Notes

Introduction

1. Schlesinger, A. ‘Origins of the ’, pp. 22–52. 2. Gaddis, J. L. (1997) We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford: Clarendon), p. 292. 3. Feis, H. (1970) From Trust to Terror: The Onset of the Cold War, 1945–50 (: Blond), p. 5. 4. Woods, R. and Jones, H. (1991) The Dawning of the Cold War (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press), p. xii. 5. Ulam, A. (1973) Expansion and Coexistence (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston), pp. 12–30. 6. Schlesinger, ‘’, pp. 22–52. 7. Gardner, L. (1970) Architects of Illusion: Men and Ideas in American Foreign Policy (Chicago, IL: Quadrangle ), p. 319. Horowitz argues that con- tainment policies are to be understood as policies for containing social revolution rather than as national expansion. See Horowitz, D. (ed.) (1967) and Revolution: Western Policy Towards Social Revolution: 1917 to (London: Blond), p. 53. 8. Williams, W. A. (1968) The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, rev. edn (New York: Norton), p. 15. 9. Lundestad, G. (1978) The American Non-Policy Towards Eastern Europe 1943– 1947 (Tromsö, Oslo and Bergen: Universiteitsforlaget), p. 424. 10. Kolko, G. (1990) Politics of War (New York: Pantheon), pp. 621–2. 11. Kolko, G. and Kolko, J. (1972) The Limits of Power: The World and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1945–1954 (New York: Harper and Row), p. 709. 12. Paterson, T. (1973) Soviet-American Confrontation: Postwar Reconstruction and the Origins of the Cold War (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press), pp. 262–4. 13. Maddox, R. J. (1973) The New Left and the Origins of the Cold War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 4. 14. Kennan, G. (1954) Realities of American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Prince- ton University Press), p. 65. 15. Halle, L. (1967) The Cold War as History (New York: Harper and Row), pp. 2–9. 16. Tucker, R. (1971) The Radical Left and American Foreign Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press), p. 98. 17. Walker, S. J. (1981) ‘Historians and Cold War Origins: The New Consensus’, in Haines, G. and Walker, S. J. (eds), American Foreign Relations: A Historio- graphical Review (London: Pinter), pp. 207–36. 18. Leffler, M. (1994) ‘National Security and US Foreign Policy’, in Painter, D. S. and Leffler, M. (eds), Origins of the Cold War: An International History (London: ), pp. 15–41.

183 184 Notes

19. Wolhforth, W. (1993) The Elusive Balance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), pp. 85, 92–4. 20. Gaddis, J. L. (1972) The and the Origins of the Cold War (New York: Press), pp. 357–8. 21. Yergin, D. (1990) Shattered Peace, rev. edn (Harmondsworth, Middx: ), pp. 6–7. 22. Pollard, R. (1985) Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press), p. 244. 23. Gaddis, J. L. (1983) ‘The Emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War’, Diplomatic History 7 (Summer), p. 187. 24. Ibid., pp. 188–9. 25. Eisenberg, C. (1996) Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press), p. 493. 26. Trachtenberg, M. (1999) A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 7. 27. Ibid., pp. 13, 35–41. 28. See McAllister, J. (2002) No Exit: America and the German Problem, 1943–1954 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press). 29. Jackson, P. (2006) Civilizing the Enemy: German Reconstruction and the Invention of the West (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press), pp. 112–14. 30. Leffler, M. (1996) The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War, Occasional Paper no. 16, German Historical Institute (Washington, DC: German Historical Institute), p. 76. 31. Kennedy-Pipe, C. (1995) Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943 to 1956 (Manchester: Manchester University Press), p. 192. 32. Naimark, N. (1995) The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Press), p. 466. 33. Loth, W. (1996) ‘Stalin’s Plans for Post-War Germany’, in Gori, F. and Pons, S. (eds), The and Europe in the Cold War 1943–53 (Basingstoke and New York: ), p. 33. 34. Deighton, A. (1990) The Impossible Peace: Britain, the of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War (Oxford: Clarendon), pp. 233–4. 35. Wight, M. (1991) International Theory (London: Leicester University Press), pp. 7–8. 36. Ibid., p. 260. 37. Bull, H. (1995) The Anarchical Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press), pp. 26–7. 38. Ibid., p. 13. 39. Ibid., p. 17. 40. See Bull, H. The Anarchical Society. Also, Jackson, R. (2000) The Global Covenant: Human Conduct in a World of States (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press). 41. Vincent, R. J. (1986) Human Rights and International Relations: Issues and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 126. See also Vincent, R. J. (1974) Nonintervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press). Notes 185

1 The Practical Association Framework During World War Two

1. Evans, G. and Newnham, J. (eds) (1998) Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (London: Penguin Books), p. 382. 2. Oakeshott, M. (1991) On Human Conduct (Oxford: Clarendon Press), p. 201. 3. Nardin, T. (1983) Law, Morality and the Relations of States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 19. 4. Ibid., p. 24. 5. Ruotsila, M. (2001) British and American Anticommunism before the Cold War (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass), p. xiii. 6. Davies, J. (1942) Mission to (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.), p. 27. 7. Roosevelt to Stimson, 28 December 1941, FRUS 1941, Vol. I, p. 865. 8. Blum, J. M. (1965) From the Morgenthau Diaries Vol. III: Years of War 1941– 1945 (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin), p. 81. 9. Roosevelt–Stalin meeting, 28 November 1943, Teheran Conference. Bohlen minutes. FRUS 1943, Conferences at and Teheran 1943, pp. 482–6. 10. Roosevelt–Stalin meeting, 29 November 1943, Teheran Conference. Bohlen minutes. FRUS 1943, Conferences at Cairo and Teheran 1943, pp. 529–33. 11. Overy, R. (1995) The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s (London: Pimlico), p. 636. 12. Bullock, A. (1965) Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (Harmondsworth, Middx: Pelican Books Ltd.), pp. 774–5. 13. Joint declaration Churchill–Roosevelt, 8 November 1941, Department of State Bulletin (1941) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office). 14. Varga, E. (1946) Izmeneniya v ekonomike kapitalizma v itoge vtoroi mirovoi voiny (Changes in the Economy of as a Result of the Second World War) (Moscow: Gospolitizdat). 15. Lippmann, W. (1944) The Good Society (London: Allen and Unwin), pp. 3–4. 16. Stephanson, A. (1989) Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press), pp. 228–9. 17. Hayek, F. A. (1944) The Road to Serfdom (London: Routledge), p. 18. Hayek would later state that the mood of Western intellectual leaders (confronted with an altogether different system) had long been characterised by disillu- sionment with the principles derived, according to Hayek, from the idea of ‘freedom’, and an exclusive concern with the creation of ‘better worlds’. See Hayek, F. A. (2006) The Constitution of Liberty (London: Routledge), pp. 1–2. 18. Hayek (1944) The Road to Serfdom, p. 135. 19. Laski, H. (1951) An Introduction to Politics,rev.edn(London:Allenand UnwinLtd.),p.29. 20. Reisman, D. (ed.) (1996) Democratic in Britain: Classic Texts in Eco- nomic and Political Thought 1825–1952, Volume 7, Cole, G. D. H. (1996) Principles of Economic Planning (London: Pickering & Chatto), p. 407. 21. between and Japan, 27 September 1940. http://www. yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/triparti.htm date accessed 14 June 2006. 22. Roosevelt to Churchill, 25 November 1942, FRUS, 1941–43, The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, p. 489. 186 Notes

23. Roosevelt to Churchill, 2 December 1942, FRUS, 1941–43, The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, p. 494. 24. Document No. 84, Unsigned cable (but Stalin’s) to Molotov, 1 June 1942 in Rzheshevsky, O. A. (ed.) (1997) Voina i Diplomatia: Dokumentiy, Kommentarii (1941–1942) (Moscow: Nauka), p. 192. 25. Joint Four Power Declaration, , 19–30 October 1943. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html date accessed 23 May 2006. 26. Meeting of the CCS, Cairo, 22 November 1943. FRUS, Conferences at Cairo and Teheran 1943, pp. 304–7. 27. Stoler, M. and Gustafson, M. (eds) (2003) Major Problems in the History of World War Two (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin), pp. 88–9. 28. Casablanca Declaration, 12 February 1943. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/ avalon/wwii/casablan.htm date accessed 2 April 2006. 29. Meeting of the JCS with Roosevelt, 7 January 1943, FRUS 1943, The Casablanca Conference, p. 506. 30. Balfour, M. (1970) ‘Another Look at “Unconditional Surrender” ’, International Affairs 46, no. 4, p. 728. 31. Rothfels, H. (1961) The German Opposition to Hitler: An Appraisal, translated by Lawrence Wilson (London: Oswald Wolff Publishers Ltd.), pp. 151–2. 32. Bassett, R. (2005) Hitler’s Chief Spy: The Wilhelm Canaris Mystery (London: Cassell), pp. 251–4. 33. Kennedy-Pipe, C. (1995) Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943 to 1956 (Manchester: Manchester University Press), pp. 64–5. 34. : ‘Russia: Threat to Western Civilization,’ British War Cabinet, Joint Planning Staff, Draft and Final Reports: 22 May, 8 June and 11 July 1945, Public Record Office, CAB 120/691/109040/002. 35. Orgill, D. (1967) The Gothic Line: The Autumn Campaign in Italy 1944 (London: Heinemann), p. 6. 36. Memorandum written by Roosevelt for , General Marshall and Admiral King, 16 July 1942. Quoted in Churchill, W. (1955) The Second World War, The Hinge of Fate, Volume IV, Six Volumes (The Reprint Society: London), pp. 363–5. 37. Churchill, W. (1955) The Hinge of Fate, p. 394. 38. Neumann, W. (1950) Making The Peace 1941–5: The Diplomacy of the Wartime Conferences (Washington, DC: Foundation for Foreign Affairs), pp. 42–3. 39. Stoler and Gustafson, Major Problems in the History of World War Two, p. 115. 40. Speer, A. (1970) Inside the Third Reich (New York: Avid Books), p. 445. 41. Hastings cites Sir Henry Tizard, chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee: ‘The actual effort expended on bombing Germany, in man- power and resources, was greater than the value in manpower and resources of the damage caused.’ Hastings himself is of the view that ‘the bomber offensive partly fulfilled useful purposes for the Allied effort’. See Hastings, M. (1999) Bomber Command (London: Pan Macmillan), pp. 349–52. 42. Beaumont, R. (1987) ‘The Bomber Offensive as a Second Front’, Journal of Contemporary History 22 (January), p. 15. 43. The Effect of on the German War Economy (1945), United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Washington, DC: USSBS), pp. 11–3. Notes 187

44. Davis, R. (1993) Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office), p. 590. 45. Fischer, L. (1972) The Road to Yalta (New York: Harper & Row), p. 14. 46. Neumann, Making The Peace 1941–5, pp. 39–40. 47. Armstrong, A. (1961) Unconditional Surrender: The Impact of the Casablanca Policy upon World War II (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), p. 8. 48. Military Conclusions of the Teheran Conference, 1 December 1943, FRUS 1943, The Cairo and Teheran Conferences, p. 652. The 1944 Belorussian Strategic Offensive Operation launched between 22 June and 19 August 1944 resulted in the almost complete destruction of the German Army Group Centre and three of its component armies: The Fourth Army, the Third Panzer Army and the Ninth Army. The operation ‘was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War Two’. Zaloga, S. (1996) Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre (London: Osprey ), p. 7. 49. Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff with Roosevelt and Churchill, Cairo, 24 November 1943, FRUS 1943, The Cairo and Teheran Conferences, pp. 329–34. 50. Stalin to Churchill, 11 June 1944, From Correspondence between the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R. and the Presidents of the U.S.A. and the Prime Ministers of Great Britain during the great Patriotic War of 1941–1945 (1958) (London: Lawrence & Wishart, printed in U.S.S.R.), pp. 227–8. 51. Werth, A. (1964) Russia at War 1941–1945 (London: Ltd.), p. 766. 52. Churchill, W. (1955) History of the Second World War, Vol. 6 (London: The Reprint Society), p. 10. 53. Lend Lease Act 11 March 1941. http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq59- 23.htm date accessed 20 March 2009. 54. Martel, L. (1979) Lend-Lease, Loans, and the Coming of the Cold War: A Study of the Implementation of Foreign Policy (Boulder, CO: Westview Press), p. 4. 55. Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement 23 February 1942. http:// www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1942/420223b.html date accessed 15 March 2006. 56. Dobson, A. P. (1986) U.S. Wartime Aid to Britain 1940–1946 (London: Croom Helm), pp. 203–5. 57. Command Paper CMD 6311, 10 ‘The Export White Paper’. 58. Command Paper CMD 6341, 23 February 1942 ‘Principles Applying to Mutual Aid’. 59. Herring, G. C., Jr (1973) Aid to Russia, 1941–6: Strategy, Diplomacy and Origins of the Cold War (London and New York: Columbia University Press), p. 104. 60. Ibid., p. 113. 61. Hull to Roosevelt, 4 February 1942, FRUS 1942, Vol. III, p. 504. 62. Herring, Aid to Russia, 1941–6, p. 126; Stettinius, E., Jr (1944) Lend Lease: Weapon for Victory (London: Penguin Books). 63. Werth, Russia at War 1941–1945, p. 568. 64. Deane, J. (1947) The Strange Alliance (New York: The Viking Press), p. 103. 65. Wilson, T. (1991) The First : Roosevelt and Churchill at Placentia Bay, 1941 (Kansas City, KS: University Press of Kansas), pp. 82–5. 66. The , 14 August 1941. http://usinfo.org/docs/democracy/ 53.htm date accessed 4 July 2009. 188 Notes

67. Quoted in Holsti, K. (1991) Peace and War: Armed Conflict and International Order 1648–1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 243. 68. Bercuson, D. and Herwig, H. (2006) One Christmas at Washington: Churchill and Roosevelt Forge the Grand Alliance (London: Phoenix Paperbacks), p. 274. 69. Declaration by the , 1 January 1942. http://www.ibiblio.org/ pha/policy/1942/420101a.html date accessed 23 March 2009. 70. Annual Message of President Roosevelt to Congress 6 January 1942. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1942/420106a.html date accessed 14 June 2006. 71. Mosely, P. E. (1950) ‘The Dismemberment of Germany: Allied Negotiations from Yalta to Potsdam’, Foreign Affairs (April), pp. 488–9. 72. The State Department constituted the main brain trust for the creation of US policy over Germany. The principles of the work to be carried out by the State Department included responsibility for the formulation of govern- mental policy with regard to US participation in the occupation. The War Department was to be responsible for the execution and administration of policy with regard to US participation in the occupation, with the coop- eration of the State Department. The SWNCC, under the chairmanship of the State Department, was to be in charge of the coordination of US policy with respect to the occupation and the shape of any German government. The SWNCC was to establish a Directorate for Occupied Areas which would coordinate and expedite the work of the State, War and Navy departments. From Principles and Procedures Regarding Policy-making and Administration of Occupied Areas, 14 February 1946, Miscellaneous German Files 1943–5 E.1174.E 59 250 49 4 4-5 State Files (Lot) Box 8. 73. State Department Files, Record Group 59, Notter Files. 74. Backer, J. H. (1978) The Decision to Divide Germany: American Foreign Policy in Transition (Duke University Press: Durham, NC), pp. 24–5. 75. Morgenthau to Roosevelt, ‘Suggested Post Surrender Program for Germany’, 5 September 1944, FRUS 1944, The Conference at Quebec, pp. 101–8. 76. Dietrich, J. (2002) The : Soviet Influence on American Post- war Policy (New York: Algora Publications), p. 12. Dietrich argues that the genesis of the Morgenthau Plan reflected a sweep of sympathy towards the Soviet war effort of which US officials and American public opinion were not exempt. In the mind of US policy-makers, and the State Department in particular, the of Germany would provide the basis for a European economic order conducive to a free market system of exchange that would benefit the US economy. This is one of the reasons why the State Department was weary of the proposal of the Treasury Department for the agrarianisation of Germany. If German self-sufficiency was to be elimi- nated, it was to be done only so that it should be dependent on world/US markets. See also Kimball, W. (1976) Swords or Ploughshares? The Morgenthau Plan for Defeated , 1943–1946 (Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Co.), pp. 44–5. 77. Woolner, D. (1998) The Second Quebec Conference Revisited: Waging War, For- mulating Peace: , Great Britain, and the United States in 1944–1945 (New York: St Martin’s Press), pp. 79–80. Notes 189

78. Memorandum 19 January 1945: General Records of the Assistant Secre- tary of the Treasury, Records of the Assistant Secretary, Monetary and International Affairs, Chronological File of H. D. White, November 1934– April 1946, 56 450 60 31 7 Box 12 Entry 360P. 79. Memorandum from Hull to Roosevelt, 29 September 1944, FRUS 1945, Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 577. 80. Stettinius to Winant, 10 April 1945, FRUS 1945, Vol. III, p. 221. 81. Stimson, H. and Bundy, M. (1947) On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper & Brothers), pp. 577–8; Stimson to Roosevelt, 5 Septem- ber 1944, FRUS, 1944, The Conference at Quebec, pp. 98–100. 82. Woolner, The Second Quebec Conference Revisited, p. 89. 83. Briefing Paper, FRUS 1945, The Conference at Potsdam I, pp. 456–61. 84. Filitov, A. (1996) ‘Problems of Post-War Construction in Soviet Foreign Policy Conception during World War II’, in Gori, F. and Pons, S. (eds), The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War 1943–53 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 7–8. 85. Ibid., p.16. 86. Roberts, G. (2006) Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War 1939–1953 (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press), pp. 229–30. 87. Loth, W. (1998) Stalin’s Unwanted Child, the Soviet Union, the German Question and the Founding of the GDR (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press), pp. 8–12. 88. Filitov, ‘Problems of Post-War Construction in Soviet Foreign Policy Con- ception during World War II’, p. 19. 89. Northedge, F. S. (1974) Descent from Power: British Foreign Policy 1945–1973 (London: Allen and Unwin Ltd.), p. 68. 90. Woodward, E. L. (1976) British Foreign Policy in the Second World War, Vol. 5 (London: HMSO), p. 27. 91. Ibid., pp. 44–5. 92. Ibid., pp. 45–6. 93. Armistice and Post-War Committee, December 1944, FO/371/46720/4010. 94. ‘Official Policies and Views of the Soviet, British and American Govern- ments’, State Department Files, Record Group 59, Notter Files. 95. Backer, The Decision to Divide Germany, p. 20. 96. Neumann, Making The Peace 1941–5, p. 50. 97. Hull, C. (1948) The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, Volume II (New York: Macmillan), pp. 1285–6. 98. Neumann, Making The Peace 1941–5, p. 54. 99. Mosely, The Dismemberment of Germany, p. 489. 100. Ibid., p. 490. 101. Tripartite Political Meeting, 1 December 1943, Teheran Conference, Bohlen minutes. FRUS 1943, The Conferences at Cairo and Teheran 1943, pp. 596– 604. 102. Loth (1998) Stalin’s Unwanted Child, pp. 4–5. 103. Conversation among Churchill, Eden and Stalin, 17 October 1944, PREM 3/434/2. 104. Neumann, Making The Peace 1941–5, pp. 67–8. 105. Woolner, The Second Quebec Conference Revisited, p. 82. 190 Notes

106. Final Documents of the Conference, FRUS 1944, Conference at Quebec, pp. 466–7. 107. Second Plenary Meeting, , 5 February 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, pp. 611–13. Eden records that during the 6 February meeting at Yalta, when dismemberment was considered, he was not willing to commit himself in advance to decisions for which Molotov was showing increasing eagerness in order to aggrandise Soviet power. See Eden, A. (1965) Memoirs: The Reckoning (London: Cassell), p. 516. 108. Second Plenary Meeting, 5 February 1945, Yalta Conference, FRUS 1945, The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 614. 109. Foreign ministers meeting, Yalta Conference, 7 February 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 700. 110. Yalta Declaration, 11 February 1945. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/ wwii/yalta.htm date accessed 5 February 2006. 111. Quoted in Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War 1939–1953, p. 243. 112. Backer, The Decision to Divide Germany, p. 35. 113. State Department Files, Record Group 59, Notter Files. 114. Eisenberg, C. W. (1996) Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press), p. 29. 115. Pauley Reparations Mission: State Files 59/250/48/32/5, Box 19, Lot File E1106A–E1106I, European Mission Subject File 1945–7, Report – Drafts and working papers to shipping (general). 116. Memorandum by the Executive Committee on Foreign Policy, 12–14 August 1944, FRUS 1944, Vol. I, pp. 278–98. 117. Draft memorandum from Roosevelt to Lubin, 22 March 1945, FRUS 1945, Vol. III, pp. 1179–81. 118. Filitov, ‘Problems of Post-War Construction in Soviet Foreign Policy Con- ception during World War II’, p. 6. 119. Backer, The Decision to Divide Germany, p. 66. 120. Loth, W. (1996) ‘Stalin’s Plans for Post-War Germany’, in Gori, F. and Pons S. (eds), The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War 1943–53 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 26. 121. Second Plenary Meeting, 5 February 1945, Yalta Conference, FRUS 1945, The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, pp. 620–1; Buhite, R. (1986) Decisions at Yalta: An Appraisal of Summit Diplomacy (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources), pp. 32–3. 122. Second Plenary Meeting, 5 February 1945, Yalta Conference, FRUS 1945, The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, pp. 621–3. 123. Stettinius states that, as with dismemberment, the Allies at Yalta sought postponement on the question of reparations. See Stettinius, E. (1950) Roosevelt and the Russians: The Yalta Conference, edited by Walter Johnson (London: Jonathan Cape), pp. 41, 230–1. 124. Protocol of Proceedings Crimea Conference, 11 February 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, p. 978. 125. Ibid., p. 979. 126. Ratchford, B. U. and Ross, W. M. D. (1947) Berlin Reparations Assignment: Round One of the German Peace Settlement (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press), pp. 41–2. Notes 191

127. Kuklick, B. (1972) American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press), pp. 226–35. 128. Ratchford and Ross (1947) Berlin Reparations Assignment, p. 45. 129. Berlin Conference, Protocol of the Proceedings, 1 August 1945, FRUS 1945, The , Vol. II, pp. 1481–7. 130. Proposal by Soviet delegation. Plan of Reparations for Germany. Undated. FRUS 1945, The Potsdam Conference, Vol. II, pp. 863–4. 131. Meeting of the Economic Subcommittee 20 July 1945. Memorandum by Robert Murphy. FRUS 1945, The Potsdam Conference, Vol. II, pp. 141–2. 132. Sharp, T. (1975) The Wartime Alliance and the Zonal Division of Germany (Oxford: Clarendon Press), p. 1. 133. Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, Volume II, p. 1287. 134. Directive to Commander-in-Chief of United States Forces of Occupa- tion Regarding the Military Government of Germany; April 1945 (JCS 1067). usa.usembassy.de/etexts/ga3-450426.pdf date accessed 23 March 2006; Davidson, B. (1950) Germany: What Now? Potsdam 1945–Partition 1949 (London: Frederick Muller Ltd.), p. 25. 135. Mastny, V. (1979) Russia’s Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of , 1941–5 (New York: Columbia University Press), pp. 268–9. 136. Ibid., pp. 233–4. 137. Buhite, Decisions at Yalta: An Appraisal of Summit Diplomacy, pp. 21–2. 138. Second Plenary Meeting, 5 February 1945, Yalta Conference, FRUS 1945, The Conferences of Malta and Yalta, p. 617. 139. Viotti, P. and Kauppi, M. (eds) (1987) International Relations Theory (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company). 140. Frost, M. (2000) ‘Common Practices in a Plural World: The Bases for a The- ory of Justice’, in Lensu, M. and Fritz, J-S. (eds), Value Pluralism, Normative Theory and International Relations (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd.), p. 5. 141. Charvet, J. (2000) ‘Epilogue: Further Reflections on Value Pluralism’, in Lensu, M. and Fritz, J-S. (eds), Value Pluralism, Normative Theory and International Relations (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd.), p. 202. 142. Nardin, Law, Morality and the Relations of States, p. 305. 143. Ibid., pp. 313–14. 144. Oakeshott, On Human Conduct , p. 122. 145. James, A. (1973) ‘Law and Order in International Society’, in James A. (ed.), The Bases of International Order: Essays in Honour of C. A. W. Manning (London: Oxford University Press), p. 80. 146. Bull, H. (1995) The Anarchical Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press), pp. 140–1.

2 American and Soviet Structural Interests

1. The ‘grand design’ mentality was first outlined and implemented through The Victory Plan of 1941, which became the blueprint for the gen- eral mobilisation of the US Army. The Victory Plan predicted the future organisation of an army that did not yet exist, outlined combat missions 192 Notes

for a war not yet declared, and computed war production requirements for industries that were still committed to peacetime needs. See Kirkpatrick, C. (1990) An Unknown Future and a Doubtful Present: Writing the Victory Plan of 1941 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army). 2. Dunne, T. (1997) ‘Realism’, in Baylis, J. and Smith, S. (eds), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 118–9. 3. Ibid., p. 113. Waltz, K. (1979) Theory of International Politics (Boston, MA: McGraw Hill). 4. Brooks, S. (1997) ‘Dueling Realisms (Realism in International Relations)’, International Organization 51, no. 3, p. 455. 5. Waltz, Theory of International Politics,p.65. 6. Ibid., p. 68. 7. Ibid., p. 74. 8. Ibid., pp. 100–1. 9. My italics. Buzan, B., Little, R. and Jones, C. (1993) The Logic of Anar- chy: Neorealism to Structural Realism (New York: Columbia University Press), pp. 237–8. 10. Waltz, Theory of International Politics,p.91. 11. Ibid., p. 93. 12. Nashel, J. (1999) ‘Cold War (1945–91) Changing Interpretations’, in Whiteclay Chambers II, J. (ed.), The Oxford Companion to American Military History (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press). 13. Mazower, M. (2008) Hitler’s Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe (London: Allen Lane), pp. 121–2. 14. See Kemmler, H. (1940) Autarkie in der organischen Wirtschaft () and Teichert, E. (1940) Autarkie und Grossraumwirtschaft in Deutschland, 1930– 1939 (Munich), quoted in Berghahn, V. (1986) The Americanisation of West German Industry, 1945–1973 (Leamington Spa: Berg), pp. 27–8. See Gauleiter Gustav Simon, speech ‘The Reshaping of Europe’ in ‘Neugestaltung Europa’, in Luxemburger Wort. 30 September 1940, No. 274; 93e année, p.1. http:// www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=815 date accessed 23 April 2009. 15. Gordon, J. S. (2005) The Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of the American Economic Power (New York, London, Toronto and : Harper Peren- nial), pp. 353–8. 16. See Kolko, G. and Kolko, J. (1972) The Limits of Power: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945–1954 (New York: Harper & Row). 17. Shoup, L. and Minter, W. (1977) Imperial Brain Trust: The Council on Foreign Relations and the United States Foreign Policy (New York, Lincoln, NE and : Author Choice Press), p. 135. 18. Hull, C. (1948) The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, Volume I (New York: Macmillan), p. 81. Williams traces the policy of expansion to the Spanish- American War of 1898 and the establishment of ‘an American marketplace throughout the world’. Williams, W. A. (1970) The Roots of Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (London: Blond), p. 432. 19. Department of State Bulletin, XII (1945), p. 470. 20. Ibid., p. 982. 21. Notter Files, Post-War Preparation, pp. 96–148. Notes 193

22. ‘Germany: Economic Problems: Post-War Economic Control of Germany’, 23 September RG 59 Notter Files (Lot), Box 117 State Department Files. 23. My italics. Stimson, H. and Bundy, M. (1947) On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper & Brothers), p. 594. 24. Stimson to Truman, 16 July 1945, FRUS 1945, The Conference at Potsdam I and II, p. 755. 25. McCloy for the Director of CAD, 26 October 1944, State Department Files, RG 107 ASW 370.8 Germany MMNA. 26. Berghahn, The Americanisation of West German Industry, 1945–1973, pp. 36– 7, 72–3. 27. Eisenberg, C. W. (1996) Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press), pp. 282–4. 28. LaFeber, W. (ed.) (1971) The Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947: A Historical Problems with Interpretations and Documents (New York and Chichester: John Wiley & Sons), p. 38. 29. Clay was the military governor of the US occupation zone. See Bird, K. (1992) The Chairman: John J. McCloy: The Making of the American Establish- ment (New York: Simon & Schuster). 30. Berghahn, The Americanisation of West German Industry, 1945–1973, pp. 82–4. 31. Martin, J. S. (1950) All Honorable Men (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.), pp. 256–8. 32. The Army Industrial College, Office of the Commandant, Washington DC, Report on Cartels, in Interdepartmental & Intradepartmental Committee, SWNCC Files (State Dept), Decimal File 1944–49 Box 65 Entry 504. 33. ‘Confidential Report to the Special Senate Committee Investigating the National Defense Program on the Preliminary Investigation of Mili- tary Government in the Occupied Areas of Europe’ (Meader Report) 22 November 1946 (Washington, DC). 34. US Senate hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Mili- tary Affairs. Elimination of German Resources for War, 2 July 1945, Part 7 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1945). 35. Burchett, W. (1950) Cold War in Germany (: World Unity Publi- cations), pp. 145–6. 36. Penrose, E. F. (1953) Economic Planning for the Peace (Princeton, NJ: Prince- ton University Press), p. 351. 37. Acheson to Murphy, 23 January 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 491. 38. Kennan to Byrnes, 6 March 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Common- wealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 519. 39. Kennan to Carmel Offie, 10 May 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 555–6. 40. Memorandum by Charles Kindleberger, 22 July 1948, FRUS 1947, Vol. III, p. 241. 41. Rostow, W. W. (1981) The Division of Europe After World War II: 1946 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press), pp. 3–5. 42. Smith, J. E. (ed.) (1974) The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Germany 1945–1949, Vol. I (Bloomington, IN and London: Indiana University Press), pp. 203–4. 194 Notes

43. Ibid., p. 213. 44. Clay, L. (1950) Decision in Germany (Melbourne, London, Toronto: William Heinemann Ltd.), p. 123. 45. Restatement of policy on Germany, Stuttgart, 6 September 1946. http:// usa.usembassy.de/etexts/ga4-460906.htm date accessed 6 July 2009. 46. Byrnes, J. (1947) Speaking Frankly (London: Heinemann), p. 189. 47. Wexler, I. (1983) The Revisited: The European Recovery Program in Economic Perspective (Westport, CT and London: Greenwood), pp. 4–5. 48. Hogan, M. (1987) The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruc- tion of , 1947–1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 427–30. 49. Speech draft, ‘The Requirements of Reconstruction’, 5 May 1947; Dean Acheson’s Speech Before Delta Council at Cleveland, Mississippi, 8 May 1947; J. M. Jones Papers. From www.trumanlibrary.org date accessed 20 June 2009. 50. Acheson, D. (1969) Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York: Norton), pp. 241–4. 51. Report of the Special ‘Ad Hoc’ Committee of the State–Navy–War Coordi- nating Committee, 21 April 1947, FRUS 1947, Vol. III, pp. 204–19. 52. Memorandum by the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (George Kennan), 18 May 1947, FRUS 1947, Vol. III, pp. 220–3. 53. Memorandum by the Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs (Clay- ton), sent to Acheson on 27 May 1947, FRUS 1947, Vol. III, pp. 230–2. 54. Extracts from Marshall Speech at Harvard University 5 June 1947. http:// www.oecd.org/document/10/0,2340,en_2649_201185_1876938_1_1_1_1, 00.html date accessed 2 February 2006. 55. Bohlen, C. (1973) Witness to History, 1929–1969 (New York: W. W. Norton and Co. Inc), p. 265. 56. Taft had called the Marshall Plan ‘unjustifiable from any economic stand- point’. See Wunderlin, C., Jr (ed.) (1997) The Papers of Robert A. Taft,Vol.III, 1945–1948 (Kent, OH and London: The Kent State University Press), p. 433. 57. Wallace, H. (1948) Toward World Peace (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press), p. 113. 58. Morgenthau, H. (1945) Germany is Our Problem (New York: Harper and Bros.), pp. 100–1. 59. Grogin, R. (2000) Natural Enemies: The United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917–1991 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books), p. 118. 60. European Recovery Act, 3 April 1948, General Records of the United States Government, Record Group 11. 61. Ellis, H. (1950) The Economics of Freedom: The Progress and Future of Aid to Europe (New York: Published for the Council on Foreign Relations by Harper Bros.), In the case of France and Italy, Esposito argues that the cen- tral question was a political one. Without US aid it would have been far more difficult to carry out modernisation plans and to make the fiscal and wage concessions necessary for continued Third Force tenure during 1948– 1950. Had the Third Force fallen, an alternative cabinet would have had to include either the Gaullists or the Communists. In Italy, De Gasperi’s political task was certainly facilitated by the presence of ERP imports and by the lire funds, used to relieve mass unemployment, and counterparts funds Notes 195

which made loans available to the strapped private sector that favoured Italy’s pro-American stance. Esposito, C. (1994) America’s Feeble Weapon: Funding the Marshall Plan in France and Italy, 1948–1950 (Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press). 62. Milward, A. (1984) The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951 (London: Methuen), pp. 112–13. 63. According to Milward, who argues that the recovery of the European econ- omy originated in the post-war determination to succeed, it was the very strength of the recovery, sucking in huge volumes of American resources and causing severe balance of payment deficits, that created short-term ten- sions. He also maintains that the ERP, although being responsible for the prevention of economic restrictions, did not make a substantial significance to the recovery except for maybe one or two years of economic growth. See Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951, pp. 1–55, 91–113 This view is supported by Eichengreen and DeLong who argue that the Marshall Plan significantly increased Western European growth by altering the environment in which economic policy was made. The Marshall Plan era saw a rapid dismantling of controls over product and factor markets in Western Europe and the restoration of price and exchange rate stabil- ity. This came about because, to some degree, the governments in power believed that the ‘mixed economies’ they were building should have a strong pro-market orientation. The Marshall Plan ‘conditionality’ pushed governments towards versions of the ‘mixed economy’ that had more market orientation and less directive planning in the mix. The Marshall Plan should thus be thought of as a large and highly successful structural adjustment programme. See De Long, B. J. and Eichengreen, B. (1993) ‘The Marshall Plan: History’s Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program’ in Dornbusch, R., Nölling, W. and Layard, R. (eds), Postwar Economic Recon- struction and Lessons for the East Today (Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press). 64. Arkes, H. (1972) Bureaucracy, the Marshall Plan, and the National Interest (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 3. 65. See Leffler, M. (1996) The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War, Occasional Paper no. 16, German Historical Institute (Washington, DC: German Historical Institute). 66. Lucas, S. (1999) Freedom’s War: The US Crusade Against the Soviet Union, 1945–56 (Manchester: Manchester University Press), p. 39. 67. Jackson, P. T. (2006) Civilizing the Enemy: German Reconstruction and the Invention of the West (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press), pp. 241–2. Wright traces the ‘’ as a rhetorical commonplace as far back as the Bolshevik Revolution. See Wright, P. (2007) Iron Curtain: From Stage to Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 68. Leffler and Lundestad have argued that America was intent on prevent- ing the emergence of a ‘third force’ or an independent centre of power on the Continent. According to Leffler, ‘neither an integrated Europe nor a united Germany nor an independent Japan were to be permitted to emerge as a third force or a neutral bloc’. See Leffler, M. (1992) APrepon- derance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford: Stanford University Press), p. 17 and Lundestad, G. (1998) 196 Notes

‘Empire’ by Integration: The United States and European Integration, 1945–1997 (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 4, 54–7. 69. Proclaiming that World War Two had been a ‘Brothers’ War’, Oswald Mosley had called for the establishment of the ‘nation of Europe’. See Mosley, O. (March, 1950) The European Situation: The Third Force. 70. CAB 129/23, CP (48) 8. 71. FO 371/62555/12502 (22 December 1947–10 January 1948). 72. Keep Left, by a group of Members of Parliament (1947) (London: New Statesman and Nation). 73. Speech by , Zurich, 19 September 1946. http:// www.coe.int/T/E/Com/About_Coe/DiscoursChurchill.asp date accessed 12 March 2009. 74. CAB 129/23, CP (48) 6. 75. Young, J. W. (1993) Britain and European Unity, 1945–1992 (Basingstoke: Macmillan), pp. 18–27. 76. FO371/76384/3114 (9 May 1949). 77. Young, J. W. (1990) France, the Cold War, and the Western Alliance, 1944–49 (Leicester: Leicester University Press), pp. 26–7. 78. Foreign Office Telegram, 29 May 1946, FO800/466. 79. Monnet, J. (1976) Memoirs, translated by Richard Mayne (London: Collins), p. 274. 80. Lacroix-Riz, A. (2007) L’intégration européenne de la France: la tutelle de l’Allemagne et des États-Unis (Pantin: Temps des cerises), pp. 44–6. 81. Poidevin, R. (1985) ‘La France et le Charbon allemande au lendemain de la deuxième guerre mondiale’, Relations Internationales, no. 44, hiver, pp. 371–4. 82. Berger, H. and Ritschl, A. (1992) Germany and the Political Economy of the Marshall Plan, 1947–1952; A Re-Revisionist View, December, Discus- sion Papers (Munich: Volkswirtschaftliche Falkutät, Ludwig-Maximilians- Universität), p. 1. 83. Clifford Basic Document no. 1, Clark Clifford, 31 October 1947, from Mer- rill, D. (ed.) (1996) Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, Vol. XIII, Establishing the Marshall Plan, 1947–1948 (Frederick, MD: University Publi- cations of America), p. 439. 84. Bevin speech at the House of Common, 30 June 1948, from von Oppen, B. R. (ed.) (1955) Documents of Germany under Occupation 1945–1954 (London, New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press), pp. 308–14. 85. Economic Co-Operation Agreement between the United States and the US and British Occupied Areas in Germany, 14 July 1948, from von Oppen, Documents of Germany under Occupation 1945–54, pp. 318–22. 86. ‘European Recovery and American Aid’, President’s Committee on Foreign Aid (1947) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office), pp. 3–4. 87. Clifford Basic Document no. 1, Clark Clifford, 31 October 1947, from Merrill, Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, Vol XIII, p. 413. 88. Welles, S. (1946) Where are We Heading? (New York: Harper), p. 153. 89. Clay, L. (1950) Germany and the Fight for Freedom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), p. 62. 90. See Lucas, S. (1999) Freedom’s War: The US Crusade Against the Soviet Union, 1945–56 (Manchester: Manchester University Press) and Gaddis, J. L. Notes 197

and Deibel, T. (1987) Containing the Soviet Union: A Critique of U.S. Policy (Washington, DC and London: Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense). 91. Millis, W. and Duffield, E. S. (eds) (1951) The Forrestal Diaries (New York: Viking Press), pp. 127–32, 137–40. 92. Joint Chiefs of Staff to Byrnes, 29 March 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.I, pp. 1165–6. 93. Kennan to Byrnes, 22 February 1946, FRUS 1946, Vol VI, pp. 696–709. 94. Ullman, R. (1987) ‘Containment and the Shape of the World’, in Gaddis and Deibel (eds), Containing the Soviet Union: A Critique of US Policy, p. 121. In Stephanson’s view, Kennan saw in ‘containment’, not a developed the- ory, strategic doctrine or even concrete policy but a concept of active resistance as opposed to inertia. See Stephanson, A. (1989) Kennan and the Art of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press), p. 92. 95. Kennan, G. (1987) ‘Reflections on Containment’, in Gaddis and Deibel, Containing the Soviet Union: A Critique of US Policy,p.17. 96. Lippmann, W. (1947) The Cold War: A Studying in US Foreign Policy (New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers), pp. 61–2. 97. Kennan, G. (1967) Memoirs, 1925–50 (New York: Atlantic, Little, Brown), p. 365. 98. ‘American Relations With The Soviet Union’, 24 September 1946, Report by Clark Clifford, American Relations With The Soviet Union; Subject File; Conway Files; Truman Papers. http://www.trumanlibrary.org/4-1.pdf date accessed 23 June 2007. 99. Speech by Winston Churchill, Fulton, Missouri, 5 March 1946. http:// history1900s.about.com/library/weekly/aa082400a.htm date accessed 3 July 2009. 100. Leland Harrison to Harry Truman, 18 September 1946. From Sand, G. W. (ed.) (2004) Defending the West: The Truman-Churchill Correspondence, 1945– 1960 (Westport, CT and London: Praeger), pp. 160–1. 101. President Truman Address before the Joint Session of the Senate and the House of Representatives, 12 March 1947. http://www.trumanlibrary. org/whistlestop/study_collections/doctrine/large/documents/index.php? documentdate=1947-03-12&documentid=31&studycollectionid= TDoctrine&pagenumber=1 date accessed 23 March 2006. 102. Foreign Relations of the United States, Vol. 1, Thorne, C. T. and Patterson, D. (eds) (1996) Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment, 1945–1950 US Department of State (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office), pp. 668–72. 103. NSC 10/2, 18 June 1948, Document 292. Foreign Relations of the United States, Vol. 1, Thorne, and Patterson, Emergence of the Intelligence Establish- ment, 1945–1950. 104. Mark has stated the fact that the US State Department accepted the view of ‘open’ and ‘limited’ influence of the Soviet Union in key areas of East- ern Europe. See Mark, E. (1979) ‘Charles E. Bohlen and the Limits of Soviet Hegemony in Eastern Europe’, Diplomatic History 3, no. 2 (Spring), pp. 201– 13 and ‘ “American Policy Toward Eastern Europe and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1946”: An Alternative Explanation’, Journal of American History 68 (September 1981), pp. 313–36. 198 Notes

105. Filitov, A. (1996) ‘Problems of Post-War Construction of Soviet Foreign Policy Conceptions During world War Two’, in Gori, F. and Pons, S. (eds), The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War 1943–53 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave MacMillan), p. 7. 106. Perlmutter, A. (1993) FDR and Stalin: A Not So Grand Alliance, 1943–1945 (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press), pp. 259–78. 107. Mastny, V. (1979) Russia’s Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941–5 (New York: Columbia University Press), pp. 231–2. 108. Pechatnov, V. (1995) The Big Three after World War Two: New Documents about Post-war Soviet Relations with the United States and Great Britain (Washington, DC: Cold War International History Project), p. 21. 109. Stalin, I. V. (1967) Sochineniya, Vol. 2 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute), pp. 164–70. 110. Kennedy-Pipe, C. (1995) Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943 to 1956 (Manchester: Manchester University Press), p. 66. 111. Pechatnov, The Big Three after World War Two,p.24. 112. Speech delivered by at a meeting of the Stalin electoral district, Moscow, 9 February 1946. From Speeches Delivered at Meetings of Voters of the Stalin Electoral District (1950) (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House). 113. Nikolai Novikov, Soviet Ambassador in Washington, Telegram, September 1946. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/novikov.htm date accessed 23 April 2009. 114. Report on the international situation to the , Andrei Zhdanov, 22 September 1947. http://www.gilderlehrman.org/teachers/ seminar_docs/coldwar_doc2.html date accessed 2 September 2009. 115. Telegram from (Elbridge) Dubrow to Marshall, 26 May 1947, from Merrill, Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, Vol XIII, p. 170. 116. Chuyev, F. (1991) Sto sorok besed s Molotovvm (140 Conversations with Molotov) (Moscow: Terra), pp. 88–9. 117. UN General Assembly in September 1947, Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Andrei Vyshinsky outlined his government’s interpretation of the Marshall Plan. http://isc.temple.edu/hist249/course/Documents/vyshinsky_speech_ to_un.htm date accessed 3 February 2009. 118. Parrish, S. D. and Narinsky, M. (1994) New Evidence on the Soviet Rejec- tion of the Marshall Plan, 1947: Two Reports (Washington, DC: Cold War International History Project), pp. 40–1. 119. Zubok, V. and Pleshakov, C. (1996) Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), pp. 276–7. 120. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power, p. 512. 121. Loth, W. (1996) ‘Stalin’s Plan for Post-War Germany’, in Gori and Pons, The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War 1943–53, pp. 24–5. 122. Davidson, B. (1950) Germany: What Now? Potsdam 1945–Partition 1949 (London: Frederick Muller Ltd.), p. 27. 123. For more on the National Front strategy, see Mark, E., Revolution by Degrees: Stalin’s National-Front Strategy for Europe, 1941–1947,TheCold War International History Project Working Paper no. 31 (Washington, DC). Notes 199

124. See Coutouvidis, J. and Reynolds, J. (1986) 1939–1947 (Leicester: Leicester University Press). Also Polonsky, A. and Drukier, B. (eds) (1980) The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul), pp. 1–139. 125. Phillips, A. L. (1986) Soviet Policy toward East Germany Reconsidered: The Postwar Decade (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press), p. 40. 126. My italics. Rothschild, J. (1993) Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 77. 127. Macdonald, D. J. (1995) ‘Communist Bloc Expansion in the Early Cold War: Challenging Realism, Refuting Revisionism’, International Security 20, no. 3 (Winter), p. 165. 128. Bialer, S. (1986) The Soviet Paradox: External Expansion, Internal Decline (New York: Knopf), p. 185. 129. Calhoun, C. (ed.) (2002) ‘Cold War’, Dictionary of the Social Sciences (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press). 130. See Bailey, T. (1950) America Faces Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 131. Davies, N. (1997) Europe: A History (London: Pimilico), pp. 1100–1. 132. Schlesinger, A. (1967) ‘Origins of the Cold War’, Foreign Affairs 46, no. 1 (October), pp. 22–52. 133. Courtois, S. et al. (1999) The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press), p. 397. 134. ‘X’ (George Kennan) (1947) ‘The Sources of Soviet Conduct’, Foreign Affairs 25, no. 4, pp. 566–82. 135. Pipes, R. (2001) Communism: A Brief History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson), p. 73. 136. Mastny, V. (1996) The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 11. 137. Mikołajczyk , S. (1948) TheRapeofPoland: Pattern of Soviet Aggression (New York and Toronto: McGraw-Hill Book Co.), p. 252. 138. Eley, G. (2002) Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850– 2000 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press), p. 305. 139. Roberts, G. (1999) ‘, Calculation, and Improvisation: Spheres of Influence and Soviet Foreign Policy 1939–1945’, Review of International Studies 25, no. 4, pp. 655–73. 140. Shustov, V. (1993) ‘A View on the Origins of the Cold War and Some Lessons Thereof’, in Lundestad, G. and Westad, O. A. (eds), Beyond the Cold War: New Dimensions in International Relations: 90th Anniversary Nobel Jubilee Symposium (London: Scandinavian University Press), pp. 25–7. 141. Kennedy-Pipe, Stalin’s Cold War, pp. 192–4. 142. Kennan, Memoirs, 1925–50, p. 401. 143. Lundestad, G. (1978) The American Non-Policy Towards Eastern Europe 1943– 1947 (Tromsö, Oslo and Bergen: Universiteitsforlaget), pp. 318–19. 144. Cable, M. Litvinov to V. M. Molotov, 12 March 1942, Sovyetsko- amerikanskiye Otnosheniya vo Vremya Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiniy, 1941– 1945, Vol. 1 1941–1943 (1984) (Moscow: Politizdat), pp. 155–7. 145. Document 39, cable, Stalin to Molotov, 24 May 1942, in Rzheshevsky, O. A. (ed.) (1997) Voina i Diplomatia: Dokumentiy, Kommentarii (1941–1942) (Moscow: Nauka), p. 118. 146. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 93. 200 Notes

147. Mearsheimer, J. J. (2001) The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York, NY: Norton), p. 35. 148. Glaser, C. and Kaufmann, C. (1998) ‘What is the Offense-Defense Balance?’ International Security 22 (Spring), pp. 44–82. 149. Glaser, C. (1994–95) ‘Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help’, International Security 19 (Winter), pp. 50–90. 150. Regan, S. (1998) The Eagleton Reader (Oxford: Blackwell), p. 228. 151. Ibid., p. 236. 152. Althusser, L. (ed.) (1971), ‘Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses’, in Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays, translated by B. Brewster (London: NLB), p. 157. 153. Adorno, T. (1966) Negative Dialectics, translated by E. B. Ashton (New York: Seabury Press) (1973), pp. 143–61. 154. Waltz, Theory of International Politics,p.95. 155. Buzan, Little and Jones, The Logic of Anarchy, p. 72. 156. Ibid., p. 240. 157. Ibid., p. 77. 158. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 128. 159. Waltz, K. (2008) ‘The Stability of a Bipolar World’, in Realism and International Politics (London: Routledge), p. 80.

3 The Social Process of Conflict

1. For parallels between English School theory and constructivism see Alderson, K. and Hurrell, A. (eds) (2000) Hedley Bull on International Society (London: Macmillan); Dunne, T. (1995) ‘The Social Construc- tion of International Society’, European Journal of International Relations 1, no. 3, pp. 367–89; Buzan, B. and Little, R. (1996) ‘Reconceptualizing Anarchy: Structural Realism Meets World History’, European Journal of International Relations 2, no. 4, pp. 403–38 and Wæver, O. (1999) ‘Does the English School’s Via Media equal the Contemporary Constructivist Middle Ground?’ BISA Conference Paper, Manchester, p. 17. 2. Reus-Smit, C. (2009) ‘Constructivism and the English School’, in Navari, C. (ed.), Theorising International Society: English School Methods (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 58. 3. See Paterson, T. (1973) Soviet-American Confrontation: Postwar Reconstruction and the Origins of the Cold War (Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press). 4. See Gaddis, J. L. (1972) The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (New York: Columbia University Press). While Gaddis does not hold either side entirely responsible for the onset of the conflict, he argues that the Soviets should be held more accountable for the ensuing problems. According to Gaddis, Stalin was in a much better position to compromise than his Western counterparts, given his much broader power within his own regime than Truman, who was often undermined by vocif- erous political opposition at home. See Gaddis, J. L. (1997) We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York: Oxford University Press). Notes 201

5. Wendt, A. (1999) Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge and New York), p. 374. 6. Wendt, A. (1992) ‘Anarchy is What the States Make of It: The Social Con- struction of Power Politics’, International Organization 46, no. 2 (Spring), p. 403. 7. Ibid., pp. 410–11. 8. Ibid., pp. 391–425. 9. For accounts on the political organisation of the Eastern zone see Phillips, A. L. (1986) Soviet Policy Toward East Germany Reconsidered: The Postwar Decade (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press); Krisch, H. (1974) German Politics under Soviet Occupation (New York: Columbia University Press) and Naimark, N. (1995) The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press). 10. Announcement of the Soviet Military Administration of the establishment of German Administrations in the Soviet zone, 13 September 1945, from von Oppen, B. R. (ed.) (1955) Documents on Germany under Occupation1945– 1954. Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (London, New York, Toronto: OUP), pp. 64–6. 11. Order by Marshal Zhukov granting the Provincial and Länder Administra- tions in the Russian zone the right to issue laws and decrees having legal force, 22 October 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, p. 82. 12. Smyser, W. R. (1999) From Yalta to Berlin: The Cold War Struggle over Germany (New York: St Martin’s Press), p. 34. 13. Decree on Land Reform in Saxony, 10 September 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 59–64. Loewenthal describes the land reform scheme as the first important step towards the separation of the Eastern zone from the rest of Germany. See Loewenthal, F. (1950) News from Soviet Germany (London: Victor Gollancz), p. 291. 14. Nettl, J. P. (1951) Eastern Zone and Soviet Policy in Germany 1945–50 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 87. 15. Kuklick, B. (1972) American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press), pp. 117–8. 16. Hardach, K. (1980) The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press), p. 116. 17. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin, p. 35. 18. Ibid., p. 46. 19. Northedge, F. S. (1974) Descent from Power: British Foreign Policy 1945–1973 (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.), pp. 74–5. 20. Backer, J. H. (1978) The Decision to Divide Germany: American Foreign Policy in Transition (Durham, NC: Duke University Press), pp. 113–14. 21. Clay to the Chief of Civil Affairs Division, War Department (Echols), 23 May 1946, FRUS 1946, Vol. V, The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 557. 22. Acheson to Byrnes, 9 May 1946, FRUS 1946, Vol. V, pp. 551–4. 23. Clay press conference, 27 May 1946, Clay Papers, I: 221. 202 Notes

24. The term ‘Cold War’ was a term coined by George Orwell in an essay enti- tled ‘You and the Atomic Bomb’, published on 19 October 1945 in the London Tribune. Orwell argued that ‘We may be heading not for general breakdown but for an epoch as horribly stable as the slave empires of antiq- uity ...the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a state which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of “Cold War” with its neighbours.’ From http:// www.orwelltoday.com/orwellcoldwar.shtml date accessed 27 April 2007. The American columnist Walter Lippmann gave wide circulation to the term. See Lippmann, W. (1947) The Cold War: A Study in US Foreign Policy (New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers). 25. Murphy to Byrnes, 2 May 1946, FRUS 1946, Vol. V, The British Common- wealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 546–7. 26. Note from the Political Department to Bidault, 10 July 1945, Doc- uments Diplomatiques Français 1945, Tome II (1er Julliet–31 Decembre) (2000) (Ministère des Affaires Étrangeres, Commission de Publications des Documents Diplomatiques Français, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris), pp. 62–9. 27. Paper submitted by the Allied Secretariat to the ACC, 28 September 1945, FRUS 1945, Vol. III, European Advisory Commission; Austria; Germany, pp. 841–2. 28. Murphy to Byrnes, 2 October 1945, FRUS 1945, Vol. III, European Advisory Commission; Austria; Germany, pp. 842–5. 29. Murphy to Byrnes, 14 April 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Common- wealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 536–7. 30. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin, p. 28. 31. French memorandum submitted to the London CFM September–October 1945, 14 September 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 66–8. 32. Shlaim, A. (1985) ‘The Partition of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War’, Review of International Studies 11, pp. 123–35. See Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin, p. 68. 33. Extract from Bevin report before the House of Commons on the Paris CFM (April–July 1946), 4 June 1946, von Oppen Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 139–41. 34. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin, p. 29. 35. Kuklick, American Policy and the Division of Germany, p. 152. 36. Extract from Molotov’s statement to the Soviet press on the Paris CFM (April–May 1946), 27 May 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 138–9. 37. GEN 121/1, 11 March 1946, CAB 130/9. 38. Interdepartmental Meeting, 3 April 1946, FO 945/16. 39. CP (46) 186, 3 May 1946, CAB 129/9. 40. Extract from a statement by Bevin concerning British policy on Germany, 22 October 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 180–6. 41. Deighton, A. (1990) The Impossible Peace: Britain, the Division of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War (Oxford: Clarendon), p. 81. Notes 203

42. Speech by US Secretary of State James Byrnes, Restatement of Policy on Germany, Stuttgart (Germany), 6 September 1946. http://usa.usembassy.de/ etexts/ga4-460906.htm date accessed 23 February 2007. 43. Acheson to the Secretary of State, 20 June 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 570. 44. Murphy to the Secretary of State, 20 July 1946, FRUS1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 580. 45. Caffery to the Secretary of State, 30 August 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 596. 46. Murphy to the Secretary of State, 25 October 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 629–30. 47. Murphy to Byrnes, 10 April 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Common- wealth; Western and Central Europe, p. 538. 48. Dubrow (Chargé in Moscow) to Byrnes, 4 September 1946, FRUS 1946, Vol. V, The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 600–2. 49. Caffery to Byrnes, 24 August 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Common- wealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 593–4. 50. Dubrow to Byrnes, 6 September 1946, FRUS 1946,Vol.V,The British Commonwealth; Western and Central Europe, pp. 602–3. 51. , The President’s Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report no.1: ‘German Agriculture and Food Requirements’, from Merrill, D. (ed.) (1996) Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, Vol. XIII: Establish- ing the Marshall Plan, 1947–1948 (Frederick, MD: University Publications of America), pp. 27–49. 52. Herbert Hoover, The President’s Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report no. 3: ‘The Necessary Steps for Promotion of German Exports, so as to relieve American taxpayers of the burdens of relief and for economic recovery of Europe’, Truman Library, from Merrill, Documentary History of theTrumanPresidency, pp. 76–94. 53. Ambassador Smith to Marshall, 11 July 1947, FRUS 1947, Vol. III, p. 327. 54. Clayton to Acheson, 27 May 1947, FRUS 1947, Vol. III, p. 230. 55. Memorandum of Cohen, Counsellor of the Department of State, to Marshall, 12 February 1947, FRUS 1947, Vol. II. p. 161. 56. Wala, M. (1994) The Council on the Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books), p. 101. 57. Foreign Office memorandum on the Allied control of the Ruhr, 27 February 1947, FO 371/64244. 58. Minutes of the Overseas Reconstruction Committee, 26 February 1947, FO371/64244. 59. Eisenberg, C. W. (1996) Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 280. 60. Ibid., p. 295. 61. Trachtenberg, M. (1999) A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), pp. 57–8. 62. The Saar had been a League of Nations governed territory, occupied by Britain and France under the provisions of the Versailles Treaty during 1920–1935. Between 1947 and 1956, it became a French Protectorate, joining the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957. 204 Notes

63. Bitsch, M. T. (1987) ‘Un Rêve français: le désarmament économique de l’Allemagne (1944–1947)’, Relations Internationales, no. 51, pp. 328–9. 64. Eighth meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers, 18 March 1947, FO 371/64206, p. 54. 65. Ninth meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers, 18 March 1947, FO 371/ 64206, p. 57. 66. Eighteenth meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers, 31 March 1947, FO 371/64206, pp. 78–84. 67. Informal meeting of the CFM, 1 April 1947, FO 371/64206, pp. 84–6. 68. Proceedings of the fourth plenary session of the CFM, 10 March–24 April 1947, FO 371/64206, p. 23. 69. Nineteenth meeting of the CFM, 2 April 1947, FO 371/64206, pp. 87–93. 70. Twenty-third meeting of the CFM, 8 April 1947, FO 371/64206, pp. 110–1. 71. Twenty-fifth meeting of the CFM, 10 April 1947, FO 371/64206, pp. 119–20. 72. Twenty-sixth meeting of the CFM, 11 April 1947, FO 371/64206, pp. 122. 73. General Marshall broadcast of 24 April 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation 1945–54, pp. 219–27. 74. Molotov, V. (1947) Speeches and Statements: Made at the Moscow Session of the Council of Foreign Ministers March 10–April 24, 1947 (London: Soviet News), p. 62. 75. Ibid., pp. 64–5. 76. Eisenberg, Drawing the Line, p. 306. 77. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin, pp. 50–1. 78. Directive JCS 1179, 15 July 1947, from Cassidy, V. (ed.) (1950) Germany 1947–1949:The Story in Documents, Department of State, European and British Commonwealth Series 9. 79. Trachtenberg, Constructed Peace, p. 60. 80. Eisenberg, Drawing the Line, p. 302. 81. Shlaim, ‘The Partition of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War’, p. 131. 82. Revised Plan for the Level of Industry in the Bizonia, 29 August 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation 1945–54, pp. 239–45. 83. Minutes of the tenth meeting of the London CFM, 5 December 1947, FO 371/64646. 84. Molotov statement at the tenth meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/ 64646, pp. 3–4, 6. 85. Marshall statement at the tenth meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/ 64646, p. 4. 86. Bevin statement at the tenth meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/ 64646, p. 5. 87. Minutes of the eleventh meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/64646. 88. Minutes of the twelfth meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/64646. 89. Minutes of the fifteenth meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/64646. 90. Foreign Office minutes of the seventeenth meeting of the London CFM 1947, FO371/64646. 91. Marshall statement, 15 December 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation 1945–54, pp. 261–3. 92. McAllister, J. (2002) No Exit: America and the German Problem, 1943–1954 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), p. 11. 93. Wendt, ‘Anarchy is What States Make of It’, pp. 396–99. Notes 205

94. Ibid., pp. 399–403. 95. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, p. 247. 96. Ibid., p. 283. 97. Ibid., pp. 283–5. 98. Ibid., p. 291. 99. Ibid., pp. 292–3. 100. Ibid., p. 296. 101. Zehfuss, M. (2002) Constructivism in International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 16–19. 102. Ibid., pp. 19–20. 103. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, p. 312. 104. My italics. Weber, M. (1962) Basic Concepts in Sociology,trans.H.P.Secher (London: Peter Owen), p. 85. 105. Parsons, T. (1991) The Social System (London: Routledge), p. 51. 106. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 78. 107. Backer, The Decision to Divide Germany, pp. 90–1.

4 The Revolutionist Context

1. See Mazower, M. (1998) Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane), ch. 5. 2. Freeden, M. (1978) The New : An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 39–40. 3. Polanyi, K. (1957) The Great Transformation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press), p. 249. 4. Ibid., p. 209. 5. Kennedy, D. (1999) Freedom from Want: The American People in Depres- sion and War 1929–1945 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 163–4. 6. Social Insurance and Allied Services (1942), Report by Sir William Beveridge (London: HM Stationery Office). 7. Dimova-Cookson, M. and Mander, W. J. (2006) T. H. Green: Ethics, Meta- physics, and Political Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 8. Mitrany, D. (1975) The Functional Theory of Politics (London: Robertson), p. 254. 9. Burchill, S. (1997) Liberal Internationalism, in Burchill, S., Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Paterson, M. and True, J. (eds) Theories of International Relations (London: Macmillan), pp. 31–2. 10. Ibid., p. 39. 11. Eichelberger, C. (1977) Organizing for Peace: A Personal History of the Founding of the United Nations (New York and London: Harper and Row), pp. 199–202. 12. Roger, W. L. (1977) at Bay, 1941–1945: The United States and the Decolonization of the (Oxford: Clarendon Press), p. 183. 13. Ibid., pp. 176–8. 14. Neumann, W. (1950) Making The Peace 1941–5: The Diplomacy of the Wartime Conferences (Washington, DC: Foundation for Foreign Affairs), p. 55. 206 Notes

15. Snell, J. (ed.) (1956) The Meaning of Yalta: Big Three Diplomacy and the New Balance of Power (Baton Rouge, LA: Lousiana State University), p. 16. 16. Charter of United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/ index.shtml date accessed 20 May 2009. 17. Claude, I. (1965) Swords into Ploughshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization (London: University of London Press), pp. 8–13. 18. Haas, E. (1964) Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), p. 492. 19. Claude, Swords into Ploughshares, p. 445. 20. The background of Hitler’s anti-Jewish stance is abundantly documented. In his letter to Herr Gemlich of 16 September 1919 Hitler states that ‘Rational anti-semitism, by contrast, must lead to a systematic and legal struggle against, and eradication of, the privileges the Jews enjoy over the other foreigners living among us (Alien Laws). Its final objective, how- ever, must be the total removal of all Jews from our midst.’ Point 4 of the Programme of the NSDAP, drafted by Hitler and Anton Drexler on 24 February 1920, stated that ‘only members of the nation may be citizens of the State. Only those of German blood, whatever be their creed, may be members of the nation. Accordingly, no Jew may be a member of the nation.’ In his Political Testament he states that ‘It is untrue that I or anyone else in Germany wanted war in 1939. It was wanted and provoked solely by international statesmen either of Jewish origin or working for Jewish interests.’ These documents were accessed at www.hitler.org on 23 March 2006. 21. Lukacs, J. (1997) The Hitler of History: Hitler’s Biographers on Trial (London: Phoenix Press), p. 123. 22. Fischer, K. (2001) Storia della Germania Nazista-Nascita e decandenza del Terzo Reich (Rome: Newton and Compton), pp. 454–5. 23. Memorandum by Colonel Hossbach, Minutes of a conference in the Reich Chancellery, Berlin, 5 November 1937. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/ avalon/imt/document/hossbach.htm date accessed 13 April 2009. 24. Leffler, M. (1996) The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War, Ocassional Paper no. 16 (Washington, DC: German Historical Institute), pp. 5–6. 25. Proektor, D. (1985) ‘The Yalta Conference and the German Problem’, in Iakovlev,A.N.(ed.),The Yalta Conference 1945: Lessons of History (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency), p. 129. 26. Davidson, B. (1950) Germany: What Now? Potsdam 1945–Partition 1949 (London: Frederick Muller Ltd.), pp. 19–20. 27. Section II (a), Protocol of the Proceedings: Potsdam Conference, 1 August 1945. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/decade/decade17.htm date accessed 30 January 2007. 28. Control Council Proclamation no. 2: Certain additional requirements imposed on Germany, 20 September 1945, from von Oppen, B. R. (ed.) (1955), Documents on Germany under Occupation 1945–1954. Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (London, New York, Toronto: OUP), pp. 68–79. Notes 207

29. Control Council Law no. 2: Providing for the termination and liquidation of the Nazi organisations, 10 October 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 79–81. 30. Control Council Proclamation no. 3: Fundamental principles of judicial reform, 20 October 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 81–2; ACC Law No. 4-Reorganisation of the German Judicial System, 30 November 1945. 31. Control Council Law no. 8: Elimination and prohibition of military train- ing, 30 November 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 90–3. 32. Control Council Law no. 10: Punishment of persons guilty of war crimes, crimes against peace and against humanity, 20 December 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 97–107. Law no. 10 was broadly based on the Hague Convention (1907) and the Geneva Con- vention (1929) provisions; ACC Directive no. 24-removal from office and from positions of responsibilities of Nazis and of persons hostile to allied purposes. 33. Control Council Directive no. 32: Disciplinary measures against manag- ing and administrative staffs of educational institutions, teaching staff, and students guilty of militaristic, Nazi, or anti-democratic propaganda, 26 June 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 142–3. 34. Control Council Directive no. 38, 12 October 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 233–4. 35. ACC Coordinating Committee, Abolition of the State of Prussia: Memoran- dum of the British member, 8 August 1946, FO 631/2454. 36. From ACC Directive no. 54, 25 June 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 233–4. 37. The Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Germany provided for the protection of the ‘inalienable rights to its citizens’ (Arti- cles 6–49). Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Germany – http://www.documentarchiv.de/ddr/verfddr1949.html date accessed Jan- uary 2009. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany included similar provisions. See Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany – https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf date accessed 15 February 2009 (Articles 1–21). 38. Trent, J. (1982) Mission on the Rhine: Re-education and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press), p. 258. 39. Willett, R. (1988) The Americanization of Germany 1945–1949 (London: Routledge), p. 27. 40. Ibid., pp. 16–20. 41. Clay, L. (1950) Decision in Germany (Melbourne, London and Toronto: William Heinemann Ltd.), pp. 281–2. 42. Fay, J. (2008) Theaters of Occupation: Hollywood and the Reeducation of Postwar Germany (Minneapolis, MN and London: University of Minnesota Press), p. xvi. 43. Clay, Decision in Germany, pp. 282–4. 44. Ibid., p. 299. 208 Notes

45. Directive JCS 1179, 15 July 1947, Cassidy, V. (ed.) (1950) Germany 1947– 1949: The Story in Documents, European and British Commonwealth Series 9, Department of State, p. 37. 46. Handbook for Military Government in Germany. 47. Merrit, R. (1995) Democracy Imposed: U.S. Occupation Policy and the German Public, 1945–1949 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press), pp. 181–2. 48. OMGUS, ‘Denazification’, Monthly Report of Military Governor US Zone, 20 August 1945, no. 1, p. 1. 49. Ibid., pp. 2–3. 50. OMGUS, ‘Denazification and Public Safety’ (Bimonthly Review), Monthly Report of the Military Governor, US Zone, 1 October–30 November 1946, no. 17, pp. 1–2. 51. OMGUS, ‘Denazification and Public Safety’ (Bimonthly Review), Report of the Military Governor, US Zone, August–September 1947, no. 27, pp. 1–2. 52. Eisenberg, C. W. (1996) Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 373–4. 53. OMGUS, ‘Denazification’ (Cumulative Review), Report of the Military Governor, 1 April 1947–30 April 1948, no. 34, p. 10. 54. The Present Status of Denazification, John McCloy, 31 December 1950. http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id= 2308 date accessed 23 June 2009. 55. Niethammer, L. (1982) Die Mitläuferfabrik: d. Entnazifizierung am Beispiel Bayerns (Berlin and Bonn: Dietz), pp. 654, 659. 56. Davidson, E. (1959) The Death and Life of Germany: An Account of the American Occupation (London: Jonathan Cape), pp. 277–8. 57. Simpson, C. (1988) Blowback: America’s Recruitment of Nazis and its Effect on the Cold War (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson), pp. 3–7. 58. Wolfe, R. Analysis of the Investigative Records Repository (IRR) File of Klaus Barbie, The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG), 19 September 2001. 59. Turner, I. (ed.) (1989) Reconstruction in Post-War Germany: British Occupa- tion Policy and the Western Zones 1945–55 (London, NYC and Munich: Berg Publishers Ltd.), pp. 4–6. 60. FO898/401, 29 May 1945. 61. Marshall, B. (1988) The Origins of Post-War German Politics (London, New York and Sydney: Croom Helm), pp. 198–200. 62. Hahn, H. J. (1998) Education and Society in Germany (Oxford and Providence, NI: Berg Publishers), p. 95. 63. Samuel, R. and Thomas, R. (1949) Education and Society in Modern Germany (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul), p. 175. 64. Davis, K. S. (1978) ‘The Problem of Textbooks’, in Hearnden (ed.), The British in Germany: Educational Reconstruction after 1945 (London: Hamilton), p. 115. 65. FO1010/27, 13 Regional Intelligence Staff to Detachment 120, Military Government, 22 June 1946. 66. Turner, I. (1989) ‘Denazification in the British Zone’, in Turner, I. (ed.), Reconstruction in Post-War Germany: British Occupation Policy and the Western Zones, 1945–55 (London, NYC and Munich: Berg Publishers Ltd.), p. 239. Notes 209

67. Donnison, F. S. V. (1961) Civil Affairs and Military Government North West Europe (London: HM Stationery Office), pp. 376–7. 68. FO1010/27, 229/MG/1752/1/PS, 21 June 1946. 69. FO371/64352/C233, COGA to CCG Berlin, 3 January 1947. 70. Churchill Speech to the House of Commons, 12 November 1946, in Churchill, R. S. (ed.) (1948) The Sinews of Peace: Post-War Speeches by Winston S. Churchill (London: Cassell and Co.), p. 233. 71. British Military Government Ordinance no.110, 1 October 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 247–50. 72. Ebsworth, R. (1960) Restoring Democracy in Germany: The British Contribution (London: Stevens and Sons Ltd.), pp. 11–3. 73. Turner, ‘Denazification in the British Zone’, p. 266. 74. Ruge-Schatz, A. (1981) ‘Le Revers de la médaille: Contradictions et lim- ites de l’apport culturel du government militarire (militaire) français’, in (en) Allemagne’ in Vaillant, J. (ed.), La Denazification par les Vainqueurs: La Politique Culturelle des Occupants en Allemagne 1945–1949 (Presses Universitaires de Lille), pp. 106–7. 75. For a close examination of the aspects involving re-education in the West- ern zones see Torriani, R. (2005), Nazis into Germans: Re-Education and Democratisation in the British and French Zones of Occupation, 1945–1949. PhD Thesis (Cambridge University). 76. Willis, F. R. (1962) France, Germany and the New Europe, 1945–1963 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), pp. 42–3. 77. Ruge-Schatz, ‘Le Revers de la médaille: Contradictions et limites de l’apport culturel du government militarire français’, p. 106. 78. Guth, S. (1991) Les Forces Françaises en Allemagne: La Citadelle Utopique (Paris: Editions l’Hartmann), pp. 29–30. 79. Willis, France, Germany and the New Europe, 1945–1963, pp. 44–5. 80. Ruge-Schatz, ‘Le Revers de la médaille: Contradictions et limites de l’apport culturel du government militarire français’, p. 109. 81. Guth, Les Forces Françaises en Allemagne, pp. 31–3. 82. Willis, France, Germany and the New Europe, 1945–1963, p. 46. 83. Moreau, J. (1981) ‘Les Aspects Particuliers de la Politique d’Occupation Française dans les domaines de la jeunesse et de l’education populaire’, in Vaillant, J. (ed.), La Denazification par les Vainqueurs: La Politique Culturelle des Occupants en Allemagne 1945–1949, p. 21. 84. Willis, France, Germany and the New Europe, 1945–1963, pp. 4–5. 85. Ferber, G. (1981) ‘Vicissitudes ou les débuts de la presse à Constance en 1945–1946’, in Vaillant, J. (ed.), La Denazification par les Vainqueurs-La Politique Culturelle des Occupants en Allemagne 1945–1949, pp. 78–9. 86. Moreau, ‘Les Aspects Particuliers de la Politique d’Occupation Française dans les domaines de la jeunesse et de l’education populaire’, pp. 24–9. 87. Hillel, M. (1983) L’Occupation Francaise en Allemagne (Paris: Balland), pp. 160–2. 88. Willis, F. R. (1962) The French in Germany 1945–9 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), pp. 153–5. 89. Vollnhals, C. (1991) Entnazifizierung: Politische Säuberung und Rehabilitierung in den vier Besatzungszonen, 1945–1949 (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag), pp. 35–6. 210 Notes

90. Samuel and Thomas, Education and Society in Modern Germany, pp. 172–3. 91. McCauley, M. (1983) The German Democratic Republic since 1945 (London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press), pp. 40–1. Johannes R. Becher became the first Minister of Culture of the GDR. His literary work is indica- tive of a trend that would carry on until the 1953 crisis and is concerned with the idea of communication with non-proletarian writing and keeping the channels open with the West. See Davies, P. (1994) ‘ “Ein schönes, unge- trenntes Ganzes”: Johannes R. Becher and the Kulturnation’, in Flanagan, C. and Taberner, S. (eds), 1949/1989: Cultural Perspectives on Division and Unity in East and West, German Monitor no. 50 (Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA: Editions Rodopi B.V.). 92. Blessing, B. (2006) The Antifascist Classroom: Denazification in Soviet-Occupied Germany, 1945–1949 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 188–9. 93. Behncke, M. (1983) Democratization or Sovietization? The Development of the Soviet Zone of Occupation in Germany 1945–1950 in the Light of Recent Findings (PhD thesis, Pacific Western University), p. 77. 94. Pritchard, G. (2000) The Making of the GDR 1945–53: From Antifascism to (Manchester: Manchester University Press), p. 86. 95. Draft Law on the Transfer of the Enterprises of War Criminals and Nazi Criminals and Land Saxony, 25 May 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, p. 136. 96. Pritchard, The Making of the GDR 1945–53-, pp. 83–4. 97. ACC Order no. 201, 16 August 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 234–6. 98. Vogt, T (2000) Denazification in Soviet-Occupied Germany (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press), p. 232. 99. Principles and Aims of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, 21 April 1946, in Beata Ruhm von Oppen Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 121–25. 100. Appeal to the German People by the Christian Democratic Union, 26 June 1945. http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_ id=3070 date accessed 3 June 2009. 101. Stammen, T. (ed.) (1965) Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit: west- deutsche Innenpolitik 1945–1955 (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag), pp. 120–26. 102. Bundesgesetzblatt (BGB1) 1949, pp. 37–8, Gesetz über die Gewährung von Straffreiheit. 103. Gesetz über Erlaß von Strafen and Geldbußen and die Niederschlagung von Strafverfahren and Bußgeldverfahren vom, 17 July 1954, BGB1.I.1954, pp. 203–9. 104. Peterson, E. N. (1977) The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press), pp. 341–2. 105. Richter, W. (1945) Re-Educating Germany (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press), p. 214. 106. Muhlen, N. (1953) The Return of Germany: A Tale of Two Countries (London: TheBodleyHead),p.5. 107. Woetzel, R. (1962) The Nuremberg Trials in International Law (with a postlude on the Eichmann case) (London: Stevens & Sons Ltd.), p. 35. Notes 211

108. London Charter, 8 August 1945. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/imtchart. asp date accessed 10 March 2009. 109. Sorokina, M. (2008) ‘On the Way to Nuremberg: The Soviet Commission for the Investigation of Nazi War Crimes’, in Griech-Polelle, B. A. (ed.), The Nuremberg and its Policy Consequences Today,firstedition (Baden-Baden: Nomos), p. 32. 110. The Third Molotov Note on German Atrocities (1942) (London: HM Stationery Office). 111. My italics. Ginsburgs, G. (1996) Moscow’s Road to Nuremberg: The Soviet Background to the Trial (The Hague and Boston, MA and London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers), pp. 151–2. 112. Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Vol. I (1946), Office of US Chief of Coun- sel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office), pp. vi–vii. 113. Ibid., p. x. 114. ‘Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, 14 November 1945–1 October 1946’, official publication, Nuremberg, Germany (1947), Vol. 1, p. 29. 115. Ibid., p. 42. 116. Ibid., p. 43. 117. Ibid., p. 65. For a narrative account of the proceedings see Owen, J. (2006) The Nuremberg Trials: Evil on Trial (London: Headline). Also, Master, W. (1979) Nuremberg: A Nation on Trial (London: Allen Lane). 118. London Charter, 8 August 1945. www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/ imtchart.htm date accessed 12 April 2009. 119. Friedman, J. (2008) ‘Law and Politics in the Subsequent Nuremberg Tri- als, 1946–1949’, in Heberer, P. and Matthäus, J. (eds), Atrocities on Trial: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Prosecuting War Crimes (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press), p. 95. 120. Jackson, R. H. (1946) The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals (New York: Alfred A. Knopf), pp. 5–6. 121. Ibid., p. 8. 122. Calvocoressi, P. (1947) Nuremberg: The Facts, the Law and the Consequences (London: Chatto and Windus), pp. 118–19. 123. Smith, D. (1977) Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg (London: Andre Deutsch), p. 301. 124. Report to the President by Mr. Justice Jackson, 7 October 1946 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office) (1949). 125. Rainer, F. (2006) My Internment and Testimony at the Nuremberg War Crimes Trial: The Account of Friedrich Rainer, Austrian Nazi, edited, anno- tated and introduced by Maurice Williams; translated from the German by Val Witham (Lewiston, NY and Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press), p. 83. 126. FO1056/239, German Press Review, 15 August–15 September 1947. 127. Schacht, H. (1949) Account Settled, translated by Edward Fitzgerald (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson), p. 233. 128. Papen, F. (1952) Memoirs, translated by Brian Connell (London: Andre Deutsch). 129. , 22 January 1948. 212 Notes

130. Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Trial of the German Major War Criminals (London: HM Stationery Office) (1946), pp. 142–4. 131. Geary, R. (1993) Denazification, Research papers in law, University of Nottingham, pp. 1–6. 132. Neave, A (1978) Nuremberg: A Personal Record of the Trial of Major Nazi War Criminals in 1945–6 (London: Hodder and Stoughton), p. 351. 133. Final Report to the Secretary of the Army on the Nuernberg War Crimes Tri- als and Control Council Law no. 10 by Telford Taylor (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office) (1949), p. 93. 134. Ibid., p. 234. 135. Sprecher, D. A. (1999) Inside the Nuremberg Trial: A Prosecutor’s Com- prehensive Account, Vol. III (Lanham, MD: University Press of America), p. 1444. 136. The German philosopher Hermann Graf Keyserling was the first to use the term ‘Führerprinzip’. One of Keyserling’s central claims was that certain ‘gifted individuals’ were ‘born to rule’ on the basis of Social Darwinism. The ideology of the Führerprinzip sees each organisation as a hierarchy of leaders, where every leader (Führer, in German) has absolute responsibil- ity in his own area, demands absolute obedience from those below him and answers only to his superiors. The justification for the civil use of the Führerprinzip was that unquestioning obedience to superiors suppos- edly produced order and prosperity in which those deemed ‘worthy’ would share. 137. Dönitz, K. (1990) Memoirs: Ten Years and Twenty Days (London: Greenhill Books), p. 477. 138. Speer, A. (1970) Inside the Third Reich (Avid Books: New York), p. 521. 139. Persico, J. (1994) Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial (New York and London: Penguin Books), p. 441. 140. Thacker, T. (2006) The End of the Third Reich: Defeat, Denazification & Nuremberg, January 1944–November 1946 (Stroud: Tempus), pp. 228, 234. 141. Sedgwick, J. B. (2008) ‘ “Brother, Black Sheep or Bastard? Situating the War Crimes Trial” in the Nuremberg Legacy 1946–1948’, in Griech- Polelle, The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial and its Policy Consequences Today, p. 76. 142. Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the . http:// www.alhaq.org/etemplate.php?id=81 date accessed 20 July 2009. 143. Despite his release on grounds of ill health, General Augusto Pinochet’s unprecedented detention in the in 2000 for crimes against humanity committed in his own country, without a warrant or request for extradition from Chile, marks a watershed in international law. Some schol- ars consider it one of the most important events in judicial history since the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals. Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón’s case was largely founded on the principle of universal jurisdiction; that certain crimes are so egregious that they constitute crimes against humanity and can therefore be prosecuted in any court in the world. The British House of Lords ruled that Pinochet had no right to immunity from prosecution as a former head of state, and could be put on trial. This interventionist Notes 213

principle is undoubtedly one of the legacies of the work of IMT during 1945–1948. 144. G.A. Res 95 (I), 1 UN. GAOR, Resolutions 188, UN. Doc. A/64/Add.1 (1946). 145. G.A. Res 96 (I), 1 UN. GAOR, Resolutions 188, UN Doc. A/64/Add.1 (1946). 146. G.A. Res 260A (III) 3. U.N. GAOR, Resolutions 174, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948). 147. Yearbook of the United Nations (1950), p. 852. 148. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998. http:// untreaty.un.org/cod/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm date accessed 23 June 2009. 149. Mitrany, The Functional Theory of Politics, pp. 98–9. 150. Ibid., p. 100. 151. Ibid., p. 103. 152. Mitrany, D. (1943) A Working Peace System: An Argument for the Functional Development of International Organization (London: Oxford University Press, The Royal Institute of International Affairs), p. 56. 153. Keohane, R. (2005) After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press), pp. 9–10. 154. Haas, E. (1964) Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press), p. 77. 155. Nye, J. and Keohane, R. (1977) Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (New York: Little and Brown), p. 8. 156. Ibid., p. 9. 157. Kant, I. (1972) Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch, translated with intro- duction and notes by M. Campbell Smith (New York and London: Garland), p. 99. 158. Doyle, M. (1997) Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism (New York: W. W. Norton), pp. 301–2. 159. Habermas, J. (1997) ‘Kant’s Idea of Perpetual Peace, with the Benefit of Two Hundred Years Hindsight’, in Bohman, J. and Lutz-Bachmann, M. (eds), Perpetual Peace: Essays on Kant’s Cosmopolitan Ideal (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press), p. 127. 160. Axelrod, R. and Keohane, R. (1993) ‘Achieving Cooperation under Anar- chy: Strategies and Institutions’, in Baldwin, D. (ed.), Neorealism and : The Contemporary Debate (New York: Columbia University Press), p. 87. 161. Stein, A. (1993) ‘Coordination and Collaboration: Regimes in an Anarchic World’, in Baldwin (ed.), Neorealism and Neoliberalism, p. 41.

5 The ‘Primary Institutions’ of the Postwar International Order

1. Wight, M. (1995) Power Politics (New York: Leicester University Press), p. 111. 2. Ibid., pp. 111–2. 3. Bull, H. (1995) The Anarchical Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan), pp. 101–229. 214 Notes

4. Buzan, B. (2004) From International Society to World Society? English School The- ory and the Social Structure of Globalisation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 181. 5. Mayall, J. (2000) World Politics: Progress and its Limits (Cambridge: Polity), pp. 149–50. 6. Overy describes the Soviet war effort as ‘an incomparable achievement, world-historical in a very real sense’. See Overy, R. (1998) Russia’s War (London: Allen Lane), p. 327. Russian deaths in the Great Patriotic War exceed 27 million (40 per cent of all the people killed during World War Two). These included at least 7 million civilians and 3.25 million soldiers who died in captivity. The Soviet military effort accounts for most of the 3.25 million German military fatalities during the war. A further 3 million German troops were captured by the Soviets. German losses on the Eastern Front accounted for 10 million killed, missing, wounded or captured, and the loss of equipment as 48,000 tanks, 167,000 artillery pieces and nearly 77,000 aircraft. See Duffy, C. (1991) Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 (London: Routledge), p. 3. See also, Merridale, C. (2005) Ivan’s War: The 1939–1945 (London: Faber and Faber). 7. ‘Pluralism plus’ was introduced as a concept by Barry Buzan. Buzan argues that pluralism and solidarism need to be repositioned so that they define the spectrum of types of interstate societies rather than being positions within them. This allows for the idea that solidarism, at least initially, builds on pluralism to become pluralism plus but then can develop into a variety of thicker versions. Buzan, From International Society to World Society? English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalisation, p. 158. 8. Anderson, K. and Hurrell, A. (1999) Hedley Bull on International Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan), p. 101. 9. Bobbit defines an ‘epochal war’ as ‘a war that challenges and ultimately changes the basic constitutional structure of the state, by linking strate- gic to constitutional innovations’. Bobbitt, P. (2002) The Shield of Achilles: War, Peace and the Course of History (London: Allen Lane), pp. 907, 21–3. 10. France was occupied by Alliance forces in 1815 in order to enforce the settle- ment imposed by the Congress of Vienna. See Veve, T. D. (1992) TheDukeof Wellington and the British Army of Occupation in France, 1815–1818 (Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press). 11. Waltz, K. (ed.) (2008) ‘The Stability of a Bipolar World’, Realism and International Politics (London: Routledge), p. 80. 12. Mayall, World Politics: Progress and its Limits, pp. 132–3. 13. Mill, J. S. (1884) On Liberty (New York: John B. Alden), chapter IV. 14. Ibid., p. 397. 15. Walzer, M. (1978) Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (London: Allen Lane), p. 91. 16. Articles 428–432, Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919. http://history.sandiego. edu/gen/text/versaillestreaty/ver428.html date accessed 3 March 2009. 17. Cooperation by the ACC broke down as the Soviet representative withdrew on 20 March 1948. The ACC convened again in 1971, leading to agreement on transit arrangements in Berlin and during the talks regarding the unifi- cation of Germany in late 1989. The disbanding of the ACC was officially Notes 215

announced by the Two Plus Four Agreement of 12 September 1990, effective as of 15 March 1991. 18. German Instrument of Surrender, 8 May 1945. http://en.wikisource.org/ wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender_%288_May_1945%29 date accessed 3 May 2006. 19. Declaration on Germany, 5 June 1945, from von Oppen, B. R. (ed.)Documents on Germany under Occupation 1945–1954. Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (London, New York, Toronto: OUP), p. 29. 20. Statement by the governments of the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and the Provisional Government of the French Republic on Control Machinery, 5 June 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, p. 36. 21. Control Council Proclamation no. 2: Certain additional requirements imposed on Germany, 20 September 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 68–79. 22. Control Council Directive no. 16: Arming of the German Police, 6 November 1945, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 88–9. 23. Control Council Plans for the transfer of the German population to be moved from Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland into the four occupied zones of Germany, 20 November 1945, from von Oppen, Docu- ments on Germany under Occupation, pp. 89–90. 24. Control Council Order no. 4: Confiscation of literature and material of Nazi and militarist , 13 May 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 134–5. 25. Control Council Law no. 34: Dissolution of the Wehrmacht, 20 August 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 151–2. 26. Control Council Directive no. 38: The arrest and punishment of war crim- inals, Nazis and militarists and the internment, control and surveillance of potentially dangerous Germans, 12 October 1946, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 168–79. 27. Little, R. (2007) The Balance of Power in International Relations: Metaphors, Myths and Models (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 4. 28. Ibid., pp. 11–2. 29. Wight, M. (1966) ‘The Balance of Power’, in Wight, M. and Butterfield, H. (eds), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics (London: George Allen and Unwin), p. 151. 30. Bull, The Anarchical Society, pp. 97–8. 31. Kaplan, M. (ed.) (1968) New Approaches to International Relations (New York: St Martin’s Press), p. 36. 32. Bull, The Anarchical Society, pp. 101–2. 33. Sheehan, M. (1996) The Balance of Power: History and Theory (London: Routledge), pp. 53–75. 34. I have borrowed the term from the biological sciences. The term ‘mutualism’ describes any relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals derive a benefit. See Ahmadjian, V. and Paracer, S. (2000) Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 6. 216 Notes

35. Azcarate, M. (1978) ‘What is ’, in Urban G. R. (ed.), Euro- communism: Its Roots and Future in Italy and Elsewhere (London: Maurice Temple Smith), p. 15. 36. Neumann, W. (1950) Making The Peace 1941–5: The Diplomacy of the Wartime Conferences (Washington, DC: Foundation for Foreign Affairs), p. 34. 37. Ibid., pp. 67–8. 38. Ibid., p. 76. 39. See Lundestad, G. (1978) The American Non-Policy Towards Eastern Europe 1943–1947 (Tromsö, Oslo and Bergen: Universiteitsforlaget). 40. See Waltz, K. (1979) Theory of International Politics (Boston, MA: McGraw Hill). 41. ‘Bandwagoning’ was coined by Quincy Wright in A Study of War (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press) (1942) and popularised by Kenneth Waltz in Theory of International Politics (1979). In the bandwagoning process, the political system of Washington’s allies took second place to the economic priority attached to the ‘grand design’. Spain was isolated politically and economically until 1955, when it became strategically important for the United States to foment a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula, next to the and the Strait of . Salazar’s Portugal was the only non-democracy among the founding members of NATO in 1949, which reflected Portugal’s role as an ally against communism during the Cold War. After liberation from Nazi Germany, Greece experienced a bit- ter civil war caused by the differences that emerged between left-wing and right-wing resistance forces. Civil war began between the Democratic Army of Greece and right-wing forces which had the support of the Hel- lenic Army. During the 1950s and 1960s, Greece experienced a gradual and significant economic growth, aided by grants and loans from the United States through the Marshall Plan. After participating with United Nations forces in the Korean conflict, Turkey, another non-democracy, joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion towards the Mediterranean. 42. Walt, S. (1985) ‘Alliance Formation and the Balance of Power’, International Security 9, no. 4, pp. 7–8. 43. Larson, D. (1991) ‘Bandwagon Images in American Foreign Policy: Myth or Reality’, in Jervis, R. and Snyder, J. (eds), Dominoes and Bandwagons: Strategic Beliefs and Great Power Competition in the Eurasian Landmass (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 87. 44. Walt, S. (1991) ‘Alliance Formation in Southwest Asia: Balancing and Bandwagoning in Cold War Competition’, in Jervis and Snyder, Dominoes and Bandwagons: Strategic Beliefs and Great Power Competition in the Eurasian Landmass, p. 54. 45. CAB 129/9, CP (46) 156, Gen 121/1, ‘The Future of Germany and the Ruhr’, , 11 March 1946. 46. Smyser, W. R. (1999) From Yalta to Berlin: The Cold War Struggle over Germany (New York: St Martin’s Press), p. 48. 47. Schuman, R. (1953) French Policy Towards Germany Since the War,Lecture delivered on 29 October at the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 7. Notes 217

48. Puchala, D. (1993) ‘Western Europe’, in Jackson, R. H. and James, A. (eds), States in a Changing World: A Contemporary Analysis (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 76–7. 49. Walt, S. (1987) The Origin of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), p. 173. 50. Ibid., p. 40. 51. Ibid., pp. 35–6. 52. Garthoff, R. (1951) ‘The Concept of the Balance of Power in Soviet Policy Making’, World Politics, October, p. 88. 53. Lider, J. (1986) Correlation of Forces: An Analysis of Marxist-Leninist Concepts (Aldershot: Gower), p. 1. 54. For the concept of ‘correlation of forces’ see Lider, J. (1986) Correlation of Forces: An Analysis of Marxist-Leninist Concepts (Aldershot: Gower). 55. Soviet terms for reunification included the re-establishment of Germany as a united state within the boundaries established by the provisions of the Potsdam Conference, a single united German government to play a role in the negotiations of the peace treaty and the withdrawal of all occupa- tion forces within one year. Following the date on which the treaty came into effect, political parties and organisations were to have ‘free’ activity. Germany was to have its own national armed forces and would be allowed to manufacture munitions for these forces. Germany would also be given access to world markets, and former members of the German armed forces and of the Nazi Party, except for convicted war criminals, could join in establish- ing a peaceful and democratic Germany. For an account of the Stalin Note see Steninger, R. (1990) The German Question: The Stalin Note of 1952 and the Problem of Reunification (New York: Columbia University Press). 56. Fox, W. T. R. (1944) The Super-Powers: The United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union – Their Responsibility for Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.), pp. 96–7. 57. My italics. Ibid., p. 97. 58. Grubb, K. (1957) Coexistence and the Conditions of Peace (London: SCM Press), p. 5. 59. Odysseos, L. (2007) The Subject of Coexistence: Otherness in International Relations (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press), p. 116. 60. I have readapted the term from Ned Lebow. See Lebow, R. N. (1981) Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press). 61. Clay, L. (1950) Decision in Germany (Melbourne, London and Toronto: William Heinemann Ltd.), pp. 155–6. 62. Tipton, F. B. (2003) A History of Modern Germany Since 1815 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press), p. 505. 63. Shlaim, A. (1985) ‘The Partition of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War’, Review of International Studies 11, pp. 134–5. 64. Shlaim, A. (1983) The United States and the , 1948–1949: A Study in Crisis Decision-Making (Berkeley, CA and London: University of California Press), pp. 409–10. 65. Davidson, W. P. (1958) The Berlin Blockade: A Study in Cold War Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), pp. 378–9. 218 Notes

66. See Bull, The Anarchical Society. Also Wight, Power Politics. 67. See Fox, The Super-Powers: The United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union – Their Responsibility for Peace. 68. Bull, The Anarchical Society, pp. 205–7. 69. Ibid., pp. 170–1. 70. Deutscher, I. (1960) The Great Contest: Russia and the West (London: Oxford University Press), pp. 64–5.

6 The Transformation of ‘International Society’

1. A version of this chapter was published as (2008) ‘The German Question and the Transformation of International Society’, Rivista di Studi Politici Internazionali 75, no. 2 (April), pp. 173–90. 2. I trace the origins of an ‘international society’ understood as a legal and diplomatic framework regulating interstate relations to the Spanish School tradition in the sixteenth century. See Lewkowicz, N. (2007) ‘The Spanish School as a Forerunner to the English School of International Relations’, Estudios Humanísticos. Historia 6 (December), pp. 85–97. 3. Bull, H. (1992) ‘The Importance of Grotius’, in Bull, H., Kingsbury, B. and Roberts, A. (eds), Hugo Grotius and International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 72. 4. Wight, M. (1966) ‘Western Values’, in Wight, M. and Butterfield, H. (eds), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics (London: Allen and Unwin), p. 103. 5. Dunne, T. (1998) Inventing International Society: A History of the English School (New York: St Martin’s Press, in association with St Antony’s College, Oxford), p. 10. 6. Bull, H. (1995) The Anarchical Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan), p. 13. 7. James, A. (1978) ‘International Society’, British Journal of International Studies (July), pp. 91–106. 8. Bellamy, A. (2005) ‘Conclusion: Whither International Society?’, in Bellamy, A. (ed.), International Society and its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 283–4. 9. Wight, M. (1991) International Theory: The Three Traditions (London: Leicester University Press), p. 48. 10. Mayall, J. (2000) World Politics: Progress and its Limits (Cambridge: Polity), p. 14. 11. Linklater, A. (1998) The Transformation of Political Community: Ethical Foun- dations of the Post-Westphalian Era (Oxford: Polity), p. 24. 12. Smyser, W. R. (1999) From Yalta to Berlin: The Cold War Struggle over Germany (New York: St Martin’s Press), p. 33. 13. Ibid., pp. 36–7. 14. Nettl, J. P. (1951) Eastern Zone and Soviet Policy in Germany 1945–50 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 125–7. 15. Ibid., pp. 105–6. 16. Communiqué issued by the SED, 11 January 1947, from von Oppen, B. R. (ed.) (1995) Documents on Germany under Occupation 1945–54. Issued Notes 219

under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (London, New York, Toronto: OUP), pp. 202–3. 17. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin, p. 37. 18. Berghahn, V. R. (1987) Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 196–7. 19. Luard, D. (1976) Types of International Society (New York: ), pp. 305–8. 20. The influence of the Council on Foreign Relations in the post-war think- ing of the State Department, particularly in regard to the rehabilitation of Germany, is well documented. The ‘grand design’ consisted of the creation of an international system which would provide ‘elbow room’ for the develop- ment of the US economy along free market lines. See Shoup, L. and Minter, W. (1977) Imperial Brain Trust: The Council on Foreign Relations and the United States Foreign Policy (New York, Lincoln, NE and Shanghai: Author Choice Press); Smith, N. (2003) American Empire: Roosevelt’s Geographer and the Pre- lude to Globalization (Berkeley, CA and London: University of California Press). 21. Revised Plan for the Level of Industry in the Bizonia, 29 August 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 239–45. 22. Communiqué on discussions between representatives of the United King- dom, the United States and France in London, 28 August 1947, von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 238–9. 23. Eisenberg, C. W. (1996) Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944–1949 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press), p. 366. 24. Anglo-American Announcement of the Establishment of the Bipartite Coal Control Group and the German Coal Management Board, 19 November 1947, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 259–60. 25. British Military Government Ordinance no. 126, 9 February 1948, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 268–75. 26. British Military Government Ordinance no. 127, 9 February 1948, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 275–79. 27. British Military Government Law no. 61, 20 June 1948, from von Oppen, Documents on Germany under Occupation, pp. 292–4. 28. Vigezzi, B. (2005) The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985): The Rediscovery of History (Milan: Edizione Unicopli), p. 397. 29. Gong argues that the concept of the standard of ‘civilisation’ remains an integral part of international society. He defines this standard as the state in which a ‘civilised’ constituent of international society guarantees basic rights, exists as an organised political bureaucracy, has some self-defence capacity and adheres to general principles of international law and the international system. See Gong, G. (1984) The Standard of ‘Civilization’ in International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 14–15. 30. See Lundestad, G. (1978) The American Non-Policy Towards Eastern Europe 1943–1947 (Tromsö, Oslo and Bergen: Universiteitsforlaget). 31. See McAllister, J. (2002) No Exit: America and the German Problem, 1943–1954 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press). 220 Notes

32. The Italian Communist Party (PCI) distanced itself from the Red Brigades movement in the 1970s. See Alexander, Y. and Pluchinsky, D. A. (1992) Europe’s Red Terrorists: The Fighting Communist Organizations (London: Routledge). 33. In the case of the Cuban Missiles Crisis and the Middle East, typical exam- ples of intervention beyond the spheres of influence boundaries, diplomatic engagement succeeded in avoiding an irretrievable breakdown of the Cold War international order. 34. The Helsinki Accords set up the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in order to promote East–West cooperation. The Helsinki Final Act held the post-World War Two European border arrangements to be permanent, and the signers agreed to respect the human rights and civic free- doms of their citizens, as well as to undertake various forms of international cooperation. Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, Final Act, Helsinki, 1 August 1975. www.hri.org/docs/Helsinki75.html date accessed 11 April 2009. 35. Charter of Paris for a New Europe, Paris, 19–21 November 1990. www1.umn.edu/humanrts/peace/docs/charterparis.html date accessed 10 April 2009. 36. Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, Moscow, 12 September 1990. www. usa.usembassy.de/etexts/2plusfour8994e.htm date accessed 13 March 2009. 37. Bull, H. (1984) ‘The Revolt Against the West’, in Bull, H. and Watson, A. (eds), The Expansion of international Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 224–7. 38. Bull reflected about the kind of international order that has replaced the European one and to what extent there is a ‘global international society’, in the sense of a belief in common values, rules and institutions, as distinct from a global ‘international system, the existence of which is in no doubt’. See Bull, H. (2005) ‘From a European to a Global International Order: A Pro- posal for Study’, in Vigezzi, The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1954–1985),p.5. 39. The signatories of the Declaration of the United Nations of 1 January 1942 included the United States, the United Kingdom and the Domin- ions, the Soviet Union and China which subscribed to the aims of the Atlantic Charter and pledged to ‘employ its full resources, mili- tary or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war’ and to ‘co-operate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies’. The declaration was open to ‘other nations ...rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism’. Declaration by the United Nations, 1 January 1942. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1942/420101a.html date accessed 23 March 2009. 40. Clark, I. (1997) Globalization and Fragmentation: International Relations in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 99. 41. Ibid., pp. 109–114. 42. Jackson, R. (2000) The Global Covenant: Human Conduct in a World of States (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 254–5. 43. Ibid., pp. 178–9. Notes 221

44. Carr, E. H. (1939) Twenty Years Crisis, first edition (London: Macmillan), p. 32, Note 1. 45. Vincent, R. J. (1974) Nonintervention and International Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 187.

7 The English School, the German Question and the Origins of the Cold War

1. Roberts mentions my paper entitled ‘The German Question and the International Order (1943–8)’ – www.leeds.ac.uk/polis/englishschool/ lewkowiczo5.doc – as a practical application of English School concepts to actual historical episodes. See Roberts, G. (2006) ‘History, Theory and the Narrative Turn in IR’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 32, No. 4 (October), pp. 709. 2. Herz, J. (1951) Political Realism and Political Idealism: A Study in Theories and Realities (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press), pp. 203–4. 3. Waltz, K. (1979) Theory of International Politics (Boston, MA: McGraw Hill), pp. 73–4, 76. 4. Clark, I. (2009) ‘How Hierarchical can International Society Be?’ International Relations 23, no. 3 (September), pp. 464–80. 5. Morgenthau, H. (1993) Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (London and New York: McGraw Hill), pp. 4–13. 6. Nardin, T. (1998) ‘Legal Positivism as a Theory of International Society’, in Mapel,D.andNardin,T.(eds),International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 32. 7. Nardin, T. (1998) ‘Ethical Tradition in International Affairs’, in Mapel, D. and Nardin T. (eds), Traditions of International Ethics: Diverse Ethical Perspectives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. 14. 8. My italics. Frost, M. (1986) Towards a Normative Theory of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 121–7. 9. Williams, J. (2005) ‘Pluralism, Solidarism and the Emergence of World Society in English School Theory’, International Relations 19, no. 1, p. 22. 10. Vincent, J. (1986) Human Rights and International Relations: Issues and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 114. 11. See Mayall, J. (2000) World Politics: Progress and its Limits (Cambridge: Polity Press). 12. UN Charter 26 June 1945. http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ date accessed 23 June 2009. 13. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/52d68d14de6160e0c12563 da005fdb1b/a2ec826e5d083098c125641e0040690d?OpenDocument date accessed 2 February 2009. 14. See Bower, T. (1982) The Pledge Betrayed: America and Britain and the Denaz- ification of Post-War Germany (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company Inc.). 15. FitzGibbon, C. (1969) Denazification (London: Joseph), p. 171. 16. Bower, The Pledge Betrayed, pp. 355–6. 222 Notes

17. Burchill, S. (1997) ‘Liberal Internationalism’, in Burchill, S., Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Paterson, M. and True, J. (eds), Theories of International Relations (London: Macmillan), pp. 31–2. 18. The Allies were also responsible for forcing the Germans to deal with the Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with the past). Theodor Adorno dealt with the question in a lecture entitled Was bedeutet die Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit? (‘What is meant by working through the past?’), a subject related to his thinking of ‘after Auschwitz’ in his later work. This work is often seen as consisting in part of a variably implicit and explicit critique of the work of Martin Heidegger, whose formal ties to the Nazi Party are well known. Heidegger attempted to provide a historical conception of Germania as a philosophical thought of German origin and destiny (later he would speak of ‘the West’). Alexander García Düttman’s (1991) Das Gedächtnis des Denkens: Versuch über Heidegger und Adorno (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp) attempts to treat the philosophical value of these seemingly opposed and certainly incompatible terms (‘Auschwitz’ and ‘Germania’) in the philosophy of both writers. 19. Taylor, A. J. P. (1978) The Course of German History (London: Methuen & Co.), p. 263. 20. Roseman, M. (2002) ‘ “Defeat and Stability: 1918, 1945” and 1989 in Germany’, in Levy, C. and Roseman, M. (eds), Three Postwar Eras in Compar- ison: Western Europe 1918–1945–1989 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave), p. 272. 21. Griffith, W. (1993) ‘Denazification Revisited’, in Ermarth, M. (ed.), America and the Shaping of German Society, 1945–55 (Providence, RI: Berg Publishers), pp. 160–1. 22. Doyle, M. (1997) Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism (New York: W. W. Norton), p. 245. See also Rosencrance, R. (1986) The Rise of the Trading State: Commerce and Conquest in the Modern World (New York: Basic Books); Mueller, J. (1989) Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolence of Major War (New York: Basic Books) and Haas, M. (1974) International Conflict (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill). 23. For more on the rise of social liberalism after World War Two, see Simhony, A. (ed.) (2001) The New Liberalism: Reconciling Liberty and Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). 24. Richter, W. (1945) Re-Educating Germany (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press), pp. 127–8. 25. Speech delivered by US President Woodrow Wilson to a joint session of the United States Congress on 8 January 1918. http://www.historyplace.com/ speeches/wilson-points.htm date accessed 14 April 2009. 26. Mitrany, D. (1933) The Progress of International Government (New Haven: Yale University Press), p. 101. 27. The need for international organisation was discussed at length during the war. In 1940, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace published The New World Order, a pamphlet which contained a select list of references on regional and world federation, together with some special plans for world order after the war. In 1942, the Institute of Pacific Relations published Post War Worlds by P. E. Corbett, which outlined ‘world government [as an] ulti- mate aim’ and for the law of nations to ‘take precedence over national law’. Notes 223

Also, see Coudenhove Kalergi, Richard (1926) Pan-Europe (New York: Alfred A. Knopf); Streit, C. (1939) Union Now (London: Jonathan Cape); Reves, Emery (1945) The Anatomy of Peace (London : Allen & Unwin, 1946); Wilkie, W. (1943) One World (London: Cassell and Company, Ltd.); Culbertson, E. (1944) Total Peace. What Makes Wars and How to Organise Peace (London: Faber & Faber). 28. Doyle, M. (1996) ‘Kant, Liberal Legacies and Foreign Affairs’, in Brown, M., Lynn-Jones, S. and Miller, S. (eds), Debating the Democratic Peace (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), p. 4. 29. Buzan, B. (2004) From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalisation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 59. 30. Ibid., chapter 2. 31. My italics. Buzan, From International to World Society? p. 140. 32. Ibid., pp. 147–9. 33. Ibid., p. 153. 34. Wight, M. (1991) International Theory: The Three Traditions (London: Leicester University Press), p. 268. 35. Ibid., p. 265. 36. Bull, H., ‘The Grotian Concept of International Society’, in Wight, M. and Butterfield, H. (eds) (1966) Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics (London: George Allen and Unwin), pp. 68–73. 37. Watson, A. (2002) Lecture notes for the Centre of the Study of Democracy (CSD) Encounter at the University of Westminster, 5 June. 38. Keohane, R. (ed.) (1986) ‘Theory of World Politics: Structural Realism and Beyond’, Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University Press), p. 191. 39. Leffler, M. (2000) ‘Bringing it Together: The Parts and the Whole’, in Westad, O. A. (ed.), Reviewing the Cold War: Approaches, Interpretations, Theory (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass), p. 58. Select Bibliography

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Abitur, 118 Austria, 1, 22, 34, 35, 54, 57, 109, 117, Accord of the Six, 61 137, 164 Acheson, Dean, 38, 39, 51, 54, 56, Axis, 1, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 26, 27, 59, 71 29, 42, 46, 79, 116, 124, 134, 136, Adorno, Theodor, 80, 222 147, 149, 174 Afghanistan, 152, 168 Allied Control Council (ACC), 6, 12, Baden, 30, 33, 119 43, 52, 54, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, Baden-Württemberg, 118 93, 94, 108, 111, 112, 113, 116, Bakker-Schut Plan, 55 121, 136, 137, 138, 143, 146, balance of power, 1, 4, 9, 59, 64, 69, 147, 148, 149, 158, 159, 162, 177, 74, 86, 98, 101, 106, 133, 134, 214 135, 138–45, 149, 156, 161, 162, Allied Reparations Commission, 165, 166, 168, 173, 174, 178 39, 41 symbiotic balance of power, 139–40, Althusser, Louis, 79 142, 173 America, see United States , 36, 77, 90, 138, 141, 168 Amerika Haus, 113 Baltic region, 65, 92, 140 anarchy, 8, 48, 78, 79, 80, 83, 99, 100, Bandwagoning, 60, 61, 90, 113, 170, 171, 179 142–5, 173, 216 ‘anarchical society’, 99 Barbie, Klaus, 116 Anglo-American Mutual Aid Bavaria, 30, 33, 34, 35, 116 Agreement, 26 Becher, Johannes, 120, 210 Anglo-American strategic air force, 23 Belgium, 28, 57, 104, 136 Anglo-American zones of occupation, Benelux, 67 see Bizonia Berger, Helge, 61 Anglo-Soviet Treaty, 78, 107, 140 Berghahn, Volker, 51, 52 anti-/Antifa groups, 94, Bergmann, Gunther, 176 119–21 Beria, Lavrentii, 146 anti-Soviet bloc, 8, 60, 146 Berlin, 6, 7, 20, 21, 23, 43, 65, Arkes, Hadley, 59 114, 148 Army Industrial College, 52 Berlin Blockade, 149–50 ‘Aryanisation’, 125, 176 Beveridge Report, 105 Asia, 18, 20, 28, 32, 63, 64, 67, 68, 78, Bevin, Ernest, 62, 88, 89, 93, 94, 97, 151, 165 143 Asquith, Herbert, 105 Bidault, Georges, 61, 90, 93, 94, 97 Associated Press, 114 bipolarity, 2, 7, 10, 11, 12, 37, 47, 63, Atlantic Charter, 28, 29, 46, 162, 220 71, 80, 83, 84, 86, 98, 99, 101, Atlantic Conference, 20, 28, 29 134, 135, 137, 139, 145, 146, 147, Atlantic linkage, 144 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 158, 164, Attlee, Clement, 34 171, 172, 175, 176

244 Index 245

Bizonia, 12, 44, 61, 83, 85, 86, 87, 92, Centre d’Échanges Internationaux, 94, 96, 98, 142, 143, 149, 150, 119 151, 155, 156, 159, 160, 172 Chile, 67, 138, 212 Blessing, Benita, 120 China, 19, 26, 29, 107, 152, 161, 220 bloc-formation, 49, 57, 62, 142, Chinese Communist Party, 75 143, 149 Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 7, Blum-Byrnes Accord, 90 117, 124 Bohlen, Charles, 57 Churchill, Winston, 6, 17, 19, 20, 22, Bolshevik Revolution, 21, 36, 195 23, 24, 25, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 60, Bonnet, Henri, 61 65, 68, 117, 140, 141, 162 Bourdieu, Pierre, 101 Citizen’s Committee to Defend the Brandenburg, 121 Marshall Plan, 59 Brazil, 138 ‘civilisational acceptance’, 161 , 3, 53, 162 Clark, Clifford, 61, 62, 65 Britain, 1, 7, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, Clark, Ian, 165, 171 24, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 40, Clay, General Lucius, 52, 53, 54, 55, 43, 56, 57, 60, 64, 67, 77, 85, 86, 62, 86, 90, 91, 149, 159, 176, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 97, 105, 193 107, 108, 109, 116, 117, 136, 140, Clayton, William, 41, 51, 54, 57 141, 143, 144, 151, 203 Clemenceau, Georges, 34 British zone of occupation, 61, coexistence, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 37, 85, 89, 117, 118, 127, 137, 45, 46, 55, 69, 72, 78, 80, 86, 104, 159 130, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 138, dollar crisis, 85 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156, see also Bizonia 161, 163, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, British Empire, 21, 22, 55, 144 174, 175, 176, 179, 181, 182 Brunswick, 117 ‘cognitive closure’, 17, 147 Brussels Treaty, 67 ‘cognitive opening’, 11, 15, 17, 44, 49 Bulgaria, 74, 75, 140, 162 Cold War, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 44, 46, Bulge of Africa, 22 49, 59, 63, 67, 69, 75, 76, 77, 82, Bull, Hedley, 9, 99, 133, 139, 151, 153, 83, 86, 103, 105, 116, 129, 130, 160, 181, 220 134, 135, 138, 140, 141, 144, 146, Bund der Katholischen Jugend, 119 147, 148, 151, 152, 154, 163, 164, Butterfield, Herbert, 9 167, 169, 170, 172, 181, 182, 202, Buzan, Barry, 48, 49, 80, 133, 179, 216, 220 214 Cole,GDH,18 Byrnes, James, 54, 55, 61, 70, 88, 89, collective security, 135, 143 90, 162 colonialism, 3, 107 Combined Bombing Operations Cairo Conference (SEXTANT), 19, 25 (CBO), 23 Capitalism, 2, 3, 5, 18, 50, 70, 71, Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS), 19, 105 23, 28 Carr,E.H.,166 COMINFORM, 75, 155 Casablanca Conference, 1, 6, 19, 20, COMINTERN, 75 101, 135, 154, 162 Common Market, 144 Casablanca Directive, 23 communism, 3, 5, 7, 31, 34, 45, 56, Caucasus, 22, 24 57, 58, 62, 65, 66, 73, 75, 84, 106, Central Europe, 34, 90, 98 120, 140, 147, 216 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 66 Concert of Europe, 141 246 Index conflict, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, Declaration of Four Nations on 16, 17, 22, 26, 45, 51, 55, 62, 64, General Security, 19 67, 69, 74, 77, 86, 87, 88, 105, decolonisation, 16, 107, 165 130, 131, 132, 133, 146, 147, 148, Deighton, Anne, 7 149, 150, 154, 161, 162, 164, 169, Diebold, William, 38 170, 174, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181, Dillon, Read and Company, 52 182, 200 diplomacy, 2, 9, 11, 43, 45, 80, 98, social construction of, 82–4, 106, 133, 135, 147, 148, 149, 151, 99–103, 171, 172 154, 162, 163, 170, 172, 174 structural elements of, 47–9, 70, 72, Dönitz, Karl, 128 73, 78–81, 171, 172 Donnison, Frank, 117 constructivism, 82, 99, 100, 200 Doyle, Michael, 178 containment, 3, 6, 63–6, 89, 91, 142, Draper, William Brigadier General, 52 179, 197 see also Kennan, George Eagleton, Terry, 79 Convention for European Economic East German crisis (1953), 163 Co-operation (1948), 62 École d’Administration (Spire), 119 convivialism, 149, 150 Economic Cooperation Cooperation, 11, 14, 16, 18, 46, 65, Administration (ECA), 59 67, 77, 92, 105, 115, 120, 130, Eden, Anthony, 33, 34, 35, 36, 190 131, 132, 133, 148, 151, 154, 161, Egypt, 22 164, 169, 175, 181, 182, 214, 220 Einheitschule, 120 financial cooperation, 26–8, 54, 62, Einsatzgruppen, 125 68, 107 Eisenberg, Carolyn, 6, 92, 96 legal and diplomatic cooperation, Eisenhower, Dwight General, 6, 22, 28–9 25, 54 military cooperation, 18–26 Eley, Geoff, 76 ‘cordon sanitaire’, 36 Ellis, Howard, 58 ‘correlation of forces’, doctrine of, 145 Emperor Wilhelm II, 124 Council for Foreign Relations (CFR), English School of international 38, 50, 92 relations, 2, 8–10, 14, 46, 49, Cross-channel invasion of Europe 82, 99, 133, 139, 150, 152, 153, (OVERLORD), 25 169, 170, 171, 173, 200, 214, 218, , 138, 220 221 Cultural Association for the equilibrium, 12, 134, 139, 150, 165 Democratic Renewal of Germany, see also balance of power 120 Europe (Western), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, cultural differentiation, 174 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, Czechoslovakia, 1, 28, 34, 58, 74, 75, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 109, 137, 138, 162, 163 36, 37, 38, 44, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, agreement, 107 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 74, 78, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, DANA (DENA), 114 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, Danubian Federation, 36 109, 110, 118, 125, 134, 138, 140, Das Neue Deutschland, 119 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, Davidson, Basil, 116, 150 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, Davies, Joseph, 16 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 166, 168, Davies, Norman, 75 169, 171, 175, 177, 178, 182, Deane, John, General, 27 195, 220 Index 247

Eastern Europe, 5, 6, 44, 47, 49, 59, Gaddis, John Lewis, 5, 82, 200 64, 65–79, 85, 98, 102, 109, 134, Gehlen, General Reinhard, 116 137, 141, 142, 145, 146, 150, General Motors Corporation, 52 155, 158, 162, 165, 166, 173 Geneva Conferences, 163 Eurocentrism, 166, 167 George, Lloyd, 105 Eurocommunism, 140 German Economic Council (DWK), European Union, 168, 180 158 independence of (Europe), 146, 155, German Federation of Trade Unions, 163 124 integration of, 7, 55 ‘German textbook literature’ (Report), ‘’ policy, 20 117 Evangelische Jugend, 119 Germany Americanisation of, 113 Falco, Robert, 124 currency reform in, 62, 86, 160 Far East, 51, 64, 89, 107, 129 decartelisation, 6, 52, 53, 97, 127 fascism, 45, 116, 121, 124 deindustrialisation of, 31, 34, 38 Fay, Jennifer, 113 demilitarisation of, 30, 31, 37, 91, Ferguson Committee, 53 93, 111, 127, 136, 177 Filitov, Aleksei, 33 Democratic Republic of Germany, , 71, 90, 140 157, 207 Fitzgibbon, Constantine, 176 denazification of, 6, 11, 12, 31, 52, Foreign Economic Administration 91, 104, 108, 109, 110, 111, (FEA), 30, 39 113–27, 129, 136, 176, 177 Forrestal, James, 63 dismemberment of, 29–37, 44, 61, Fox, TWR, 147 87, 94, 102, 173, 190 France, 1, 7, 15, 16, 23, 25, 28, 30, 35, emasculation of, 12, 22, 134, 154–6, 43, 44, 55, 57, 60, 61, 67, 78, 85, 164 87, 88, 90, 93, 94, 107, 109, 118, Federal Republic of, 60, 128, 151, 119, 120, 123, 136, 143, 144, 151, 177, 178, 203, 207 163, 180, 194, 203, 214 federalism in, 35 Franco-British Union, 107 general peace treaty with, 86, 149 Franco-German Treaty, 144 German Communist Party (KPD), , 23 73, 120, 121, 157 French zone of occupation in German Communists, 33 Germany, 37, 43, 88, 118, 119 Lebensraum, 109 Vichy France, 23 rehabilitation of, 6, 12, 32, 34, 38, Frank, Hans, 125 39, 51–3, 55, 58, 61, 62, 67, Frankfurt, 114 71–3, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 93, 97, Frankfurter Rundschau, 114 98, 102, 143, 146, 155, 158, Free German Trade Union, 157 162, 172, 178, 188, 219 Free market economics/ principles, 1, separate peace with the Allies, 19, 32, 39, 51, 52, 111, 113, 142, 155, 21, 22, 24 159, 163, 168, 178, 188, 219 ‘unconditional surrender’ of, 1, 6, Free University of Berlin, 113 19, 20, 21, 22, 110, 135, 136, Friedman, J., 125 150, 154, 162 Führerprinzip, 128, 212 unity of, 7, 30, 32, 33, 54, 73, 87, ‘functional differentiation’, 48–9, 59, 88, 89, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 63, 73, 77, 78, 80 102, 142, 146, 156, 159 functionalism, 108, 130, 178 Gestapo, 111, 114, 125 Furby, Charles, 119 Ginsburg, G., 124 248 Index

Globke, Hans Maria, 176 human association, 14, 180 Goebbels, Joseph, 21, 177 human rights, 10, 128, 129, 133, 158, Göring, Hermann, 125 174, 175, 220 ‘Grand Area’, 51 Hungary, 74, 75, 124, 137, 138, 141, ‘Grand Design’, 1, 10, 12, 16, 32, 33, 162, 163 40, 47, 49, 50, 53, 55, 56, 63, 67, 70, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, ICC (International Criminal Court), 83, 86, 87, 96, 98, 102, 108, 110, 130 130, 131, 136, 140, 142, 159, 163, ideological rapprochement, 12, 44, 169, 170, 171, 172, 176, 191, 216, 104, 161 219 ideology, 7, 11, 17, 57, 72, 76, 79–80, , 5, 18, 49, 50, 52, 53, 110, 120, 124, 125, 130, 145, 147, 56, 78, 105, 144, 155, 163 171, 177, 212 Great East Asia Co-Prosperity , 16, 22, 108 Sphere, 28 Institute of European History (Mainz), Great Patriotic War, 39, 165, 214 119 Greece, 28, 65, 73, 140, 216 Institute of Translators (Gemersheim), Greek–Yugoslav (Balkan Union) 119 Agreement, 107 Inter-Allied Conference London Green, T.H., 106 (1941), 28 Gromyko, Andrei, 68, 69 Inter-Allied Reparations Agency Grotius, Hugo, 153 (IARA), 93, 97 Guatemala, 67, 138 interdependence, 59, 106, 131, 145, (1990–91), 174 176, 178 Gusev letter (1945), 33 see also liberalism International Bank of ‘H24 Germany’, 30 Settlements, 53 Habermas, Jürgen, 131 international law, 2, 9, 45, 80, 106, ‘Half world’ option, 69, 162 126, 128, 129, 133, 135, 147, 158, Hanover, 33 170, 174, 175, 212, 219 Hansen, Alvin H, 38 International Military Tribunals (IMT), Harriman, Averell, 27, 62, 96, 97 12, 108, 124–30 Hayek, Friedrich von, 18, 185 see also Nuremberg trials Herring, George, 27 International Military Tribunal for the Herz, John, 170 Far East (IMTFE), 129 Hitler, Adolf, 17, 23, 24, 39, 109, see also Tokyo trials 110, 111, 112, 114, 119, 122, 123, International Monetary Fund 124, 127, 128, 156, 162, 206, 212, (IMF), 53 220 international organisation, 11, 12, Hobbes, John, 48, 99, 100, 101, 170, 105, 106, 107, 108, 131, 132, 159, 179 176, 178, 222 Hogan, Michael, 56 international regimes, 108, 159, 162, Hoover, Herbert, 90, 91, 95 167 Hopkins, Harry, 30, 35 international society, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, Hornbeck, Stanley, 107 15, 18, 29, 106, 108, 133, 134, Hossbach memorandum, 109 135, 139, 148, 151, 153–4, 155, Hull, Cordell, 27, 30, 31, 35, 51, 106, 156, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 107, 141 167, 171, 173, 174, 181, 218, human agency, 82, 99 219, 220 Index 249 intervention, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, Leffler, Melvyn, 4, 7, 59, 72, 110, 182, 18, 44, 45, 53, 59, 66, 67, 73, 78, 195 86, 105, 106, 110, 124, 126, 129, Leipzig Trials, 124 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, Lend Lease, 16, 22, 26–7, 29, 36, 70, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 152, 154, 162 155, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, Leninism, 76 166, 167, 168, 172, 173, 174, 175, Liberalism, 44, 45, 50, 53, 105, 106, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182, 213, 220 108, 111, 113, 126, 130, 131, 132, ‘selfish intervention’, 67, 78, 152, 135, 148, 177, 178 167 ‘Liberal minus’, 131, 176 see also ‘primary institutions’ social liberalism, 105–6 Iran, 67 Linklater, Andrew, 174 Iraq, 152, 168 Lippmann, Walter, 18, 64, 202 Iron Curtain, 60, 65, 145, 195 Little, Richard, 48, 49, 80, 139 Italy, 19, 23, 57, 75, 78, 143, 144, 194, Litvinov, Maxim, 32, 33, 39, 69 195, 220 Locke, John, 99–101, 179 Italian campaign, 22, 25 London CFM (1947), 83, 87, 88, 96–8, 102, 149, 160 Jackson, Patrick Thaddeus, 7, 59 London Conference (1954), 163 Jackson, Robert, 9, 166 London inter-Allied Conference Jackson, Robert H., 124, 126 (1941), 107 James, Alan, 46, 153 Loth, Wilfred, 7, 39, 73 Japan, 3, 5, 19, 28, 56, 64, 78, 129, Low Countries, 144, 163 141, 161, 165, 195 see also Belgium; Luxembourg; JCS 1067, 42, 43, 95, 115 Netherlands JCS 1179, 95, 114 Lower Saxony, 117 Lubin, Isador, 39 Joint War Plans Committee, 63 Lundestad, Geir, 77, 195 Luxembourg, 28, 57 Kant, Immanuel, 99, 131, 132, 176, 178, 179 Maisky, Ivan, 32, 40, 41, 68, 69 Kaplan, Morton, 139 Malkin, Sir William, 38 Kennan, George, 54, 56, 63, 64, 66, Marshall, Barbara, 116 76, 77, 92, 197 Marshall, General George, 20, 21, 57, see also containment 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, 7, 77 Marshall Plan (ERP), 2, 56, 58, 59, 60, Keohane, Robert, 131, 181 61, 64, 71, 72, 75, 90, 93, 144, Khruschev, Nikita, 152, 163 145, 155, 160, 194, 216 Kiesinger, Kurt-Georg, 176 Martin, James Stewart, 52 Kilgore Committee, 53 Marxism, 76, 120 Kindleberger, Charles, 54 Masaryk, Jan, 71 Kleist, Peter, 21 Mastny, Vojtech, 43, 76 Koenig, Pierre General, 88 Mayall, James, 133, 154 Kolko, Gabriel, 50 McAllister, James, 6, 7, 98 Königsberg, 35 McCloy, John, 51, 52, 116 Kratochwil, Friedrich, 100 Middle East, 66, 90, 220 Mill, John Stuart, 135 Latin America, 138, 165 Milward, Alan, 58, 195 League of Nations, 167, 203 Mitterrand, François, 144 250 Index

Molotov, Vyacheslav, 35, 36, 68, 70, Nuremberg Laws (1935), 125, 176 71, 78, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, Nuremberg trials, 109, 124, 128, 129, 124, 140, 190 158, 211, 212 Monnet, Jean, 55, 61 Nye, Joseph, 131 Montgomery, Bernard General Sir, 25 Oakeshott, Michael, 14, 45 Morgenthau Plan, 30–2, 36, 42, Oder-Neisse line, 43, 138, 155 188 Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 38 Moscow CFM (1947), 91–8, 112, 142, Onuf, Nicholas, 100 148, 156, 159, 172 ‘ordering principle’, 48, 49, 72, 78, 79, Moscow Conference (1943), 19, 170–1 35, 43 see also Neorealism Mossadegh, Mohammed, 67 orthodox tradition, 2, 3, 4, 69, 72, 75, Muhlen, Norbert, 123 82, 182 Munich, 114 Ottoman Empire, 164 Mikołajczyk, Stanisław, 76 Overy, Richard, 17, 214

Naimark, Norman, 7 ‘Pacific First’ policy, 20 Nanking Massacre, 129 Pakistan, 108 Nardin, Terry, 14, 15, 45, 173, 174 Papen von, Franz, 127 Nassau Agreement (1962), 164 Paris CFM (1946), 88, 89 National Association of Manufacturers Paris Conference on Marshall Aid (NAM), 52 (1947), 75 National Defense Program, 53 Paris Summit (1960), 163 National Security Council (NSC), 66 Parliamentary democracy, 74, 76 National Socialist Movement Parsons, Talcott, 101 (Netherlands), 104 Partial Test Ban Treaty, 164 NATO, 60, 168, 178, 216 Paterson, Thomas, 82 Naturfreunde, 119 Pauley Report, 38 Nazism, 20, 21, 76, 88, 108, 109, 110, ‘peace of sorts’, 86, 98, 100–2, 149, 112, 113, 114, 117, 121, 123, 124, 164, 173 128, 129, 176, 177 Pechatnov, Vladimir, 69 Nazi new order, 50, 104 ‘People’s Congress’, 97 Neave, Airey, 128 ‘people’s democracies’, 74, 76 Neorealism, 48, 49, 99, 170, 171, ‘People’s Police’, 157 172 ‘’, 68, 141, Netherlands, 28, 55, 57, 104 162 , 17, 53, 105 Persia, 161 Niethammer, Lutz, 116 Persico, Joseph, 129 Nikitchenko, Iona, 124, 127 Pétain, Philippe Marshall, 23 non-intervention, 133, 166, 167, Peuple et Culture, 119 179 Pieck, Wilhelm, 73 normative framework, 6, 9, 12, 14, 44, Pipes, Richard, 76 45, 46, 48, 49, 79, 80, 82, 99, 100, Pleshakov, Constantine, 72 101, 166, 169, 170, 173, 174, 176, pluralism, 45, 154, 179–82, 214 178, 180, 181 ‘pluralism plus’, 2, 10, 11, 14, 80, North Africa, 22, 23, 25 86, 106, 134, 151, 154, 155, Norway, 28 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 174, Novikov, Nikolai, 70 179, 181, 214 Index 251

Pointblank Directive, 23 ‘Riga axioms’, 49 Poland, 1, 22, 28, 30, 34, 35, 43, 54, Ritschl, Albrech, 61 74, 75, 76, 85, 137, 140, 155, 162, Roberts, Geoffrey, 76, 221 180 Robertson, Brian General Sir, 61, 159 Polanyi, Karl, 105 Romania, 74, 75, 124, 140, 162 Portal, Charles Sir, 23 Rommel, E. Marshall, 22, 23 post-revisionism, 4, 5, 11, 82, 83 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 4, 6, 16, 17, 19, Potsdam Conference, 6, 41, 43, 44, 53, 20, 23, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 54, 85, 87, 89, 92, 94, 95, 97, 110, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 51, 111, 112, 172, 217 68, 77 practical association framework, 2, 8, Roseman, Mark, 177 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 29, 37, 42, Rosenberg, Alfred, 125 43, 45, 46, 138, 147, 162, 173, Rostow, Walt, 54 174, 175, 182 ‘primary institutions’, 12, 133, 134, Saar, 30, 55, 61, 88, 90, 93, 94, 203 135, 144, 146, 151, 152, 173, San Francisco Conference (1945), 107 175 Saxony, 30, 33, 117 see also English School of Schacht, Hjalmar, 127 international relations Schaeffer, Fritz, 176 Prussia, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 112 Schlesinger, Arthur, 76 Prussian militarism, 21, 34, 84, 87, Schmittlein, Raymond, 118 112, 116, 118 Schumpeter, Joseph, 177 second front, 5, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25 Quadripartite agreement, 89, 92, Sedgwick, J.B., 129 102 Selborne, Lord, 33 ‘quasi-hierarchy’, 131, 132, 148, 149, Senteck, Rudolf, 176 151, 173 Service Jeunesse et Education Quebec Conference (OCTAGON) Populaire, 119 (1944), 30, 31, 32 Seyss-Inquart, Arthur, 126 Quebec Conference (QUADRANT), 35, Sharp, Tony, 42 107 Sheehan, Michael, 139 Shlaim, Avi, 88, 149, 150 racialism, 17, 21, 104, 105, 109, 112, Shustov, Vladimir, 77 123, 125, 128, 130, 131, 154, 158, Silesia, 30, 34 168, 170, 176, 177, 179 Sloan, Alfred P., 52 Rainer, Friedrich, 126 Smith, Bradley, 126 Ramsay, Bertrand Admiral Sir, 25 Socialist Party of Germany (SPD), 122, rationalism, 8, 9, 153, 154, 179–80 124, 157 realism, 8, 9, 10, 13, 47, 48, 78, 79, 80, Socialist Unity Party (SED), 157, 158 99, 106, 143, 153, 154, 170, 172, Societas, 14, 15 174, 178, 179, 180, 181 Sokolovsky, Vasili Marshall, 157, 158 Red Army, 21, 27, 35, 37, 59, 68, solidarism, 10, 151, 154, 174, 175, 73, 74, 98, 134, 141, 142, 165, 179, 181, 214 214 ‘selfish solidarism’, 10, 151, 174 revisionism, 3–4, 5, 59, 69, 82, 182 Sorokina, Marina, 124 revolutionism, 8, 104, 108, 153 sovereignty, 9, 48, 100, 106, 126, Rexist movement, 104 133, 154, 155, 166, 167, 174, 178, Rhineland-Pfalz, 118 179 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 21 see also ‘primary institutions’ 252 Index

Soviet Union, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 15, 16, Suárez, Francisco, 153 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, Sudetenland, 109 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 39, Südkurier, 119 40, 41, 43, 46, 47, 49, 52, 55, 60, superpower interaction, 5, 8, 11, 47, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 63, 72, 82, 86, 99, 100, 147, 170, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 84, 171, 172, 181, 182 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, Sweden, 21 98, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, 108, Szklarska Por˛eba Conference 110, 116, 124, 131, 134, 136, 138, (1947), 75 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 149, 150, 151, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161, Taft, Robert, 57, 194 163, 164, 165, 167, 172, 173, 174, Taylor, AJP, 177 178, 181, 182, 197, 220 Taylor, Telford, 128 reparations claims, 6, 30, 32, 39–42, Tedder, Arthur Air Chief Marshall, 25 52, 54, 55, 68, 69, 72, 77, 86, Teheran Conference (EUREKA), 16, 19, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 35, 36, 43, 140 96, 97, 98, 101, 102, 110, 146, ‘third force’, 60, 146, 195 155, 156, 157, 158, 173 ‘three traditions model’, 8–11, 153, security concerns, 7, 32, 33, 39, 68, 169–78, 179–81 69, 72–4, 77, 102, 108, 146, see also English School of 155, 163, 171, 175 international relations Soviet bloc, 8, 54, 145, 146, 151, Thuringia, 30 161, 167 Tipton, Frank, 149 Soviet Commission on Nazi War Tito (Josip Broz), 73, 75, 78 Crimes, 124 Tokyo Trials, 129 Soviet zone of occupation, 43, 72, see also International Military 84, 88, 89, 92, 95, 97, 121, 137, Tribunal for the Far East 157–8 (IMTFE) Spain, 23, 216 ‘’, 125, 128 Speer, Albert, 17, 23, 24, 128 Trachtenberg, Marc, 6, 92, 95, 96 spheres of influence, 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, Treaty on the Final Settlement with 44, 49, 64, 69, 70, 77, 80, 86, 101, Respect to Germany, 164 135, 138, 140, 141, 147, 151, 155, Treaty of Paris, 164 156, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 178, 181, 220 Tripartite Commissions, 149 Sprecher, Drexler, 128 Tripartite Pact, 18, 29, 220 Stalin, Iosif, 3, 4, 6, 7, 16, 17, 19, 20, tripolarity, 7, 60, 98, 142, 156, 163 21, 23, 24, 25, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, Truman, Harry, 3, 4, 5, 6, 32, 42, 62, 39, 43, 44, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 63, 66, 91, 126, 155, 200 74, 75, 76, 77, 84, 88, 95, 121, , 2, 65, 67, 70, 72, 124, 140, 146, 157, 162, 200, 217 74, 75, 143 Stalin Note (1952), 146, 217 Tübingen, 119 Stalingrad, 17, 24, 25 Turkey, 65, 161, 216 State War Navy Coordinating Turner, Ian, 118 Committee (SWNCC), 56, 188 Two Year Plan (1949–50), 158 Stettinius, Edward, 16, 190 Stimson, Henry, 30, 32, 51, 59 Ulbricht, Walter, 43, 157 Strauss, Franz-Joseph, 176 UN Charter, 107, 135, 175 Streicher, Julius, 125 UN Convention of Genocide, 129, 175 Index 253

United Nations, 20, 28, 29, 30, 46, 69, Walzer, Michael, 135 72, 106, 114, 129, 137, 158, 162, war of aggression, 109, 111, 116 216, 220 war criminals, 31, 32, 110, 112, 114, United Nations Relief and 121, 127, 212 Rehabilitation Administration Washington Consensus, 138 (UNRRA), 72 Watson, Adam, 181 UnitedStates,1,2,3,4,6,7,15,16, Weber, Max, 101 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, Wehrmacht, 22, 127, 176 33, 35, 38, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, Weimar Republic, 136 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, Welfare State, 105, 106, 140 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, Welles, Sumner, 62, 106 71, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 86, 87, Weltpolitik, 123 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, Wendt, Alexander, 82–83, 99, 100, 101, 102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 101, 172 116, 127, 131, 134, 136, 138, 141, see also constructivism 142, 143, 144, 146, 149, 150, 151, , 56, 59, 60, 67, 134, 150, 152, 156, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 161, 177 167, 168, 172, 173, 175, 177, 178, western hemisphere, 4, 23 180, 181, 182, 216, 220 ‘Western Option’, 88, 89, 90, 93 American isolationism, 26 Westfalenpost, 127 ‘internationalist’ camp, 51 Westphalia, 33, 34 Universitas,14 White, Harry Dexter, 31 University of Mainz, 119 Wight, Martin, 2, 8, 9, 133, 139, 153, UN Security Council, 107 161, 180 US Information Centres, 113 Williams, William, 50, 192 Wilson’s Fourteen Points, 178 Varga, Evgenii, 18, 39 World War One, 38, 40, 97, 164 Venezuela, 66 World War Two, 2, 3, 4, 12, 16, 26, 37, Vereinigte Stahlwerke, 52 49, 50, 53, 63, 64, 72, 74, 75, 76, Versailles, Treaty of, 136, 167, 203 77, 104, 105, 123, 129, 134, 136, Vienna Conference, 163 145, 164, 165, 167, 169, 172, 173, Vincent, R.J., 9, 167, 174 182, 187, 214 Viner, Jacob, 38 Württemberg, 30, 33, 120 Vishinskii, Andrei, 71 Vitoria, Francisco de, 153 Vogt, Timothy, 121 Yalta Conference, 6, 20, 36, 37, 38, 39, Volkshochschulen, 119 40, 41, 43, 53, 75, 107, 110, 141, Volksuniversität, 119 190 Yugoslavia, 28, 54, 73, 75, 141 Wall Street, 53 Wallace,Henry,57 Zhdanov, Andrei, 70, 72 Waltz, Kenneth, 48, 78, 80, 135, Zhukov, Georgii Marshall, 21, 84, 157 171, 216 Zubok,Vladislav,72