisms appear fair and well in- Certain reviewers believed that the pest risk formed based on the process defi ned in the risk assessment process used in this document assessment Guidelines used by the WIPRA was inconsistent, not clear, or not adequate team. There is suffi cient (international) data to identify all the potential risks associated available to support the differences in risk with the importation of unprocessed Pinus potentials proposed for the two commodi- logs or chips. ties, logs and chips (Tables 10, 11 and 12).” (Stone) “Something that we are encountering more and more as regulatory offi cials is pests with “Overall, we were impressed with the docu- resistant structures or life stages that allow ment and the WIPRAMET team’s foresight them to survive hostile conditions. Our ex- in collecting information on both Pinus and perience with Phytophthora ramorum, among Eucalyptus during their trip to Australia in other pests, has made us intimately aware of 2000.” (Oregon Department of Agriculture) this phenomenon. Our hope is that future PRAs take this into consideration when as- “We would like to commend the authors for sessing risk; not only the plant part that is including Table 12 in the PRA This type of infested but what life-stage of the plant pest may be infesting it. Also, being on the front concise summary is very useful as a quick lines, we are very aware of how hard it is to reference for readers.” (Oregon Department detect these pests in incoming shipments and of Agriculture) to conduct effective surveys for incipient infestations. The recent introduction of S. “I would like...to commend you and your noctilio and other exotic pests demonstrates team on the effort taken to consider in a bal- these problems.” (Oregon Department of anced and thorough way the elements of risk Agriculture) presented by these potential pest pathways into the United States.” (Ormsby) “The statement of purpose includes the identification of the potential pest organisms that may be introduced with imported MAJOR ISSUES OF REVIEWERS unprocessed Pinus spp. logs and chips from Australia (the baseline for this pest risk as- Other comments from reviewers not pertain- sessment is raw, unprocessed logs of Pinus ing to specifi c pests were organized into nine species growing in Australia, with subsequent major issues. The following section identifi es consideration of the effect of chipping on these issues, summarizes specifi c reviewer potential pest organisms). But the document comments with respect to each issue, and pro- also states ‘The objective was to include in the vides a response to each issue from the Wood IPRAs representative examples of insects and Import Pest Risk Assessment and Mitigation pathogens found on foliage, on the bark, in the Evaluation Team. bark, and in the wood.’ These two statements

151 PEST RISK ASSESSMENT FOR PINUS IMPORTS FROM AUSTRALIA ______seem contradictory. If the purpose of the PRA we assume that they would not be detected is to assess those organisms that are likely to and we only base the entry potential on the accompany the logs and/or chips, I don’t see organism’s ability to survive transport. where assessing foliar pests is relevant, and indeed, could serve to misrepresent the pest In our previous pest risk assessments involv- risk. The assessment should be limited to quar- ing unprocessed pine logs, we have found that antine signifi cant organisms that are likely to branches and foliage are sometimes included follow the pathway only.” (Zadig) in log decks in small amounts. These may be epicormic branches or an occasional single “Element 1 states ‘Pest with host-commodity branch from a log near the top of the tree. at origin potential-Likelihood of the plant Accordingly, we include for consideration pest being on, with, or in eucalypt (I assume some representative pests that utilize foliage you meant pine here) logs and/or chips at the time of importation. The affi liation of the pest as a substrate even though the primary focus with the host or commodity, both temporally is on organisms on or under the bark and in and spatially, is critical to this element’. It is the wood. unclear to me what ‘at the time of importation’ is. This includes knowing whether or not the The commodity being evaluated in this pest logs, including those for chips, have been de- risk assessment was unprocessed Pinus logs barked, i.e., this goes to how one defi nes ‘un- and chips, with the presumption that bark processed’. This made the draft PRA diffi cult would be associated with the commodity. to review and it seems as though, in reading Even after some basic processing (debarking) the IPRAs, that the authors interpreted this has occurred, the tolerances for debarked logs element in different ways as well.” (Zadig) allow for a small percentage of the material to contain bark. As such, well-debarked logs “It would be helpful if Element 1 included could still harbor insects or pathogens that are a criterion that captures the organism’s host associated with bark. preferences. In other words, is pine a preferred host or poor host. This is not necessarily made The “time of importation” refers to the time clear in the IPRAs either, but it is an important period between the loading of the ship and the element of the pest introduction risk. That arrival of the commodity at a U.S. port. the organism has capability for large-scale population increases doesn’t seem relevant to Within the format of the Individual Pest Risk Element 1.” (Zadig) Assessment (IPRA) all of the hosts are listed in order to show the range of plants being Response to Comments utilized by the potential pest organism. We When we assess the entry potential of exotic believe it is important to do this in order to pests, we consider the life stages that could appreciate the adaptability that the organism be transported and take into account all of may possess. Usually, the narrative portion the characteristics they possess that would of the IPRA discusses the host preferences in help them survive transport into a new envi- greater detail and clarifi es if some hosts are ronment. When these life stages are cryptic, only utilized occasionally.

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Element 1 includes the criterion of capability “The atmospheric conditions within ships’ of large-scale population increases in order to holds, namely the low oxygen/high carbon capture the idea that larger numbers of an or- dioxide ratio, would also be expected to reduce ganism increase the likelihood that a pest-host to some extent the risk of entry of these pests association could occur on the commodity. on wood chips and log shipments, especially on a 10 day journey required for access to ISSUE 2: INSUFFICIENT DISCUSSION OF the US. OVERALL PATHWAY RISK “Both of these factors have been investigated by scientists in the U.S. and other countries Reviewers’ Comments and information is readily available in the One reviewer felt that the discussion of the scientifi c literature.” (Ormsby) mode of transport of the logs and chips, and the subsequent effect on pest survival and Response to Comments overall risk potential, was not adequately discussed. The effect of transport may have a mitigating effect on the survival of pests in wood chips, “There is little information provided within logs, and lumber. As described in Chapter 4, the risk assessment on the mode of transport large chip piles generate large amounts of heat most likely to be used to get logs or wood that favor colonization by thermotolerant or chips from Australia to the U.S., and the thermophillic microorganisms, even in an likely effect this transport would have on the open environment with good air exchange. survival of pests and the overall risk potential. This situation might be exacerbated within the In assuming that the logs and wood chips will confi nes of a ship’s hold. Micales and Burdsall be shipped to the U.S. and take more than 10 (2002) determined that wood chips shipped days to make the journey, no account seems from Chile to the U.S. were colonized primar- to have been taken of the environmental con- ily by Trichoderma and other nonpathogenic ditions within the holds of the ships on pest “imperfect” fungi and may possibly suppress survival. the growth of sapstain fungi and decay Basid- “Wood chips will begin composting almost iomycetes. Similar studies have been done by immediately after they are fi rst stockpiled, the forest products industry, but these are of and will continue to compost within the hold a propriety nature and have not been reported of a ship. The temperatures reached during in the literature. The Oregon Department composting can be of a level exceeding cur- of Agriculture, Plant Division, has isolated rent U.S. heat treatment requirements. It insects and possible wood decay Basidiomy- would therefore be expected that the effects cetes in shipments of lumber from Australia, of composting would signifi cant reduce the so we choose to err on the side of caution risk of any of the pests entering the U.S. on when factoring shipping conditions into the wood chips. possibility of transfer.

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ISSUE 3: DETERMINATION OF PEST RISK Woodwasp (Sirex noctilio) (page 69-75 of the POTENTIALS AND USE OF PEST draft). In this example the entry potential of Sirex on wood chips is considered ‘low’ as RISK CRITERIA ‘Chips would not be a suitable environment for survival’. As with all of the risk elements, Reviewers’ Comments ‘low’ is the lowest risk value possible. The One reviewer pointed out apparent differences consequence of introduction of Sirex into the in use of the pest risk criteria among authors of United States is considered ‘high’, the highest the individual pest risk assessments. A second risk value possible under any element. Based reviewer felt that the relationship between risk on these two assessments the overall risk po- values is often oversimplifi ed, resulting in an tential is considered ‘low’. over-estimation of risk. “This risk assessment is also comparable to the “I note some contradictions in the IPRAs three types of termites and the Bark anobid which I assume is related to the tendency to (Ernobius mollis). be cautious, e.g., a rating of moderate but an assessment of very low risk, unlikely, and ex- “What this risk value fails to refl ect is that the tremely unlikely for the pine looper, bark and risk of entry of these organisms on wood chips ambrosia beetles. In some parts of the PRA it is less than low; it is highly unlikely or negli- seems this discrepancy is due to the selection gible. It may be that those who establish risk of criteria, in other areas, it appears to be a mitigating measures for the US will consider a decision to exercise caution. In any case, the ‘low’ risk value as falling within an acceptable purpose of a PRA is to predict likelihood, not level of risk for the US, therefore making the possibility. This has been clearly reinforced in distinction seem unnecessary. If they do not case law interpreting the WTO’s Agreement however, they may consider a combination on the Application of Sanitary and Phytos- of ‘low’ and ‘high’ risk likelihoods to mean anitary Measures, the treaty document that measures are required when they clearly describes how risk assessment is to be used should not be. to provide scientifi c justifi cation for phytosanitary measures.” (Zadig) “Compare these examples to the risk values attributed to the Pine Loopers. Once again the “Risk values: The use of risk values in a risk value allocated for entry potential on both qualitative risk analysis is common as it allows logs and chips is ‘low’. However the overall the assessment of risk of a particular element risk rating for logs becomes ‘moderate’. It is to be described in a manner that seems to be comparable with other risk elements. Use of not clear how organisms that are realistically a risk matrix based on these risk values is also unable to enter the U.S. on a commodity could relatively common internationally, however be considered a ‘moderate’ risk regardless of in my view over simplifi es the relationship the potential consequences of their introduc- between the risk values, often resulting in an tion. Clearly in this case a ‘low’ risk value for over-estimation of risk. entry on logs suggests something more than the ‘low’ risk value for entry on chips. This “An example of this in the draft risk assess- distinction is not clear within the text of the ment is provided in the assessment of Sirex draft PRA.

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The same can be said for the ‘low’ likelihood APHIS guidelines and with guidelines adapted of introduction of the bark beetles and ‘mod- by 92 of the IPPC member countries. erate’ consequences of introduction resulting in a ‘moderate’ pest risk potential rather than Risk values are a continuum, not discrete cat- a ‘low’ pest risk potential for wood chips. egories. However, in order to portray risk to The risk values themselves do not provide readers in a qualitative assessment, some level the reader with the justifi cation for why low of categorization is required. The number of + moderate = moderate in this case, whereas categories established is somewhat arbitrary, in others low + moderate = low. and we could include more categories to provide a fi ner breakdown. We do not believe “There would seem to be some value in in- this would provide regulatory agencies any cluding a ‘negligible’ risk value to help the additional information on which to base their risk assessors distinguish between a low that decisions. The categories should not be used means ‘very unlikely or negligible’ from a low by themselves, but need to be interpreted that means ‘low.” (Ormsby) along with the narrative explanation that accompanies them. We have adopted three Response to Comments categories in our IPRAs to be consistent with The team had several discussions during the the methodology used by USDA APHIS in development of IPRAs to be consistent in the their “Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest application of criteria used in assessing risk. Risk Assessments” (2000). We rely on USDA However, some inconsistencies may remain APHIS to use the ratings and narrative de- because each of the pests or pest groups is scription to determine if the organism is of evaluated in isolation from, not with respect suffi cient risk to require risk management to, the other pest organisms. All high ratings measures. are not equally high in terms of risk. The same is true of the moderate and low ratings. How- ISSUE 4: OTHER TYPES OF POTENTIAL ever, if the criteria demand a certain rating and PESTS if there is no biological justifi cation for changing it, the rating stands. The author may pro- Reviewers’ Comments vide information in his/her discussion of the element that further explains why the rating, Reviewers expressed a concern that certain although justifi ed by the process, may not be organisms that may not be identifi ed as po- accurate and provide a different estimation of tential pests could be transported on logs and risk. The establishment of risk criteria for each chips and become pests upon arrival in the element is designed to minimize biases and United States. provide transparency to enable the reader to determine how a rating was derived. Similarly, “We also recommend adding an IPRA for the overall pest risk potential is based on an Bursaphelenchus sp. We already have one established method to provide consistency be- pine wilt nematode in the US; we don’t need tween risk assessments (see Table 2). Pest risk another. WIPRAMET should also consider is based on probabilities as determined by the other potential hitchhikers such as mollusks assessor, not by likelihood. The process used that could impact our ecosystems and agricul- here in this risk assessment is consistent with ture.” (Oregon Department of Agriculture)

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Response to Comments tial impact of this ‘great unknown.’ (Oregon We have chosen to concentrate on pests as- Department of Agriculture) sociated with the specific commodities of wood products, including wood chips, logs, Response to Comment and lumber, and have not addressed wider The assessment team recognizes that the “great issues associated with general shipping and unknown” is a major concern when trying to transport. Incidental hitchhikers have been anticipate the impact of an exotic introduction discussed in previous Pest Risk Assessments of any type. However, APHIS is required to (Tkacz et al. 1998, Kliejunas et al. 2003). The demonstrate pest risk before being allowed issue will be considered by APHIS as part of to regulate a commodity. The WIPRAMET the overall mitigation requirement, but is be- approach is to examine representatives of all yond the scope of this document. The isolation known organisms that are of concern and their of Bursaphelenchus hunanensis in Australia possible modes of entry on logs and chips. was conﬁ ned to several old dying trees (Pinus Unknown organisms obviously cannot be radiata and Pinus halepensis) in Melbourne; no evaluated. However, the team anticipates that plantation trees were affected. These infested the needs for mitigation of one of that type trees were eradicated, and subsequent surveys of organism will be similar for organisms of across Australia since 2003 have not detected similar life cycle, thus mitigation for a known additional infestations (Dr. Ian Smith, Uni- organism will be effective for the one that is versity of Melbourne, pers. comm.; Dr Angus unknown. In fact, mitigation for a completely Carnegie, Secretary of the Australian Forest unrelated type of pest (e.g., an insect occurring Research Working Group 7 - Forest Health, in/under bark) may be effective in mitigating unpublished data). For this reason, we did not an unknown fungal pest that is found in the write an IPRA on Bursaphelenchus. same plant part.

SSUE NKNOWN LEEPER ESTS I 5: U (S ) P ISSUE 6: INTERCEPTION RECORDS

Reviewers’ Comments Reviewers’ Comments A concern expressed by one review was that One review commented on the lack of a dis- organisms that are not recognized as pests in cussion on previous interceptions of quaran- their country of origin may reach pest status tine organisms in the draft risk assessment. when introduced into a new environment. “Finally, although reference is made to it, no “It would be wonderful if WIPRAMET could data are presented on previous pest intercep- ﬁ gure out a way to include an IPRA for the tions from Australia on these commodities. ‘great unknown.’ Far too often, it is the insect ODA has intercepted live H. ligniperda on or pathogen that is not a problem in its native Pinus logs that have met the USDA require- territory that wreaks havoc when introduced ments for debarking. We have also intercepted to a new ecosystem. Perhaps data from past other live Australian insects on raw lumber. examples such as P. ramorum or Scolytus These interceptions have been reported in multistriatus (and Dutch elm disease) could be previous letters to USDA-APHIS-PPQ. This used to develop a model to predict the poten- information is essential for determining the

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actual risk associated with these wood prod- ligniperda in Chilean Pinus radiata and for ucts.” (Oregon Department of Agriculture) Chalara australis, a pathogen causing a wilt disease transmitted by the platypodid ambro- Response to Comment sia beetle Platypus subgranosus, in Australian eucalypts. The potential for H. ligniperda and The fact that Hylurgus ligniperda has been Hylastes ater to be more effi cient vectors of intercepted in Oregon on “debarked” logs is the black stain root disease pathogen than the consistent with its repeated interception in endemic bark beetles in the U.S. is discussed other countries and substantiates the “High” in this risk assessment. rating for “Entry potential” that it received in the exotic bark beetle IPRA for our risk The potential for an organism to be a more assessment. The team has pursued data on effi cient vector of a native or introduced pest interception records with APHIS and ODA. is one of the rating criteria used for Element A discussion of these fi ndings is presented in 4: Spread Potential. Chapter 2. We examined the various interception records from Australia and New Zealand ISSUE 8: INACCURATE OR INADEQUATE and found them to be of limited use in modify- INFORMATION FOR THE PESTS ing our pest risk assessment. CONSIDERED

ISSUE 7: INSECT/FUNGAL ASSOCIATIONS Reviewers’ Comments

Reviewers’ Comments Reviewers pointed out inadequate or incorrect information in the insects and pathogens of One review expressed concern that the poten- concern tables (Tables 8 and 9). tial for insects to carry fungal pathogens was not adequately treated. “Opodiphthera helena (Lepidoptera) is very specifi c feeding on Eucalyptus. No records “In the southeastern U.S., the exotic ambrosia of feeding on radiata in the fi eld only mature beetle Xyleborus glabratus is the vector of a larvae ‘force-feed’ on radiata foliage.” (Bash- previously unknown pathogen that causes ford) wilt in red bays. We would also like to see this criterion added to the risk assessment “A forest pathologist (e.g., Jack Simpson) process as a whole.” (Oregon Department of would be able to confi rm as to whether Lep- Agriculture) tographium occurs in Australian pine plantations.” (Stone) Response to Comment “In tables 8 and 9, the codes are missing or The team recognizes that the wood boring in- incomplete for several of the organisms listed sects, ambrosia beetles and bark beetles have a including Narycia guildingi, Lasioderma ser- critical association with fungi, in some cases as ricorne, Neomerimnetes obstructor, Bursa- a symbiotic relationship and in other cases as phelenchus spp., Ceratocystis spp., Lophoder- a vector relationship. These relationships have mium canberrianum, et al.. There is at least been documented and considered in previous one new pest on Pinus, P. dreschleri, that needs assessments for bark beetles, such as Hylurgus to be added to the list; others may have been

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identifi ed since this list was fi rst compiled as “While we applaud the WIPRAMET team’s well.” (Oregon Department of Agriculure) foresight in their data collection, we are also concerned with the accuracy of information Response to Comments that is now more than 5-yr old. For example, Phytophthora dreschleri has recently been The insect and pathogen tables include all of identifi ed as a pest in Pinus plantations. Have the organisms of concern that the team could any other new pests been identifi ed since the identify on Pinus spp. grown in Australia team’s visit and should these be included in the through literature, Australian experts, and PRA? Has any of the information about the other sources up through draft submission to listed pests changed? For instance, Hylurgus editors in June 2006. Changes and additions ligniperda is now found in California and New were made to tables 8 and 9 based on review- York and Sirex noctilio in fi ve New York coun- ers’ comments to the draft. Narycia guildingi, ties and in Canada. In addition, the authors Lasioderma serricorne, and Opodiphthera refer to Eucalyptus repeatedly throughout the helena were dropped from the insect table, document (e.g., p. 4, element #1, sentence #1) and a Category 1 was assigned as the pest instead of to Pinus. This can be confusing for category for Neomerimnetes obstructor. As readers that are expecting a PRA about the Phytophthora dreschleri is a native species in risks associated with Pinus commodities. This the United States, it was not included in the also indicates that only Pinus plantations close pathogens of concern table. to eucalypt plantations were included in the data collection. Accurate and comprehensive information is critical for determining the ISSUE 9: INCLUSION OF CURRENT PEST proper regulations and mitigations measures INFORMATION needed to safely import these commodities into the US,” (Oregon Department of Agri- Reviewers’ Comments culture) Some reviewers pointed out that the risk as- “Lastly, for your information, California and sessment was missing recent information. some other states have been performing an- “A reference source not cited but which may nual surveys for quarantine pests that may be be of interest to the USDA FS WIPRAMET associated with solid wood packing materials. is the ‘Annual Pest and Disease Status As a result of these surveys we have found Hy- lurgus ligniperda to be well established here. Report for Australia and New Zealand 2004- You may want to contact PPQ to obtain the 2005’. This Report is produced annually results of these surveys as these may impact by members of the Australian Research your assessments.” (Zadig) Working Group 7 (Forest Health) which is managed by the Research Priorities Standing Committee for the Australian Primary Response to Comments Industries Standing Committee and the Forest Though the site visit was conducted in 2001, Products Committee, and is a comprehensive the PRA is based on current literature and annual summary of the forest pest and disease communications with taxonomic and trade ex- conditions throughout Australia and New perts in Australia and other parts of the world. Zealand.” (Stone) We have examined the unpublished 2003-2004

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and the 2004-2005 “Annual Pest and Disease Status Report for Australia and New Zealand” and found no signiﬁ cant changes in reported pests. We have also obtained interception records from the Oregon Department of Ag- riculture, Plant Division, that regulates the importation of Pinus logs from Australia and interception records from APHIS. This additional information is now described in Chapter 2. The draft PRA was sent to many Australian scientists to review, so any changes in pest status and distribution since our original trip have been noted. Although much of the site visit was concentrated on eucalypt species, pine plantations were also visited in areas not necessarily associated with eucalypt plantings. The team that visited New South Wales and Queensland in particular spent a considerable amount of time visiting plantations planted exclusively to pines with no nearby eucalypt plantings. Incidental references to Eucalyptus have been deleted from the text.

OTHER REVIEWER COMMENTS

Reviewers included comments on the draft document and on the risk assessment process in general that provide interesting information, but that are outside the scope of this pest risk assessment. Among these:

“Basically I am opposed to the importation of unprocessed wood products from any country into the U. S. and Canada.” (Bright)

159