Chronological Table

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Chronological Table

1895 25 June Salisbury’s third administration 29 December– Jameson raid 1896 3 January Kaiser’s telegram to Kruger 1898 17 January Salisbury’s unsuccessful overture to Russia for co-operation in China 25 March Cabinet decides to lease Wei-hai-wei from China 29 March Chamberlain’s bid for Anglo-German alliance 10 April Reichstag ratifies First Naval Law 4 May Salisbury’s ‘dying nations’ speech 13 May Chamberlain’s bid for friendship of U.S.A. and Germany (Birmingham speech) 14 June Anglo-French convention over West Africa 30 August Anglo-German agreement over Portuguese colonies 2 September– Battle of Omdurman 18 September– Anglo-French crisis over Fashoda December 1899 21 March Anglo-French convention over Central Africa: France excluded from Valley of Nile 18 May– First Hague Peace Conference 29 June 12 October Boer War begins 14 November Anglo-German agreement over Samoa 30 November Chamberlain proposes Triple Alliance (Leicester speech) 10–15 December ‘Black Week’ in Boer War 1900 January Bundesrath affair 27–28 February Formation of London Representation Committee 17 May Relief of Mafeking 13 June– Boxer rising in China 14 August 14 June Second German Naval Law 16 October Anglo-German agreement over China (Yangtze) CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 279 November Salisbury relinquishes Foreign Office to Lansdowne 1901 22 January Death of Victoria; accession of Edward VII 12 March Lansdowne’s draft alliance for German co- operation in Far East 15 March Bülow denies China agreement’s application to Manchuria March–May Anglo-German discussions continue 29 May Salisbury’s objections to a German alliance 25 October Chamberlain’s Edinburgh speech defending British policy in South Africa 16 December U.S. Senate approves Hay–Pauncefote Treaty with Britain 19 December Lansdowne again approaches Germany unsuc- cessfully 1902 30 January Anglo-Japanese Treaty 31 May Peace of Vereeniging in South Africa 28 June Triple Alliance renewed by Germany, Austria–Hungary and Italy 11 July Salisbury retires, succeeded by Balfour 9 August Fourth Colonial Conference December Venezuelan crisis 18 December First meeting of Committee of Imperial Defence 1903 1–4 May Edward VII’s state visit to Paris 15 May Lansdowne warns Russia off Persian Gulf 6–9 July Visit of Loubet and Delcassé to London 2 October Mürzsteg programme (Russo-Austrian) for Macedonian reforms 1904 8 February Outbreak of Russo-Japanese War 8 April Anglo-French Entente 7 September Anglo-Tibetan Treaty signed at Lhasa 21 October Sir John Fisher becomes First Sea Lord 21 October Dogger Bank incident 12 December Redistribution of British fleet 1905 2 January Fall of Port Arthur to Japanese 22 January Outbreak of revolution in Russia 31 March German Emperor visits Tangier 27 May Destruction of Russian fleet at Tsushima 6 June Delcassé resigns 24 July German and Russian emperors sign agreement at Björkö 12 August Anglo-Japanese alliance renewed 5 September Treaty of Portsmouth ends Russo-Japanese War 280 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 4 December Conservative Cabinet resigns 11 December Campbell-Bannerman forms Liberal administration 15 December Anglo-French staff talks begin 1906 January General Election; Liberal victory 10 January Grey authorises General Staff conversations 16 January Algeciras Conference opens 10 February Dreadnought launched 7 April Algeciras Act signed 5 June German Third Naval Law (Novelle 1906) ratified 15 August Edward VII, accompanied by Hardinge, meets William II at Cronberg 1907 15 June– Second Hague Peace Conference 18 October 31 August Anglo-Russian convention 27 November C.I.D. subcommittee to reconsider question of invasion 1908 16 February William II writes to Lord Tweedmouth about Britain and German navy 5 April Asquith becomes Prime Minister 22 April Campbell-Bannerman dies 23 April Baltic (Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Russia) and North Sea (Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Sweden) Conventions 12 June Edward VII and Nicholas II meet at Royal 14 June Fourth German Naval Law (Novelle 1908) ratified 5–24 July Young Turk Revolution 11 August Edward VII and Hardinge meet William II at Friedrichshof 16 September Buchlau agreement between Isvolski and Aehrenthal 25 September Casablanca affair between Germany and France 6 October Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina 28 October Daily Telegraph affair (publication of indiscreet remarks by Emperor William) 3 December C.I.D. subcommittee on military needs of Empire as influenced by Continent 4 December London Naval Conference 1909 8 February Franco-German agreement over Morocco CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 281 February– Cabinet discussions on naval estimates March 12 March Commons debate on shipbuilding programme 22 March German ultimatum to Russia over Austrian annexations 29 April Finance Bill introduced in Commons 14 July Bethmann Hollweg replaces Bülow 30 July Lloyd George’s Limehouse speech 19 August Imperial Conference on Defence August– Anglo-German negotiations November 30 November Lords reject budget November– Gwinner–Cassel negotiations over Baghdad December railway 1910 15 January General Election; Liberal administration retained 27–28 April Budget passed 6 May Death of Edward VII; accession of George V 16 June Constitutional conference over Lords reform 3 September Lock-out in Lancashire cotton mills 4–5 November William II and Nicholas II meet at Potsdam 7 November Tonypandy miners riot, troops sent December General Election; Liberal administration retained 1911 21 February Parliament Bill introduced 21 May French occupy Fez 14 June Seamen’s strike 27 June Caillaux becomes French Premier 1 July Panther sent to Agadir 20 July Parliament Bill passed by Lords 21 July Lloyd George’s Mansion House speech 1 August London dockworkers’ strike 18 August Railwaymen’s strike 23 August C.I.D. meeting decides between naval and military strategies 28 September Outbreak of Italo-Turkish War 4 November Franco-German accord over Morocco 8 November Balfour resigns as leader of Conservative party 1912 14 January Poincaré becomes French Premier 8–11 February Haldane visits Berlin March Miners’ strike 13 March Serbia and Bulgaria form Balkan League 18 March Churchill proposes redistribution of fleet 11 April Third Irish Home Rule Bill introduced 282 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 23 May Dockers’ strike 4 July C.I.D. meeting on naval dispositions 22 July French fleet at Brest moved to Toulon August Beginning of Marconi scandal 15 October Treaty of Lausanne ends italo-Turkish War 18 October Outbreaks of First Balkan War 21–22 October Grey–Cambon letters exchanged 3 December Armistice between Turkey and Balkan states 5 December Triple Alliance renewed 16 December Ambassadorial conference opens in London 1913 January Poincaré elected President of France 26 March Churchill proposes ‘naval holiday’ 30 May Treaty of London ends First Balkan War 29 June Outbreak of Second Balkan War 7 August French Army Bill ratified (3-year military service) 11 August Treaty of Bucharest ends Second Balkan War. Anglo-German agreement over Portuguese colonies initialled 18 October Churchill again proposes ‘naval holiday’ November– Liman von Sanders crisis December 1914 20 March Curragh incident 22–24 April George V and Grey visit Paris 26 May Home Rule Bill passed for third time 14 June Nicholas II and Sazonov visit Constanza and Bucharest 15 June Anglo-German Baghdad Railway agreement initialled 23 June Home Rule Amending Act introduced (exclu- sion of Ulster without time-limit) 28 June Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Sarajevo 20–23 July Poincaré and Viviani visit St Petersburg 23 July Austrian ultimatum to Serbia 21–24 July Buckingham Palace conference on Irish problem 24 July Grey consults Cabinet on Austro-Serbian crisis 28 July Austria declares war on Serbia 29 July Grey’s warning to Lichnowsky. Bethmann Hollweg’s bid for British neutrality 30 July Austria–Hungary orders general mobilisation for 31 July. Russia orders general mobilisation for 31 July CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 283 31 July Kaiser proclaims ‘state of imminent war’. German ultimatum to Russia 1 August Germany declares war on Russia and mobilises 2 August Cabinet agrees to protect north coast of France and Channel against German attack. Germany invades Luxemburg, sends ultimatum to Belgium 3 August Germany declares war on France. Belgium rejects German ultimatum. British mobilise army. Cabinet agrees to send ultimatum to Berlin 4 August Germany invades Belgium. British ultimatum sent; expires at midnight 6 August Austria–Hungary declares war on Russia. Cabinet agrees to send B.E.F. to France 12 August Britain declares on war on Austria–Hungary Bibliography

MANUSCRIPTS AND PUBLISHED DOCUMENTS Abbreviations B.D. British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914, eds, G. P. Gooch and H. Temperley (11 vols in 13; London, 1926–38). cab. Cabinet Office Papers, Public Record Office. D.D.F. Documents diplomatiques français, 1871–1914. Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, ser. II and III (Paris, 1930–53). D.G.P. Die grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, 1871–1914, eds, J. Lepsius, A. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and F. Thimme (39 vols; Berlin, 1922–7). F.O. Foreign Office Papers, Public Record Office. Hansard Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 4th and 5th series, 1897–1914.

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Porter, Andrew, ‘The Balance Sheet of Empire, 1850–1914’, Historical Journal, 31 (1988). Porter, Bernard, ‘ “Bureau and Barrack”: Early Victorian Attitudes towards the Continent’, Victorian Studies, 27, 4 (1984). Raven, James, ‘British History and the Enterprise Culture’, Past and Present, 123 (1989). Remak, J., ‘1914: The Third Balkan War – Origins Reconsidered’, Journal of Modern History, 43, 3 (1971). Renouvin, P., ‘The Part played in International Relations by the Conversations between the General Staffs on the Eve of the War’, in P. Coville and H. W. Temperley, eds, Studies in Anglo-French History (Cambridge, 1935). Robbins, K. S., ‘Lord Bryce and the First World War’, Historical Journal, 10, 2 (1967). ——, ‘Sir Edward Grey and the British Empire’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 1, 2 (1973). Rohl, J. C. B., ‘Admiral von Müller and the Approach of War, 1911–1914’, Historical Journal, 12, 4 (1969). Rowthorn, R. E. and S. N. Solomu, ‘The Macroeconomic Effects of Overseas Investment on the UK Balance of Trade, 1870–1913’, Economic History Review, 44, 4 (1991). Sanderson, Michael, ‘The English Civic Universities and the “Industrial Spirit”, 1870–1914’, Historical Research, 61 (1988). Saul, S. B., ‘The American Impact on Britain 1895–1914’, Business History, 5, 1 (1962). BIBLIOGRAPHY 305 Schroeder, P. W., ‘Did the Vienna Settlement Rest on a Balance of Power?’ American Historical Review, 97 (1992). Schroeder, P., ‘World War I as Galloping Gertie: A Reply to Joachim Remak’, Journal of Modern History, 44, 3 (1972). Sires, R. V., ‘Labour Unrest in England, 1910–1914’, Journal of Economic History, 15, 3 (1955). Springhall, J. O., ‘Lord Meath, Youth and Empire’, Journal of Contemporary History, 5, 4 (1970). Steinberg, J., ‘The Novella of 1908: Necessities and Choices in the Anglo- German Naval Arms Race’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 21 (1971). ——, ‘The Copenhagen Complex’, Journal of Contemporary History, 1, 3 (1966). Steiner, Z., ‘Great Britain and the Creation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance’, Journal of Modern History, 31 (1959). ——, ‘The Last Years of the Old Foreign Office, 1898–1905’, Historical Journal, 6 (1963). ——, ‘Grey Hardinge and the Foreign Office, 1906–1910’, Historical Journal, 10, 3 (1967). Stevenson, David, ‘War by Timetable? The Railway Race Before 1914’, Past and Present, 162 (1999). Stone, N., ‘Moltke-Conrad: Relations between the Austro-Hungarian and German General Staffs, 1909–1914’, Historical Journal, 10, 1 (1966). Sweet, D., ‘The Baltic in British Diplomacy before the First World War’, Historical Journal, 13, (1970). Sykes, Alan, ‘The Radical Right and the Crisis of Conservatism Before the First World War’, Historical Journal, 26, 3 (1983). Taylor, A. J. P., ‘British Policy in Morocco, 1886–1908’, English Historical Review, 66 (1951). Temperley, H., ‘British Secret Diplomacy from Canning to Grey’, Cambridge Historical Journal, 6 (1938). Thomas, M. E., ‘Anglo-Belgian Military Relations and the Congo Question, 1911–1913’, Journal of Modern History, 25 (1953). Thompson, Andrew S., ‘Tariff Reform: An Imperial Strategy, 1903–1913’, Historical Journal, 49, 4 (1997). Travers, T. H. E., ‘The Offensive and the Problem of Innovation in British Military Thought 1870–1915’, Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978). ——, ‘Technology, Tactics and Morale: Jean de Bloch, the Boer War, and British Military Theory, 1900–1914’, Journal of Modern History, 51 (1979). 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Vance, Norman, ‘The Ideal of Manliness’, in Brian Simon and Ian Bradley, eds, The Victorian Public School (Dublin, 1975). Viner, J., ‘International Finance and Balance of Power Diplomacy, 1880–1914’, Southwestern Political and Social Science Quarterly, 9 (1929). Warren, Allen, ‘Sir Robert Baden-Powell, the Scout Movement and Citizen Training in Great Britain, 1900–1920’, English Historical Review, 101, 399 (1986). Watt, D. C., ‘British Press Reactions to the Assassination at Sarajevo’, European Studies Review, 1, 3 (1971). Weinroth, H., ‘British Radicals and the Balance of Power, 1902–14’, Historical Journal, 13, 4 (1970) ——, ‘Left-wing Opposition to Naval Armaments in Britain before 1914’, Journal of Contemporary History, 6, 4 (1971). ——, ‘Norman Angell and The Great Illusion’, Historical Journal, 17, 3 (1974). Wells, S. F., ‘British Strategic Withdrawal from the Western Hemisphere, 1904–1906’, Canadian Historical Review, 49 (1968). Williams, B. 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ABBREVIATIONS

B.D. British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914, ed. G. P. Gooch and H. Temperley, 11 vols in 13 (London, 1926–38) cab. Cabinet Office Papers D.D.F. Documents diplomatiques français, 1871–1914, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, ser. II and III (Paris, 1930–53) D.G.P. Die grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, 1871–1914, ed. J. Lepsius, A. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, F. Thimme, 39 vols (Berlin, 1922–7) F.O. Foreign Office Papers Hansard Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 4th and 5th series, 1897–1914

Unless specified here, fuller publication details will be found in the Bibliography.

INTRODUCTION

1. James Joll, The Unspoken Assumptions (1972). 2. E. Kehr, Der Primat der Innenpolitik (Berlin, 1965); Ludwig Dehio, Germany and World Politics in the Twentieth Century (1959). 3. Fritz Fischer, Griff nach der Weltmacht (Hamburg, 1961), English trans. Germany’s Aims in the First World War (1967). 4. G. Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England (1935; paperback ed., 1970) p. viii.

i. THE CONSERVATIVE WATERSHED

1. On the changing base of the Conservative party, see J. Cornford, ‘Transformation of Conservatism in the Late Nineteenth Century’, Victorian Studies, VII (1963); idem, ‘The Parliamentary Foundations of the Hotel Cecil’, in R. Robson (ed.), Ideas and Institutions of Victorian NOTES AND REFERENCES 309 Britain (1967) and E.E.H. Green, The Crisis of Conservatism (London, 1995). 2. H.V. Emy, Liberals, Radicals and Social Politics, 1892–1914 (1973) p. 100. 3. Ibid., p. 103. 4. P.F. Clarke, Lancashire and the New Liberalism (1971). For a different interpretation see P. Thompson, Socialists, Liberals and Labour: The Struggle for London, 1885–1914 (1967); R. McKibbin, The Evolution of the Labour Party, 1910–1924 (1975). 5. The Speaker, 8 September 1900; quoted in Emy, Liberals, Radicals . . ., p. 90. 6. For a wider claim for the importance of the ‘efficiency school’, see G.R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency (1971). 7. Thompson, Socialists, Liberals and Labour; Howarth, ‘The Liberal Revival in Northamptonshire, 1880–1895’, Historical Journal, XII (1969). For a study of Blackburn, see P.F. Clarke, ‘British Politics and Blackburn Politics, 1900–1910, Historical Journal, XII 2 (1969). 8. There is an enormous literature both on the ‘Great Depression’ and on the trade union movement. For a summary of the material on the economic side we have relied on Sidney Pollard, Britain’s Prime and Britain’s Decline (London, 1989), which replaces the older literature. On trade unions, H.A. Clegg, A. Fox and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889, vol. 1 (1964); A.E. Dufy, ‘New Unionism in Britain 1889–1890: A Re-appraisal’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., XIV 2 (1961); H. Pelling, History of British Trade Unionism (London and New York, 1963) 9. This whole debate can be followed in John Turner, British Politics and the Great War (New Haven and London, 1992). Turner concludes that the events of the First World War brought about the end of the Liberal party. 10. T.W. Fletcher, ‘The Great Depression of English Agriculture, 1873–1896’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., XIII 3 (1961); D. Spring, The English Landed Estate in the 19th Century, its Administration (Baltimore, 1963); F.M.L. Thompson, English Landed Society in the Nineteenth Century (London and Toronto, 1963). 11. The book was symbolic of mood rather than of reality, but neverthe- less had an impact; see Christopher Buchheim, ‘Aspects of XIXth Century Anglo-German Trade Rivalry Reconsidered’, Journal of European Economic History, 10, 2 (1981), pp. 273–89 and H. Berghoff and R. Müller, ‘Tired Pioneers and Dynamic Newcomers? A Comparative Essay in English and German Entrepreneurial History, 1870–1914’, Economic History Review, 47, 2 (1994), pp. 262–87. 12. For the argument that Britain declined, see the evidence marshalled in Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York, 1988), pp. 224–32; for a contrary view, see P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British 310 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR Imperialism. Innovation and Expansion 1688–1914 (London and New York, 1993), pp. 466–73. 13. For the impact, see Kevin H. O’Rourke, ‘The European Grain Invasion, 1870–1913’, Journal of Economic History, 57, 4 (1997), pp. 775–801. 14. Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation (London, 1969), p. 319. 15. See Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, pp. 181–201 for a discussion. Also interesting is R.E. Rowthorn and S.N. Solomu, ‘The Macroeconomic Effects of Overseas Investment on the UK Balance of Trade, 1870–1913’, Economic History Review, 44, 4(1991), pp. 654–64. 16. We owe the term to Clive Trebilcock. For the critical view see Mathias, First Industrial Nation, chapter 15; E.J. Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire (London, 1968), chapter 9. A balanced overview is in Pollard, Britain’s Prime, pp. 49–55. 17. Cf. Martin J. Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (Cambridge, 1981) and Michael Sanderson, ‘The English Civic Universities and the “Industrial Spirit”, 1870–1914’, Historical Research, lxi (1988), pp. 90–104 and James Raven, ‘British History and the Enterprise Culture’, Past and Present, cxxiii (1989), pp. 178–204. 18. See some of the arguments in D. McCloskey, Essays on a Mature Economy: Britain after 1840 (London, 1971) and in D.C.M. Platt, Latin America and British Trade, 1806–1914 (London, 1972), especially pp. 173–251. 19. Andrew S. Thompson, ‘Tariff Reform: An Imperial Strategy, 1903–1913’, Historical Journal, 49, 4 (1997), pp. 1033–54. 20. For the varied roots of imperialism, see Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Imperial Century, 1815–1914 (2nd edn; London, 1993), pp. 272–309. 21. J.A.S. Grenville, Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy (London, 1964), pp. 165–6. 22. H.C.G. Matthew, The Liberal Imperialists (London, 1973), p. 153. Rosebery, on the other hand, was far less happy with this line of argument; see Gordon Martel, Imperial Diplomacy. Rosebery and the Failure of Foreign Policy (Kingston and Montreal, 1986), pp. 12–15. 23. G.P. Gooch, quoted in D. Read, Edwardian England, 19015–1915 (London, 1972), p. 139. 24. The classic attack is in R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians (London, 1961) and in their subsequent articles, and D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire (London, 1973). But see the important correctives by E. Stokes, ‘Late Nineteenth Century Colonial Expansion and the Attack on the Theory of Economic Imperialism: A Case of Mistaken Identity’, Historical Journal, XII, 2(1969) and ‘Uneconomic Imperialism’, Historical Journal, XVIII, 2 (1975) and, above all, Lance E. Davis and Robert A. Huttenback, Mammon and the NOTES AND REFERENCES 311 Pursuit of Empire. The Political Economy of British Imperialism (Cambridge, 1986). The debate around costs can be followed in Andrew Porter, ‘The Balance Sheet of Empire, 1850–1914’, Historical Journal, XXXI (1988), pp. 685–99. The wider range of discussion about Empire is in Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism. Innovation and Expansion 1688–1914, pp. 350–96. 25. D.C.M. Platt, ‘Economic Factors in British Policy during the New Imperialism’, Past and Present, 39 (1968); ‘National Economy and British Imperial Expansion before 1914’, Journal of Imperials and Commonwealth History, II, 1 (1973); D. McLean, ‘The Foreign Office and the First Chinese Indemnity Loan, 1895’, Historical Journal, XVI, 2 (1973) and E.W. Edwards, British Diplomacy and Finance in China 1895–1914 (Oxford, 1987). 26. B.D., vol. III, Appendix B. 27. For a sophisticated analysis of the origins of the war, which destroys simplistic monocausal explanations, see Ian R. Smith, The Origins of the South African War 1899–1902 (Harlow, 1996). 28. A.J.A. Morris, Radicalism against War 1906–1914 (London, 1972), p. 6. 29. R. Price, An Imperial War and the British Working Class (London, 1972); H. Pelling, Popular Politics and Society in Late Victorian Britain (London, 1968). 30. W. Churchill, The Story of the Malakand Field Force (London, 1916), p. 32. 31. P.F. Clarke, ‘British Politics’, p. 347. 32. D.G.P., vol. XI, no. 53: Hatzfeldt to Holstein (21 January 1896). 33. D.G.P., vol. XVI, no. 234–5: Metternich to Richtofen (19 January 1903); quoted in O.J. Hale, Publicity and Diplomacy with Special Reference to England and Germany, 1890–1914 (New York, 1940), p. 255.

2. THE DIPLOMATIC RESPONSE

1. Quoted in Grenville, Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy, p. 299. 2. C.H.D. Howard, Splendid Isolation (1967), p. 9. 3. Ibid., p 10. 4. Ibid., p. 19. 5. Ibid., p. 19. 6. T.G. Otte, ‘Great Britain, Germany, and the Far-Eastern Crisis of 1897–8’, English Historical Review, CX, 439 (1995), pp. 1157–79. 7. J.L. Garvin, Life of Joseph Chamberlain, vol. III (1934) p. 315. 8. B.D. vol. ii, no. 17. 9. Avner Cohen, ‘Joseph Chamberlain, Lord Lansdowne and British Foreign Policy 1901–1903: From Collaboration to Confrontation’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 43, 2 (1997), pp. 122–34. 10. B.D. vol. ii, no. 85. 312 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 11. B.D. vol. ii, no. 86. 12. Sanderson to Lascelles (5 Mar 1912); quoted in Monger, The End of Isolation (1963) p. 70. 13. For details, see I. Nish, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, The Diplomacy of Two Island Kingdoms (1966); Keith Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar (Oxford, 1995), pp. 119–21. 14. Howard, Splendid Isolation, p. 94. 15. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 205–37. 16. On the French side, see C. Andrew, Théophile Declassé and the Making of the Entente Cordiale (London, 1968). 17. Keith Neilson, ‘“A Dangerous Game of American Poker”: Britain and the Russo-Japanese War’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 12 (1980), pp. 63–87. 18. Aaron L. Friedberg, The Weary Titan. Britain and the Experience of Relative Decline, 1895–1905 (Princeton, 1988), pp. 89–134. 19. Monger, End of Isolation, p. 82; Keith Neilson, ‘“Greatly Exaggerated”: The Myth of the Decline of Great Britain before 1914’, International History Review, 8, 4 (1991), pp. 696–706; Phillips Payson O’Brien, British and American Naval Power (Westport, Connecticut, 1998), pp. 25–46. 20. For details, see A. Marder, British Naval Policy, 1895–1905 (New York, 1963); Ruddock F. Mackay, ‘The Admiralty, the German Navy, and the Redistribution of the British Fleet, 1904–1905’, Mariner’s Mirror, lvi (1970), pp. 341–6. 21. Monger, End of Isolation, pp. 177–8. 22. Thomas Otte, ‘The Elusive Balance. British Foreign Policy and the French Entente before the First World War’, in A. Sharp and G. Stone (eds), Anglo-French Relations in the Twentieth Century (London and New York, 2000), pp. 12–16. 23. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 238–64; David G. Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton, 1996), pp. 40–58. 24. B.D. vol. iii, no. 94. 25. For a history of the CID and its role in the Conservative period, see F.A. Johnson, Defence by Committee (1960), J. Gooch, Plans of War (1974), Nicholas d’Ombrain, War Machinery and High Policy (Oxford, 1973). 26. Gooch, ibid., p. 281. 27. Monger, End of Isolation, p. 178; Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 263–4. 28. Keith Robbins, Sir Edward Grey (1971) p. 13. Grey’s policy has been sharply (and, in our opinion, wrongly) attacked: see Keith Wilson, The Policy of the Entente (Cambridge, 1985) and idem, ‘Grey’ in Keith Wilson (ed.), British Foreign Secretaries (1987), pp. 172–97. 29. H.G.C. Matthew, The Liberal Imperialists, p. 204. 30. Z. Steiner, The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy (1969) p. 84. 31. Matthew, Liberal Imperialists, p. 204. NOTES AND REFERENCES 313 32. Robbins, Sir Edward Grey, p. 132. 33. Ibid. 34. G.M. Trevelyan, Grey of Fallodon (1937) pp. 83–4. 35. Robbins, Sir Edward Grey, p. 132. 36. Spender Mss. Add. Mss. 46389: Grey to Spender (19 October 1905).

3. BRITAIN AND GERMANY

1. B.D. vol. III, Appendix A: memorandum by Crowe (1 January 1907). 2. Hardinge Mss., vol. 92; Tyrrell to Hardinge (21 August 1911). 3. Memorandum for R.L. Borden (August 1912) in Lowe and Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, vol. III, pp. 458–9. 4. Many in the Cabinet had been informed long before; J.W. Coogan and P.F. Coogan, ‘The British Cabinet and the Anglo-French Staff Talks, 1905–1914: Who Knew What and When Did He Know It?’ Journal of British Studies, 24 (1985), pp. 110–31. 5. B.D. vol. III, Appendix A, and see Keith Wilson, ‘Sir Eyre Crowe on the Origin of the Crowe Memorandum of 1 January 1907’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 55 (1983), pp. 238–41. 6. Thomas Otte, ‘Eyre Crowe and British Foreign Policy: A Cognitive Map’, in T.G. Otte and Constantine A. Pagedas (eds), Personalities, War and Diplomacy (Cass, 1997), pp. 14–37. 7. B.D. vol. III, Appendix A. 8. B.D. vol. III, Appendix B. 9. F.O. 800/164 Bertie to Grey (17 March 1966). We are indebted to Dr K. Hamilton for this reference. Hamilton’s superb biography of Bertie, Bertie of Thame: Edwardian Ambassador (London, 1990), must be regarded as definitive for Anglo-French relations in this period. 10. K.A. Hamilton, ‘An Attempt to Form an Anglo-French Industrial Entente’, Middle Eastern Studies, XI (January 1975). 11. John Keiger, France and the Origins of the First World War (Macmillan, 1983). 12. R. Poidevin, Les rélations économiques et financières entre la France et l’Allemagne de 1898 à 1914 (Paris, 1969). The situation changed in the post-1912 period. 13. F.O. 371/599: Rodd to Grey (10 February 1909), minute by Grey. 14. The theme of Nicholas A. Lambert’s provocative Sir John Fisher’s Naval Revolution (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1999). 15. Andre T. Sidorowicz, ‘The British Government, the Hague Peace Conference of 1907, and the Armaments Question’ and Keith Neilson, ‘“The British Empire Floats on the British Navy”: British Naval Policy, Belligerent Rights, and Disarmament, 1902–1909’, both in B.J.C. 314 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR McKercher (ed.), Arms Limitation and Disarmament (Westport, Connecticut, 1992), pp. 1–20 and 21–42 respectively. 16. F.O. 800/243: Crowe to Dilke (15 October 1907). 17. Fisher’s counter-statement was directed against Admiral Beresford, who made the unpreparedness of the British fleet to fight the Germans part of his attack on Fisher. 18. David Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War. Europe 1904–1914 (Oxford, 1996), pp. 172–5; Ivo N. Lambi, The Navy and German Power Politics 1862–1914 (London, 1984), pp. 269–86. 19. J. Steinberg, in F. H. Hinsley (ed.), The Foreign Policy of Sir Edward Grey (1976). 20. For an introduction to this problem, see P. Kennedy, ‘Mahan versus Mackinder’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, II (1974). 21. H.V. Emy, ‘The Impact of Financial Policy on English Politics before 1914’, Historical Journal, XV I (1972). 22. J. Steinberg, Yesterday’s Deterrent (1965); V.R. Berghahn, Der Tirpitz Plan: Genesis und Verfall einer innenpolitischen Krisenstrategie unter Wilhelm II (1972); P. Kennedy, ‘German World Policy and the Alliance Negotiations with England, 1897–1914’, English Historical Review, LXXXIX (1974); P. Kennedy, ‘Maritime Strategieprobleme der Deutschenglischen Flottenrivalitat’, in H. Schottelius and W. Deist (eds), Marine und Marinepolitik im Kaiserlichen Deutschland, 1875–1914 (1972). To these should be added Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War passim and, for an idiosyncratic view, Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London, 1998), pp. 82–7. 23. Schottelius and Deist, Marine und Marinepolitik, especially the essays by Berghahn, Kennedy and Steinberg. 24. Quoted in R.F. Mackay, Fisher of Kilverstone (Oxford, 1973) p. 385. 25. The Times (11 November 1907). 26. Hardinge Mss., vol. 17: Hardinge to Bryce (4 June 1909). 27. F.O. 371/457: minute by Crowe (13 January 1908). 28. F.O. 371/461: minute by Crowe (18 August 1908). 29. Thomas G. Otte, ‘“An Altogether Unfortunate Affair”: Great Britain and the Daily Telegraph Affair’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 5, 2 (1994), 296–333. 30. British suspicions – which arose from the reports by the service attachés as well as by H.H. Mulliner (the managing director of the Coventry Ordinance Works who became the symbol of the ‘merchant of death’) – seem to have been based on a misunderstanding of what had happened in Germany. There was a sharp slump in the summer of 1907 which continued into 1908 and had a negative effect on both German and British industrial production. As a result, strong pressure was brought on Tirpitz to put out contracts for two battleships to private shipbuilders before the estimates for 1909 had been approved NOTES AND REFERENCES 315 by the Reichstag. In fact, as Tirpitz was later to insist, the ships had only been ‘anticipated’ and were finished with the other 1909 battleships in the spring of 1912. The British Sea Lords assumed that by the spring of 1912 the Germans would have 17 dreadnoughts; they had only 11. We are indebted to Jonathan Steinberg for information on this point and also to the important material in Peter Christian Witt, Die Finanzpolitik des Deutschen Reiches von 1903 bis 1913 (1970). 31. Phillips Payson O’Brien, British and American Naval Power (Westport, Connecticut, 1998), pp. 73–97. 32. Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War, pp. 172–3. 33. B.D. vol. VI, no. 174. 34. B.D. vol. VI, no. 344. 35. B.D. vol. VI, no. 461. 36. C. Trebilcock, ‘A “Special Relationship”: Government, Rearmament and the Cordite Firms’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., XIX (1966); and ‘Legends of the British Armaments Industry, 1890–1914: A Revision’, Journal of Contemporary History, 5 (1970). 37. C. Trebilcock, ‘Legends of the British Armaments Industry’, p. 10. 38. Quoted in Morris, Radicalism against War, p. 336. 39. B. Huldermann, Albert Ballin (London, 1922). 40. Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford, 1989), pp. 81–92. 41. Compare the views in R.J. Hoffman, Great Britain and the German Trade Rivalry, 1875–1914 (1933) with the statistical information in D.H. Aldcroft (ed.), The Development of British Industry and Foreign Competition, 1875–1914 (1968) and D.C.M. Platt, Latin America and British Trade, 1806–1914 (1972), especially chaps 6–8. 42. See Neilson, ‘“Greatly Exaggerated”’ and the subsequent debate in William R. Thompson, The Emergence of the Global Political Economy (London, 2000), pp. 159–87. 43. D.C.M. Platt, Latin America and British Trade, pp. 73–4. 44. C. Trebilcock, ‘Radicalism and the Armament Trust’, in A.J.A. Morris, (ed.), Edwardian Radicalism, p. 192. 45. B. Zwerger, ‘The Diplomatic Relations between Great Britain and Roumania, 1913–14’ (unpublished MA thesis, University of London, 1971). Dr Roy Bridge called our attention to this material. 46. Henry Wilson, Diary, 31 July 1914. 47. Lady Gwendolen Cecil, Life of Robert, Marquis of Salisbury, vol. III, p. 216. 48. M. Kent, ‘Agent of Empire: The National Bank of Turkey and British Foreign Policy’, Historical Journal, XVIII 2 (1975) p. 384. 49. Lord Vansittart, The Mist Procession (1958) p. 45. 50. D.C.M. Platt, Finance, Trade and Politics (1968) p. 217. 51. M. Balfour, The Kaiser and His Times (1964) pp. 442–6. 52. I. Geiss, July 1914 (1967) p. 23. 316 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 53. B.D. vol. III, Appendix A. 54. Fritz Fischer, ‘World Policy, Power and German War Aims’, trans. in H. W. Koch (ed.), Origins of the First World War (1972) p. 121. 55. P.H.S. Hatton, ‘Harcourt and Solf: The Search for an Anglo-German Understanding through Africa, 1912–14’, European Studies Review, I 2 (1971); J. Willequet, ‘Anglo-German Rivalry in Belgian and Portuguese Africa’, in P. Gifford and W.R. Louis (eds), Britain and Germany in Africa (New Haven, 1971); R. Langhorne, ‘Anglo-German Negotiations concerning the Future of the Portuguese Colonies, 1911–14’, Historical Journal, XVI 2 (1973). 56. Hardinge Mss. (1909): Hardinge to Lister (21 January 1909). 57. B.D. vol. VII, no. 392. 58. F.O. 800/171: Bertie to Crowe (21 July 1911). 59. Quoted in Lowe and Dockrill, Mirage of Power, vol. III, p. 433. 60. Ibid., p. 434. 61. F.O. 800/160: Crowe to Bertie (20 July 1911). 62. For text of speech, see K. Morgan, The Age of Lloyd George (1971) p. 160. 63. Cf. R.A. Cosgrove, ‘A Note on Lloyd George’s Speech at the Mansion House, 21 July 1911’, Historical Journal, XII 4 (1969) pp. 698–701; M. Dockrill, ‘David Lloyd George and Foreign Policy before 1914’ in A.J.P. Taylor (ed.), Lloyd George: Twelve Essays (London, 1971) pp. 16–17; K. Wilson, ‘The Agadir Crisis: The Mansion House Speech and the Double-Edgedness of Agreements’, Historical Journal, XV 3 (1972) pp. 513–32; Bentley B. Gilbert, ‘Pacifist to Interventionist: David Lloyd George in 1911 and 1914. Was Belgium an Issue?’, Historical Journal, 28, 4 (1985), pp. 863–85; Michael G. Fry, Lloyd George and Foreign Policy (Montreal and Kingston, 1977), pp. 131–52. 64. Runciman Mss.: Runciman to Harcourt (2 April 1908); Robbins, Sir Edward Grey, p. 245. 65. Hardinge Mss., vol. 92: Tyrrell to Hardinge (21 July 1911). 66. Runciman Mss.: Harcourt to Runciman (26 August 1911). 67. F.O. 800/100: Asquith to Grey (5 September 1911).

4. BRITAIN AND RUSSIA

1. This chapter, except otherwise noted, is based on Keith Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar. British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1995), which has an extended bibliography. 2. P.W. Schroeder, ‘Did the Vienna Settlement Rest on a Balance of Power?’ American Historical Review, 97 (1992), pp. 683–706 and idem, The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994). 3. J.H. Gleason, The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1950). NOTES AND REFERENCES 317 4. Bernard Porter, ‘“Bureau and Barrack”: Early Victorian Attitudes towards the Continent’, Victorian Studies, 27, 4 (1984), pp. 407–33. 5. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 84–109; Keith Neilson, ‘Tsars and Commissars: W. Somerset Maugham, Ashenden and Images of Russia in Adventure Fiction, 1890–1930’, Canadian Journal of History, 28, 3 (1992), pp. 476–500. 6. R.J. Johnson, ‘Zagranichnaia Agentura: The Tsarist Political Police in Europe’, Journal of Contemporary History, 7, 1–2 (1972), pp. 221–42. 7. Keith Neilson, ‘“Incidents” and Foreign Policy: A Case Study’, Diplomacy And Statecraft, 9, 1 (1998), pp. 67–75. 8. The seminal study is I.F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 1763–1964 (London, 1966). 9. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 110–43. 10. ‘Memorandum respecting the Passage of Russian War Vessels through the Dardanelles and Bosphorus’, Hardinge, 16 November 1906, F.O. 800/92. 11. John Gooch, The Plans of War (London, 1974), pp. 198–237. 12. IOLR, Morley to Minto, 31 May 1907, Morley Papers, MSS Eur. D573/2. 13. Parl Debs, 4th series, vol. 121, cols. 1343–53. 14. B.J. Williams, ‘The Revolution of 1905 and Russian Foreign Policy’ in C. Abramsky, Essays in Honour of E.H. Carr (London, 1974), pp. 101–25 and A.V. Ignatiev, Vneshnaia politika Rossii v 1905–7 gg. (Moscow, 1986). 15. F.R. Bridge, ‘Izvolsky, Aehrenthal, and the End of the Austro-Russian Entente, 1906–8’, Mitteilungen des osterrreichischen Staatsarchivs, 20 (1976), pp. 315–62; V.A. Marinov, Rossiia i Iaponiia pered pervoi mirovoi voinoi (1905–14 gody) (Moscow, 1974), pp. 23–51, P. Luntinen, The Baltic Question 1903–8 (Helsinki, 1975). 16. Churchill College Archives Centre, Clarke to Esher, 1 September 1905, Esher Papers 10/37. 17. Cambridge University Library, Hardinge to Nicolson, 26 March 1909, Hardinge Papers, vol. 17. 18. John Gooch, Plans of War, pp 252–3. 19. Grey to Spring Rice, 22 December 1905, Spring Rice Papers, F.O. 800/241. 20. D. Lieven, ‘Pro-Germans and Russian Foreign Policy 1890–1914’, International History Review, 2 (1980), pp. 34–54. 21. F. Lindberg, Scandinavia in Great Power Politics (Stockholm, 1958), pp. 145–264; Luntinen, The Baltic Question, pp. 120–41. 22. Nicolson to Grey, 24 March 1909, B.D., V, doc. 764. 23. ‘Memorandum by Sir Charles Hardinge on the Possibility of War’, 4 May 1909, B.D., V, appendix III. 24. I. Klein, ‘British Intervention in the Persian Revolution, 1905–1909’, Historical Journal, 15 (1972), pp. 731–52; D. McLean, ‘English Radicals, 318 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR Russia, and the Fate of Persia 1907–13’, English Historical Review, 93 (1978), pp. 338–42. 25. I.I. Astafev, Russo-germanskie diplomaticheskie otnosheniia 1905–1911 gg. (ot portmutskogo mire do potsdamskogo soglasheniia) (Moscow, 1972), pp. 219–48; A.S. Avetian, Russo-germanskie diplomaticheski otnosheniia nakanune pervoi mirovoi voiny 1910–1914 (Moscow, 1985), pp. 66–82. 26. Keith Wilson, ‘The Struggle for Persia: Sir G. Clerk’s Memorandum of 21 July on Anglo-Russian Relations in Persia’, Proceedings of the 1988 International Conference on Middle Eastern Studies, pp. 290–334. 27. Peter Gatrell, Government, Industry and Rearmament in Russia, 1900–1914 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 161–322. 28. Keith Neilson, ‘Watching the “Steamroller”: British Observers and the Russian Army before 1914’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 8, 2 (1985), pp. 199–217. 29. W.O. 106/1039: Undated minute by Wilson (but late March–early April 1914). 30. Nicolson to Buchanan, 7 April 1914, F.O. 800/373. 31. Nicolson to Buchanan, 11 March 1913, F.O. 800/364. 32. Nicolson to Buchanan, 21 April 1914, F.O. 800/373. 33. Grey to L. Harcourt, 10 January 1914, Grey Papers, F.O. 800/91.

5. BRITAIN, GERMANY AND FRANCE, 1912‒14

1. R. Langhorne, ‘The Naval Question in Anglo-German Relations, 1912–14’, Historical Journal, XVIII (1970) surveys the problem. 2. B.D. vol. VI, no. 499: Grey to Bertie (7 February 1912). 3. B.D. vol. VI, no. 506. 4. Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War, pp. 205–9. 5. Ibid. 6. Harcourt Mss.: interview with Haldane and Grey (14 March 1912). 7. Asquith Mss., Box 6; Asquith to George V (16 March 1912). 8. F.O. 371/1572: minute by Crowe (8 February 1912). 9. F.O. 800/171: Nicolson to Bertie (8 February 1912). 10. John H. Maurer, ‘Churchill’s Naval Holiday: Arms Control and the Anglo-German Naval Race, 1912–1914’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 15, 1 (1992), pp. 102–27. 11. B.D. vol. X (2), no. 465. 12. Speech in L. Woodward, Great Britain and the German Navy (1935) p. 427. 13. B.D., vol. VI, no 564. 14. Hamilton, Bertie of Thame, pp. 274–80. 15. B.D. vol. VI, no. 584. 16. Keith Neilson, ‘“Greatly Exaggerated”: The Myth of the Decline of Greatly Britain before 1914’, International History Review, 13, 4 (1991), pp. 702–4. NOTES AND REFERENCES 319 17. cab. 4/32, Paper no. 147B: ‘The Situation in the Mediterranean, 1912’ (9 May 1912). For full discussion of this subject, see P. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation, 1908–1914 (1971). 18. B.D., vol. X (2), no. 385: Nicolson to Grey (6 May 1912). 19. A.J. Marder, Fear God and Dread Nought: The Correspondence of ... Lord Fisher of Kilverstone, vol. II, pp. 468–9. 20. Asquith Mss., Box 6: Asquith to George V (16 July 1912). 21. Keith Hamilton, Bertie of Thame, pp. 289–97. 22. Quoted in Lowe and Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, vol. I, p. 57. 23. For the final revision of the text, see B.D., vol. X (2), no. 416. 24. Churchill, The World Crisis, 1911–1918 (1923), pp. 115–16. 25. H. Nicolson, Lord Carnock (1930), pp. 402–3. 26. Halpern, Mediterranean Naval Situation, p. 129. 27. For details, see R. Langhorne, ‘Anglo-German Negotiations concerning the . . . Portuguese Colonies’ and P.H.S. Hatton, ‘Harcourt and Solf’. 28. Henry Wilson, Diary: 10 June 1912. 29. B.D., vol. X (2), no. 337. 30. F. Fischer, War of Illusions (1973), p. 314.

6. THE BALKANS, RUSSIA AND GERMANY

1. F.O. 371/1493: minute by Grey (15 April 1912). 2. F.O. 800/62: Grey to Goschen (11 March 1912). 3. For a discussion with references to most of the sources, see Steiner, The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, pp. 148–9. 4. Grey, Twenty-Five Years, vol. I, p. 272. 5. B.D., vol. IX (2), no. 926. 6. F.O. 371/1493: minute by Grey (15 April 1912). 7. Nicolson Mss. 800/362: Nicolson to Hardinge (9 January 1913). 8. B.D., vol. X (2), no. 540. 9. N. Stone, The Eastern Front 1914–1917 (1975), pp. 28–36. 10. L.C.F. Turner, Origins of the First World War (1970), pp. 44–7. 11. B.D., vol. X (2), no. 528. 12. Hardinge Mss., vol. 93: Chirol to Hardinge (18 April 1913). 13. B.D., vol. X (2), no. 456. 14. P. Schroeder, ‘World War I as Galloping Gertie: A Reply to Joachim Remak’, Journal of Modern History, XLIV 3 (1972). 15. B.D., vol. X (1), no. 223. 16. Quoted in F.R. Bridge, Great Britain and Austria–Hungary, 1906–1914 (1972), p. 208. 17. F.O. 371/1895: memorandum by Crowe (29 May 1914). 18. F.O. 800/174: Grey to Buchanan (7 May 1914). 320 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 19. Ira Klein, ‘The British Decline in Asia: Tibet 1914–1921’, Historian (November 1971). 20. B.D., vol. X (2), no. 535. 21. B.D., vol. X (2), Appendix I, p. 821. 22. B.D., vol. X (1), no. 393. 23. B.D., vol. X (1), no. 457. 24. F. Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 347. 25. F.O. 800/61: Grey to Goschen (16 March 1912). 26. Quoted in Turner, Origins of the First World War, p. 75. 27. F.O. 800/161: memorandum by Bertie (16 July 1914). 28. References and discussion in Williamson, The Politics of Grand Strategy, pp. 338–9; Grey, Twenty-Five Years, vol. I, p. 289. 29. F.O. 800/374: Nicolson to Grey (7 July 1914), minute by Grey. 30. F.O. 800/171: memorandum by Bertie (24 June 1914). 31. Quoted from General von Schlieffen in L.L. Farrar, The Short-War Illusion (Berkeley, California and Oxford, 1973) p. 4. 32. Quoted and translated in Fischer, War of Illusions, p. 175. 33. F.O. 800/374: Goschen to Nicolson (24 April 1914).

7. THE DOMESTIC CONTEST

1. J.W. and P.F. Coogan, ‘The British Cabinet and the Anglo-French Staff Talks, 1905–1914: Who Knew What and When Did He Know It?’ Journal of British Studies, 24 (1985), pp. 110–31. 2. W.T. Stead, The Liberal Movement of 1906, quoted in Morris, Radicalism Against War, p. 22. 3. Rhodri Williams, Defending the Empire (New Haven, Connecticut, 1991), passim. 4. C.M. Trevelyan, Grey of Fallodon, p. 169. 5. Monger, The End of Isolation, p. 313. 6. F.O. 800/72: Grey to Nicolson (3 October 1906). 7. Quoted in R. Cecil, Life in Edwardian England (London, 1969), p. 28. 8. B.E.C. Dugdale, Arthur James Balfour (1936), vol. I, p. 335. 9. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 277–9. 10. F.O. 800/143: Crowe to Dilke (15 December 1907). 11. The slogan originated with George Wyndham. 12. B.D., vol. VI, p. 319. 13. H. Weinroth, ‘Norman Angell and The Great Illusion: An Episode in pre-1914 Pacifism’, Historical Journal, XV 1 (1972), p. 118. 14. H.V. Emy, ‘Financial Policy and Party Politics Before 1914’, Historical Journal, XV 1 (1972), p. 118. 15. Asquith Mss.: Harcourt to Asquith (2 January 1910). NOTES AND REFERENCES 321 16. For details see P. Fraser, ‘The Unionist Debacle of 1911’, Journal of Modern History, LXIX 4 (1963). 17. B. Webb, Our Partnership (London, 1958), p. 231. 18. Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England, p. 308. 19. R. Scally, The Origins of the Lloyd George Coalition (Princeton, 1975), p. 175. 20. National Review (April 1911); quoted in Morris, Radicalism Against War, p. 233. 21. Trevor Wilson (ed.), Political Diaries of C. P. Scott, 1911–1928 (1970) pp. 52–3. 22. Hardinge Mss., vol. 92: Nicolson to Hardinge (17 August 1911). 23. Quoted in A.J.P. Taylor, The Trouble Makers (1957), p. 90. 24. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 320–4. 25. David McLean, ‘A Proressor Extraordinary: E.G. Browne and His Persian Campaign 1908–1913’, Historical Journal, 21, 2 (1978), pp. 399–408. 26. Hardinge Mss., vol. 92: Sanderson to Hardinge (26 January 1912). 27. Letter to Manchester Guardian (12 November 1911). 28. Asquith Mss: Asquith to Crewe (28 November 1911). 29. Hansard, 5th ser., XXXII, 58. 30. Grey to Creighton (4 February 1912), quoted in Robbins, Sir Edward Grey, p. 254. 31. Quoted in S. Koss, Sir John Brunner (1970), pp. 252–3. 32. F.O. 800/91: Grey to Harcourt (10 January 1914). 33. The most important discussion is in two studies by Arno Mayer: ‘Domestic Causes of the First World War’, in L. Krieger and F. Stern (eds), The Responsibility of Power (New York, 1967), and ‘Internal Causes and Purposes of War in Europe, 1870–1956: A Research Assignment’, Journal of Modern History, XLI, 3 (1969). For the rebuttal, David French, ‘The Edwardian Crisis and the Origins of the First World War’, International History Review, 4, 2 (1982), pp. 207–21. 34. A speech by Grey in 1911, quoted in Robbins, Sir Edward Grey, p. 249. 35. See the critiques of the Mayer view in D. Lammers, ‘Arno Mayer and the British Decision for War’, Journal of British Studies, XII, 2 (1973) and French, ‘The Edwardian Crisis’, pp. 207–21, which handle each of these issues in considerable detail. 36. A. Rosen, Rise Up Women! (London, 1974) p. 242. 37. Compare the more convincing article by G.A. Phillips, ‘The Triple Industrial Alliance in 1914’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., XXIV (1971), with S. Meacham, ‘The Sense of an Impending Clash: English Working-Class Unrest before the First World War’, American Historical Review, LXXVII, 5 (1972). 38. R. Jenkins, Asquith (1964), p. 260. 39. R.S. Churchill, Winston S. Churchill, vol. II (1967); see the discussion in Lammers, ‘Arno Mayer’, pp. 145–6. 40. J. Joll, The Unspoken Assumptions, p. 17. 322 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 41. Lt. Gen. Sir Reginald C. Hart, ‘A Vindication of War’, quoted in A.J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. I, p. 3. 42. Ibid. 43. The discussion here is heavily dependent on I.F. Clarke’s indispens- able study, Voices Prophesying War, 1763–1984 (1966), especially chapters 3 and 4. 44. Ibid., p. 132. 45. M.E. Howard, Studies in War And Peace (1971), p. 102. 46. Ibid., p. 92. 47. Henry Newbolt, Poems: New and Old (London, 1912), pp. 78–9. 48. Geoffrey Best, ‘Militarism and the Victorian Public Schools’, in Brian Simon and Ian Bradley (eds), The Victorian Public School (Dublin, 1975), pp. 129–46. 49. P. Wilkinson, ‘English Youth Movements, 1908–30’, Journal of Contemporary History, IV, 2 (1969). Pearson, owner of the Express and Standard, was a friend of Joseph Chamberlain’s, and chairman of the Tariff Reform League. 50. This quotation is cited by B. Porter, Critics of Empire (1918), p. 88. 51. Army Review of 1913, quoted in D.G. Pryce, ‘The Military Spirit and the Doctrine of the Offensive in Britain, 1901–1914’ (MA thesis, University of London, 1973). 52. J.O. Springhall, ‘Lord Meath, Youth and Empire’, Journal of Contemporary History, V (1970), p. 100. 53. M.E. Howard, Studies in War and Peace, p. 90. 54. See the two suggestive articles by T.H.E. Travers, ‘The Offensive and the Problem of Innovation in British Military Thought 1870–1915’, Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), pp. 531–53; ‘Technology, Tactics and Morale: Jean de Bloch, the Boer War, and British Military Theory, 1900–1914’, Journal of Modern History, 51 (1979), pp. 264–86. 55. H. Thomas, The Story of Sandhurst (London, 1961), p. 316. 56. Keith Neilson, ‘“That Dangerous and Difficult Enterprise”: British Military Thinking and the Russo-Japanese War’, War & Society, 9, 2 (1991), pp. 17–37. 57. P. Jones, War Letters of a Public School Boy (London, 1918), pp. 3–4. 58. R. Hyam, ‘Winston Churchill before 1914’, Historical Journal, XIII, 1 (1969), pp. 167–8. 59. Quoted in H.C.G. Matthew, The Liberal Imperialists, p. 153. 60. H. Nicolson, Lord Carnock, p. x. 61. R. Scully, The Origins of the Lloyd George Coalition, p. 175. 62. F.O. 800/370: Nicolson to Hardinge (29 October 1913); Lowe and Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, vol. III, p. 484. 63. B.D., vol III, Appendix A. 64. Ibid. NOTES AND REFERENCES 323

8. THE PROFESSIONAL INFLUENCE

1. John Gregory, On the Edge of Diplomacy: Rambles and Reflections, 1902–28 (London, 1928), p. 128. 2. Cd. 7748 Q 40, 788, quoted in Steiner, The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, p. 19. 3. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 48–50. 4. Steiner, The Foreign Office, p. 92. 5. Nicolson to Morley (15 April 1912), quoted in Ibid., p. 129. 6. E.T. Corp, ‘The Problem of Promotion in the Career of Sir Eyre Crowe, 1905–20’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 28 (1982), pp. 236–49. 7. Nicolson, Lord Carnock, p. 328. 8. Keith Wilson, ‘The Question of Anti-Germanism at the British Foreign Office before the First World War’, Canadian Journal of History, 18 (1983), pp. 23–42. 9. Steiner, The Foreign Office, p. 67. 10. M. Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold (1973), p. 71. 11. Ibid., p. 63. 12. B.D., vol. III, Appendix A. 13. B.D., vol. VI, no. 564: undated minute by Nicolson. 14. Spring-Rice Mss., F.O. 800/241: Tyrrell to Spring-Rice (15 May 1907). 15. F.O. 800/364: Nicolson to Goschen (11 March 1913). 16. F.O. 800/171: memorandum by Bertie (16 February 1912). 17. Hardinge Mss. vol. 93: Hardinge to Chirol (30 April 1913). 18. Quoted in Steiner, The Foreign Office, p. 73. 19. Ibid., p. 92. 20. Keith Neilson ‘“My Beloved Russians”: Sir Arthur Nicolson and Russia, 1906–1916’, International History Review, 9 (1987), pp. 521–54. 21. Thomas Otte, ‘Eyre Crowe and British Foreign Policy: A Cognitive Map’, in T.G. Otte and Constantine A. Pagedas (eds), Personalities, War and Diplomacy. Essays in International History (Cass, 1997), pp. 14–37, provides the best intellectual background. 22. E.T. Corp, ‘Sir William Tyrrell: The Eminence Grise of the British Foreign Office, 1912–15’, Historical Journal, 25 (1982), pp. 697–708. 23. C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (1926–8), vol. I, p. 198; D.G.P., vol. XXXIII, 12284–7, 12240, 12278, Von Kühlmann, Erinnerungen (1948), pp. 339–41, 343, 373; F.R. Bridge, Great Britain and Austria–Hungary 1906–1914 (1972), p. 195. 24. F.O. 800/188: Austin Lee to Bertie (14 April 1914). 25. Hardinge Mss., vol. 93: Chirol to Hardinge (22 May 1914). 26. Ibid., Chirol to Hardinge (10 April 1913). 27. B.H. Liddell Hart, The Remaking of Modern Armies, cited in J. Luvaas, The Education of an Army: British Military Thought, 1815–1940 (1965), p. 242. 324 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 28. L.S. Amery, The Times History of the War in South Africa, cited in B. Bond, The Victorian Army and the Staff College, 1854–1914 (1972), p. 181. 29. Marder, British Naval Policy, 1880–1905, p. 390 30. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. I, p. 6, somewhat over- states the case for inefficiency; cf. John F. Beeler, British Naval Policy in the Gladstone–Disraeli Era 1866–1880 (Stanford, 1997). 31. I. Bloch, ‘Is War Possible?’ quoted in I.F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, p. 134. Some, however, did; see Neilson ‘“That Dangerous and Difficult Enterprise”’, pp. 18–19 32. Marder, British Naval Policy, p. 20. 33. Nicholas Lambert, Sir John Fisher’s Naval Revolution (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1999). 34. Williamson, The Politics of Grand Strategy, p. 99. 35. Ibid., p. 102. 36. F.O. 371/455: minute by Hardinge (28 May 1908). 37. Cab. 16/5, Subcommittee Report on the Military Needs of the Empire (24 July 1909). 38. Williamson, Politics of Grand Strategy, p. 111. 39. F.O. 800/100: Grey to Asquith (16 April 1911). 40. Wilson, Diary, 6 September 1911. 41. Williamson, Politics of Grand Strategy, p. 178. 42. The British considered the question in 1908 and again in 1912. On the first occasion, Crowe argued that each signatory of the 1839 treaty had an obligation to guarantee the neutrality of Belgium even should the latter acquiesce in its violation. In 1912, Crowe argued again a blockade of the Dutch and Belgian coasts. In the case of the former, such action would antagonise the neutrals and offend world opinion. With regard to the latter, Britain was ‘entitled – not to say bound – to come to the assistance of Belgium’ and so would be entitled to demand the end of her trade with Germany. While in occupation of Belgium, this prohibition could be enforced without resorting to a blockade of Antwerp (B.D., vol. VIII, nos 311 and 321). For a survey of the increas- ing Belgian suspicion of and hostility towards Britain, see J.E. Helmreich, ‘Belgian Concern over Neutrality and British Intentions, 1906–14’, Journal of Modern History, 36, 4 (1964). 43. Callwell, Sir Henry Wilson: His Life and Diaries (1927), vol. I, pp. 98–9. 44. Hansard, 5th ser., vol. XXXII, pp. 57–8 (27 November 1911). 45. Ibid., pp. 106–7. 46. Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War, p. 6. 47. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation, p. 11. 48. David French, British Economic and Strategic Planning 1905–15 (London, 1982). 49. Lambert, Sir John Fisher’s Naval Revolution. 50. Brett (ed.), Journals and Letters of Lord Esher, vol. III, p. 123. NOTES AND REFERENCES 325 51. Hansard, 5th ser., vol. L, pp. 1316–17. 52. Brett (ed.), Journals and Letters of Lord Esher, vol. III, pp. 98–9. 53. The best estimates are those found in Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War, pp. 2–8. 54. G. Cecil, Life of Lord Salisbury, vol. II, p. 153. 55. Quoted in Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, p. 289. See also, M. Howard, The Continental Commitment (1972). 56. Nicholas Lambert, ‘Economy or Empire: The Fleet Unit Concept and the Quest for Collective Security in the Pacific, 1909–1914’, in K. Neilson and G. Kennedy (eds.), Far Flung Lines (London, 1997), pp. 55–83. 57. This despite the contentions of later analysis; T. Wilson, ‘Britain’s “Moral Commitment” to France in August 1914’, History, 64 (1979), pp. 380–90.

9. THE JULY CRISIS

1. Churchill, The World Crisis (1968 repr.) vol. 1, p. 105. 2. F.O. 800/374: Nicolson to Goschen (5 May 1914). 3. Quoted in Hazlehurst, Politicians at War, p. 27. 4. Quoted in Morris, Radicalism Against War, p. 376. 5. Wilson, Diary: 14 July 1914; B. Collier, Brasshat (1961) p. 54. 6. Quoted in Morris, Radicalism Against War, p. 376. 7. What follows is informed by David Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War. Europe 1904–1914 (Oxford, 1996) pp. 231–328; David Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton, 1996) pp. 173–98. 8. CAB. 37/118/6: memorandum by Churchill (10 Jan 1914). 9. Quoted in Woodward, Great Britain and the German Navy, p. 426. 10. A. Toynbee, Acquaintances (London, 1967) pp. 64–5. 11. A. Eden, Another World (London, 1975) p. 51. 12. Samuel R. Williamson, Jr, Austria–Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (Basingstoke and London, 1991) pp. 164–89. 13. For renewed Russian strength, see Keith Neilson, ‘Russia’, in Keith Wilson (ed.), Decisions for War, 1914 (London, 1995) pp. 98–106. 14. For the military belief in this, see Annika Mombauer, Helmuth Von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, 2001) pp. 106–81. 15. C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, vol. 1, p. 249. 16. For a discussion, see David Stevenson, ‘War by Timetable? The Railway Race Before 1914’, Past & Present, 162 (1999) 163–94. 17. B.D. vol. XI, no. 32; see also V. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (2nd edn; London, 1993) pp. 196–201. 326 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

18. B.D., vol. XI, no. 41. 19. Crew Mss: Crewe to Trevelyan (2 May 1936). 20. B.D. vol. VI, no. 50. 21. For the visit, John F. V. Keiger, France and the Origins of the First World War (London, 1983) pp. 150–4. 22. Vansittart, The Mist Procession, p. 122. 23. B.D. vol. XI, no. 91. 24. Ibid., no. 101: minute by Crowe. 25. Churchill, The World Crisis, p. 114. 26. Asquith to Venetia Stanley, 24 July 1914, in Michael and Eleanor Brock, (eds), H. H. Asquith. Letters to Venetia Stanley (Oxford and New York, 1982) pp. 122–3. 27. D. C. Watt, ‘British Press Reactions to the Assassination at Sarajevo’, European Studies Review, III (1971) 245. 28. John Burns Diary, B. M. Add. Mss. 46336, 29 July 1914. 29. cab. 41/35: Asquith to George V (30 July 1914). 30. I. Geiss, July 1914, document no. 130. 31. B.D. vol. XI, no. 283. For a differing interpretation of Cambon’s reac- tion, see Keith Wilson, ‘Britain’, in Keith Wilson, (ed.), Decisions for War, 1914, p. 190. 32. Asquith to Venetia Stanley, 30 July 1914, in Brock and Brock, (eds), H. H. Asquith. Letters to Venetia Stanley, pp. 135–7. 33. See the article by L. C. F. Turner, ‘The Russian Mobilisation in 1914’, Journal of Contemporary History, III (1968). 34. Quoted in Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War, p. 209; for the details, see Mombauer, Moltke, pp. 204–6. 35. B.D. vol. XI, no. 293. 36. Quoted in Lowe and Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, vol. III, p. 489. 37. F.O. 800/65: Grey to Rodd (6 Mar 1915), quoted in M. Ekstein, ‘Sir Edward Grey and Imperial Germany in 1914’, Journal of Contemporary History, VI 3 (1971). We have followed Dr Ekstein’s argument with respect to Grey’s diplomacy up to the end of July. 38. O. O’Malley, The Phantom Caravan (London, 1954) p. 46. 39. B.D. vol. XI, no. 369: memorandum by Crowe (31 July 1914). 40. Quoted in Lowe and Dockrill, Mirage of Power, vol. III, pp. 491–2. 41. J. Gooch, Plans of War, p. 300. 42. For the French decision to do so, in order not to offend Britain, see John F. V. Keiger, ‘France’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for War, 1914, pp. 121–49. 43. R. Blake, Bonar Law, The Unknown Prime Minister (1955) p. 220. 44. Ibid., K. M. Wilson, ‘The British Cabinet’s Decision for War, 2 August 1914’, British Journal of International Studies, 1 (1975); cf. Rhodri Williams, Defending the Empire. The Conservative Party and British Defence Policy 1899–1915 (New Haven and London, 1991) pp. 227–8. NOTES AND REFERENCES 327 45. Hazlehurst, Politicians at War, p. 36. 46. Ibid., p. 37. 47. Ibid., p. 38. 48. Morris, Radicalism Against War, p. 415. 49. Hazlehurst, Politicians at War, p. 33. 50. Ibid., p. 42. 51. B.D. vol. XI, no. 112. 52. B.D. vol. XI, no. 448. 53. Churchill, The World Crisis, p. 119. 54. Hazlehurst, Politicians at War, p. 85. 55. Asquith to Venetia Stanley, 1 August 1914, in Brock and Brock (eds), H. H. Asquith. Letters to Venetia Stanley, p. 140. 56. John Burns Diary, 23 Sep 1915. 57. Morris, Radicalism Against War, p. 399. 58. Hazlehurst, Politicians at War, p. 113. 59. K. M. Wilson, ‘The British Cabinet’s Decision for War’, British Journal of International Studies, 1 (1975) 157. 60. Ibid., p. 151. 61. Hazlehurst, Politicians at War, p. 97. 62. Hansard, 5th ser., LXV, 1809–27. 63. Nicolson, Lord Carnock, p. 422. 64. B.D. vol. XI, no. 594. 65. Self-controlled men found the pace of events and burden of responsibility unbearable. Grey broke down at a Cabinet meeting and Asquith wept, seen only by his wife, in his private room in the Commons on the 3rd. 66. Callwell, Sir Henry Wilson: His Life and Diaries (1927) vol. 1, p. 158.

10. CONCLUSION

1. For the decline, see Aaron L. Friedberg, The Weary Titan. Britain and the Experience of Relative Decline, 1895–1905 (Princeton, 1988) and, above all, Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: economic change and military strength from 1500 to 2000 (New York, 1987); for arguments about continuing British strength, Keith Neilson, ‘ “Greatly Exaggerated”: The Myth of the Decline of Great Britain before 1914’, International History Review, 84(1991) and Philips Payson O’Brien, ‘The Titan Refreshed: Imperial Overstretch and the British Navy Before the First World War’, Past and Present, 172 (2001). 2. Thomas G. Otte, ‘ “Heaven Knows where we shall finally drift”: Lord Salisbury, the Cabinet, Isolation and the Boxer Rebellion’, in Keith Neilson and Greg Kennedy (eds), Incidents in international Relations (Westport, Conn., 2002); Thomas G. Otte, ‘Great Britain, Germany, and the Far-Eastern Crisis of 1897–8’, English Historical Review, 90 439 (1995). 328 BRITAIN & ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 3. See Keith Wilson (ed.), The International Impact of the Boer War (Chesham, 2001); Thomas G. Otte, ‘A Question of Leadership: Lord Salisbury, the Unionist Cabinet and Foreign Policy Making, 1895–1900’, Contemporary British History, 14 4 (2000). 4. Grey to Bertie, 15 January 1906, Grey Paper, F.O. 800/49; Grey to Bertie, secret dispatch, 1 May 1914, B.D. X, Pt 2, doc. 541. 5. Grey to Asquith, 8 September 1911, Grey papers, F.O. 800/100. 6. For their knowledge, see Grey’s minute of 5 December 1911 on an unti- tled memorandum by Nicolson: ‘The Cabinet now has the same knowledge of what has taken place [with respect to Anglo-French staff talks] that the Prime Minister & I have.’ Grey Papers, F.O. 800/94. 7. For recent work that confirms this, see Annika Mombauer, Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, 2001); V. R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (2nd edn; London, 1993); Mark Hewitson, ‘Germany and France before the First World War: A Reassessment of Wilhelmine Foreign Policy’, English Historical Review, 115 462 (2000); Samuel R. Williamson, Jr, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (Basingstoke and London, 1991). 8. Grey to Sanderson, 12 September 1908, Grey Papers, F.O. 800/111. 9. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy (ed.), Gathorne-Hardy, First Earl of Cranbrook (London, 1910) vol. II, p. 345. 10. The full quotation by Arno Mayer, ‘Domestic Origins of the First World War’, in Krieger and Stern (eds), The Responsibilities of Power, p. 292, is far more extreme. 11. Mark Hewitson, ‘The Kaiserreich in Question: Constitutional Crisis in Germany before the First World War’, Journal of Modern History, 73 4 (2001); Roderick R. McLean, ‘Kaiser Wilhelm II and the British Royal Family: Anglo-German Dynastic Relations in Political Context, 1880–1914’, History, 86, 284 (2001); Thomas G. Otte, ‘ “The Winston of Germany”: The British Foreign Policy Élite and the Last German Emperor’, Canadian Journal of History, 36, 3 (2001). 12. For the notion of ‘Edwardians’, see Keith Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar. British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 48–50. 13. Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London, 1998), pp. 59–60; for the earlier literature, see Keith Robbins, Sir Edward Grey: A Biography for Lord Grey of Fallodon (London, 1971), pp. XIII–XV, 369–72. 14. John Charmley, Splendid Isolation? Britain and the Balance of Power, 1874–1914 (London, 1999), p. 379; Keith Wilson, The Policy of the Entente: Essays on the Determinants of British Foreign Policy, 1904–1914 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 85–99; Keith Wilson, ‘Grey’, in Keith Wilson (ed.), British Foreign Secretaries and Foreign Policy: From Crimean War to First World War (London, 1987), pp. 172–97. 15. Wilson, Policy of the Entente, pp. 100–20; K. Wilson, ‘The British Cabinet’s Decision for War’, British Journal of International Studies, 10 (1975). NOTES AND REFERENCES 329 16. The most important defence of Grey is Zara Steiner, The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy 1898–1914 (Cambridge, 1969). Other significant accounts are Keith Neilson, ‘ “Control the Whirlwind”: Sir Edward Grey as Foreign Secretary, 1906–1916’, in T. G. Otte (ed.), Makers of British Foreign Policy. From Pitt to Thatcher (Basingstoke and New York, 2002) and Thomas G. Otte, ‘ “Almost a Law of Nature?”: Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign Office and the Balance of Power in Europe, 1905–1912’, in Erik Goldstein and B. J. C. McKercher (eds), Britain and the Problem of Europe, 1900–1970: Diplomacy, Finance and Strategy (Westport, Conn., 2002). 17. H. A. Vachell, The Hill, quoted in D. Newsome, Godliness and Good Living (1961) p. 238. 18. For a stimulating look at ‘the ideas of 1914’, see Hew Strachan, The First World War. Vol. 1: To Arms (Oxford, 2001) pp. 1114–39. Index

Admiralty 4, 229 Anglo-American understanding 42, 259 Agadir crisis 78 see also American, United States Anglo-German war plans 36, 208, Anglo-Belgian talks (1906) 206–7, 212 214, 215–16 Anglo-French Entente 30–2, 34, 48, 74, Churchill 216–17 137 Dominions 226 Agadir crisis 76–7 German naval developments 51, critics of 48–9 53–4, 102 Crowe 242–3 invasion inquiry (1911) 221–2 Germany 31, 33–4, 47, 48, 49, 58, 103 July crisis 238 Grey 125 naval expenditure, dispositions 33–4, ‘industrial entente’ 48 108 July crisis 252–3 reform in 205–6 military talks (1911) 210–11 talks: with France 105–6, 216; with Morocco 31, 43, 46, 58, 103 Russia 128–9, 221–2 naval talks (1912) 13, 106, 107, 109, Aegean Islands 123, 232 153 Aehrenthal, Count Alois von 93 radicals 151 Afghanistan: Amir of 91 Tyrrell 198 Britain and 23, 36, 91 Anglo-German relations 32–5, 42–3, 51, Russian pressure on 88, 126 57, 65, 82, 124, 148, 155, 259 Africa 74–6 agreements: on Balkans 118–19, Agadir crisis (1911) 57, 75ff., 85, 211, 213 124–5, 205 – on Portuguese Anglo-French entente 78–9, 80 colonies 111–12 domestic problems during 147 Baghdad Railway 70–1, 114–15 effect on British policy 100 colonial interests 74–5 German talks following 100–3 Conciliation Committee 271 Grey and 75ff., 149–50 Explosives Group 67 results: for France 79 – for Germany Friendship Society 68, 139, 149, 271 78–9 Moroccan crisis 152 see also Morocco naval agreement 55, 101ff., 103, 114 Aitken, Max (1st Baron Beaverbrook) rivalry 51ff., 101–5, 142, 170, 260 179 Serbian crisis 126–7 Albania 121, 123, 231, 232 see also Germany Russia and 121 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) 29–30, Albert, King of the Belgians 253 31, 33, 37, 43, 88, 224–5, 259 America 12, 198 Treaty (1905) 183, 187 see also Anglo-American understand- Anglo-Persian Oil Company 125 ing; United States Anglo-Russian relations 34, 41, 42, 73 Amery, Leopold 225 Convention (1907) 51, 90–1, 125, 127, as propagandist 71, 172, 178, 188, 140, 259 269 entente 58, 125–7, 198–9, 242 July crisis 246, 255 naval talks (1914) 128–9, 220, 230, 235 Angell Norman 142, 167, 247, 263 Anglo-Saxon partnership 40, 41, 259 332 INDEX

Angola-Turkish relations 114 British interests 114–15 Docks Agreement (1913) 127 France 49, 50 Anglo 113 Germany 49, 67, 70, 113, 133 Anti-Socialist League 139 Grey 120–1, 157 Argentina 64, 65, 66 Russo-German arrangement 94–5 armaments: Anglo-German talks on Balfour, Arthur (1st Earl of) 6, 10, 27, 103–4, 141 36, 37, 145 cost of 155, 230 on armaments 142 manufacturers 62, 167 on parliamentary change 139, 268, 269 political pressure 61–2, 139–40 war 255–6 army 201–2 Balkans 33, 120, 155 conscription 173 Anglo-German co-operation 113, 118, European war 224 133, 195 government 221 Austro-Russian conflict 231 July crisis, mobilisation 244, 256 Conference 235 Moroccan crisis 204, 207 Germany 188, 231, 232 navy 221 League 117, 125, 231 role of, reorganisation 36, 173, 203ff., Russia 117 208 Wars (1912–13) 118, 119 Ulster 229ff. Ballin, Albert 56–7, 60, 235 Army and Navy Gazette 33 Battenberg, Prince Louis of 111, 130 Army Review 170 Beauchamp, 7th Earl 238, 239, 241 Asquith, H.H. 8, 17, 52, 138, 144, 145–6 Belgium: British role in 206–7, 212–13 Agadir crisis 77, 78, 80, 213 German attitude to 251–2 Anglo-French talks: military 210–11, invasion of 255 214 – naval 107, 110, 219 July crisis 237–9, 240, 241, 243–4, 248, Cabinet Committee on Foreign 249 Affairs 60 Berchtold, Count Leopold von 119, declaration of war 255 231, 232, 240 on expansion 175 Beresford, Admiral Lord Charles 206, French and Russian commitments 216, 219 153 Berliner Tageblatt 131 Grey 138, 151, 266 Bertie, Sir Francis (1st Viscount) 47–8, Hardinge’s view of 184 131 July crisis 237, 239, 244–5, 249, 256 Agadir crisis 75–6 Liberal Party 141 Anglo-French naval talks, alliance naval expenditure 52, 57, 154 109–10 190, 213 Ulster 162, 229 anti-German views 181–2 war plans 149, 218, 221 Franco-German relations 50, 105–6, Austria-Hungary 106, 108, 123 107 Balkans 120, 231–2 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobold von 58, Britain 121 70, 175 Italy 124–5 Agadir crisis 75, 80 Russia (respecting Serbia) 238 armaments 142 Serbia 235–6; Turkey Austria 233, 237 Austro-German alliance 73, 119, 235 Balkans 118 Azerbaijan 126 German war plans 134, 135 July crisis 240–1, 265 Baden-Powell, Lt Col. R.S.S. (1st ‘peace party’ 130, 131 Baron) 169–70, 171 talks with British 59, 101, 103, 104, Baghdad Railway: negotiations 31, 64, 106, 115, 143 70–1, 114–15, 127, 157, 196 Birdwood, General Sir William (1st Anglo-Turkish relations 114 Baron) 244 INDEX 333

Birrell, Augustine 145, 249 Greece 120 Bismarck, Prince Otto von 47, 187 Romania 119 Björkö bargain 37, 90 Turkey 119, 120, 233 Blatchford, Robert 141–2, 166, 173, 179, Bülow, Prince Bernhard von 29, 45, 53, 180, 270 260 Bloch, I.S. 205 J. Chamberlain 26–7 Boer War 139 opposition to 58 effects of 5, 7, 8, 18ff., 23–4, 42, 87, Bunsen, Maurice de 235 143, 182, 203–4, 250 Burns, John 20, 56, 57, 78, 138, 158 and nationalism 17, 166, 169 July crisis 238, 239, 249 and volunteer movement 172 resignation 253 Bosnian crisis 54, 55, 215, 233 Burtsev, Vladimir 85 Bottomley, Horatio 180 Buxton, Sydney (1st Earl) 138 Boy Scout movement 168–70, 171 Byles, Sir William 219 Boys Brigade 170 Brailsford, H.N. 139, 157, 167 cabinet radicals 100, 138, 158, 270 Brazil 66 ‘economists’ 56–8 Bridgeman, Admiral Sir Francis 109, naval estimates 60 216 ‘Potsdam Party’ 54 Britain: anti-German feeling 248 power 250–2 Empire 224ff. Caillaux, Joseph 48, 80, 231 European war 254–5, 258 Caisse de la Dette 32 foreign policy 3, 11, 39–40, 42, 139, Cambon, Paul 194, 235 176–7, 191, 257 Grey 45, 158, 219, 237 Franco-German relations 82–3 July crisis 225 230, 233 German war plans 134, 241 naval talks (1912) 105–6, 108–9, 110 isolation 24, 125 talks on Germany 107 nationalism 177–8, 270 Campbell, Sir Francis A. 188 naval standard 33 Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry 9, neutrality 134, 239ff., 250, 260–2 39–40, 56 strength of 3, 265, 275–6 Anglo-French military talks 207–8 see also diplomacy, economy Boer War 20–1 British Constitution Association 138 Grey 137–8 British Expeditionary Force (BEF) 133, Hague Peace Conference 141 204–5, 208, 211, 217, 220, 223 inner Cabinet 139 July crisis 244, 256 Carson, Sir Edward (Baron) 162, 240 British Girls Patriotic League 170, 172 Cartwright, Sir Fairfax 120 British Medical Association 146 Casement, Sir Roger 160 British Neutrality Committee 247 Cassell, Sir Ernest 57, 59, 68, 70, 100 Brodrick, William St John (1st Earl of Cawdor, 3rd Earl of 51, 145 Midleton) 27 Cecil, Lord Hugh 219, 237–9, 270 Browne, Professor E.G. 151 Chamberlain, Sir Austen 145, 147, Brunner, Sir John 150 178 Bryce, James (1st Viscount) 138 Chamberlain, Joseph 6, 16, 17, 18, 21, Buchanan, Sir George 121, 125, 189, 248 24, 25, 40, 64, 226, 259–61 Anglo-Russian entente 126, 129 Chesney, Colonel (later General) Sir Bucharest, Treaty of 123–4 George 166 Buckingham Palace Conference on China 17, 18, 65, 86–7, 118, 126–7 Ireland (1914) 163 Anglo-German agreement (1900) Budget: debates on 156 27–8 (1909) 53, 144 Chirol, Sir Valentine 178, 198, 238 (1914) 53 Churchill, Winston 56, 126, 147 Bulgaria: Austria 123, 231 Agadir crisis 80, 213–14 334 INDEX

Churchill, Winston (continued) Dreyfus Affair 207 Anglo-French naval talks 107, 110 Dual Monarchy see Austria-Hungary Anglo-German relations: naval Dubail–Wilson memorandum (1911) rivalry 104 – negotiations 139 211 on arms race 230 Duty and Discipline Movement 169 1st Lord of Admiralty 78–80, 158, 216–18 Eckardstein, Baron H. von 27 July crisis 236ff., 244, 245, 248–9, 255, Economist 20, 154 256 Edward VII, King 57, 141, 142, 145 views of Loreborn’s 149 Egypt 48, 106 Nicolson’s 140, 185 Empire Day Movement 171 Clemenceau, Georges 49, 208, 209 Esher, 2nd Viscount: Churchill 107 Committee of Imperial Defence(CID) on army 223 4 naval superiority 218, 220 Agadir crisis 77, 80, 149–50, 214–16 war 54, 144 army war plans 221–2 Esher Committee 203, 207 Cabinet 229–30 Etienne, Eugène 49 invasion inquiries: (1903) 36, 203 – (1908) 56, 209 – (1913–14) 221–3 Fabian Society 10 Committee on Foreign Affairs 60–1, Fallières, President Armand 209 149 Far East 30, 31, 34, 127 conscription 171–2, 188, 222 Fischer, Fritz 125, 184, 248 Contemporary Review 20, 150 Fisher, Admiral Sir John (1st Baron) Crew, 1st Marquess of 40, 60, 145, 146 46, 51, 202, 204–6, 270 July crisis 240, 249 Anglo-German naval race 142, 180 respecting national government 145 Churchill 107, 216–17 Cromer, 1st Earl of 31, 35, 40 European war 209, 215 Crowe, Sir Eyre 184, 188, 195–7, 266 France 215–16 Agadir crisis 75–6 Germany 51, 52, 53, 54 Anglo-French relations: alliance 196, Fitzmaurice, 1st Baron 186 212–13, 242–3 Foch, General Ferdinand (later Anglo-German relations, Germany Marshal) 207, 208 57 – co-operation 112, 124 – Foreign Office 152, 178, 183ff., 201 memorandum (1907) 46–7 Agadir crisis 75, 79, 149 as expert on Germany 195–7 Angelo-French Entente 105–6, 107 naval talks 106, 110 Anglo-German talks 27, 28, 58, 113 July crisis 237, 242–4 anti-German views 187–8 Curragh incident (1914) 162, 214–15, Austria 119 229 balance of power theory 154, 187, 189 Curzon, 1st Earl (later Marquess) 24, Balkan policy 117, 231 36, 38, 148, 175 Belgian neutrality 212–13 Churchill 106 Daily Chronicle 153, 178 Committee on Foreign Affairs 60, Daily Express 17, 20, 181, 179 150, 151 Daily Mail 13, 20, 64, 71, 141, 142, 166, democracy 179–80 171, 172, 177, 178, 179, 227 domestic problems 159–60 Daily Mirror 179 France 47–9, 75 Daily News 20, 238 Germany 47, 51, 68, 74–5, 83, 144, Daily Telegraph 171 187ff., 264 interviews 57 Grey 41, 191–2, 200, 271–2 Delcassé, Théophile 30, 35, 37, 89, 92 Japan 31 Dogger Bank incident 31, 51 July crisis 234–6, 244, 252 Dreadnoughts 33, 52, 63, 141, 204 military build-up 176–7 INDEX 335

public opinion 186, 271–2 Gladstone, W.E.G. 6–7 radicals 77, 152, 156, 200–1 Gorst, Sir John Eldon 48 reformers in, reorganisation of 183 Goschen, Sir William E. 59, 61, 118, 130, role of 182–3 135, 189 Fowler, Sir Henry (1st Viscount July crisis 241, 249, 255 Wolverhampton) 8 Greece 106, 120, 121, 124, 233 France 23 Grey, Sir Edward (Viscount Grey of Anglo-German negotiations 129 Fallodon): British negotiations with 30, 132, 190, I 3, 7, 17, 38–43, 44ff., 50–1, 136, 159, 219 229, 272–3 British support for 27–8, 235–6, 238, diplomacy of 124ff., 134, 135, 155, 230, 250–1 239, 241, 267–8 expansion of 257–8 isolation 263 Germany 49–50, 133–4 national government 145 Morocco 75 naval v. military power 177 naval rivalry 203–4 opposition to 142–3, 149 (in Cabinet see also Anglo-French Entente 137–8, 157, 273 – radicals 140, Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 234–6 151–3, 160, 163, 185, 246, 269) Free Church: Councils 154 political pressure on 148 Movement 9 political views of 159ff., 162, 164, 175 French, General Sir John (1st Earl of public opinion 178–9, 247–8 Ypres) 213 radicals 152, 154, 158 Furness, Christopher (1st Baron) and resignation threat 145, 239–40 Stephen 61 II C.I.D. 213–14 Cambon letters 157–8, 217–18 Garton Foundation 142 Conservatives: foreign policy 42–4 – Garvin, James Louis 64, 71, 171–2, 178, support 164 180 Crowe 194–5 George V, King 163, 242, 255 Foreign Office 191ff., 242ff., 271ff. German Lloyd Line 63 Haldane mission 157 Germany: aims 72–3, 263–4 Harcourt 157–8, 230 Anglo-French Entente 82, 105–6 Hardinge on 192–3 Austria 124–5 Lloyd George 160 Balkans 232 Tyrrell 197–9 Belgium 252, 254 Henry Wilson on 213–14 Britain 18, 26ff, 133, 187–8, 241 III Austria 119, 122 British views of 52, 54, 121–2 France 101, 105ff. – Anglo-French disarmament 141 talks 107, 109, 111, 208, 209–10, foreign policy 46, 163 212–13, 218 – loyalty to 132, 212–13, Grey 234–5 236–7, 238, 240, 241–2 – France Mediterranean 106 and Russia commitments 153 Russia 132–3 German 43–5, 52, 54, 56, 101, 105ff., strength 46–7, 186ff. – colonial 72 – 130, 131, 164, 175, 242 – naval talks economic 15, 16, 64 – military 46, 156–7 – Anglo-German relations 47, 14, 164, 176, 186, 187, 259, 261 – 119, 122 naval 218 Russia 92 see also Anglo-German relations IV Austro-Russian Conflict 119, Austro-German alliance 120–1 Franco-German relations Baghdad Railway 70 Naval Laws Balkan League 188–9 Russo-German relations Balkan Wars 97, 118–19 Gibraltar 107 Grierson, General Sir James M. 37, 207 Gladstone, Herbert (1st Viscount) 10 Gwinner, Arthur 70 336 INDEX

Hague Peace Conference 52, 140, 151 Hongkong and Shanghai Bank 70 Haldane, R.B. (1st Viscount) 87, 157, House, Colonel Edward M. 232 172 Huguet, Major Victor 207 Anglo-French military talks 81, 210, Hyndman, H.M. 143, 270 212 army 173, 203–4, 207, 208, 213–14 Imperial Conferences 224 Germany 50, 130 – mission to 97, Imperial Maritime League 61, 141, 100–6, 154, 156, 195 170–2 Grey 138 Inchape, 1st Earl of 72 inner Cabinet 139–40 independent Labour party 10–11 Liberal Imperialism 8, 39–40 India 36, 72, 87–8, 125 Moroccan crisis 77, 48 India Office 182 war plans 149, 167 International Socialist Bureau 247 Hankey, Sir Maurice (1st Baron) 217, invasion: fears of 54 220, 221 inquiries (1907) 208, 221 – (1913) 221 Harcourt, Lewis (1st Viscount) 41, Ireland 153, 155, 230, 238 74–5, 77, 78, 80, 129 see also Ulster Anglo-French military talks 80, 111 Izvolsky, Count Aleksandr 90, 92–3 Anglo-German relations 100, 112–3, Italian-Turkish War (1911–12) 117 157 Italy 106, 108, 123, 232–4 in Cabinet 56, 57, 138, 144, 154 Churchill 106 Jagow, Gottlieb von 116, 122, 126, 241 FO 185 Japan 126–27, 259 Grey 158, 230 see also Anglo-Japanese Alliance July crisis 237–8, 249, 250, 251 Russo-Japanese relations Hardie, J. Keir 16, 20, 144 Joffre, General (later Marshal) Joseph Anglo-Russian Convention 141 212 armaments 143 Joll, James 165 Grey 140 Jordan, Sir John 69 July crisis 247 July crisis (1914) 127, 159, 233–4, 236, Hardinge, Sir Arthur 68 248, 252 Hardinge, Charles (1st Baron) 59, 189 Kenworthy, Lieutenant Commander France 174, 209 J.M. (10th Baron Strabolgi) 206 Germany 52, 53, 188 Kiderlen-Wächter, Alfred von 74–6, 79 Grey 192–3 Grey on 122 Russia 94, 95, 126 King, Joseph 219 social outlook 184–5 Kipling, Rudyard 42–3, 165, 168, 270 Harland and Wolff Co. 61 Kitchener, H.H. (1st Earl) 87, 88, 107, Harmsworth see Northcliffe 224, 256 Hart, Lt Gen. Sir Reginald C. 165 Knollys, Sir Francis (1st Viscount) 138 Hatzfeldt, Count Paul von 22, 26, Kokovtsov, Count 121 28 Kühlmann, Richard von 114, 130 Hay–Pauncefote Treaty (1901) 23, 29 Tyrrell 118, 198 Henderson, Arthur 143, 247, 253 Kuwait 114 Henry, Prince, of Prussia 241 Henty, G.A. 84, 165 Labour Party 10, 139, 147, 148 Hicks Beach, Michael (1st Earl St defence, armaments 62–3, 142 Aldwyn) 33 disarmament 155 Hobhouse, L.T. 8, 22, 182 effect on Liberals 11, 139, 145, 161 Hobson, J. A. 20, 21 Grey 141 Home Rule Bills 6–7, 145, 146, 155, 162, July crisis 247, 253 229 Lloyd George 146 INDEX 337

Labour Representation Committee Cabinet Committee on Foreign 10 Affairs 60 Lads Drill Association 169–70, 172 Churchill 146, 269 Lamsdorff, V.N. 89 FO view of 185–6 land reform 155 German 59, 148 Langley, Sir Walter 188 Grey 160 Lansdowne, 5th Marquess of 29, 42, July crisis 249, 250, 251, 254 260 Liberal League 149 Anglo-French Entente 26–7, 28, 30–1 Mansion House speech 77 Anglo-Japanese Alliance 29, 260 Nicolson on 184–5 continental problems, foreign policy ‘Social Imperialists 270 34, 35, 36, 138 London, Treaty of (1913) 120 Grey 43 London ambassadorial conference imperial problems 35, 38–9 (1912) 119–20, 136, 154 Moroccan crisis 35–6 Lords, reform of 76, 145, 146, 159 trade 70 Loreburn, 1st Earl 57, 77, 138, 149, 158 Lascelles, Sir Frank 34, 189 armaments 143, 148, 157 Latin America 65, 66 FO 185 Law, Andrew Bonar 146, 268 Germany 76, 100 Anglo-French naval agreement 218 Moroccan crisis 75, 76 July crisis 245, 254 resignation threat 80 Ulster 162, 240 Le Queux, William 84, 86, 166 McClaren, Charles (1st Baron Leagues 170–2 Aberconway) 61 of the Empire 171 MacDonald, J. Ramsey 10, 150, 247, 254 of Frontiersmen 171 Macedonia 31, 93 Liberal Imperialists 40–1, 137–8, 273 McKenna, Reginald 55, 56, 107, 108 Liberal League 40, 149, 164 Churchill 106 Liberal Party 138, 153, 161, 268, 269 Germany 100 armaments 140, 141–3 July crisis 249 Boer War 20 Moroccan crisis 77 changes in 6ff., 77, 144, 148 naval programme 60, 81, 213–14, conscription 172 217 constituency associations 154 MacMahon, Sir Henry 126 effect of war on 150 Mahan, Alfred T. 53, 167, 169–70 election crisis (1910) 145 see also seapower Home Rule 162 Malecka, Kate 85 Labour Party 10–12 Mallet, Sir Louis 69, 127, 128, 183, 186, Manchester Guardian on 229 187, 191 war 249 Malta (1912 meeting) 107 working class 144, 162 Manchester Guardian 20, 108, 131, 152, Lichnowsky, Prince 116 153, 218, 230, 238 Anglo-German talks 113 Manchuria 27 Anglo-Russian entente 130, 131 Marconi affair 146, 161 British neutrality 134 Masterman, C.F.G. 249 July crisis 234–5, 237 Maurice, Gen. Sir J.F. 171 talks with Grey 238, 239, 240, 241 Maxse, Leo 145, 171, 177, 269 war 255 Germany 64, 149, 153, 180, 188 Limpus, Admiral A.H. 127, 128 war plans 256 Lloyd George, David 145–7, 249 Meath, 12th Earl of 171 Agadir crisis 78, 79, 80, 81 Mesopotamia 67, 70, 114, 115 budgets, tax problems 53, 55, 144 Metternich, Count Paul 22, 28, 55 Cabinet 55, 56, 108, 138, 142, 158 and Grey 57, 75, 77 338 INDEX

Middle Class Defence Organisation National Volunteers 163 139 ‘naval holiday’ 105, 153 Milner, 1st Viscount 19, 20, 41 Naval Laws, German 51, 53, 55, 72, ‘efficiency’ 182 101–2, 157 Germany 72, 176–7, 270 Naval Staff 216 Haldane reforms 208–9 navy: British 202‒3, 204, 217 July crisis 246, 256 administrative and technological politics 17, 42, 171, 269 changes 33–4, 202–4, 206 miners (1912) 159 Empire 23 Minimum Wage Bill (1912) 147 French and Anglo-French relations Molke, Count Helmuth von 104, 118, 100–5 130 German and Anglo-German July crisis 235 relations 3, 51–63, 101–5 war plans 133–5, 240 mobilisation 245, 249, 254–5 Mongolia 126 Russians and Anglo-Russian relations Montenegro 231 129–31, 217–18 Morel, E.D. 151, 155, 160, 182 Navy League 61, 170–1, 172 Morely, John (1st Viscount) 19, 87 Journal 141 Agadir crisis 77, 78, 80 Neutrality League 247 Anglo-French talks 211 Nevinson, H.W. 140 Anglo-Russian Convention Newbolt, Sir Henry 169 Cabinet 54, 55, 138, 158 News of the World 179 Committee on Foreign Affairs 59 Nicholas II, Tsar 86, 231, 240, 242 Grey 149 Nicholson, Field-Marshall Sir William navy 106 (1st Baron) 212, 226 resignation 253 Nicolson, Sir Arthur (1st Baron war 238, 247, 249, 251 Carnock) 189, 229 Morning Post 64 Agadir crisis 75, 77 Morocco Anglo-French talks 30, 49, Anglo-French relations 107, 109, 190 133, 211 Anglo-Russian relations 90, 99, crisis: (1905) 35–8, 74–5, 202, 205 – 121–2, 128–9, 190, 242–3 (1911) 75, 149, 150, 152, 188 British policy 111 Franco-German agreement (1909) Churchill 149 50, 56 Committee on Foreign Affairs 60 Grey’s policy 48 4 Power Conference 236–7 Kaiser’s visit 45–6 Germany 63–4, 112 radicals 139 Grey 193–4 see also Agadir crisis Henry Wilson 211 Muscat 132 July crisis 235–6, 242, 244, 256 Lloyd George 149 Namier, Sir Lewis 231 National Bank 69–70 Nation 153 Persia 151 National Council of Public Morals 169, radicals 153 171 Noel-Buxton, Noel E. (1st Baron) National Fair Trade League 16 150 National Insurance Act (1911) 146, 160 Northcliffe, 1st Viscount (Alfred National Liberal Federation 85, 153, Harmsworth) 166, 179 154 Novikova, Olga 85–6 National Review 34, 64, 145, 171, 178 National Service League 148, 169‒70, Observer 71, 142, 171, 178, 179, 180 171, 172, 173, 222 Officer Training Corps 169, 205 see also Roberts, Earl Oliphant, Sir Lancelot 255 National Social Purity Crusade 171 Osborne Judgement 145 INDEX 339 pacifism 168, 230, 257 Reduction of Armaments Labour movement 155 Committee 141, 142 Pall Mall Gazette 178, 202 Repington, Lieutenant-Colonel, Palmer, Sir G.M. 61 Charles 54, 208 Pan-German League 79 Review of Reviews, The 138 Pankhurst, Christabel 162 Rhodes, Cecil 17, 20 Pares, Sir Bernard 86 Richmond, Adm. Sir Herbert 33, 204 Parker, Alwyn 71, 114, 115 Ripon, 1st Marquess of 138, 139 Parliament 61, 136–8 Roberts, Field-Marshal Earl 54, 166, Bill (1910) 145, 149, 150 170, 171, 176–8, 208, 270 Patent Act (1907) 65 Robertson, Field-Marshal Sir William Pearson, Sir Arthur 17, 169, 179 204 Pease, Joseph Albert (1st Baron Romania 67, 119, 120 Gainford) 149, 249, 251 Rosebery, 5th Earl of 7, 40–1, 88, Persia 90–1, 126, 154, 230 182,191 Anglo-German talks 118 Rothschild, 1st Baron 68 Anglo-Russian relations 64 Rumbold, Sir Horace 188, 189 (Convention 91–2, 125, 127) Runciman, Walter (1st Viscount) 59, Britain and 36, 51, 70, 160 76, 149, 251 Imperial Bank of 70 Russell, Bertrand 151, 167, 270 Russian occupation 30, 125–6, 151, Russia 71 153 Austria 231–2, 235 see also Anglo-Persian Oil Company Balkans 120, 124 Persian Gulf 51, 64,114, 126, 127 Britain 23, 30, 84ff., 121, 127–8, 134–5, Pichol, Stephen 129 190, 203, 235 Poincaré, M. Raymond (President) mobilisation 233–4, 240 107, 109, 129, 131, 232, 236 Nicolson 194–5 Poland 121 radicals 151 Ponsonby, Arthur (1st Baron) 150, 156, revolution (1905) 230, 270 strength 121–2, 130, 231 FO 153 see also Anglo-Russian relations Grey 141, 151 Russo-German relations 31, 129, 133–4 July crisis 246–7 Baghdad Railway agreement (1914) population changes 11 115 Portugal 64, 112 Potsdam agreement (1911) 71 ‘Potsdam Party’ 55, 143 Russo-Japanese relations: talks 30, 35 Princip, Gavrilo 233 war (1904) 31, 89 radicals 154ff., 270 St James Gazette 178 Agadir crisis 150 Salisbury, 3rd marquess of 6, 23, 88, Anglo-French accord 214 136–7, 183, 268 BEF 208 Germany 27, 28 conscription 172 views of 17, 182, 221 FO 199ff. Samuel, Herbert (1st Viscount) 149, Grey 139, 151–2, 160, 163, 185, 269 249, 250 July crisis 249 Sanders, General Liman von 128, 129 naval estimates 153 Sanderson, Thomas (1st Baron) 19, revolt 148–53 151, 183 Russia 92 FO 28, 34 war 168, 246–7, 254 Germany 27, 48, 186 see also cabinet radicals Sarajevo see July crisis Rathenau, Walter 73 Saturday Review 18 Redmond, John 254 Saunders, George 178 340 INDEX

Sazonov, Sergei D.: Anglo-German Taff Vale decision (1901) 10 relations 131 Tariff Reform 7, 40, 64, 146, 164 Anglo-Russian relations 95–6, 126, Commission 64 128 League 71, 144 Balkans 231 taxation 143–54 Grey 110 Territorial Army (Force) 172, 204, 206, Serbian crisis 235, 239 222 Schlieffen, General Alfred von 134, Thorne, Will 142, 270 233–4, 248 Thyssen, Fritz von 49–50 schools, public 167–8 Tibet 91, 126 Scott, C.P. 8, 76, 246, 249 Times, The 13, 54, 55, 107, 152, 166, 171, Scout; Scouting for Boys 169–70 178, 179, 208, 238 sea power, belief in 60, 175, 176 Tirpitz, Admiral Alfred von 224 Seely, Col. J.E.B. (1st Baron Anglo-German relations 25–6, 45, 58, Mottistone) 167 101, 104, 261 – navy rivalry 51, 54, Selbourne, 2nd Earl of 27, 29, 33, 83, 105–6, 133 203 Balkan wars 118 Serbia 121, 231 July crisis 235 Bulgaria 117, 120 naval programme 34, 53, 54, 57, 58, crisis in 234ff. 79, 100 Shaw, G. Bernard 167 ‘war party’ 130 Shuster, W. Morgan 96, 151 Trade Disputes Act 138 Siam 30 trade unions 9–10, 147–8 Simla Convention (1914) 126 T.U.C. 10 Simon, Sir John (1st Viscount) 238, Treasury: and FO 183 249, 251 and service ministries 33 Smith, F.E. (1st Earl of Birkenhead) Trevelyan, G.M. 138 145, 157–8, 245 Triple Alliance 24, 25, 44, 50–1, 123, Snowden, Philip (1st Viscount) 62–3 233, 236 Social Darwinism 72, 165, 174 Turkey 117, 127 ‘Social Imperialists’ 164, 171, 269, 270 Balkans 120, 230–1 ‘Social Radicals’ 7 Britain 25, 49, 50, 64, 69, 118, 127 Social Reform Committee 144, 146 Germany 70, 106, 118, 127, 128 Society of Friends of Russian Freedom Greece 232–3 85 National Bank of 70 South Africa 20 Russia 107, 127 see Boer War Tweedmouth, 2nd Baron 52, 55 Spain 64, 75 Tyrrell, William (1st Baron) 98, 189, Speaker 8, 20 197–9 Spectator 33, 152 Agadir crisis 78, 198 Spring-Rice, Sir Cecil 290 Anglo-French agreement 190 Staff College, Camberley 204 Balkans 118 Standard 237 FO 184, 197 Stanley, Miss Venetia 247, 249 Germany 122, 188 Stead, W.T. 138, 141, 151 Grey 191, 197–9, 244 Steed, Henry Wickham 178 July crisis 237, 239 Stinnes, Hugo 49–50 press contacts 178 Stokes, Major 96, 97 Strachey, John St Loe 176–7 Ulster: Covenanters 155, 162 strikes 9, 146, 162, 229 crisis (1914) 229, 268 suffragettes 159, 162 Volunteers 55 Sunday Despatch 179 Unionists 160, 161 Sweden 49–50 United States 65, 258 INDEX 341

and Britain 42–3, 67 Wehrverein 100 see also America Wells, H.G. 166 Anglo-American understanding weltpolitik 28, 73–74, 75, 261 Westminister Gazette 152, 177 Vachell, H.A. 168, 276 Wilhelm II, Kaiser 22, 28, 101ff., 120, Vanity Fair 33 140 Vansittart, Robert (1st Baron) 70 Wilkinson, Professor Spencer 24, 165, Venezuela 14, 23, 30 172, 175 Vickers 86 Wilson, Admiral Sir Arthur K. 213–14, Victoria, Queen 5 217 Viviani, René 231 Wilson, Field-Marshall Sir Henry 69, Voluntary Service League 172 77, 98, 174, 211ff. ‘volunteer movement’ 172 Agadir crisis 213–14 Anglo-German talks 112 Wallace, Sir Donald Mackenzie 86 Asquith 229–30 Wallas, Graham 247 Grey 213–14 War Book 221 July crisis 244, 245, 256 War Council 256 Naval Staff 216 War Office 4 war plans 222 and Admiralty 77 Wodehouse, P.G. 166 Asquith 214–15 Wolff, Gustav William 62 Churchill 106 Wolff, Theodor 131 Dominions 226 Women’s Social and Political Union European war 38, 208, 256 162 invasion inquiry (1911) 221 Wood, T. McKinnon 251 Watson, Robert Spence 85 Webb, Beatrice 18, 146, 182 Young Turk movement 49, 117–18