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How Did East German Genetics Avoid Lysenkoism? Rudolf Hagemann

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320 Forum TRENDS in Genetics Vol.18 No.6 June 2002 Science Chronicle How did East German genetics avoid Lysenkoism? Rudolf Hagemann Lysenkoism gained favour in the Soviet in agreement with the communist ideology. Lysenko presented his ‘theory’ of the Union during the 1930s and 1940s, replacing This theory received official support from regular sudden transformation of species mendelian genetics. Opponents of Lysenko Stalin in 1936. Many distinguished in 1949–1951 (Box 1). were dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned geneticists who did not follow the political and, not infrequently, died. After World War II theories of stalinism and did not support The penetration of Lysenkoism into the in some of the East European Soviet satellite Lysenkoism (e.g. Vavilov, Karpechenko, GDR (East Germany) states, Lysenkoism became the official Levitsky, Agol, Levit, Nadson and Meiser) It has to be remembered that during the genetics supported by the communist were caught by waves of arrests, often Stalin era, the policies in the Eastern Bloc authorities, and thus, genetics and biology ending in their death [3,4]. were dictated from Moscow, and so the were set back many years. Yet the uptake of After the war, Lysenko gave a notorious 1948 Moscow conference and Lysenko’s Lysenkoism was not uniform in the Eastern lecture on ‘The Situation in the Biological approval by Stalin signalled the transfer Bloc. The former East Germany (GDR) Science’ [5] during a conference of the of these concepts into all other communist mostly escaped its influence, owing to the Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences countries. The influence of Lysenko’s contribution of a few brave individuals and of the USSR (31 July to 7 August 1948, ‘Michurinist Biology’ was strong in the fact that the country had an open border Moscow). At the closing session, Lysenko Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary and with the West (West Berlin). announced that the Central Committee of Czechoslovakia – in both schools and the Communist Party had examined and universities. In these countries, the In the 1920s–1930s, Soviet genetics was approved his lecture (Box 2). This marked damage done by Lysenkoism to teaching part of the mainstream, and Russian the political victory of Lysenkoism and and research in genetics and biology was geneticists were well known and respected the beginning of the (almost) complete severe and long lasting. However, the internationally. However, at about the destruction of ‘normal’ genetics in the situation in other East European same time a ‘new’ genetics gained political Soviet Union. Genetic institutes and countries was rather different. influence in the USSR. Lysenko – together laboratories were closed, geneticists were The authorities of GDR, under pressure with the marxist philosopher Prezent – dismissed from their academic positions from Moscow, actively distributed developed a theory contradicting [3,4], and the whole school and university Lysenkoistic publications, and several mendelian genetics [1,2]. system was brought into line with scientists and propagandists accepted A central tenet of this ‘Michurinist Lysenkoistic concepts. these concepts and promoted them in Biology’(Box 1) was the inheritance of Lysenkoism reached its summit public. However, in the GDR, the Lysenko acquired characters – an idea believed to be (and the beginning of its decline), when discussion was mainly political, not a Box 1. Theses of Lysenko’s ‘Michurinist biology’ 1935–1948 is inconsistent with the philosophy of dialectical materialism (1) Inheritance is an attribute of the whole organism, not of discrete (a cornerstone of Marxist theory). The title of a widely distributed hereditary factors. Genes do not exist. book of Lysenkoistic authors was Against the Reactionary (2) Changing the environment gives rise to new characters that are Mendelism–Morganism. inherited (‘inheritance of acquired characters’). The type of the (10) Mendel-Morgan genetics advocates the ‘monopoly of the nucleus’ hereditary changes induced depends on the environmental influences. for heredity (see point 1) [a–c]. (3) Winter varieties of cereal (e.g. wheat), which normally require a period of cold treatment (of the imbibed kernels or seedlings), can 1949–1951 be changed into spring forms without any cold treatment as a Lysenko’s concept reached its summit (and the beginning of its decline) consequence of the changed environment. with the ‘Theory of sudden species transformation’. This stated that (4) Hybridization within (rather than between) varieties of cultivated within cereals, a cultivated plant species is able to change suddenly plants leads to an increase of yield. into another cultivated species or into a related weed. Lysenko reported (5) Plants can be heritably altered by grafting. Graft hybridization is to have found a single rye grain in an ear of wheat, and claimed that analogous to sexual hybridization. plants of barley (Hordeum vulgare) suddenly form grains of the weed (6) There is no difference in principle between sexual and graft Hordeum spontaneum. His followers extended this ‘theory’ to other hybridization. species. (7) By grafting, it is possible to cause a ‘vegetative convergence’ of the grafting partners. Therefore, it is possible to make crosses References between grafted partners that could not by crossed sexually a Siemens, J. (1997) Lysenkoismus in Deutschland (1945–1965). Biologie in (the ‘Mentor method’). unserer Zeit 27, 255–262 (8) After grafting of F1 hybrids as scions (stems), the segregation b Stubbe, H. (1982) Geschichte des Institutes für Kulturpflanzenforschung ratios in their progeny will be changed under the influence of the Gatersleben der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (root) stock, on which they had been grafted. 1943–1968, Akademie-Verlag (9) Classical genetics – dismissively called c Hudson, P.S. and Richens, R.H. (1946) The New Genetics in the Soviet ‘Mendelism–Morganism–Weismannism’ by Lysenkoists – Union, p. 88, Imperial Bureau of Plant Breeding and Geneticsd http://tig.trends.com 0168-9525/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0168-9525(02)02677-X Forum TRENDS in Genetics Vol.18 No.6 June 2002 321 genuine scientific debate. Lysenkoistic Box 2. Important events concepts never really took hold at all levels of society, nor did it damage East German In the USSR genetics. The reasons for this are the 1936 T.D. Lysenko presents, supported by I.I. Present, the first version of the theses of his Michurinist Biology. subject of this article. 1936 Official support of Lysenko’s concept by J.V. Stalin. Before going into details, an important 1936–1943 A wave of arrests of many distinguished geneticists, ending with their death fact should be emphasized: from 1945 to (e.g. Vavilov, Karpechenko, Levitsky, Agol, Levit, Nadson, Meiser [7]). 1961, the GDR had an open border with 31 July 1948 Lysenko’s lecture on ‘The Situation in the Biological Science’ at the Conference of the Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the USSR in Moscow. Full political victory West Berlin. One could travel freely from of Lysenkoism in the USSR following the announcement, ‘The Central Committee of East Berlin (Soviet sector) to West Berlin the Communist Party has examined Lysenko’s lecture and has approved it.’ [6] on the metro (subway), until the Berlin 1948 Beginning of the almost complete destruction of ‘normal genetics’ in the Soviet Wall was built in 1961. The supporters Union and start of the transmission of Lysenkoism to other communist countries. 5 March 1953 Death of J.V. Stalin; N.S. Chrustchev becomes the new First Secretary of the and the opponents of Lysenko, as well as Communist Party of USSR. the political authorities, realized that 1964 Dismissal of N.S. Chrustchev; L.I. Brezhnev becomes the new General Secretary of geneticists who were persecuted could the Communist party of USSR. simply leave. In East Germany 1945–1949 Eastern part of Germany and East sector of Berlin are the ‘Soviet Occupied Zone’. Influence on schools October 7 1949 Foundation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR; or in German: The Ministry for the Socialist Educational Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR). 1945–1961 There was an open border between East Berlin (the Soviet sector) and System was under strict political control West Berlin (the American, British and French sectors), including a metro service of the communist authorities. Between between the two parts of Berlin that was continued throughout this period. 1952–1959, Lysenkoism was introduced 13 August 1961 Building of the Berlin Wall; interruption of all uncontrolled traffic connections between the two parts of Berlin, and between East Germany (GDR) and West into the school textbooks, and biology Germany (Bundesrepublik). The only exceptions were Western military traffic teachers received orders to deal with these between West Germany and West Berlin, and air traffic between West Germany topics in their lessons. and West Berlin). But the Lysenkoistic influence only lasted a few years. In 1954, Lysenko was criticized for dogmatism by the new just opportunists who wanted to further who gave regular lectures on Lysenkoism Soviet communist party leader, Nikita their careers. (1953–1955). Support of the Lysenkoistic Chrustchev. This reduced Lysenkoistic In many universities, lectures on ideas also came from Werner Rothmaler influences in the GDR, and meant that genetics were discontinued for several (nicknamed Rouge Malheur by both Lysenkoistic ideas in school textbooks could years and replaced by lectures on ‘Creative opponents and friends). He was a be criticized by East German geneticists. Darwinism’ (a synonym of Lysenkoism). cultured, well-read man and a good After the dismissal of Chrustchev in In the Friedrich Schiller University, speaker who was influencial among 1964, Lysenkoism suddenly disappeared Jena, there were two main proponents of students and young scientists. He from East German school textbooks; soon Lysenkoism: Georg Schneider, who worked promoted the Lysenkoistic ideas on textbooks were published that presented on developmental processes in amphibia in inheritance of acquired characters and mendelian genetics [6].
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