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The Ulema, Waqf, and Ottoman State (1789-1839)

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The Ulema, Waqf, and Ottoman State (1789-1839) ELITE CONFIGURATIONS AND CLUSTERS OF POWER: THE ULEMA, WAQF, AND OTTOMAN STATE (1789-1839) by Selim Argun Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University, Montréal January, 2013 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, McGill University, Montréal in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Selim Argun 2013 wāw), the twenty-seventh letter of the Arabic alphabet is considered to have) ﻭ mystical qualities. A saintly saying warns the faithful against words that begin with this letter by drawing attention to the sense of heavy responsibility and perils of accountability attached to their meanings. For example, waqf (religious endowment), waṣāyah (will/trusteeship), wirāthah (inheritance), wakālah (legal representation), wadīah (entrustment), wizārah (ministry), are words one must approach with utmost care when using them in his/her daily life. It is even recommended that one should refrain from seeking a career in these professions. There is, however, even more to say about the mystery of the wāw. 1 According to the discipline of ebced,0F the numerical value of this letter is 6 and the pair of two wāws (66) are equal to the words Allah and Lale (tulip) in its arithmetical sense. This is why the two figures are often mixed in Ottoman architectural designs and decorative ornamentations. Moreover, the purpose of the two facing wāws engraved above the shortened door of imperial loges of 1 The first of several mnemonic formulas designed to help one learn the numerical values assigned to the letters of the Arabic alphabet. ii Ottoman mosques where the powerful Sultans performed their prayers in seclusion, called hünkâr mahfili, was to remind them greatness of the Almighty while they were forced to enter in a bowed position. This tradition has its roots in the Sufi belief that while the upright letter alif symbolizes the obstinate part of the human being, i.e., nafs, the curved-neck letter wāw represents the submission of a dervish. Thus one who seeks happiness in this life finds it only when he is in a wāw posture of complete humbleness. This is how he was when he was in his mother’s womb or will be when dismisses all worldly temptations and prostrates himself before his Creator. The only acceptable form of the alif shape for a Sufi is when he is laid down strait in his grave. I dedicate this work to the most important two wāws of my life: my late father (wālid), Burhan Argun who devoted his entire life to raise his children as morally sound intellectuals and to my mother (wālidah) Gönül Argun whose loving selflessness continues to be my source of inspiration in my quest to uncover the mystery of the letter wāw in my life journey. iii ABSTRACT Title Elite configurations and clusters of power: The ulema, waqf, and Ottoman state (1789-1839) Author : Selim Argun Department : Institute of Islamic Studies Degree : Doctor of Philosophy Through the prism of Richard Lachmann’s ‘elite conflict theory of historical contingency,’ this dissertation brings a new perspective and a fresh interpretation to the study of the attitudes of the Ottoman central ulema toward the pre-Tanzimat Westernizing reforms. Contrary to the prevailing view of intra-elite vertical dichotomy conflict as the primary basis for ulema reactions, this research proposes inter-elite horizontal conflict as the root cause for the failure of the reform initiatives. Moreover, this study challenges the commonly- held belief that the goal of centralization of the revenues of religious endowments by the ruling authority was to silence ulema opposition to the Westernizing reforms. Instead, through a detailed examination of the evolution of early European taxation models and fiscal centralization trajectories, this research concludes that the Mahmudian centralization of awqaf should be seen, rather, as an emulation of the wider eco-geographic trend in response to the iv historical challenges faced by European states and the Ottoman Empire. By problematizing the prevailing nomenclature of Ottoman historiography, this research clarifies the longstanding misconceptions attached to the term ‘ulema.’ Finally, through a comprehensive survey of waqf-elite relations, this study will advance the understanding of the dynamics of the pre-Tanzimat Ottoman Empire. v RÉSUMÉ Titre : Configurations de groupes d’élite et grappes de pouvoir : les oulemas, le waqf, et l’État ottoman (1789-1839) Auteur : Selim Argun Faculté : Institut d’Études islamiques Grade : Doctorat À travers le prisme de la « théorie du conflit entre groupes d’élite et de la contingence historique » élaborée par Richard Lachmann, la présente thèse propose une nouvelle perspective ainsi qu’une nouvelle interprétation de l’étude des attitudes des oulémas ottomans envers les réformes occidentalisantes durant la période précédant l’adoption du Tanzimat. À l’opposé de l’opinion dominante, qui voit dans les échanges entre groupes d’élite un conflit à dichotomie verticale, cette recherche privilégie le principe d’échanges en tant que conflit horizontal, pour expliquer l’échec des initiatives de réforme lors de la période en question. En outre, cette étude remet en question la représentation classique qui attribue à la centralisation par l’autorité de l’État des recettes fiscales provenant des fondations religieuses la raison principale de la suppression de l’opposition aux vi réformes chez les oulémas. Bien au contraire. Par le biais de l’examen détaillé de l’évolution des premiers modèles de fiscalité européenne et les trajectoires de centralisation budgétaire, la présente étude arrive à la conclusion que la centralisation des awqaf pendant le règne du Sultan Mahmoud II fut plutôt le résultat de l’émulation des tendances économiques et géopolitiques existantes à l’époque en tant que réponse aux défis historiques auxquels se heurtèrent les pays européens tout comme l’Empire ottoman. C’est en interpellant la terminologie utilisée couramment dans l’historiographie ottomane que la présente étude expose les idées infondées associée au libellé « oulémas. » Enfin, grâce à une enquête approfondie sur les rapports entre waqf et groupes d’élite, l’étude fera avancer la compréhension du dynamisme de l’Empire ottoman dans la période qui précède l’adoption du Tanzimat. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like first to express my deep gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Prof. A. Üner Turgay. His scholarly approach and thoughtful mentorship has guided me since the beginning of this project many years ago. Without his constant intellectual and moral support, this dissertation would not have seen the light of day. My co-supervisor Prof. Malek Abisaab and I spent hours together in his office and at various cafes around McGill discussing a wide range of topics related to my field. He kindly shared with me his extensive knowledge of the delicacies of writing a PhD dissertation. My other McGill professors Prof. Wael B. Hallaq and Prof. Eric Ormsby taught me various aspects of Islamic law and Philosophy over the years. I owe them special thanks for their guidance and friendship. A number of Turkish scholars shaped my thinking and have had an impact on my academic orientation. Prof. Ahmet Davutoğlu, who co-supervised my Master’s research, encouraged me to pursue my doctoral studies at McGill University. I am grateful to him for his insightful suggestion. At an earlier stage in my academic life, Prof. Murat Çizakça invited me to Bursa for İskender Kebabı and while eating in a small century-and-a-half old restaurant near the Ulu Cami, he advised me to devote my academic career to the study the Ottoman waqf institution. I spent weeks if not months at İSAM, possibly the best research center in Istanbul, enjoying the scholarly advice of Professors Kemal Beydilli, viii Mehmet İpşirli, Mehmet Genç, Ali Akyıldız, Ahmet Tabakoğlu, İsmail Kara, Asc.Prof.Yüksel Çelik and Asc. Prof. Erhan Afyoncu. They were all very helpful in guiding me to various books, concepts, articles and scholarly works. I must especially single out Prof. Beydilli for his erudite knowledge and for sharing his electronic library with me. I thank both Prof. Mustafa Aykaç and Prof. Hikmet Özdemir who are rectors and chairmen of the board of governors of their respective universities for their help and support at various stages of my work throughout the years. Dr. Nazif Öztürk hosted me several times in Ankara and shared his extensive knowledge of the waqf archives. Prof. İhsan Fazlıoğlu generously shared his erudition and academic resources with me whenever I asked him. I am most indebted to Prof. Erol Özvar for introducing me to the world of theories both in the field of historical sociology and economic history. Through a number of lengthy Skype meetings from his Harvard office, he patiently answered all my questions, read my chapters and with his incisive comments and suggestions over the years, inspired my work in more ways than one. My dear friend, award-winning translator, journalist and author Fred A. Reed edited all my writings. He and his wife Ingeborg shared many unforgettable familial gatherings and intellectual feasts with us. I can’t thank them enough for being who they are and what it means for us as a family. Dr. Charles Fletcher was there whenever I needed his editorial skills and stylistic advice. I thank him for his fast and painstaking editing. ix Several libraries assisted me in my research. I thank the staff of the Center for Islamic Studies (İSAM), especially Dr. Kamil Yaşaroğlu, the Süleymaniye Library (Mr. Emir Eş), the staff of the Ottoman Archives (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri), and staff of the Institute of Islamic Studies Library for their help and support throughout the years. I would like to thank Dr. Coşkun Yılmaz, Project Manager and editor of the books III. Selim2 and II. Mahmud3 for providing the illustrations and photos used in the dissertation.
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