Notes
Notes to the Preface
I. Enrique Krauze. Mexico - Biogmph1· of' Pm1·er: ;\ Histon· o( Modem Mexico. !810-1996, trans. Hank Heifetz (New York: Harper Collins, 1997). p. xiii. 2. Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (eds). Vernicht1111gskrieg: Verhreche11 der IVi!hrmucht 1941-·1944 (Hamhurg: Hamhurgcr Edition. 1995): Jiirg Friedrich. Dus Geset: des Kriege.1: Dils de/l/.1che Heer i11 Ru/i/und - Der Pm:e/i gegrn dus Oherkm11111u11do di!r \Vehmwcht (Munich: Piper. 199.l ). :l. Peter Henisch. Stein's Purwwiu (Sal1.hurg: ResidenL. 1988). p. :l9. 4. Jonathan Petropoulos. "Co-Opting Nazi Germany: Neutrality in Europe during World War l l", Di111rnsio11.1. 11/ I ( 1997). 15-21. 5. He was wrong. of cour'>e. as John Charmley's scholarship systematically dehunked the many Churchill myths: '>Ce his C/wrchif/: 1he 1:·11d of' Gforr (San Diego: Harcourt Brace. 199.l ). 6. Michael Gehler. "Introduction". in Kur/ Grn/1er: Reden 11111! Dok11111rnte 1945-1953 (Vienna: Biihlau. 199:1 ). p. 18. 7. Kenneth W. Thrnnp;,on, Schools of' 'f!wught in l11tenwtio11llf Rcfatio11s: !11toprcters. /.1.111es und Momlirr (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Uni\er;.ity Pre;,;,. 1996). p. 3 and f'i/SSilll.
Notes to the Introduction
I. "Political Stahility and Economic Reform". Dowling to Department of State. 9 Septeniher 1952, 863.00/9-952. Box 5267. Record Group (RCi) 59: General Records of the Department of State - Decimal Files. National Archive;, (NA). 2. Mel\ yn P. Leffler. A Pre1wndcmncc 11( Po\\'l'/': Nutionuf Securitr. the Trn111u11 ,\dministmtion. und rile Cold \for (Stanford: Stanford UniYcr-,ity Pre;,;,. 1992): John Lewis Gaddis. The Unired Stutes 111u/ the Origins of' the Cold \V(l/: 194! -1947 (New York: Colurnhia Uni\er;,ity Pres;,. 1972 ): and Srmregin of' Conrainmrnt: A Crillcu/ 1\ppmi.lllf of' P11st1rnr ,\111erirn11 .Vlltio11l1i .'il'Curir_1· (New York: Oxford Univer;,ity Pre.-,;,. 1982): Daniel Yergin. Shurtercd Peucc: The Origi11s of the Cold \for wul rhc Niltionul Sernrin Swre (80;,ton: Houghton Mifflin. 1977): Dchorah Welch Larson. Origin.1 oj'Co11t11i11111rnt: A l'.1rclw/ogic{/I Frpli1n11rio11 (Princeton: Princeton University Pre;,-,. 1985 ): Walter LaFcher. ,\111erirn. R111siu. illlil the Cold \Vw: /945-/996, Sth cdn (New York: McC1·aw-Hill. 1997): Lloyd C. Gardner. 1\rchirecr1 ii/ lfl11.1iiln: .'vfm i111d ldcas i11 :\111Nirnn J-iJrcign Polin. 1941 {949 (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1970): Stephen E. /\1nhrnse and Dougla;, Brinkley. Rise to (J/ohilli.1111: A111erirn11 J-i1reig11 Polin· sina 1938. 7th edn (New York: Penguin. 1997): Ii. W. Brands. Tire l>el'if We Knnl': .-\111l'ricu111 I///{/ tire Cilfd \Var I New York: Oxford Uni\cr;,ity Pre;,;,, 1993). J. D. C. Watt. ··Rethinking the Cold War: a Letter to a Briti~h Hi~torian··. Pofiticul Quurlcrlr. ~9 ( 1978). -1.46-)6: Michael Hunt. "fnternationali1ing U.S. Diplomatic ~fotory: a Practical Agenda". f>iJ>lonwtic Historr. 15/l I 1991 ). 1-1.\: Bruce
157 158 Austria in the First Cold Wm; 1945-55
Cumings. ··"Revising Postrevisionism·. or. The Poverty of Theory in Diplomatic History", Dif'lo111utic Histon. 1714 ( 1993). 5.19-69. The Cambridge historian Jonathan Haslam has admonished professors of American diplomacy saying that "it should no longer he possible to obtain an appointment in the field of the history of foreign policy without a foreign language" (see "Russian Archival Revelations and our Understanding of the Cold War". Dif'lomutic Histo1T. 2112 (1997). 217-28. quotation on p. 228). 4. David Reynolds (ed.). The Origins o( the Cold Wur in E11ro11c: International Persf'ectil'<'.I (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994): Gustav Schmidt (ed.). Ost-We.1t-Be;ieh1111gen: Kmzfimztution und !Ntrntc l945-!9fi9. 3 vols (Bochum: Brockmeyer. 199.1): Melvyn P. Leffler and David S. Painter (eds). Origins o( the Cold War: An lntcrnatimllll Historr (London: Routledge. 1994): Thomas Alan Schwartz, America's Gemlllnr: John J. McClor and the Federal Ref'uhlic o( Ger111w1r (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1991 ): Wolfram Hanrieder, Gem11111r, Amt'ricu, Europe: Forn· Yeurs o(Gennun Foreign Polin· (New Haven. CT: Yale University Press. 1991 J: Hermann-Josef Rupieper. Der heset;te Verhiimlete: Die umerikmzisclze Deutschlandf'olitik. 1949--1955 (Opladen: Wcstdeutscher Verlag, 1991 ): Saki Dockrill. Brituin "s Polin· fi1r West Gernllln Reumlll1nent 1950-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991 ): Gordon H. Chang. Friends u/l{/ Eneinies: Tht' Unitt'd Stutn, China, l//l{/ the Sm·it't Union, 1948-1972 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990): Odd Arne Westad, Cold Wur and Remlution: Sm·iet-A111erirnn Rirnlrr und the Origins o( tlzc Chinese Cil·il \V.:zr (New York: Columbia University Press. 1993): Sergei N. Goncharov. John W. Lewis and Xue Litai. Uncertain Partners: Stu/in. Muo, and the Koreun \for (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 199.1 ). 5. Josef Becker and Franz Knipping (eds). Pmrer in Europe:' Greur Briruin. France. lralr mu/ Gernzmn· in a Post1rnr World. 19./5-1950 (New York: Walter de Gruyter. 1986): John Young. Wi11.1ton Clz11rchill's La.11 Ca1111)(1ign: Britain und rhe Cold Wur 1951-1955
7. Geir Lundestad. The A111erirn11 "E111piff" (Oslo-Oxford: Norwegian and Oxford University Press. 1990): Odd /\rne Westad. "Secrets of the Second World: The Russian Archives and the Reinterpretation of Cold War History". and Robert C. Tucker. "The Cold War in Stalin's Time: What the New Sources Reveal". f)iplonwtic Hi.iron. 21/2 ( 1997). 259-82: Gaddis. We Now K11m1-. p. 289: Giinter Bischof, "Austria - A Colony in the U.S. Postwar ·Empire'-)"· in John G. Blair and Reinhold Wagnlcitncr (eds), t:mpire (Tiibingen: G. Narr, 1997). pp. 12-1-34. 8. Thomas J. McCormick, A111erica 's HalrCenturr: United States hJreign Polin· in the Cold Hlitr (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1989): Robert A. Pollard, Econo111ic Sernritr und the Origi11s o( the Cold Ww: 1945-1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985): Wilfried Loth. Die Teilung dff Welt 1941-1955 (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. 1980). 9. Alan S. Milward. lhe Rffo11.1tructio11 o( Western Europe, 1945-51 (Berkeley: California University Press. 1985): Charles Maier and Giinter Bischof (eds). The Murshall Plw1 in Gennunr: West Gffnwn De1·elop111rnt 11·i1hi11 the Fm111e1rnrk o( the E11ropea11 Recm·eJT Pmgram (New York: Berg, 1991): Comite pour l"Histoire Economique et Financiere de la France (ed.). Le Plu11 Marshall et le Rch'l'<'111rnt f:co11mnil/lle de /'Europe (Paris. 1993). I 0. Reinhold Wagnleitner. Coco-Colonbt1io11 and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission o( the U11ited States in Austria uficr the Second World Hlitr, trans. Diana M. Wolf (Chapel Hill. NC: North Carolina University Press. 1994): and the review essay by David Reynolds, "America's Europe. Europe's America: Image. Influence. and Interaction, 1933-1958". Diplonwtic Histon·, 20/4 ( 1996). 651-61. 11. Michael J. Hogan. The Marslwll Plw1: Atnerirn. Britain, ({/I{/ the Reco11structio11 o( Western Europe. 1947-1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987): Chester J. Pach, Jr. Arming the Free World: The Origins of the Unit('{/ Stutes Militurr Assistunce Progru111, 19'-15-1950 (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press. 1991 ). I 2. John Lamberton Harper. American Visions !If Europe: tiw1kli11 f). Roosn•e/t, Geo1ge F Ket11111n. mu/ Dea11 CJ. Acheson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996 ): Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas. The Wise Mrn: Six fi·iends and the World T!tn· Mode (New York: Simon & Schuster. 1986). U. Thomas A. Schwartz, "The United States and Germany after 1945: Alliances, Transnational Relations. and the Legacy of the Cold War", Diplomatic Hi.1ton-. 19/4 ( 1995). 549-68. 14. Irwin M. Wall. The United States i111d the Making of Pwt11·ur fiw1ee 1945-1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991 J: James E. Miller, The United States U/l(I ftulr: The Politics und Dip/!lnwcr o( Stahilhlli!lll (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press. 1986). 15. "Even the apparently powerless have that much power" (Gaddis. We N!111· Knm1·. p. 285). 16. Fraser J. Harbutt. The Iron Curtain: Churc!till, Amerirn, mu/ rite Origins of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press. 1986): Randall B. Woods and Howard Jones. IJmming of t!tc Cold Wur: The United States' Quest.f!Jr Order (Athens. GA: Georgia University Press. 1991 ). 17. Giinter Bischof. "Between Responsibility and Rehabilitation: Austria 1n International Politics. 1940-1950". PhD Diss .. Harvard University. 1989. chs 2-5. 18. Beatrice Heuser. Wl'stern "C!111tai11me111" Policies in th£' Cold Hlitr: T!te Yugos/m· Case, !94?!-1953 (London: Routledge, 1989): Yussi M. Hanhimiiki. Containing Coe.ristrnce: Amerirn, Russia ilnd the "Finnish Solution", 1945-1956 (Kent. OH: Kent State University Press. 1997). 160 Austria in the First Cold W(//: 1945-55
I 9. Les K. Adler and Thomas G. Paterson. "Red Fascism: The Merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American Image of Totalitarianism. 1930s-1950s". Amerirnn Historirnl Rel'irn·. 75/4 ( 1970). I 046-64. 20. Fred Halliday. The Making o(thc S!'cond Cold War. 2nd edn (London: Verso. 1986). pp. 1-23: sec also the outstanding collections of essays hy Michael J. Hogan (ed.). The Elli/ of' 1he Cold War: ifs Meunings and !111plirn1iom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. I 992) and the special issue on "The End of the Cold War". in Di;,/011u1n· allll SWt<'Cmfi. 113 ( 1990). 21. On Stalin see Rohert S. Rohins and Jerrod M. Post. Po!ilirnl Pamnoiu: The P1_1·c/10polirics of Haired (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1997), pp. 265-75: on Germany see Wolfgang Krieger. "Germany". in Reynolds (ed.). Origins. pp. 144-65. 21. Marc Trachtenberg. Hi.iron & S1mreg1· (Princeton: Princeton Univer.-,ity Press. 1991 ). especially ch. 3: McGeorge Bundy. l>anger mu/ Sun'il'al: Choices 11ho11/ rhe Bo111IJ in the First Fifiy Yi'ars (New York: Random House. 1988). chs 1-7: Richard Rhodes. /)ark Sun: The Making of' !he Hrdmgrn Bm11h (New York: Simon & Schuster. 1995): David Holloway. Sr11/in 11/li/ !he Bomh (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1994). 23. Glinter Bischof and Saki Dockrill (eds). Cold Wi1r Respile: lhe Genn11 S11111111ir of 1955 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Pres.'>. forthcoming). 24. Alan Bullock. Emes/ Bn·in: Foreign Secrct11rr, IW.5-1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1985): Victor Rothwell. Brit11in 11nd !he Cold W(//: 1941-1947 (London: Jonathan Cape. 1982). pp. 352-7: Hugh Thomas. 1\nned 11-uce: The Begiuuiug.1 of' the Cold H1<11; 1945-1946 (New York: Atheneurn. 1987). pp. 351-63. 25. John Lewis Gaddis. "The Emerging Post-Revisionist Thesis on the Origins of the Cold War". f)iplonwric Hi.11on. 7/3 ( 19~ri). pp. 171-90: Kenneth W_ Thompson. Cold Hli1r Theories. v(ll. I: World Poluri:111ion (Baton Rouge. LA: Louisiana State University Press. 1981 ): Melvyn P. Leffler. "The Interpretative Wars m·er the Cold War. 1945-60". in Gordon Martel led.). !\111erirnn fiireign Relutions Reconsidered, /890-/993 (London: Routledge. 1994): Lloyd C. Gardner. Redefiniug the Pust: E1.mrs in Diplm11111ic Histon in Honor of' \Vil/i11111 Applrnwn Williwns (Corvallis. OR: Oregon State University Pre". 1986): Robert W. Tucker. The Rudirnl Le/i 11nd A111erirnn Foreigu Polin· (Haiti more: Johns Hopkins Univer,ity Press. I 97 I): Richard Crockatt and Steve Smith. The Cold Wor: Pm! und Pre.1en/ (Boston: Allen & Unwin. 1987): Richard A. Melanson. Wriling Hi.11on· und Muking Policy: The Cold Ww: Vief//(/11/, il!lif R
Cul/Ural Mission (l the. United Srares in Ausrria after the Second Wold War (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1994). 28. Gerald Stourzh. Geschichte des Swarvenrages 1945-1955: Osrerreichs Weg :ur Neurrafi1iit, 3rd cdn (Graz: Scyria, 1985): Manfried Rauchensteiner. Der Sonderfall: Die Besa1wngszeir in Osrerreich 1945 bis 1955 (G raz: Styria. 1979): and Die Zwei: Die Gro.fJe Koalition in Osterreich 1945- 1966 (Vienna: Bundesverlag, 1987). 29. Audrey Kurth Cronin. Great Power Po/irics and rite Struggle over Au.wria, 1945- 1955 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986). 30. Rich summaries of the historiographical dehates can be found in Thomas Angerer, "An Tncomplete Discipline: Austrian Zeitgeschichte and Receni Hiscory", Contemporary Austria11 Srudies [hereinafter cited as CASI, DJ (l995), 207-51; Robert Knight, "Narratives in Post-war Austrian Historiography", ia Anthooy Bushell (ed.), Austria 1945-1955: Studies in Political and Cultural Re-emergence (Cardiff: Wales University Press, 1996). pp. l l-36. 31. Thomas's Anned Truth and Kurlh Cronin·s Great Power Politics are cases in point. 32. Rauchensteiner"s work tends to do so a~ do some immature works by young schol• ars such as Christian St[fter's Die Wiedermifsriistung 6srerreichs: Die geheime Remilirarisienmg der wesrfichen Hesat~ungswnefl 1945-1955 (Innsbruck: Studieoverlag. I 997). 33. Klaus Eisterer, Franzosische Besa1~u11gspofi1ik: Tirol und Vorarlberg 1945146 (lnnsbrnck: Haymon, 1991); Kun Tweraser, US-MiliWrregienmg Oberosterreich 1945-1950, vol. I: Sicherheitspofitische Aspekte der amerifw11ischen Besatzung in Oberosterreich-Siid 1945-1950 (Linz: Trauner. l995); Siegfried Beer (ed.), Die 'britische' Steiermark 1945-1955 (Graz: Historiscbe Landeskommission, 1995); and the essays in Giinter Bischof and Josef Leidenfrost (eds), Die bevorm1111dere Nation: Osterreich und die Alfiierren 1945-1949 (Tnnshruck: Haymon. 1988); Alfred Ablcilinger, Siegfried Beer and Eduard Staudinger (eds). Osterreich ullfer affiiener lkmtzung 1945- 1955 (Vienna: Bohl au, I 998). 34. Oliver Rathkolb (ed.), Geseff.~cliaft und Pofitik am Beginn der Zweice11 Repuhfik: Verlrauliche Berichre. der US-Administration aus Osterreich 1945 in englischer Originalfassung (Vienna: Bohlau, 1985); Siegfried Beer. "Early CIA Reports on Austria, 1947-1949". CAS. V (1997), 247-88; and "Von Alfred Red l zum ·Drinen Mann': bscerreicherTnaen [m internationalcn Gcheimdienstwesen, 1918-1947", Gesc/1ichte 1md GeRenwart. 15 (1996); James Jay Carafano, "·Waltzing into the Cold War': US Army Intelligence Operations in Postwar Austria, 1944-1948'', CAS, VII (1999. forthcoming); Michael Gehler (ed.), Verspielre Selbs1bestimm1111g ? Die Siidtiro(fra1:e 1945146 in US-Geheimdienstberichren u11d osrerreichischen Akten (Innsbruck: Wagner, L996). 35. Thomas Angerer. "Fran.kreieh und die bsterreichfrage: Historische Gruadlagen und Leiclinien L945-1955". Phil. Diss., University of Vienna. 1996: Ralph W. Browa ill, "A Cold War Army of Occupatioa? The U.S. Army in Vienna, 1945- 1948'', PhD Diss., University of Tennessee. 1995: Matthew Paul Berg. ··Political Culture and Scace ldencily: The Reconslruction of Austrian Social Democracy. l 945- 1958", PhD Diss., University of Chicago, 1993; Arnold Kopeczek, "Fallbeispiele des Kitlten Krieges ia 6sterreich 1945- 1965", Phil. Dis~ .. University ofVieana, 1992; Robert Graham Ki1ighl. "British Policy towards Occupied Austria 1945- 1950". PhD Diss., University of LondonJLondon School of Economics, 1986; Josef Leidenfrost, ·'Die amerikanische Besaczungsmacht und der Wiederbeginn des Politischen Lebens in 6sterreich 1944-1947". Phil. Diss .. University of Vienna, 1986; Alfons SchiJcher, "Die Politlk der Provisorischen Regierung und der Alliienen Grol.lmachte bei der Wiedererrichtung der Republik 6sterreich·', Phil. Diss., University of Vienna. 1985; Patricia Blyth Eggleston, "The Marshall Plan in Austria: a Study in American 162 Austria in tlw First Cold Wt11; 1945-55
Containment of the Soviet Union in the Cold War'·. PhD Diss .. University of Alabama. 1980; Reinhold Wagnleitner. "Grossbritannien und die Wiedererrichtung der Republik 6stereich", Phil. Diss., University of Salzburg. 1975; David Douglas Stanley. "British Policy and the Austrian Question 1938-1945", PhD Diss .. University of London/London School of Economics, 1973. 36. Michael Gehler (ed.). Karl Gruber: Reden 1111d Dok11111e111e 1945-1953 (Vienna: Bohlau. 1994); and (ed.). Ver.1pie/1e Sc/h.11/Jesti11111111ng''; Robert Knight (ed.). "/ch hin dafi"ir die Sache i11 die Lii11ge ;11 ;iehrn ": Worlprotokolle der iisterreichische11 B111ulesl"l'gien111g 1·m1 1945-52 iiher die E111schiidigu11g da Judrn (Frankfurt/M: Athenaum, 1988); Reinhold Wagnleitner (ed.). Unders1wuli11g Austria: The Political Reports and Ana!rses of" Martin F Her:. Political Offict'r of" the US Lega1io11 in Vienna, 1945-1948 (Sal1burg: Neugebauer. 1984): and (ed.). [)iplomatie ;11·i.1chrn Parleipropor: uml We/tpolitik: Brief('. Dokumrnte, Memoranden aus dem Nachlafi Walter Wodaks 1945-1950 (Sal1burg: Neugebauer. 1980); Alfons Schilcher (ed.). Ostcrreich 1111d die Gm/il11iichte: Dokumen/e ;ur D.11ereichischrn Aufirnpolirik 1945-1955 (Vienna: Geyer. 1980); and "Die Politik der Provisorschen Regierung der Alliierten GroBmlichte bei der Widererrichtung der Republik Osterreich", vol. II: [Documents J. Phil. Diss .. Univen,ity of Vienna. 1985; Eva-Marie Cs,\ky (ed.). Der Weg ;11 Freiheir und Neutm/iriir:Dokw11enrarim1 ;ur iisrareichischen Auflrnpo/irik, 1945-1955 (Vienna: 6sterreichische Gesellschaft ftir Auf.\enpolitik und Internationale Be1iehungen, 1980); Josef Schhner, Wiener Tage/Juch 194411945. ed. by Eva-Marie Csaky, Franz Matschcr and Gerald Stourzh (Vienna: Biihlau. 1992); Alois Brusatti and Hildegard Hemetsberger-Koller (eds). Zeuge der Srwule Null: [)us Tagelmch Eugen Mm;~arhlws 1945-1947 (Linz: Trauner. 1990). 37. Vladimir 0. Pechatnov, 'The Big Three after World War II: New Documents on Soviet Thinking about the Post War Relations with the United States and Great Britain", Cold War International History Project Working Paper No. 13, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington. DC. 1995; Vladimir Y. Sokolov. "Sowjetische Osterreichpolitik 1943/45", in Manfried Rauchensteiner and Wolfgang Etschmann (eds), 01rerreich 1945: Ein EJl(lc l/Jl(I 1-iele Anfdnge (Graz: Styria, 1997), pp. 73-88. 38. Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Gem1l111r: A Hisrorr of" rhe S111·ier Zone of" Ocrnplllion 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1995 ). 39. Vojtech Mastny, The Cold War and S111·iet /11.1ernritr: The Sralin Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov. Inside the Kre111/i11 's Cold Wi1r: From Stalin ro Khrnshchn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996): Francesca Gori and Silvio Pons (eds). The S111·iel Union and Europe in the Cold Wm; 1943-53 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996); Holloway. Stalin and the Bomh; very useful also is Albert Resis (ed.), Mololol' Remembers: Inside Kremlin Polirics - Co111·er.1atio11s 11·irh Felix Chue1• (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993): less up-to-date. Caroline Kennedy-Pipe, Sralin 's Cold War: Sm·iet Srruregin in Eumpe, 1943 ro 1956 (Manchester: Manchester University Press. 1995); a useful summary of most of this new scholarship is Melvyn P. Leffler, "Inside Enemy Archives: The Cold War Reopened". Foreign Afji1ir.1, 75/4 ( 1996), 120-35; and the symposium "Soviet Archives: Recent Revelations and Cold War Historiography". Diplomaric Hi.If on', 21 /2 ( 1997 ), 215-305; not to forget the magisterial Alan Bullock, Hirler and Sralin: Parullel Lil'e.1 (New York: Knopf. 1992). 40. For a different "rcalpolitikal" approach, see Oliver Rathkolb, Wi1shi11gro11 rufi Wien: US-Groflmachtpolirik 1111d 0.1rerreich 1953-1963 (Vienna: Bohlau, 1997). p. 9f. 41. I follow recent studies which argue for the primacy of geopolitics and geostratcgy in the early Cold War; see Melvyn Leffler, "The American Conception of National Security and the Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-1948", A111ericw1 Historical Notes 163
Rwiew. 89/2 ( 1984 ), 34~00; Preponderance of Power - The Specter of Co111111u · nism: The United Stutes and rlie Origins of the Cold Wt.11: 1917-1953 (New York: Hill & Wang. 1994); and ''The Struggle for Gem1any and Origins of the Cold War". German Historical Institute Occasional Paper No. 16, Washington, DC, 1996: Woods and Jones, Dawning of rile Cold War; "Origins of the Cold War and the Near East" and Commentaries. Diplomatic History. 17/2 (Spring 1993), 251.-3 10: for the Soviet paradigm see Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, p. 4; Mastny, Cold War mu/ Soviet Insecurity: an argument against this "geopolitical tum" ia recent historiography i~ forwarded by Anders Stephanson, "The United States''. in Reynolds (ed.), Origins. pp. 48-51. 42. On this theme see Anders Stephanson, Mcmifest Destiny: American Expansion and the Empire C!( Right (New York: Hill & Wang. 1995), ch. 4. 43. Bischof. "Between Responsibility and Rehabilitation" , ch!> 5-10; Wilfried Mahr. Der Marshall Plan in Osterreich (Graz: Styria, 1989): Ernst Hanisch, "0berleguo• gen zum Funktionswandel de.\ Anlikommunisms: Eine 6Merreichische Perspektive". in 'Zeitgeschichtetag 1997 (Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 1999, forthcoming). 44. Rathkolb has analysed the various levels of American foreign policy decision· making vis-a-11is Austria for the Eisenhower and Kennedy admini:sLrations. see Washi11gto11 ruft Wien. 45. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside. p. 90. 46. Steven Merritt Miner, "Hi s Master's Voice: Viacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov as Stalin's Foreign Commissar". in Gordon A. Craig and Francis L. L-0ewenheim (eds). The Diplomats 1939-1979 (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1994). pp. 65-100 (quotations are from pp. 67 and 69); Zubok and Pleshakov. lmide. pp. 78-109. 47. "Organisation des Ministcriums des AuBercn". Braunias to Gruber. 25 August l 947, 108.914-pol/47, Rox 38, ll-pol/47. State Chancellory, Office for Foreign Affairs I BKA-AA]. Archives of the Republic of Austria [AdR]. 48. Miner, "Molotov". p. 93: ''The Novikov Telegram" and Commentaries. Diplomatic History. 15/4 ( 1991 ). 523- 63. A Swiss Foreign Minister observed that Moscow was genenilly very badly info1med since Stalin's diplomats. like Hitler's diplomats. ''were party hacks not daring to report what docs not correspond with communist doctrine". Wildman (reporting a conversation with Swiss Foreign Minister Zehnder) to Gruber. I February 1949, 81.083-pol/49. 80.113-pol/49. Box 111. II-pol, BKA• AA, AdR. 49. Zubok and Pleshakov, fl!side. p. 87. 50. Ibid., pp. 85; 7 1- 87; Vladislav Zubok. "Soviet lntelligencc and the Cold War: The ·small' Committee of information. 1952-53". Diplonwtic History, 19/3 {1995), 453-72; Holloway. Stalin and the Bomb: Sheila Kerr. "The Secret Hotline to Moscow: Donald Maclean and the Berlin Crisis of 1948". in Anne Deighton (ed.). Britain and the First Cold War (Basingstoke: Macmillan. 1990). 51. Tucker and Westad stress the importance of biographical study for Cold War schol• arship, sec "Soviet Archives". Diplomatic History. 2 1/2 ( 1997), 259- 81; Zubok and Plcshakov chose a prosopographical approach in Inside the Kremli11 's Cold War, and so do Isaacson and Thomas in The Wise Men. David Mayers in The Ambassadors (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), Harper il1 American Visions of /!11rope, and Craig and Loewenheim in The Diplomats, with their individual and collective biographies of postwar foreign-policy elites. Unfortunately Austrian postwar histori• ography is characterized by a great poverty of biographical scholarship so lhe proso• pography of the postwar founding fathers offered in these pages can offer only a sketchy beginning. 52. For a similar approach see William Stueck. The Korean Wur: An lntemational History (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1995). 164 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55
Notes to Chapter I
I. "We were left utterly alone'", commented Theodor Hornbostel, the Political Director of the Austrian Foreign Ministry. about great-power appeasement over Hitler's invasion and annexation of Austria. Because of his pro-Italian diplomacy and his efforts to bring about a great power intervention to save Austrian indepen• dence, the Monarchist Hornbostel was one of the first Austrians imprisoned from his desk by the Gestapo and sent to Dachau on the first transport of prominent "patriotic" Austrians on I April, Dokumentationsarchiv des 6sterreichischen Widerstandes [DOWJ (ed.). "'A11sc/1h!fi" 1938: Eine Dokumentution (Vienna: Osterreichischer Bundesverlag. 1988 ). pp. 272f, 535. 2. Armstrong to Roosevelt, 15 February 1934. PPF 6011, FDR Papers, FDRL; Jesse H. Stiller. George S. Messersmith: Diplomat of Democracy (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1987), p. 64: Bruce F. Pauley, Hit/e1; Stalin, Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Ce111urv (Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, 1997); Ernst Hanisch, Der /ange Schatten des Staates: Osterreichische Gesellschaftsgeschichte im 20. Jahrhwulert (Vienna: Carl Ueberreuther, 1994 ). pp. 263-336; Dieter A. Binder, "Der 'Christliche Standestaat' Osterreich 1934-1938", in Rolf Steininger and Michael Gehler (eds), Osterreich im 20. Jahrhundert. vol. I: Von der Monarchie bis ;,um Zweiten Weltkrieg (Vienna: Btihlau. 1997). 3. Bullitt to Roosevelt, 12 April 1937, and Roosevelt to Bullitt, 21 April 1937, PPF 1124, FDR Papers, FDRL; Siegfried Beer, Der 'w1111oralische' Anschlufi: Britische Osterre• ichpolitik ;.H·ischen Containment und Appeasement 1931-1934 (Vienna: Bi:ihlau, 1938). 4. Frankfurter (writing from Oxford, England) to Roosevelt. 22 February 1934, PPF 140, FDR Papers, FDRL. 5. Gerald Stourzh and Brigitta Zaar (eds), Osterreich, Drntschland und die Miichte: Internationale um/ iisterreichisclze Aspekte des 'Anschlufies' vom Mi.ir; 1938 (Vienna: Akademie der Wissenschaft, 1990): DOW, "Anschlufi" 1938: Eine Dokume11tation; Erwin A. Sch midi, Miir; 38: Der deutsche Einmarsch in Osterreich (Vienna: Osterreichischer Bundesverlag, 1988). 6. Wiley to Bullitt, 17 February 1938, Box 2, Wiley Papers. FDRL. 7. Stiller, Messersmith, p. 67. 8. Altogether, 4,453,000 (99.6 per cent) of 4,484.000 eligible voters cast ballot in favour of annexation on IO April 1938. Hanisch, Lange Schatten, pp. 338-47; Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of" Hitla's Germany: Starting World Wcl/" II. 1937-1939 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 261-312: Gordon Brook-Sheperd, The Austrians: A Thousand-Year Odyssey (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1996), pp. 295-333; Heidemarie Uhl, Zwischen Ver.1iihnu11g und Verstiiru11g: Eine Kontroverse um Osterreichs histori.1che ldrnitdt jlinf~ig Jahre nach de111 'An.1ch/L!f3' (Vienna: Bi:ihlau, 1992). 9. Brook-Sheperd, Austrians, p. 295. IO. Wiley to Hull, 19 March 1938, Box 2, Wiley Papers, FDRL. 11. Radomir Lufa, Ausrro-Gernwn Relations in the Allschlu/3 Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 111-22. 12. Harry E. Carlson, "Conditions in the Vienna Consular District" (n.d.). Box 72. Department File, PSF, FDRL; Hanisch, Lange Schatten, p. 345. John Wiley, the American minister in Vienna in the crucial weeks of 1938, had a somewhat different estimate bej{Jre the Anschlul3: "You ask how strong the Nazis are ... Nobody knows. It's all pure guesswork. Assuming that the Austrian Nazis number in all X, probably not more than ten per cent are I 00 per centers, 40 per cent are milk toast Nazis, and the balance are band-wagoners. But - for Austria - it's a strong movement." Wiley to Flack, 7 February 1938, Box 2, Wiley Papers, FDRL. Notes 165
13. Bruno Kreisky told a Russian diplomat the story of such a classical "band wagoner'': Professor Brandweiner '\vent with the times": he was a activist Catholic before the war. became an enthusiastic Nazi right after the AnschluH. and mutated into a sup• porter of the fellow-travelling Austrian Peace Council; see Kreisky memo of conver• sation (with Korneev), 20 September 1954. Bruno Kreisky Papers. Vienna. 14. Caccia to Eden, 16 November 1951. FO 371/93597. PRO. Frank Costigliola has shown how such gendered language - in this case or effete Austrians ready to he ravished - often oversimplifies complex international relationships and is a powerful rhetorical strategy to tap deep emotions between peoples: see "The Nuclear Family: Tropes of Gender and Pathology in the Western Alliance". Diplo111atic Historr. 2112 (1997), pp. 163-83. 15. Alfred D. Low. The A11sch/11ss Mm'l'111e11t 1931-1938. and the Great Pml'ers (Boulder: Columbia University Press. 1985): Michael Mandelbaum. The Fate of' Nmio11s: The Search .fin· Natimwl Securitr i11 1he Ni11etee111h a11d 7il'e111ieth Crnturies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988). pp. 72-128. 16. Stiller, Mes.1a.1·111ith. p. 64: Thomas Angerer. "Frankreich und die Osterreichfrage: Historische Grundlagen und Leitlinien 1945-1955", Phil. Diss.. University of Vienna. 1996". p. 137; Low. A11.1chluss Mm·e111ent. p. 325. 17. Ivonne Kirkpatrick. The !11ner Circle (London. 1959), p. I 07: Cadogan 4uoted in Reinhold Wagnlcitner. "Grof.\britannien und die Wiedererrichtung der Republik Osterreich". Phil. Diss .. University of Salzburg. 1975. p. 3. 18. Nigel Law (Bank or England) to Orme Sargent (Foreign Office). 16 March 1938. FO 800/272, Sargent Papers, PRO. 19. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr's telephone conversation with Bank of England. 12 March 1938, Book 114. p. 2531'. Morgenthau Diary. FDRL. 20. Miss Williams. 15 January 1945. FO 371/46607, PRO: see also Robert H. Keyserlingk. Austria in World \Vi1r II: An A11glo-A111erirn11 Dile11111111 (Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press. 1988). pp. 31-9. 21. Low. A111ch/11.1.1· Mm'l'mrnt. pp. 317-41, 383-431. 22. Irwin F. Gellman, St!crel Af/(1irs: Fm11kli11 Roo.1n·el1, Cordell Hull. und S1111111er \Ve/le.1 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1995). pp. 136-65 (quote p. 155, on tuberculosis. 161 f ). 23. J. Pierrepont Moffat (head of the Western European desk) to Wiley, 7 April 1938. Box 8. Wiley Papers. FDRL. 24. Me.ssersmith to Wiley. 16 March 1938. Box 8. Wiley Papers. FDRL: Stiller. Me.1.1en111ith. pp. 121-3: Low. A111ch/11.1.1 Mm·rn1e111. pp. 320-4. Messersmith had served as American ambassador in Vienna from 1934 to 1937. 25. Keyserlingk, Austria, pp. 39-58 (quote p. 52). 26. When the re-establishment of an independent Austria became an Allied war aim. the Americans took advantage of the fact that they had never publicly announced de j11re recognition. The British rightly complained about "incorrect and misleading" American statements on the international legal stalLl.s of Austria during the Second World War II. ihid., pp. 71-8: Roberts minute. FO 371/34464. PRO. 27. On the French "Anschlul.\ syndrome". sec Angerer. "Frankreich··. pp. 81-97. 148-63. 28. !hid .. pp. 81-92 (4uote p. 90). 29. Adam Ulam. Erpa11sio11 i1111I Coc.1i.1te11ce: Sm·iet 1-iireign Polin· 1917-1973 rNew York: Praeger. 197 4 J. p. 251 f. 30. Siegfried Beer. "Finis Austriae 1938: Wider die Thcscn rnn der (Mit-)Schuld der anderen". in Hrnkel (Graz, 1988). p. :lf. 31. Lufa. A111tro-Gcm111n Rel11tio11.1. pp. 78-94. 178-95. 217-27 (4uote p. 127): Hagspiel. U1111wrk: Evan Burr Bukey. P11hlic Opinion in A11.11riu d11ri11g World \for II (forthcoming). 166 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55
32. Wiley to Bullitt. 6 May 1938. Box 2. Wiley Papers. FDRL. 33. Geoffrey Harrio,on. "The Future of Austria". 14 August 1943. FO 371/34465. PRO: Lui:a. Austm-Gennan Rel11tio11s. pp. 151-69, 304-11. 34. Gerhard Botz. "Eine dcutsche Geschichte 1938 bis 1945'? Osterreichische Geschichte zwischen Exil. Widerstand und Verstrickung", Zcitgeschichte. 14/1 ( 1986). 19-38: Evan Burr Bukey. "Nazi Rule in Auo,tria", Austrian History Yearl}()ok. 23 ( 1992). 202-.B. 35. Horst Boog et al., Der Angrifl w1f' die Sowjetunion (Frankfurt: Fischer. 1991 ): Heer and Naumann (eds). Vemichtung.1krieg; Friedrich. Geset~ des Krieges: Omer Bartov, Hitler's Arnn·: Soldiers. Na~i.1. and the W 47. Hans Witek, "'Arisierungen' in Wien: Aspekte nationalsozialistischer Enteig• nungspolitik 1938-1940", in NS-Herrsclwfi. pp. 199-216: documents m "Anschluf.i" 1931!. pp. 420-30. 48. Irene Etzersdorfer, Arisiert: Ei11e Sp11re11s11che im ge.1c//schafi/ichrn U11tergru11d der Rcpuhlik (Vienna: Kremayr & Schcriau. 1995 ). 49. Witek. "'Arisierungen' ": Harald Walser. Bomhrngeschiifie: \lomrlherg 's Wirtsc/l{/fi in der NS-Zcit (Bregenz: Vorarlberger Autoren Gesellschaft. 1989). pp. 32-41. 50. Friedrich Stadler (ed.), \lertriehe11e \lem1111/i I & II: E111igratio11 u11d Lri! ii1terre• ichischer Wi.1se11sclwfi 1930-1940 (Vienna: Jugcnd und Volk, 1987-88). 51. Pauley. Prejudice. pp. 277-300: Gerhard Botz. "Stufen dcr Aw,gliederung der Juden aus der Gesellschaft'', in Zeitgeschichtc. 14/9-10 ( 1987). 359-79: Thomas Albrich. "Holocaust and Schuldabwehr: Yorn Judenmord zum kollektiven Opferstatus", in Dsterreich i111 20. Jahrh1111dert. vol. 2. pp. 39-53: Hans Safrian. Die Eich111a1111 - Mii1111er (Vienna: Europaverlag. 1993): Gordon J. Horwitz. fa the S/l{/dOll" of Death: Lil"i11g Olllside the Gates of Mautlwusen (New York: Free Press. 1990): Hanisch. Schattrn. p. 372: Gabriele Anderl (on Eichmann's "Central Office"), Florian Freund (on Mauthausen). Bertrand Perz (on the Lodz ghetto and the Chelmno death camp). and Hans Safrian (on Eichmann's men). essays in Rudolf G. Ardell and Christian Gerbel (eds). Dsterreichischer Zeitgeschichtetug 1995: Osterreich - 50 Jahrc Z11"eite Repuhlik (Innsbruck: Studienverlag. 1996 ). pp. 203-27. 52. Hans-Erich Volkmann, "Die NS-Wirtschaft in Vorbereitung des Krieges". in Wilhelm Deist et al. (eds). Ursachrn und \;(Jrausset:ungrn da Deutschen Kriegspolitik (Militlirgeschichtliches Forschungsamt (ed.). Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg. vol. I) (Stuttgart: OVA. 1979). pp. 177-368 (Austria. pp. 323-6): Hanisch, Sclwllen, pp. 348-57. 53. Hermann Freudenberger and Radomir Luza. "National Socialist Germany and the Austrian Industry, 1938-1945". in William E. Wright (ed.). Austriu since 1945 (University of Minnesota: Center for Austrian Studies. 1982). p. 96; Norbert Schausberger. Riistwzg in 0.1terreic!z, 1931!-1945 (Vienna: Hollinek. 1970): Hagspicl. Ostmark, pp. 279-94: Klam-Dieter Mulley (social change). Hans Kernbauer and Fritz Weber (Austrian economy). Michael Mooslechner and Robert Stadler (agriculture), Florian Freund and Bertrand PcrL (forced labour). Wolfgang Neugebauer (Nazi terror system) essays in NS-Herrschafi. pp. 25-114. 163-8."l: Horwitz. Shadow of Death. pp. 83-98. 54. Erwin A. Schmid!. "Das Ende des Krieges", in Gerhard Jagschitz and Stefan Karner (eds), Menschm nac!z de111 Krieg - Schick.wle 1945-1955 (exhibition catalogue Schallaburg. 1955). pp. 1-3: Thomas Albrich and Arno Gisinger. /111 80111/Jenkrieg: Tirol wzd \lorarl/Jerg 1943-1945 (Innsbruck: Haymon, 1992): Siegfried Beer and Stefan Karner. Der Krieg {/lt.1 der Lufi: Kiirnte11 //fl{/ Steiemwrk 1941-1945 (Graz: H. Weishaupt. 1992). 55. OSS R & A Report. 'The Underground in Germany". 27 September 1943. in hirgen Heideking and Christof Mauch (eds). American lntel/igrnce and the Ger111a11 Re.1i.1ta11cc to Hitler: A Doc11111rntarr History (Boulder: Westview. 1996). p. 119. 56. Ziegler and Kannonier-Finster. ()srerrcich.1 Gediichtni.1; Heidemarie Uhl. "The Politics of Memory: Austria's Perception of the Second World War and the National Socialist Period". in CAS. V (1997). 64-94. 57. Hanisch. Sclwllen. p. 391. 58. Elke Blauensteiner, "Paula Langthaler - Eine Kricgswitwe". in Mrnsche11 1111clz dem Krieg. pp. 134-6: Ella Hornung, 'Trennung. Heimkehr und Danach". in Frauen/ebe11 1945: Kriegse11de i11 Wien (exhibition catalogue. Historical Museum of the City of Vienna, 1995). pp. 133-50. 168 Austria in the First Cold War. 1945-55 59. Elisabeth Ulsperger. "Leopold Fig! - Ein Staatsmann··. in Mrnschen nach dem Krieg,pp.111-19. 60. Hagspiel, Osrmark, p. 316. 61. Pauley, Prejudice, p. 294; Peter Eppel. "Osterreicher im Exil 1938-1945", in NS• Herrschqfi. pp. 553-70; Bruno Kreisky. Zwi.1chen den Zeiren: Erinnerungrn aus .fi°i11f°Juhr:eh11te11 (Berlin: Siedlcr, 1986), pp. 290-403. 62. Neugebauer, "NS-Terrorsystcm", p. 170. 63. Radomir Lu:la. The Resi.11unce in Ausrriu. 1948-1945 (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press. 1984); Hagspiel. Ostmark, pp. 295-317; Hanisch. Sclwtren. pp. 389-94; Neugebauer, "Widerstand und Opposition", in NS-Herrsclwfi. pp. 537-52; Erika Weinzierl. "Widerstand. Verfolgung. Zwangsarbeit 1934-1945", in 6.11erreich im 20. Juhrh1111der1, vol. I, pp. 411-62. 64. Foreign Office-Special Operations Executive joint meeting. 24 August 1944. FO 371/38839, PRO. 65. Harry E. Carlson. Conditions in the Vienna Consular District (n.d.). Box 72. Department File. PSF, FDRL. 66. OSS-Report no. 85, 11 December 1943, Box 72 Map Room File, FDR Papers. FDRL. 67. OSS-dispatch no. 240. 16 November 1944. with Donovan cover memo for President, Box 150. subject File, PSF. FDRL. 68. Evan Burr Bukey. "Die Heimatfront: Von der 'Ostmark' zu den Alpen- und Donaugauen 1939-1945", in: Osterreich im 20. Jahr/111ndert, vol. I, pp. 476-86, and his forthcoming book on Austrian public opinion during the Second World War. 69. Jochen Jung (ed.). V!Jm Reich ;u Osterreich: Kriegsende 11J1(/ Nuchkriegs~eit in Osterreich erimwrr 1·011 A11gen 1111d Ohren:eugen (Munich: Deutscher Taschcnbuch Verlag. 1985 ). 70. Hagspiel, Ostmarl.:. p. 295. 71. Lothar Kettenacker. Krieg :ur Friedrnssichernng: Die Deurschlandplu111111g der l>ririschcn Rcgicn111g 1viihrend dn Zweirrn Welrl.:ricges (Giittingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989). p. 535. 72. Kettenacker, Friedrn.1sichern11g, pp. 147-61. 537 (for an intriguing intimation of Roosevelt's "national socialist" governing style resembling Hitler's polycracy, p. 242 no. 18); James MacGregor Burns, Roose1·elr. 1940-1945: The Soldier ol Freedom (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1970). pp. 347-55; Gellman. Sl'Cret Afj(1irs, p. 315. 73. Keyscrlingk, A11srria. p. 92. 74. Kcttenackcr. Friulen.1.1icherung. pp. 147ff: William H. McNeill. Amold Torn/Jee: A Lif(' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). pp. 179-204. 75. Keyserlingk, Ausrria; Kettenacker, Friedenssicherung. 76. Catherine Hore!. "franzi:isische Vorstellungen zum Nachkriegs-bsterreich 1943-1945", and Vladimir V. Sokolov. "Sowjetische bstcrreichpolitik 1943/45", in rJstcrreich 1945, pp. 53-88. 77. Donald R. Whitnah and Edgar L. Erickson. The Americllll Ocrnpmion of' Ausrria: Planning lllul Earlr Years (Westport. CT: Greenwood. 1985). 78. Michael Wala, The Council on fiJreign Relarion.1 and Amerirnn Foreign Policr in the Earlr Cold War (Providence. RI: Berghahn Books, 1994), pp. 15-140: Robert D. Schulzinger. The Wise Men of° Foreign Affi1irs: The Hisrorr ol the Council 011 Foreign Relarions (New York: Columbia University Press. 1984). pp. 81-112: Harley Notter. Po.111t·ar foreign Policr Planning (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1949 ). 79. For Austria as a "sub-issue" of the German problem. see Victor Rothwell. Briwin and the Cold War (London: Jonathan Cape. 1982), pp. 68-73. Notes 169 80. Minutes P-5 to P-15 (April/May 1942) and P-23 (23 January 1943). Box 55. Harley E. Notter Records. RG 59, NA: on Germany. see also Wilfried Mausbach. Z11"ischen Morgentlwu und Marshall: Das 11"irtschllfi1politische Deutschlandkon:ept der USA 1944-1947 (DUsseldorf: Drm,te. 1996). 81. P-6 ( 11 April 1942). P-8 (25 April 1942). P-16 (20 June 1942). P-42 (23 January 1943 ). Box 55. Notter Records. NA. 82. Sumner Welles in P-13 (30 May 1942). ihid. 83. Charles W. Yost. Hi.Horr and Memorr: A Stmesml111 °.1· Perception of' the 7il'l'ntieth Centurr (New York: W.W. Norton. 1980). p. 110. 84. P-10 (9 May 1942), quote from P-11 (16 May 1942). P-13 (30 May 1942). P-17 (27 June 1942). P-23 (22 August 1942). P-28 ( 10 October i 942). Box 55, Notter Records, NA. 85. Cannon in Security Technical Subcorrnnittee Minutes 3. 6 January 1943. Box 79. Notter Records. RG 59. NA. 86. Churchill minute for Eden. 10 June 1942. PREM 4/3317. PRO: Winston S. Churchill. The Gathering Storm (Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin. 1948). pp. 10. 273: Keyserlingk. Austria. pp. 99-102: Elisabeth Barker. Austrill 1918-1972 (London: Macmillan. 1973): Martin Gilbert. Winston Churchill. vol. VII: Road to Victon· 1941-1945 (Boston, MA: Houghton Mit1lin. 1986). pp. 575ff. 87. /hid .. p. 574f. 88. Kettenacker. ri·iede11.1.1ichen111g. p. 541. 89. Ibid.. pp. 193-5. 90. MacFarland (Istanbul) to OSS Washington. 8 September 194J. in Hcidcking and Mauch (eds). Amcrirnn lntelligrnce. doc. 18. 70. 91. PWE drafts. 5 January and 4 March 1943. FO 371/34464. PRO: Bischof. .. Responsibility and Rehabilitation ... p. 840f: Keyserlingk. All.ltria. p. 139. 92. Allen minute. FO 371 /34464. PRO. 93. He also drafted the first major Cabinet paper on Germany. Kettenacker, hiedens.1ichcrung. p. 161. 94. The British War Cabinet adopted the paper in June and pa"ed it on to the Allies. 14 August I 94J. FO 371/34464-65. PRO. 95. Harrison redraft. 9 August 1943, FO 371/34465. PRO: FRUS. 1943. I. 516f: Keyserlingk, Austria, p. 139. 96. Wagnlcitner... Grossbritannien·'. pp. 25-35: D pp. 83-91: Klaus Eisterer, "De Gaulle und Osterreich 1938-1946", in Klaus Eisterer and Oliver Rathkolb (eds). De Gaul/es Europiii.1clw Griisse: Analrsen a11s ().11erre• ich (Vienna: Geyer. 1991 ), pp. 3-16: Hore!, "Franziisische Vorstellungen". pp. 53-60. 104. It was headed by the former foreign minister. Maxim Litvinov. Former ambassador to England, Ivan Maisky. and the ambassador to the United States, Andrei Gromyko, also contributed analyses to this planning group. Vojtech Mastny, The Cold War and Sm·iet bzsecurin·: The Stalin Years (New York: Oxford University Press. 1996), p. 21 f: Valdislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Swlin to Khru.1hchei· (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1996). pp. 19-27: Vladimir 0. Pechatnov, 'The Big Three after World War II: New Documents on Soviet Thinking about Post War Relations with the United States and Great Britain". Cold War International History Project Working Paper No. 13 (July I 995 ). 105. Wilfried Aichinger. Smrjetische Osterreichpolitik 1943-1945 (Vienna: Geyer. 1977 J: Vojtech Mastny, Russia and the Cold War: Dip/0111acr, Warfiire, and the Polilics o( Co11111111nis111, 1941-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press. 1979). 106. A. Losowskij, 2:l January 1944. cited in Oliver Rathkolb. "Wie homogen war Oster• reich 1945'?", in Wolfgang Kos and Georg Rigele (eds), lnrenlur 45155: Dslerreich im erslen .lahr:ehlll der Zweifel! Repuhlik (Vienna: Sonderzahl. 1996). p. 158. 107. Pechatnov. "Big Three", p. l 2f. I 08. Minutes of first meeting, 17 November 1943, and Troutbcck cover letter to final report. 15 September 1944. FO 371 /34466 and 38833, PRO. 109. E. W. Playfair, "Financial Settlement with Austria". 6 December 1943. FO 371/34467, PRO. I I 0. Niemeyer and Keynes letters to Treasury, 28 December and 11 November 1943, FO 371/34457. PRO. 11 I. Ministry of Economic Warfare. "The Problem of the Austrian Economy", 15 February 1944: Minutes of 4th Interdepartmental meeting, 25 February 1944: and Note by the Treasury and Ministry of Economic Warfare, all FO 371/38832, PRO. 112. The Interdepartmental Committee report became the basic paper of the War Cabinet's Armistice and Post-War Committee report "Austria: Economic Security". 8 November 1944. APW(44)112, in FO 371/38833/C 14969: Stanley. "British Policy". pp. 182-92: Bischof. ··Planungen", pp. 35-9. 113. Kettenacker. Friedrns.1iche1w1g, pp. 238-50: Diane Shaver Clemens. "From Isolationism to Internationalism: American World War II Occupation Plans for Postwar Europe - Alternative to the Cold War", in Gustav Schmidt (ed.). Ost• West-Be;ielwngen: Km1fim1tulio11 1111d !Ntrnte 1945-19?!9, vol. 2 (Bochum: Brockmeyer. 1993 ), pp. I 19-41. 114. Whitnah and Erickson. i\merirnn Ocrnpation: Rauchenstcincr. So11derfi1//, pp. 38-45: Lydia Baumann. "Franziisische Osterrcichplanung", in Anton Pelinka and Rolf Steininger (eds). Osterreich 11/lil die Sit·ger (Vienna: BraumUllcr. 1986), pp. 79-97. 115. Winant to Stetinius, 24 November and 4 December 1944, FRUS. 1944, I. 470-3. 116. Winant to Stetinius. 8 December 1944. ihid., 474-7: Bischof. "Planung", p. 137. 117. Whitnah and Erickson, Amerirnn Ocrnpation, pp. 94-102: Rauchensteiner. Sm/(lnji11/, pp. I 03-9. 118. J. M. Troutbeck minute. 4 July 1944. FO 371/38839/C 8260. Notes 171 Notes to Chapter 2 1. Pierson Dixon minute, 8 January 1947, FO 800/476, PRO, quoted in Anne Deighton (ed.), Britain and tile First Cold War (London: Macmillan. 1990). p. 48. 2. Bartov, Hitler's Army. 3. Peter Gosztony. "Planung. Stell enwert und Ablauf der 'Wiener Angriffsoperation' der Roten Armee 1945··, in Osterreich 1945, pp. 1 3 1~3 (death rates p. 142): Manfried Rauchensteiner. Krie11 in 6sterreich ·45 (Vienna: Bundesverlag, 1995). 4. While the Soviets were taking Vienna it was still being bombed by Anglo-American air forces. March diary entries Josef Schaner. Wiener Tagebuch 194411945, ed. Eva• Marie Csaky, Franz Maiseher and Gerald Stourzh (Vienna: Bohlau. 1992), pp. I 08ff. 5. Manfried Messerschmidt. "Die Wehnnach1: Yorn Rea litacsverlust zum Selbstbetrug··. in Volkmann (ed.). Ende des Drille11 Reichel', pp. 224-55. 6. Horwitz. ln the Shadow of Demh. pp. 144-63: Hagspiel, Osrmark. p. 252f; AJbrich and Gisinger. Bombe11krieg. pp. 201 -69. 7. 11 April 1945, Scheiner, Tagebuch. p. 147. 8. In the memory of many common people 1945 rather than 1938 wa~ the major turn• ing point. See the case studies of archetypal Austrian memories of the war in Ziegler and Kannonicr-Finstcr. Gedacht11is, pp. 133-50. 9. Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History nf the Sovie! 'Zone nf Occup111io11. 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Un iversity Press, 1995). pp. 74-6. 10. Cited in Manfricd Rauchensteincr, Der Krieg in Osterreich ·45 new edn (Vienna: Bundesverlag. 1995), p. 143. 11. Quoted in Lev Kopelev. No Jail for Tho11ght, trans. Anthony Austin (London: Secker & Warburg. 1977). p. 37. 12. Martin Herz citing the American diplomat Ware Adams, in Robcn A. Bauer (ed.). The Austrian Sol111inn (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1982). p. 2 1. See also "Russians remember Austrians fought hard at Stalingrad". Erhard to Byrnes. 26 February 1946, FRUS, 1946. V, 311. 13. Ibid .. pp. 70f, 77f; Schaner. Tageb11ch, p. 28:?.. 14. Rauchensteiner makes the unpersuasive distinction between di sciplined from-line troops and a secoad wave or "conqueriag" undi sciplined occupation troop~. Krieg. p. 142f. 15. 11 April 1945. Schaner. Tagebuch, p. 148. 16. Naimark, Russians, pp. 70 and 11 4. 17. Hank.in (OSS). 3 Jul y l 945. Oli ver Rathkolb (ed.), Gesellschaft 1111<1 Politik am Beg i1111 der Zwei1e11 Republik: Vertmuliche Berichte der US-Militiiradmi11i.1·1ratio11 aus 6sterreid1 1945 in englischer Origi11alfass1111g (Vienna: Bohlau. 1985), p. 277; 11 / 12 April 1945, Schuner, Tagebuch. pp. 148. 152. 18. Hankin (OSS), 12 September 1945, Gesel/schaft, pp. 294-301 (quote p. 300). 19. In Berlin it was the house of a Communist Party official. sec Na i mark. Russiam. p. I 18. 20. Only recently have violated women started to talk about thi~ taboo su~ject matter to oral history researchers. See Marianne Baumgartner. "Jo, des waren halt sch/echte Zeite11 ... .. Das Krief:sende mu/ die 1111111ittelbare Nachkrie15s<.eit in den /ebens• geschicht/iche11 Erziihlwzgen von Frauen aus dem Mosrvierte/ (Frankfurt a.M.: Peter Lang, 1994), pp. 93-150: and "YergewaJtigung zwischen Mylhos und Rea li tiit: Wien und Niedcrosterrcich im Jahre 1945", in Fra1m1/ebe11. pp. 60-71; Irene Bandhauer-Schoffmann and Ela Hornung. "Der Topos des sowjelischen Soldaten in 172 Austria in the First Cold Wm: 1945-55 Lebcnsgeschichtlichen Interviews lllit Frauen··. fJ(jW Juhrhuch /995. pp. 28-44: Edmund Merl. Bcsm;u11g.1;l'il i111 Miihll"il'rtl'I (Grlinbach. 1989). pp. 179-82. 21. Baumgartner. Mostl"icrlcl. pp. 95-9. 22. Merl. Miih/1·ier1el. p. 179. Margarete Hanni. "Mit den 'Russen' Lehen. Besatzungszeit irn Mlihlviertel 1945-1955". Zci1gnchichle. 16/5 ( 1989). 147-66. 23. Othmar Pickl. "Das Kricgsendc 1945 um! die frlihe Besatmngszeit im Mittleren Mlirztal". in Siegfried Beer (ed.). Die "hri1i.1chc" S1cicn11ark 1945-1955 (Graz: Historische Landeskomrnission. 1995 ). p. 280f. 24. John Selby-Bigge unpublished lllcrnoirs. p. 232. The Rm,sians plundered all avail• able supplies of .salvarsan and sulphonamides in Vienna. see 30 May 1945, Schiiner. Tagehuch. p. 265. 25. !hid., p. 236: Oscar Pollak. "On the Situation in the Russian Zone". S July 1945, and Nicholls (from Gn11) to Mack to FO. 25 July 1945. both FO 371/46628. PRO: Martin Herz. "The J\llied Occupation of J\ustria: The Early Years", in Robert A. Bauer (ed.). Thl' 11ustriu11 So/11tio11: lnternulimwl Conflict und Coopcrution (Charlottesville: University of Virginia. 1982). p. 20: for Eastern Styria, see Stefan Karner... 'Ich bekalll 1ehn Jahre Zwangsarbeit': Zu den Verschlcppungen aus der Steiermark durch sowjetische Organe im Jahre 1945". in "Bri1i.1che" S!ciemwrk. p. 249. 26. Two million women were raped in Germany. Naimark. R11ssio11.1. p. 1.'3. 27. /hid .. p. 110. 28. The Nazis had thrown the priest llantsch into the Buchenwald concentration calllp. Quotations in Gl'sellsclw/i. p. JOO. 29. Wolfram Wettc ... 'Rassenfcind': Die ra.ssistischen Elemente in dcr deutschen Propaganda gcgen die Sowjctunion". in Han.s-Adolf Jacohson cl ul. (eds). l>rnt.1ch -mssische Zcilumrnde: Krieg und Frieden /9.:f./-19.f.5 (Baden-Baden: Nomos. 1995 ). pp. 175-20 I. 30. Raping their women dishonoured the Gcrlllan (and J\ustrian) men. This was the ulti• mate victory for "the deeply di.shonoured Russian nation". Nai111ark. Rus.1ia11.1. p. 114. 31. 5 May 1945. Schiiner. Tiig<'ill{('h. p. 222 and f"ts1i111. J\111crican OSS ohservers also saw this: "the intensity of anti-Soviet feeling and the original impact on the popula• tion arc sufficient lo provide a rc.sidue of anti-Soviet hias to their thinking for a long time to co111e". Hankin. 23 Novemher and 3 July 1945. GC'.1<'ll.1c/111/I. pp. 343 and 277. 32. Hanni, "Russen": Franz J\dlgasser. "The Roots of Colllmunist Containment: American Food Aid in J\ustria and Hungary after World War I". CAS. III ( 1995). 171-88. Ernst Hanisch ignores this horrilic experience with the Red Army in his analysis of Austrian anti-Co111munism. ""0hcrlegungen zum Funklionswandel des J\ntikommunismus. Eine iislerreichischc Pcrspekti\c". Zi!itgl'.1chichtt!lug 1995 !forthcoming. 1998): on Wehnnacht soldiers. J\ndreas Hillgruber. Z11"Cierlei Umergm1g: Die Zersc/1/ag1111g dn l>l'utschl'n Reichl'.1· 11111/ das Ende dt's l'Lll"OJ!iiis• chen Jw/e/1/11111.1 (Berlin: Sicdlcr. 1986). 33. Baumgartner. Mo.1f\'ierlel. p. 141. 34. Memorandum of comersation (with attached Cabinet decision). 11 July 1945. 23- pol/45. 445-pol/45. Box I. Foreign Ministry J13KA-J\A J. Archives of the Republic JAR). J\ustrian State J\rchives f0StA J. Vienna. l3aun1gartner has unmasked the taboos and replaced them with a feminist hias. Mo.111·icr1c/. Red Anny rape was also a taboo for German Communists. Naimark. R11s.1iun.1. p. 1181'. 35. Erhard to Byrnes. 2 August 1945. RG 59. 863.00/8-745. NA. reprinted in Reinhold Wagnleinter (ed.J. Undt'rstunding A11.1lriu: 7he Polilirnl Rl'/!Orl.1 mzd A11uh.1es of' Martin F Her:, Polilirnl Officer of'thl' US l.l'galion in Virnna 1945-19.:f.8 (Salzburg: Neugebauer. 1984), p. 22: Grew (with Murphy report on "Conditions in Vienna") to Byrnes. 9 July 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/7-945. RG 59. NJ\. Notes 173 36. Kreisky memo or conversation (with Kornecv), 20 September 1954. Kreisky Papers [KPJ. 37. 'There is no evidence or reason to believe that the undisciplined conduct of individ• ual Red Army mcn in Austria was part of a plan or phase of Russia's policy in Austria", noted the American OSS observer Hankin. 23 November 1945, Gesel/sc/111fi, p. 342. 38. His own party's left wing called him "the man without principles". Anton Pelinka. "Karl Renner". in Herbert Dachs et al. (eds). Die Politiker (Vienna: Manz, 1995), pp. 485-93: and Karl Ri'llner: Eine EinfiihmnR (Hamhurg: Junius, 1989); Walter Rauscher, Karl Rennt'r: Ein ii.1terreichischer 11tfrtlws (Vienna: Ueherreuther. 1995). 39. S. M. Shtemcnko. The Sm·iet General Staff' m Hfo; 1941-1945, 2 vols (Moscow, 1973, English translation 1986), vol. II, p. 353: Mastny. Rus.1·ia'.1 Road to the Cold War, pp. 378-88. Siegfried Nasko, ''April 1945: Renners Ambitionen trafen sich mil Stalins Ahsichten". (Jsterreich in Geschichte und Literutur, 27/6 ( 1983 ), 336-46. 40. The OSS's Charles W. Thayer heard this account from Zheltov. the Deputy Soviet High Commissioner in Austria, Hands Across the Cm·iar (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1952), p. 208: Renner\ own account is tendentious and selt~serving, Denkschrifi iiher die Geschichte der U1whhiingigkeit.1erkliirung 61rerreich.1 11/lll die Ei11.1et;1111g der Prm·i.wrischi'll Regierung der Rep11hlik (Vienna: Staatsdruckerei. 1945 ). pp. I Off. He ignores the contributions of the Austrian resistance movement. The diplomat Josef Schhner fundamentally disagreed with Renner's partisan attacks on "Austrofascism": he found the "pathetic pompousness" or Renner's style insuffer• able, sec 18 May 1945, Togelmch. p. 254. 41. Renner, Denk.1chrifi. p. 11. 42. !hid., p. 14f: Pclinka. Renner, p. 731". 43. Manfried Rauchensteiner, Die Zll'ei: Die Gmfie Koolition in 0.1terreich 1945-1966 (Vienna: Bundesverlag. 1987), pp. 27ff: Wilfried Aichingcr. Sowjeti.1che 6.1terreich• politik 1943-1945 (Vienna, 1977). pp. 122-31: Hugo Portisch and Sepp Riff. Oster• reich II: Die Wiedeigehurr des Swotes, vol. I (Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau, 1985). pp. I 491f: Nasko. ''April 1945", pp. 336-42. 44. He tried to impress Stalin with having known Lenin and Trot.rki personally. Rauchensteincr, Die Z11·ei. pp. 28-31; Pelinka. Rrnner, pp. 74-6. 45. Shtemcnko. Gi'lleml Swfj: p. 262. 46. Renner. Drnk.1chrifi; Johnson report. Gnellsclwfi. pp. 114-18; Nasko. "April 1945", pp. 342-5: Ernst Fischer. Do.1 Ende einer ll/11.1ion: Erinnernngen 1945-1955 (Vienna: Mokkn, 1973). pp. 19-23. 47. Three state secretaries without pm·tfi'uille made up the Puliti.1cher Kal>inett.1mt: Adolf Schiirf (SPO), Leopold Fig I (OVP). and Johann Koplcnig (KPO). Renner was the pri11111.1 inter pores. The full Cahinet usually only rubher-stamped the bills sub• mitted by the Kohinettsmt. Sec introduction to Gertrude Enderle-Burce I et ol. (eds), Protokol/e des K11hinett.11'l1te.1 der Pro1·isori.1chen Regiemng Kori Renner 1945. vol. I (Horn/Vienna: Berger & Siihnc. 1995). pp. iii-xxiii: Rauchcnsteiner. Die Ziffi. pp. 401T. 48. Sixteenth session, I 0 .July 1945. Pmtokol/e. vol. I. p. 360. 49. !hid.. pp. viiff: Karl Stadler, Adulf"Schiirf(Vicnna: Europaverlag. 1982). p. 1971". 50. Renncr's Provisional Government al last comes to life in the first volume of the recently puhlished Cahinct minutes. Pmtokolle. pos.1im. 5 I. Naimark. R11.1.1io11s, p. 1661': Bischof. Re.1;J1111.1ihilitr and Relwhilitoti1111. pp. 24 7-59. 317-32. 52. Eighth session. annex 4. 12 May 1945. Pmtukolle. pp. 127-37: Thayer in Gnel/.1clwfi, p. 287: Aichingcr. Smcjeti.1che D1terreic/1politik. p. 252. 53. Eighth session. annex 4. 12 May 1945. Protokolle. p. 136f. 174 Austria in the First Cold Wi11; 1945-55 S4. 8 April 194S and the following dar,, Schiiner. Tugehuch, pp. l.HIT (Hernnansky story in p. 137f): Alois Brusatti and Hildegard Hcmetsbcrger-Kollcr (eds), Zeugc der Stu11de N11/!.D1.1s Tugehuch Eugen Mwgurh/111.1 1945-1947 (Linz: Trauncr, 1990), pp. 28ff: Pollak report, 7 July I 94S, FO 371/46628. PRO: OSS-rcports. Ge.1ellschqfi. pp. 276f, 271-8. 294-301. 242f: SchiirL ()11crreiclt.1 Eme11eru11g. p. 28: Herz. "Occupation". pp. 18-23. SS. Nicholls dispatch, 2S July 1945, FO 371/46628. PRO: sec aho Pickl. "Kriegscndc 1945", and Helmut Eberhart. "Wideraulhau und Nachkricsgalltag: Das Tagchuch Anton Pircheggcrs", in "Britische" Stciemwrk. pp. 280, 361-87. 56. Sclby-Bigge unpublished memoirs, p. 233. S7. 14 June 1945, Schhner. Tugelmch, p. 292. S8. Eighth session, annex 4. 12 May I 94S. Protoko//e. p. 131. S9. Memo of conversation, 11 July 1945. 23-pol/45, 445-pol/45, Box I. BKA-AA, AR. 60. For nightly raids sec 1-3 September and 4 November and 3 December 1945, Schiincr. T1.1gehuch. pp. 361-9. 411, 436. 61. Until the end of 1945. 6.344 cases of plundering were reported to the local police: this is undoubtedly a low ligure since looting was seldom reported during the first few weeks of postwar chaos. Merl, Be.wt:1111g.1:eit. pp. 174-8. 62. According to his estimate 2S per cent of prc-1939 Russia's total lixcd capital assets. totalling about 16 billion dollars, had been destroyed. The c4uipmcnt was needed for the reconstruction of Sm iet industry. Hankin. 23 November 1945. Gescl/.1clwfi, p. 388. Sec also Otto Klamhaucr and Ernst Bczcmck, Die USIA-Betriehe i11 Niederiisterrcich: Geschichte, 01:~u11isati1111,D11k11111ent1.11i1111 (Vienna: Niedcrlister• reichischcs Landcsarchiv. 1983 ). 63. Gcse!/sc/wfi, p. 338. 64. Among them were AEG. Elin. Brown-Bovcri. and Sicmen,·Schuckcrt and Sicmcns• Halske, as well as truck and automobile producers such as Graef and Stift, Austro• Fiat and Saurer. Eighty-five per cent or the e4uipmcnt of the tank-producing factory or the Nibelungen Works in St Valentin was removed and 85 per cent of Stcyr's machines from Gra1:. Eighty per cent of the c4uip111ent of Austria's biggest rubber producer. Sempcrit. was removed: only the machines to produce ruhhcr shoes were left Gese//.1clwfi, pp. 338. 273-6: for Scmperit see also Eighth session, annex 4. 12 May 1945, Protokolle. p. 135. For case studies or wartime growth and postwar removals of the major Austrian husinc~ses. sec Franz Mathis. Big B11si11ess i11 0.1tff• reich: Osterreich.1 Gmfi1111emch111e11 in K11r:d11ntel/u11gm (Vienna: Geschichte und Politik. 1987). 6S. Protokolle. pp. 133-7. Schocller-Blcckmann had employed 4,500 people during the war - three times as many as before the war. The Soviets had their own "Operation Papcrclip" and tried to lure technical experts to the Soviet Union with lucrative con• tracts: sec Hankin, :l July 1945, Gesellschufi, p. 275. 66. For estimates about the value of Soviet removals sec Wildner to Renner minute. 6 July 1945. 43 l-pol/4S, Box 2, BKA-AA, AR: Klambauer and BC/cmek. USIA. pp. 6-8: they are summarized in table I of chapter 4. 67. Churchill to Clark Kerr (Moscow), 8 July 1945, in Rohan Butler et o/. (eds). Doc11111ents o( British Polin· 01·er.1cus. scr. I. vol. I: The C1111fi're11n' at Potsd1.1111, Julr August 1945 (London: H.M. Stationery Oflice. 1984). S4 IDBPO]: Churchill to Stalin ( l 5 April 1945 ). FRUS. 1945, Ill. 69f. 68. The British and the Americans thought that Austria should he exempt from paying reparations. See "Economic Treatment of Austria: Summary", 4 .January 1945. 863.00/ 1-445. RG S9, NA. and chapter I. 69. Winant to Stettinius. 5 April 1945. FRUS, 1945. Ill. 461T: Rauchensteincr. S1111derfiill. p. 39. Notes 175 70. !hid .. p. I 07. 71. The British realized that the Russians wanted to appropriate the German hui Id-up of the Austrian economy during: the war for themselves. FRUS, 1945: lhe Confi'rence of' Berlin (The Por.1dum Conference). vol. I, p. 342f: the British also con• sidered .. once-for-all deliveries of plant ... Playfair (Treasury) f'or Berthoud. 19 July 1945. FO 371/46627. PRO. The most complete treatment of the postwar reparations tangle is Jlirg: Fisch. Repumrionen nuch dem Zweirm Welrkrieg (Munich: Beck. 1992). 72. !hid. 73. Soviet note. 24 July 1945. DBPO, Ill, 659: and Ninth Meeting: of the Foreign Secretaries. 27 July 1945. ibid.. 933. 74. Ninth Meeting: of Foreign Ministers. 27 July 1945. DBPO, I/ I, 934f: FRUS. 1945: Berlin, vol. IL pp. 432-4. 75. Waley memorandum, 2 August 1945. DBPO. Ill. 1257-60: Alec Cairncross. The Price of' Pmrer: Brirish Polin· 011 G!'rnwn Repumrions 1941-1949 (London. 1986). pp. 93-9: Roher! Slusser (ed.), Sm·iN Economic Polin· in Posnrnr Gamuny: A Col!ecrion of' Papers hr Fonner Sorier Officiuls (New York. 1953 ). 76. Waley to Eady. 31July1945, DBPO. Ill. 1050. 77. Waley memorandum, 2 August 1945: ibid.. I 258f. 78. The perception of Byrnes\ conlidantc Walter Brown was that "the conference ended on a high tone of harmony ... I August 1945. Diary, Folder 602. Walter Brown's Book, Byrnes Papers. Clemson University. South Carolina. 79. Twelfth plenary session, I August 1945. DBPO, Ill, 1128: FRUS, 1945: Berlin. vol. II. pp. 556-9. 579f. 80. Given their relative inexperience in the international arena. hoth gave their foreign ministers extraordinary leeway. Alan Bullock. Eme.1'1 Be1·i11: Foreign Secrerarr. 1945-1951, vol. III (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). p. 561': Byrnes as .. assistant president" in Roher! L. Messer, T!ie End of' u11 Alliunce: James F By mes, Ro11.1·n·elr. Tn111w11, and rhe Origins of' the Cold War (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press. 1982), pp. 79ff, 95ff. 81. It was unknown that German external assets in Austria constituted the lion's share (62 per cent) of some 500 million worth of German property in Eastern Europe. Rauchensteiner, Die Z11·ei. p. 84. 82. Bevin hlamed the Potsdam liasco on the American penchant for vague formulas. Playfair to Berthoud. 19 July 1945. FO 371 /46627: Waley memorandum, 2 August 1945. DBPO. I/I. 1260: Knight quoting: Waley from FO 371/45906, "British Policy". p. 43. Sec also Reinhard Bollmus. '"Ein kalkulicrtes Risiko'1 Grol.\hritannien, die USA uml das 'Deutsche Eig:entum' auf der Konfcrcn1 von Potsdam". in Be\'{Jnnundete Narion. pp. I 07-26. 83. Knight. .. British Policy". pp. 42. 47. 84. For Austria see tahle I in chapter 4: for Germany sec Fisch, Repumti1111en. pp. 222-5. 85. Knight. "British Policy". p. 48. 86. The Russian political representative Kissilcv infonned the Austrian Foreign Office that the Soviet Union needed reparations for all the losses she had suffered and .. had a right to extract what the Potsdam decisions granted her". C. Wildner minute. 17 July 1945. 553-pol/45. Box 2: and Biihrn to Renner. 7 August 1945. and Renner to Biihm. 9 August 1945. Box 4. BKA-AA. AR: Wildner minute, 24 July 1945, Alfons Schilcher. "Die Politik dcr Provisorischen Reg:ierung: und der Alliierten GroLlm~ichte hci dcr Wiedcrerrichtung: der Rcpuhlik ()sterrcrich ... Phil. Diss .. University of Vienna. 1985. Dokurnente. 191" 87. !hid .. I 7f. 176 Austria in the First Cold Wi:11; 1945-55 88. Alfons Schilcher (ed.), 0.1rerreich und die Grofi111iichte: Dokumrnte :ur 0.1rerre• ichischen Aufienpolirik 1945-1955 (Vienna: Geyer. 1980), pp. 29-31. 89. Scharf, Osterreichs Ernrnemng, p. 64; Slusser (ed.), So\"ier Economic Po!icY, pp. 56-8; Vladimir Dedijer. The 81111/f Swlin Lost: Memoirs of" Y11gos/m·i11 194!:!-1953 (New York: Grosset & Dunlap. 1970), pp. 73-96. 90. Thayer memos for Gruenther, 7 and 12 September 1945, Folder "Reports by Thayer", Box 3, Lot 54 D 331, RG 59. NA: Erhardt to Byrnes, 13 September 1945, FRUS, 1945, Ill. 593, Scbilcher. "Dokumente". pp. 73-88: Scharr. Ostereichs Erneuerung, pp. 64-7. 91. Brown Diary, 22 July 1945, Folder 602. Byrnes Papers. 92. Tbayer to Grucntbcr. 7 September 1945. Box 3, Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA. 93. Sch~irf, Osterreichs Emeuemng, pp. 64-7: Stadler, Schiirf; pp. 226-31: Oliver Rathkolb, W11shi11gto11 rufi Wirn: US-Gro/inwchtpolitik 1111{/ ()sterreich 1953-1963 (Vienna: Blihlau, 1997), p. 236. 94. FRUS. 1945, Ill. 582: Stadler. Sclu"i!j; p. 229. US oil lobbyists had warned Clark that American oil interests were at stake, sec Rathkolb, W11shington, p. 2351'. Clark told Konicv misleadingly that he had heard about Sovict-Auo,trian oil negotiations through the press. Clark to Konicv. I 0 September 1945. Box 49. CP. And the British warned the Austrians that they would never recogni1e the Renner Government if such an oil deal were struck. Kleinwaechtcr and Bischoff memos of conversation. 13 and 15 September 1945, in Schilcher, "Provio,ori-;che Regierung: Dokumente", pp. 31-4. 95. Thayer to Grucnther, 12 September 1945. Box 3. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA: Acheson to Winant, 9 September 1945. FRUS. 1945. Ill, 582ff. 96. Adam Ulam, E.tj){/J1.1ion £1Jl(/ Coexistence: Sm·iet Foreign Polin· 1917-73. 2nd edn (New York: Praeger, 1974), p. 436. 97. Scharf, Osrerreichs Emeuerw1g. p. 67: on Germany, Gunther Mai, Der Alliierte Ko/l/rollmr in Deutsch/and 1945-1948: Alliierre Einheit - deut.1che Tei!tmg" (Munich: Oldenbourg. 1995 ). 98. Schilchcr (ed.), Osterreich, p. 3: Karl Bachinger and Herbert Matis, ner Osterre• ichi.1che Schilling: Geschichte einer Wiihrung (GraL: Styria. 1974). pp. 1691T. 99. 20 September, Allied Council for Austria/Minutcs(45)3 (ALCO/M) on microfilm: Eleanor Lansing Dulles, Chances of" u Lifetime: A Memoir (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1980). pp. 199-201. 100. Byrnes to Harriman. 15 October 1945. FRUS. 1945. Ill, 6271": Clark to Konicv, 4 Octohcr 1945, Box 40. CP: "'Currency Conversion". 8 Octohcr 1945. 740.0019 Control (Austria)/ 10-845. 101. 8 October 1945. ALCO/M(45J4. 102. Auo,tria being flooded with RM or course threatened large-'>calc inllation: the Allies could be criticized for delaying the economic rehabilitation or the country and undue delay endangered the o,ecrecy or the conversion o,cheme. Clark to Konicv. 4 October 1945, Box 40, CP. I 03. In Sal1.burg common folks tried to hang on to their legal tender by depositing their RM in banks, while in Upper Austria pcao,ants refused to accept payment in RM. US intelligence summary, 22 Octoher 1945, Box 3. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA. 104. ALCO/M(45)7. I 05. ALCO/M( 45 J4-6: Gruenther to JCS. 19 and 20 October 1945, FRUS. 1945. 11 l, 633-6: Dulles, Chonce.1, p. 200. 106. Even after the conversion was completed they did not burn their RM accumulated in Austria according to 4uadripartitc agreement, but shipped them to their German Lone to be used on the black market. Dulles, C/wncn. p. 20 I: Gruenther to JCS. 19 October 1945. FRUS. 1945, Ill. 634. Notes 177 107. For a French compromise plan and Soviet rejection. ALCO/M(45)6: Clark to JCS. 31 October 1945. 740/00119 Control (Austria)/! 0-3145: Byrnes to Harriman. FRUS, 1945. Ill. 648. 108. 30 October 1945. ALCO/M(45J7: Clark to JCS. 30/31 October 1945. and Clark-Konicv conversation in Clark to JCS. 11 November 1945. FRUS. 19.:f.5. Ill. 644 n. 77. 649f. I 09. By mid-November the Allied Council worked out a conversion plan. to be imple• mented before Christmas. Eight billion RM and one billion AMS were to he con• verted into the new Austrian schillings. The first 2.5 billion schillings printed were to be allocated to the civilian nee(b of the Austrian economy: 1.2 billion (or 38 per cent) of the remaining 4.5 hi Ilion schillings were to be allocated to the four powers for their occupation costs. Austrians were permitted to exchange only 150 RM into the new schillings (the ratio was I : I). 16 and 30 November 1945. ALCO/M(45) 9-10: Erhardt to Byrnes. 9 January 1945. FRUS, 19.:f.5. Ill. 692f: Rauchcn.stcincr. Sonderfiill. p. 140L Bachinger/Matis. (jsterreichische Schilling. pp. 178-82. 110. Gilbert. Churchill. vol. VIL pp. 574f. 592. 799f. 91-lff and passim; Efoabeth Barker. Churchill OJI(/ Lden ut H1i1r (London: Macmillan. 1978). pp. 221-32: Rothwell. Rriwin. pp. 7-1-150: Sainsbury. lit ming Point; Bischof. "Anglo-Amcrikanischc Planungen". pp. 39--14. 111. Sainsbury. lltming Poilll. pp. 217-307: Eric Larrabee. Comm111u/er in Chief:" Franklin /)e/uno Ro11.1·n·e/1, His Licutenunts, mul llteir Wur (New York: Simon & Schuster. 1987). pp. 500ff: Warren F. Kimball. Thi' Juggler: Fmnklin R110.1n·e/1 11s Wartime Stulnman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991 ): Lloyd C. Gardner. Spheres of' Influence: The Great PmrC'rs Partition t'11rope, .fimn Munich to Yalta (Chicago: Ivan R. Dec. 1993 ): Keith Sainsbury. C/wrchill and Roo.11'\'l'fl at War: The War Thn· fought Olli/ the Prncl' Ther Hoped to Make (New York: New York University Press. 1994). 112. Mastny. Russia's Road. pp. 207-12: Kimball. Juggler. pp. I 59-84: Albert Resis. "The Churchill-Stalin Secret 'Percentages' Agreement on the Balkans. Moscow. October 1944". A111airn11 Hi.1torirnl Rn·il'll·. 8312 ( 1978). 368-87. 113. He kept Roosevelt fully informed about the "percentages". See Churchill to Roosevelt. 18 October 19-15. and Roosevelt to Churchill. 24 October. Kimball (ed.). C!turc!till & R110.11Tdt. vol. Ill. pp. 359. 371: Kimball. Juggler. pp. 160-5. Ambassador Winant reminded Roosevelt of the percentages and Harriman briefed the State Department's postwar planning unit. see Winant to Stettinius. 8 December 1944. fRUS, fiJ.:f.4. I. 47-lf: Harriman in Policy Committee Minutes. 81 st meeting. 25 October 194-1. Box 138. Notter Records. RG 59. NJ\. I 1-1. /hid .. 78th rneeti ng. 6 October 19-1-1. 115. !hid.: Policy Committee-Documents. EUR-13. I 5 July 194-1. and Research Staff's "Survey or Principal Problem Areas in Europe". 19 April 1943. Box 137. Notter Records. RG 59. NA: for map sec Notter. Prepumtio11. pp. 545-52. 116. Truman claimed to be acting as "umpire" as late as April 1946. see John Lewis Gaddis. T!te Long Peace: Inquiries illlo the Histon· of' the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press. 1987 J. p. 27: Randall B. Woods and Howard Jones. /)mrni11g o/t!tc Cold War: The United States' Questfiir Orda (Athens. GA: Georgia University Press. 1991 ). pp. 33-72: De Santis. [)i/!lonwn· o/ Si/encl', pp. 106-54: Fraser J. Harbutt. Tltl' Iron Curwin: Ch11rchill, Amerirn and the Origins o/the Cold \Vitr (New York: Oxford University Press. 1986). 117. The British were upset over growing Soviet inllucnce in the Near East and Eastern Europe and their demands to revise the 1936 Montreux Convention on the Straits. Stalin acted rudely "behind his back" over Anglo-American armistice negotiations with the Germans for a separate surrender on the Italian front. Martin Kitchen. 178 Austria in the First Cold Wc11; 1945-55 British Potier tmrnrds the So1·iet Union during the Second World War (London: Macmillan. 1986), pp. 25-54; Graham Ross. The Foreign Office and the Kre111/i11: British Dorn111e/lf.1 011 A11glo-A111erirn11 Relations 1941--45 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984): Robert Hathaway. Ambiguous Partnership: Brituin und Amerirn, 1944-1947 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981 ). pp. 112-31: Thomas T. Hammond (ed.). Witnesses to the Origins of' the Cold War (Seattle: Washington University Press. 1982). pp. 60-97, 123-60; De Santis. Diplomacr of' Silence, pp. 131-54; Churchill to Roosevelt, 27 March 1945; Kimball (ed.), Correspondence, vol. Ill, pp. 587-9: Churchill. Triumph and Tragedr. vol. VI, pp. 360-89: Henry Butterfield Ryan, The Vision of' Anglo-Amerirn: The US-UK Alliance and the Eme1Ring Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 87-99. 118. Kimball (ed.), Corrnpondcnce. vol. Ill. pp. 587-9. 595-8: Harbutt, lmn Curtuin, p. 97. 119. Churchill. Triumph, vol. VI, pp. 399: 28 March 1945. Pierson Dixon Diary. 120. W. Averell Harriman and Allie Abel. Special Em·or to Churchill and Stu/in 1941-1946 (New York: Random House, 1975), p. 531: Geir Lundestad. The A111ericw1 Non-Policy tmmrds Eu.item Europe, 1943-1947 (New York. 1975). 121. 3 March 1945, Dixon Diary. 122. Orme Sargent minute, 2 April 1945. Ross. Foreign Office. p. 202. 123. Frank Roberts (Moscow) to FO. 21 April 1945. i/Jid., p. 207f: see also 8 April 1945, David Dilks (ed.), The Diaries of' Sir Ale.wllifer Cadogan 1938-45 (New York: G. P. Putnam's. 1972). p. 725f. 124. Alonzo L. Hamby, Man of' the People: A Life of' Hurrr S. Trttnllln (New York: Oxford University Press. 1995): David McCullough. Tmman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992): Michael J. Lacey (ed.). The Trnnllln Prl'sidl'ncr (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 125. State Department memo, 13 April 1945, Kimball (ed.). Correspondence. vol. Ill. pp. 633-7: Harry S. Truman, Me111oirs, vol. I (New York: Signet. 1955). pp. 24-8: memo of conversation, 20 April 1945, Box 4. Charles E. Bohlen Papers. RG 59, NA. 126. Truman to Eleanor Roosevelt, I 0 May 1945. Box 321, President's Secretary's File [PSF]. Truman Papers ITPI. Truman Library. Independence. MO. 127. Memo of conversation, 15 May 1945. Box 4. Bohlen Papers, RG 59. NA: Churchill. Triu111ph and Tragl'dr, vol. VI. p. 487f: Gaddis, Long Peuce, p. 28. 128. Peter Boyle. "The British Foreign Office View of Soviet-American Relations. 1945-46". Diplomatic Histon·. 313 ( 1979). 307-20: Harbutt, Iron Curtain. pp. I 00, l I 7f: David Reynolds, "Great Britain". in D. Reynolds (ed.), Origins. pp. 80ff. 129. On the concept of policy makers' "mental map" as "systems of orientation", see Alan K. Hendrickson. 'The Geographic 'Mental Maps' of American Foreign Policy Makers". !11tenlllti111111I Politirnl Science Rn·iew. 1/4 ( 1980), 495-530; and "Mental Maps", in Exp/11i11i11g the Historr of'i\mnirnn foreign Relutions. pp. 177-92. 130. Churchill to Roosevelt, 16 March 1945, Kimball (ed.). Corre.1po11drnce. vol. Ill. p. 571 f: Churchill. Triumph and 7i't1gedr. p. 489f: Gilbert. Churchill: Nn·er De.1pair, vol. VIII. p. 6f: Harbutt. /m11 C11rtui11. p. 103. 131. The American OSS representative in Belgrade. Franklin Lindsay. received Renner's message early in May. sec Renner to Stettinius. 28 April 1945, 863.01/4-2845. RG 59, NA: Grew to Truman. 30 April 1945, FRUS. 1945. lll. I O:l: Stevenson (Belgrade) to FO. 2 May 1945. FO 371/46616: author's interview with Franklin Lindsay; Leidenfrost, "Amerikanische Bcsatzungsmacht". pp. 153-62. 132. Roberts to FO, 27 April. 1945. Cullis minute. 3 May 1945, FO 371/46614: Sargent to Churchill. 29 April 1945. FO 371/46614. and Sargent minute for PM. 30 April 1945. PREM 4/33/6. all PRO. Notes 179 133. For the British initiative see FO to Washington, 28 April 1945, FO 37 l /46614. PRO: on Renner's reaction, see Rauchensteiner. Die Zwei, p. 42f. 134. Kennan to Stettinius, 30 April 1945: Erhardt to Stettinius, 27 April 1945. memo of conversation (Grew, Truman), 30 April 1945, all in FRUS, 1945, vol. Ill. pp. 98-106; Grew memorandum for Truman, 5 May 1945, 740.00119 Control (Austria)/5-545, RG 59, NA; Joseph Grew, Turhulent Era, vol. 11, pp. 1446. 1455f. 135. FRUS, 1945, III. 103f; FO 371/46616; Leidenfrost, "Amerikanische Besatzung'>• macht", pp. 166-9. Kennan rightly observed that such verbal protests were u'>ele'>'> and American "diplomacy of silence" only demonstrated Washington's impotence vis-ii-vis Moscow. Kennan to Stettinius, 2 May 1945, quoted in De Santis. Diplomncr ol Silence, p. 152; George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950. vol. I (Boston: Little Brown, 1967), pp. 234-54; David Mayers, Geo1;r;e Ke1111n11 and the Dilemmas ol US Foreign Polin· (New York: Oxford L:niversity Press. 1988). pp. 89-97. 136. Cullis memorandum for Eden, 2 June 1945, and Cullis minute, 18 May 1945. FO 37 l /46616: for a summary of Cull is 's views see Cull is, "Austria 1945-1950". in Brix et al. (eds). Stoud1 Festschrifi. pp. 211-28. 137. Renner\ infamous May 1938 article about his support for the Anschluf.\ was dug up from the World Review. The patchy prewar snippets of British diplomats concen• trated on his moderate socialism, anti-Bolshevism and opportunism. The Foreign office was on the mark with: "generally regarded as a moderate politician of an opportunist and somewhat demagogic type, ready to collaborate with other parties". FO to Washington, 28 April 1945. Macmillan (from Mack) for FO, 4 May 1945. "Pre-war record of Dr. Karl Renner". and Cullis minute, 14 May 1945, FO 371/ 46615-6. PRO. 138. Leiden frost. "Amerikanische Besatzungsmacht". pp. 121-47. 139. "Comments on Karl Renner". by Leon Fuller, 28 April 1945, Folder. "Reports b) Thayer", Box 3, Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA. 140. Political Situation in Austria, 4 May 1945, Box 171, PSF. Truman Papers. HSTL. 141. [May 1945]. Folder "Policy Statements". Box 2, Lot 54 D 331, RG 59, NA. 142. Political Situation in Austria, Box 171, PSF, Truman Papers. HSTL. 143. "Vienna is the key to the Austrian situation. much more so than Berlin is in the case of Germany." Grigg to Eden, 14 February 1945, FO 37 l /46626, PRO. 144. Witnah and Erickson, Occupntion. p. 97f: for maps see Portisch and Riff. ()sterreich II. vol. I, p. 5 IO. 145. Sargent memorandum for Churchill. 8 May 1945, FO 371/46615, PRO. 146. FO to Washington, 17 May 1945. and Stalin to Churchill, 18 May. FO 371/46616. PRO. 147. The 186 Western representatives were led by Generals John Winterton (GB). Lester Flory (US). and Paul Cherriere (FR). Charles Thayer, the chief of the American OSS contingent. termed it a "scouting party" of "three Generals plus enough 'experts' to run the city three times over." Thayer. Hnnds Across the Cm·iar. p. 17): personal interview with John Winterton. 148. Vienna mission reports are reprinted in Siegfried Beer and Eduard Staudinger. "DiL' 'Vienna Mission' der Westallierten im Juni 1945", Studien ~ur Wiener Geschichte. vol. 5 (Vienna, 1994), pp. 317-412: report by Winterton. 20 June 1945. FO 371/46617; Flory's 59-page report is sumarized in Erhardt to Byrnes. 17 June 1945. FRUS. 1945. Ill. 138-42: personal interview with Winterton. 149. Witnah and Erickson, Ocrnpation, pp. 122-33. 150. Harrison minute. 11 June 1945, FO 371/46617, PRO; Erhardt to Byrnes. 5 Jun~ 1945, 740.00119 Control (Austria)/6-545; Charles W. Thayer. 14 July 1945. Gesell.1clwfi, pp. 283-8 (citation 287): and Hands, p. 177. 180 Austria in the First Cold War, 1945-55 151. Until the end of 1944 the Viennese had experienced few physical hardships and experienced few privations, Schoner, Tagebuch: Marie Vassiltchikov, Berlin Diaries 1940-1945 (New York: Vintage, 1988), p. 269. 152. Renner handed his memorandum to the Soviets, who made it vanish . .. Dringliche Eingabe .. , Renner to Tolbukhin, 14 June 1945. Schilcher (ed.). Osterreich. pp. 2-5. 153. Churchill to Halifax. 6 July 1945, DBPO, Ill, 3-7. 154. Churchill to Truman, 15 June 1945, and Stalin to Truman. 16 June 1945, FRUS, 1945. III, I 36f. 155. Fourth and fifth plenary sessions. 20/21 July 1945. DBPO. Ill. 468f. 531: Gilbert, Churchill, vol. VIII, p. 81 f. 156. Erhardt (from Verona) to Matthews. 13 July 1945. FRUS, 1945. III. 567: Erhard to Matthews, 13 July 1945. Box 3. Lot 54 D .n I. RG 59, NA. 157. Recognition of Austrian Government, 23 June 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/ 6-2345, RG 59, NA: seventh plenary meeting. 23 July 1945. FRUS, 1945: Berlin. vol. II, p. 311. 158. The American High Commissioner-designate for Austria. General Mark Clark. was on a vi'>it to Brazil through most of July and was not available for these negotia• tions. Erhardt to Riddleberger. 13 July 1945, 740.00119 Control (Austria)/7-1345: Gruenther to Clark (in Rio). 17 July 1945, Box 40. CP. Clark visited BraLil from 14 to 26 July. Vol. 10. Clark Diary. CP. 159. Erhardt to Riddleberger. 13 July 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/7-1345. RG 59. NA: Gruenther to Clark. 17 July 1945. Box 40. CP: Erhardt to Byrnes. 28 July 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/ 7-2845. and Erhardt to Byrnes, 31 July 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/7-3145. RG 59. NA: Thayer. Hands !\cross the Cm·iar. pp. 201-7. 160. Kirk (Caserta) to Byrnes. 22 July 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/7-2245, RG 59, NA. 161. Martin Herz. a Vienna-horn American diplomat. was among them: Herz in Understunding Austriu. p. 7f: and 'The View from Austria... in Hammond (ed.). Witnesses, pp. 161-85: Kirk (Caserta) to Byrnes. 30 July 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/7-3045. RG 59. NA. 162. Erhardt to Byrnes, 18 August 1945. FRUS, 1945. Ill. 571f. 163. Back in his headquarters in Verona on 30 July, Generals McCreery and Bethouart visited him on Lake Garda on 3 August. vol. I 0, Clark Diary. CP. 164. Later Clark turned cold warrior and denounced Zheltov an .. arrogant. mean. double crosser". 20/21 August 1945. Clark Diary. CP: 215: and Clark Oral History. Marshall Research Foundation. Lexington. VA. See also Mark Clark. Culrnluted Risk (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), p. 457f. Zheltov, a political commissar. was the "party watchdog .. over Koniev. Thayer. Hund. p. 131. 165. Clark. Cu/culated Risk. pp. 458-61: Thayer. Hand. pp. 128-37. Thayer was Clark's translator who toned down some of Clark's more outrageous statements about the Soviets: personal interview with Franklin Lindsay. Clark soon fired Thayer as his translator and in the 1950s cooperated with McCarthyite Congressional investigators looking for .. Communists" (such as Thayer) in the State Department. 166. McCreery agreed to attend only if it were a meeting or commanders rather than the initial session of the Allied Council. The British took away a lasting negative impression from their first encounter with Clark's knee-jerk diplomacy in Austria. It further confirmed their worst views about naive American dealings with the Soviets. McCreery to War Office. 22 August 1945. and Winterton to War Office. 26 August 1945, FO 371/46629. PRO: for the minutes of the first unoflicial Allied Council meeting, 23 August, ALC0(45)/1. 167. Clark thanked Koniev personally for his hospitality and assured him of his "genuine desire to solve our Austrian prohlem in cooperation with our Allies ... Clark to Notes 181 Koniev, 26 August 1945, Box 40, CP; Erhardt thought Clark's diplomacy in this early stage was "masterful", Jetter to Williamson, I 9 September 1945, Box I. LF 54 D 331, RG 59, NA. On Clark's social contacts with the Russians, see the memoirs of the British translator Masha Williams. White Among Reds (London: Sheperd• Walwyn, 1980), p. 153. 168. Ralph W. Brown III has pointed out that in his two volumes of memoirs, written in the 1950s, Clark created a misleading impression of having been a rabid anti-So\'iet and early cold warrior, "A Cold War Anny of Occupation') The U.S. Anny in Vienna, 1945-1948", PhD Diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1995, p. 119. 169. Schoner's diary is full of desperate longing for the arrival of Western powers in Vienna, Tagebuch, pp. 186, 292 and passim. 170. Johnson. 17 August and 14 September 1945, Gese/lschaft, pp. I 14-18, 17-1-85: Herz first met Austrian ofiicials on 2 August, Understanding Austria. pp. 21-42; Erhardt and his deputy Cecil Gray first visited the Ballhausplatz on 28 August, and established semi-official ("ofji~iiise") relations with the Renner Government on 4 September, Schilcher, "Provisorische Regierung; Dokumente", p. 6f: Kleinwaechter minute, 28 August 1945, 760-pol/45, and Bischoff minute for H. Wildner (initialled by Renner), 24 August 1945, I 040-pol/45, [Bischoff]. 3 September, Folder "Staatsvertrag I 945/46", Pol-I 946, all BKA-AA. AR; Erhardt to Byrnes, I 2 September 1945, FRUS, 1945, Ill. 589f. 171. McCreery to War Office, 12 September I 945, Mack minute, I I September 1945: Troutbeck minute, 12 September 1945, FO 371/46630, PRO. 172. The British deputy political adviser in Vienna, Nicholls, prepared the meeting with McCreery. Nicholls to Troutbeck, I 8 September 1945, and McCreery to War Office, 20 September 1945. FO 371/46620, PRO; Hannak, Karl Renner und seine Zeit, p. 680. 173. Troutheck to Harvey and Bevin to Byrnes, 27 September 1945, Byrnes-Bevin, 29 September I 945, FO 37 I /46620- I, PRO. 174. I October 1945, ALCO/M(45)/4: Clark to JCS, I October 1945, Gruenther to JCS, and Winant to Byrnes, 25 October I 945, FRUS, 1945, III, 6 I 9f, 635f, 638. I 75. Anne Deighton (ed.), Britain and the First Cold War (London: Macmillan, 1990). 176. Balfour (Washington) to Bevin, 6 September 1945, DBPO. 112, 65-7, Ross, foreign Office, p. 21 I; Michael Cull is and Frank Roberts letters to author. Notes to Chapter 3 I. Ludwig Kleinwaechter Memorandum, 4 September 1945, facsimile in Oliver Rathkolb, Die Wiedererrichtung des Auswtirtigen Dienstes nach 1945, Final Report for Federal Ministry of Science. Vienna I 988, p. l 72f. I am grateful to Oliver Rathkolb for sharing this report with me. 2. Gabriele Petricek, "Unter der bliihenden Linde: Die patriotische Ubermalung in Waidhofcn an der Ybbs", in Jan Tabor (ed.), Kunst und Oiktatur: Architekt111; Bildlwuerei wul Malerei in Osterreich, Deutsch/and, ltalien und der Sm1:jet• union 1922-1956, vol. II (Baden: Gras!. 1994), pp. 944-9; Walter Manoschek, "Verschmiihte Erbschaft: Osterreichs U mgang mil dem Nationalsozialismus 1945 bis 1955", in Reinhard Sieder et al. (eds), 6vterreich 1945-1995: Gesellschafi• Politik-Kultur (Vienna: Verlag fiir Gcsellschaftskritik, 1996), pp. 94-106 (reproduction of this picture on p. 99); on Soviet opportunism in denazification, Rathkolh, "'Besatzungspolitik", in Rauchensteiner and Etschmann (eds). Osterreich 1945, pp. 190-3. 182 Austria in the First Cold Wc1r, 1945-55 3. 18 April 1945, Schiiner, Tagebuch. p. 164: Hanisch. Sclwtten, p. 395. 4. Rathkolb. Gcsellschufi. p. 165f: Felix Kreissler. Der Os1erreicher Ullli seine Nution: Ein Lernpro:efl mit Hindernissen (Vienna: Biihlau, 1984 ), pp. 384ff. 5. Sixth meeting. 13 May 1945. Kahinettsralsprolokolle. pp. 63-8, 77-92: Rathkolb, .. Besatzungpolitik", pp. 186-90: Gertrude Enderle-Burce!. "Die iisterreichischen Parteien 1945-bis 1955", in 0.11erreich 1945-1995, pp. 80-2. 6. GUnter Bischof. .. Spielball der Miichtigen') Osterreichs auBenpolitischer Spielraum irn beginnenden Kahen Krieg". in /m·en1w: 45155, p. 127. 7. Rauchensteiner. Zwei. pp. 18-39: Enderle-Burce!, ''Parteien", pp. 82-5: Erika Weinzierl, .. Die Vor- und FrUhgeschichte der Zweiten Republik", in Manti (ed.). Poli1ik in Osterreich, pp. 97ff: Robert Kriechbaumer, .. Die Geschichte der OVP", in Manti and Franz Schausberger (eds). Volk.spurtei - Anspruch Ull(/ Realitiit: Zur Geschichte der iJVP 1945 (Vienna: Biihlau, 1995). pp. 19ff: Scharf, Erneuerung. pp. 26ff. 8. 18 April 1945. Schiiner, Tagelmch. p. 165: Rathkolb, .. Besatzungspolitik". p. 192. 9. Robert Kriechbaumer... Leopold Fig!''. and Peter Gerlich, "Julius Raab". in Politiker. pp. 125-33, 469-78: Alois Brusatti and Gottfried Heindl (eds). Julius Raub: Eine Biographie in Ein:eldars1el/11ngen (Linz: Trauner, 1987). p. 91 ( .. Suujud"): Ernst Trost, Fig/ 1·011 Osterreich (Gra1: Styria, 1980): Michael Gehler. "Student Corporations in Austria and the Right: A Historical Outline", CAS, JV (1996), 289-303. I 0. Irene Etzersdorfer, "Oskar Helmer". and Wolfgang C. MUiler, .. Julius Schiirf", in Politik.er, pp. 216-22. 502-11: Stadler, Schiirf; Wilhelm Svoboda. Die Purlei, die Republik. 1111d der Mann mil drn 1·ielen Gesichtem: Osk.ar Helmer und Osterreich II - Einr: Korrekt11r (Vienna: Biihlau, 1993): Siegfried Beer, "Monitoring Helmer", in S1our:h Fest.1chrifi, pp. 229-59: Fritz Weber, Der Kalle Krieg in der SPO (Vienna: Verlag flir Gesellschaftskritik, 1986). pp. 6-39. 11. /bid.: Robert Knight (ed.), "!ch hin dafi"i1: die Sache in die Liinge :u :iehen ": Die Worlprotokolle der iisterreichischen B1111desregieru11g 1·011 1945 his 1952 iiher die Entschiidig1111g der J11drn (Frankfurt/M: Atheniium, 1988): Pelinka. 'Taboos and Self-Deception: The Second Republic's Reconstruction of History", in Austrian Historical Memorr and National ldentitr, CAS. V ( 1997 ). 95-102: Adolf Sturmthal, Zwei Lehen: Erinnemngen eines so:ialistischen lllfenwtionalisten :wischen Oster• reich und drn USA (Vienna: Biihlau, 1989), pp. 2 l 4ff: American and British records are replete with Schiirf's biting commentary. 12. Rauchensteiner. Zll'l'i: Wolfgang C. MUiier. "Patronage im (isterreichischen Parteiensystem". and many of the other essays in Anton Pelinka and Fritz Plasser (eds), Das ii>terreichische Parteiensrste111 (Vienna: Biihlau, 1988), pp. 457-87 and pussim. 13. Introduction to Kahi11ett.1mt.1protokol/e, pp. iii-xviii. 1-1. Appendix 10 to 5th meeting. I 0 May 1945. Kubinettsmtsprotokolle. p. 56: Regierungserk/iinmg, 27 April 1943, Dok11111entatio11. pp. 39-41 .. 15. Propor: also pervaded Austrian historiography: both camps have their partisan court historians. Pelinka. 'Taboos". p. 97f. 16. Alfred Maleta. Beiriiltigte Ve1Ra11ge11heit: (jsterreich 1932-1945 (Graz: Styria. 1981 ). 17. Rathkolb, Gesellschafi, p. I 05f: Rauchensteiner. Z11·ei. p. I 9f; Kriechbaumer. "OVP", pp. 13-19. 18. "United States Policies in Austria. I October 1951". 611.63110-151, RG 59, NA: Oliver Rathkolb, "Hans J. Morgenthau und das Osterreich-Problcm in der letzten Phase der Truman-Administration 1951152'", in S1011r:h Festschrifi. pp. 277-98. 19. 27 April 1945. Eva-Marie Csaky (ed.). Der Weg :u Freiheit wul Neutralitiit: Dok.w11enta1im1 ~ur iislerreichischen A11/irnpolitik. 1945-1955 (Vienna, 1980), p. 36f Notes 183 [hereinafter cited as Dokwnenratio11 J: Rauchensteiner, Zll'ei, p. 42: Pelinka. 'Taboos", p. 95f. 20. Knight Introduction, Wortprtokolle, p. 47. 21. Robert Graham Knight, "Besiegt oder befreit'1 Eine viilkerrechtliche Frage his• torisch betrachtet", in Be\'On11u11dete Nation, pp. 75-91: Albrich, "Holocaust". in Osterreich im 20. Jahrh1111dert. pp. 56-61: Gunter Bischof, "Die lnstrumental• isierung der Moskauer Deklaration nach dem 2. Weltkrieg", in Zeitgeschichre. 20/11-12 (1993), pp. 345-66. 22. Pelinka. 'Taboos", pp. 95-102. 23. Rathkolb, "Foreign Service": and Wiedererrichtwzg. pp. 5-11. 24. Ibid. 25. 29 April, 1 and 18 May. 13 September 1945, Schiiner, Tagebuch, pp. 198. 207. 255. 378. 26. Regierungserkliirung of 27 April 1945 in 1Joku111e11tatio11, p. 40. 27. 30 April 1945. Appendix 10 of 5th meeting. Kabinel/sratsprotoko/le. p. 54f: Regierw1gserkliiru11g. 27 April 1945. Dokumentation. p. 39: Weinzierl. "Vor- und Frlihgeschichte", p. 94. 28. 30 April 1945, Kabi11e11.1ratsprotokolle, p. 11 f. For these scandalous definitions of "victims" in postwar Austria see Brigitte Bailer, Wiedergut111ach1111g kein Thema: (jsterreich wzd die Opfer des Nationalso;ialisnws (Vienna: Likker. 1993 ). 29. The independent Secretary of State for Justice, Josef Gero. 13th meeting. 19/20 June 1945. Kabinel/sratsprotokolle, p. 270. 30. 9 May and 27 July 1945, Schiiner. Tagebuch. pp. 238, 324: Dieter Stiefel. E11111a;• ifbem11g in Osterreich (Vienna: Europaverlag, 1981 ), pp. 38--45. 31. Twelfth and 13th meetings, 12 and 19/20 June 1945, Kabi11ettsmt.1protokolle. pp. 208, 269. 32. Fourteenth meeting, 26 June 1945. ibid.. p. 308. ::n. Thirteenth meeting, 19/20 June 1945. ibid.. p. 267. 34. Twelfth meeting. 12 June 1946, ihid.. p. 2 l 8f. 35. !hid., p. 217. 36. Thirteenth meeting, 19/20 June 1945. ibid., p. 269. 37. 7 June 1945, Schuner, Tagebuch. p. 287f: 12th meeting. 12 June 1945. Kabi- 11e11sratsprotoko/le. p. 206. 38. Copy of Renner letter to Stalin, 16 May 1945, 106.598-pol/4 7, Box 40, AR: 2nd and 3rd and 4th and 5th and 8th meetings, 30 April. 5, 8, 10, 22 May 1945. Kahi11ett.1r111- sprotokolle, vol. I, pp. 7, 16, 20--4, 36-8, 113-25, 127-37 and passim. 39. Eighth meeting, 22 May 1945. ibid .. p. 11 Sf. 40. British report in Beer and Staudinger. "Vienna Mission", p. 392f. 41. Renner letter to Stalin, 26 May 1945, 106.598-pol/47, Box 40. AR. Schuner\ diary pays tribute to the creativity of the Viennese population in "organizing" food. Tagebuch, p. 136 and passim. 42. Schuner, Tagebuch. 43. Sixteenth meeting, 10 July 1945, Kabinettsratsprotokolle, pp. 356-61. 44. 30 April 1945, Schiiner. Tagebuch, p. 201. 45. Buchinger report, 8th meeting, 22 May 1945, Kabinettffatsprotokolle. p. l l 3f: Schiiner minute, 15 May 1945 (initialled by Renner), 27-pol/45. 41-pol/45 Box I. AR: Schiiner, 15 May 1945, Tagebuch. p. 246. 46. 17 and 20 May 1945, Schiiner, Tagelmch. pp. 256, 260. On the other hand Allied personnel also obtained news on the Soviet zone from radio. Martin Herz. "Background", in Undersranding Austria. p. 8. 47. Wildman minute. 25 May 1945. 27-pol/45. 85-pol/47. Box I. AR: 16 Mai 1945. Schiiner, Tagebuch. p. 248f and passim; travel report by Dr Hes,le. 27-pol/45. 184 Austria in the First Cold Wc11; 1945-55 399-pol/45; Wildner minute, 5 July; Kieswetter report (initialled by Bischoff. Wildner and Renner, 27 July); Consul Schallenbcrg travel report, 26 August; Gell'iihrsmann report in Seemann minute, 14 July 1945, all in 27-pol/45, all Box 1, AR. 48. Klaus Fiesinger, 8i1llhi1u.1plat~diplo11wtie1945-1949 (Munich: Tuduv. 1993), p. 63. 49. 6 May 1945, Schiiner, Tugelmch, p. 227. 50. 9 May 1945, ibid.. p. 237. 51. 18 May 1945, ibid., p. 254f. 52. 5 August 1945, ibid.. p. 332. 53. Oliver Rathkolb. "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultiit de Universitiit Wien zwischen Antisemitismus. Deutschnationalismus und Nationalsozialismus 1938, davor und danach". in Gernot HeiB et al. (eds). Willflihrige Wis.1enschilft: [)ie U11i1wsitiit Wien 193!:!-1945 (Vienna: Verlag flir Gesellschaftkritik, 1989), pp. 216-19. 54. Oliver Rathkolb quotes the 9 August 1945 letter from the private Bischoff Papers in Wiedererrichtung. p. I 15 f. 55. Ironically one-dimensional explanations of the holocaust of "German elimination• ism". such as Daniel Goldhagen's Hitler's \Villi11g E.rerntio11er.1. ignore the role of Austrians and unwittingly give comfort to the Austrian Rip Van Winkle legend. 56. A good summary of debate between the "anncxationist" and "occupationist" posi• tions can be found in Keyserlingk, Austria in \VIV II, pp. 11-30. 57. Bischoff Instruktion. 30 July 1945. reprinted in Rahkolb. Wiedererrichtu11g. pp. 119-22. 58. "Die vi)Jkerrecthliche Stellung Oste1Teichs". Motivbericht for eine Vortrag an den Kabinettsrat. n.d. [beginning of August I. reproduced in Rathkolb. Wicdererrichtu11g. pp. 123-43. 59. Bischoff minute (Koptelov conversation). 2 September 1945, 959-pol/45, 1027- pol/45. Box 3, AR. Koptelov did not mention "propaganda" but Schiiner inferred it. Tagehucli, p. 366. 60. 6 and 18 and 31 May and 15 August. ibid .. pp. 227. 253-7. 271. 34 7f. 61. Pelinka. "Taboos". p. 96f. 62. Wolfgang Kos. "Die Schau mit dem Hammer". in Kos. Eigenheim 0.1terreich (Vienna: Sonderzahl. 1994); and Kos in Kunst u11d [)iktiltur. vol. II. pp. 950--64. 63. Bischof, "Founding Myths and Compartmentalized Past". pp. 307-24; Heidemarie Uhl. "The Politics of Memory: Austria's Perception of the Second World War and the National Socialist Period", in CAS. V ( 1997). 64-94: sec also Uhl's essay on postwar Austrian memorial culture in Heidcmarie Uhl and Stefan Riesenfellner (eds). Tride.1;eichrn: Zeitgeschichtliche Drnk11111lkult11r (Vienna: Bi\hlau. 1994 ). pp. 111-95: Ziegler and Kannonier-Finster. Cediicht11is. 64. In his memoirs Reichmann extensively dwells on his wartime re.'>istance record but only devotes a paragraph to the "impressive documentation" of the Rot-\Veifi-Rot Buch and oddly fails to mention that he was one of the compilers (see \{1111 Frenulc11legio11iir ;wn Borsclwfier Beim HI. Stuhl: Eri1111eru11grn 1939-1975 (Vienna: Geyer. 1982). p. 93). 65. The Wildmann team's work is extensively documented in the ti le I 00.1 18-K/4 7. Box 5. KdM. AR: Rot-\Veifi-Rot Buch: Dilr.1tellu11gen, Ook11111rnte 1111d Nac/meise ;ur Vorgeschichte 1111d Geschichte der Okku1)({tio11 (Jsterreichs ( Nach A111tliclw11 Que/lrn) (Vienna: Osterreichische Staatsdruckerei. 1946). 66. Erhardt to Byrnes. 26 Decemher 1946. 863.00/2-2645. RG 59. NA. 67. Stephan Verosta, [)ie i11tematio11ale Ste//1111g Osterreichs 1938 bis 1947 !Vienna: Manzsche Verlagshuchhandlung. 194 7): a translation into English was also made available. Notes 185 68. Gerald Stourzh argues that, since the Moscow Declaration was a political document, the Ballhausplatz presented in a lawyerly style the positive side and dismissed the detrimental side of Austria's international position, "Erschlitterung und Konsol• dierung des Osterreichbewu/3tseins - vom Zusammenbruch der Monarchie zur Zweiten Republik", in Richard G. Plaschka et al. (eds), Was hei/Jt Osterreich" l11lwlt und Umjimg des Osterreichshegriff1 vom IO. Jahrhundert his Heute (Vienna: bstereichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1995 ). p. 308. 69. Draft letter Schaner to Fig!, 23 March 1947. 106.074-pol/45, 105-005-pol/47, Box 40, AR. Eduard Ludwig, "Der Staatvatsvertrag im Licht des Viilkerrechts", 9 March 1947, Wiener Zeitung, l, reprinted in Verosta, lntenwtionale Ste/lung, pp. 118-26. 70. For a similar case study of invented history in the service of the state, Holger H. Herwig, "Patriotic Self-Censorship in Germany after the Great War", in Steven E. Miller et al. (eds), Military Strategy and the Origins ol the First World War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991 ), pp. 262-30 I. 71. Rathkolb, Wiedererrichtung, p. 118: see also my review essay "Founding Myths and Compartmentalized Past: New Literature on the Construction, Hibernation and Deconstruction of World War II Memory in Postwar Austria", CAS, V ( 1997), pp. 302-41. 72. Robert Edwin Herzstein, Waldheim: The Missing Years (New York: Arbor House, 1988), pp. 82f, l 17f: Waldheim's latest memoirs, a tendentious apologia pro 1·ita sua, was written as a reply to Herzstein and the critics, Die Antwort (Vienna: Amalthea, 1996), pp. 60-121, and similarly Fritz Molden, Die Feuer in der Nacht: Opfer und Sinn des iisterreichischen Widerstandes 1938-1945 (Vienna: Amalthea, 1988). 73. Petricek, "Bllihende Linde", p. 946; Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Assassins (!l Memon·: Essays on the Denial of the Holocaust, trans. Jeffrey Mehlman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992). 74. Hans Thalberg. Von der Kunst Osterreicher z.u sein: Erinnerungen und Tagebuch• notiz.en (Vienna: Biihlau, 1984 ); personal interview with Thal berg; Thal berg dis• patch No. 40. Kleinwaechter to Gruber, 7 June 1945, 110.856-pol/46, 112.657-pol/46 (this is part of an entire file about "alleged anti-Semitic excesses in Austria"): and Thalberg to Wildner, I July 1946, 110.856-pol/46, 112.332-pol/46, all Box 7, AR. 75. Pelinka, "Taboos", p. 100; Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", p. 414 n. 173. 76. Draft letter Gruber to Fig! [n.d.], 110.856-pol/46, 111.558-pol/46, Box 7, AR. The deconstruction of such surviving Nazi language in postwar political Austrian discourse would deserve a separate book. 77. I have analysed this campaign in more detail in an essay for the Ernest R. May Festschrifi (Chicago: Imprint Publications, forthcoming 1998). 78. Kleinwaechter to Williamson, 29 July 1945 (with the "letter to the editor" of 26 July attached), Box 4, Lot 54 D 331, RG 59, NA. 79. Kleinwaechter to Gruber, I 0 September 1946, 110-872-pol/46, Box 6, AR. 80. Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994 ); Allen W. Dulles, The Marshall Plan, ed. with an introduction by Michael Wala (Providence: Berg, 1993 ). 81. Kleinwaechter to Gruber, I 0 September 1946, 110-872-pol/46, Box 6. AR; Thal berg, Kunst, p. 20 I. 82. Eleanor Dulles, Chances of" a Liletime: A Memoir (Engelwood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1980), p. 226; Fritz Molden, Besetzer; Toren, Biedermdnner: Ein Bericht aus Osterreich 1945-1962 (Vienna: Molden, 1980). 83. Armstrong letter to Kleinwaechter, 19 September, attached to Kleinwaechter to Gruber. 26 September 1946, 110.872-pol/46, 112.938-pol/46, Box 6. AR: on Armstrong and DollfuB, see chapter I. 186 Austria i11 the First Cold Wat; 1945-55 84. Karl Gruber. "Austria lufelix'', Foreign Affairs, 25/2 (1947). pp. 229- 38. 85. Digest of Karl Gruber. "AusLria and the Peace", 24 October 1946, Records of Meetings, vol. Xll, July 1945-June 1947. Council on Foreign Relations, New York; New York Herald Tribune, 3 November 1946. p. 58; Eisenhower was in the audience and complimented Gruber ror his "jolly good speech''. Karl Gruber, Between Liberation and Liberry: Austria i11 the Posr-War World, trans. Lionel Kochan (London: Andre Deutsch, 1955), p. 81. 86. Ernest R. May, 'Lessons' of rhe Past: The Use and Misuse of HistOI)' in American Foreig11 Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). 87. "United States Policy on Status of Austria''. Depanmellf of Srare Bulleti11, 10 November l 946, p. 864f. Harold C. Yedeler had drafted the staiement, Hickerson to Riddleberger. 18 October 1946. 863.00/10- 1846. The Legal Division, still troubled by the wartime ambiguitie~. noted: "since Austria was a part of Gemiany, we must therefore at least have been at war with lhe AusLrian territ0ry and inhabitants. although technically they supposed that we had not been at war with an Auscrian State, since none was in existence". Kidd memo for Hickerson and Riddleberger. 22 October 1946, FW 863.00/10-1846, RO 59, NA . 88. Klcinwaechtcr complained to Williamson that Gruber frequently held him "incom• municado", Williamson to Erhardt. 19 and 23 July 1946. Box 1, Lot 54 D 331, RG 59, NA: on their heavy Washington work load. Thalberg, K1msr, p. l 75f. 89. 16 and 17 April. 23 May, 2 and 3 and 6 and 7 and 14 June, SchOner. Tagebuch , pp. 249, 251. 262. 277f. 282, 284f, 292. 90. Winterton's report to McCreery in Beer and Staudinger. ''Vienna Mission", p. 378. 91. Schaner minute, 11 June 1945. 211-pol/45. Box I. AR. 92. 14 June 1945, in Osterreich 1111d die Gmj]miichte, pp. 2-5; Portisch. Osrerreich fl, vol. I. pp. 368-70. 93. Twelfth Meeting, 12 June 1945, Kabi11errsratsprorokol/e, p. 203f. 94. Schilcher, "Politik", pp. 175-96. 95. Roster of the "Bundeskanzleramt-Auswartige Angelcgenheiten". 73-K-45. Box 1. 1946. KdM, AR. 96. Engerth minute, 28 July 1945, 64 1-pol/45, Box 3, AR; Rathkolb, Wiedererrid1Jung. 97. Kleinwaechter minute, 28 July 1945, 457-pol/45, 706-pol/45, and Engenh minute. 30 July 1945. 761-pol/45, Box 3. AR. Herz: "Background". in Understanding A11srria. p. 10. 98. Bischoff minute for Wildner (seen by Renner), 24 August 1945, 1040-pol/45, Box 4,AR. 99. [Bischoff minute]. [no file number], Folder ''Staatsvertrag 1945/46", Box 14, 1946, AR. 100. Kleinawechter minute, 28 August 1945, 760-pol/45. Box 3, AR. 101. Klcinwacchtcr minute, 3 September 1945, in Schilcher, Dokumemaricm, p. 6f: Bischoff and Kleinwaechter minutes, 6 and 13 September 1945, Folder ''Staatsvertrag 1945/46", Box 14, KdM , AR: Klcinwaechter minute. 20 September 1945. 1244- pol/45, Box 4, AR; 7 September 1945, Schoner, Tagebucl1. p. 370. 102. Ibid .. p. 370. 103. Bi~choff minute, 12 September 1945, Folder "Staatsvertrag 1945/46", Box 14. KM. AR. 104. Bischoff minute, 2 September 1945. 959-pol/45, 1027-pol/45, Box 3, AR; 3 September 1945, Schiiner, Tagelmch. p. 365f. 105. Herz interview with Fischer, 11 November 1945, in U11dersta11di11g Ausrria, p. 64f; McCreery to War Department, 20 September 1945, FO 371/46620. PRO: Erhardt to Byrnes, 21 November 1945, 863.00/l l-2145, RG 59, NA. Note.v 187 106. Fischer analysis in U11ders1andi11g Austria, p. 65f. Fischer conceded that Communis1 prestige had "suffered badly.. from the violent Red Anny behaviour. ibid., p. 22. 107. Erhardt ro Byrnes, I December 1945, 863.00/12-45, RG 59, NA. 108. Clark-Koniev mee1ing. 29 November L945. Box 40, CP; and FRUS, 1945. Ill. 677; Mack to FO, I 0 December 1945. FO 371 /46623; Foreign Office brief, 5 April 1946, FO 371/55256. PRO. 109 They also objected co Vinzenz Schumy. The British agreed that Soviet objections lo Korp and Schumy were on targe1. Nicholls to FO, 15 Decemher 1945. and Passanr (FORD) to Troutbeck, 15 December 1945, both FO 371146624; Mack to FO, 12 January 1946, FO 371/55135, PRO; see also Kriechhaumer, "OVP", p. 20. 11 0. Erhardt to Byrnes. 18 December 1945, FRUS. 1945, llT, 687f; Nicholls to FO. 15 December 1945. FO 37 1/46624, PRO: Bischof, '"Responsibility and Rehabilitation". pp. 300- 3. 111. Ibid .. pp. 303-6: 18 December 1945, ALCO/M(45)12. Raab retreated to head the Chamber or Commerce and pull the strings in the OVP behind the scene. 112. Michael Gehler, "Karl Guber", in Politiker. pp. L92-9; and "Dr. Lng. Karl Gruber - Erster Landeshauptmann von Tirol nach dem Zweiten Wellkrieg". in Lothar Hobell and Othmair Huber (eds). Fiir Osterreichs Freiheit: Karl Gruber - La11deshaupt111a1111 und A11jle111i11ister 1945- 1953 (Innsbruck: Haymon. 1991 ). pp. I l- 70; Gunter Bischof. ''The Making of a Cold Warrior: Karl Gruber and Austrian Foreign Policy, 1945- 1963", in Austrian History Yearbook, 26 (1995), 99-127. This researcher has not been granted access to the Gruber Papers, deposited al the lnstitu1 fi.ir Zeitgeschichte at the Un iversity of Innsbruck. 113. 28 September 1945. Schiiner, Tagebuch. p. 395f. 114. 15 and 16 October. ibid .. pp. 404-7. 115. Erhardt to Byrnes, 26 October 1945. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/10-2645, RG 59. NA. 116. Mack reported 10 his friend Oliver Harvey: "Erhardt ... is a great supporter of Gruber and feels it would be a good thing if there were seven or eight energetic young men like Gruber ia the cabinet instead of some of the more elderly and tired ministers ... personal and confide111ial letter. 3 1 May 1946, FO 371155146. PRO. 117. Waldheim had auended the Consular Academy at the time of the AnschluB; he can be located between the "old guard" and rhe young mavericks, Thalberg interview. 118. For the initial roster of officials in the BKA-A/\, see 73-K/46. KdM 1946, Box I. AR: Gruber, Berween Liberario11 and Liberl)', p. 43; "Organis ation". de Monicault to Blum. 16 January 1947, vol. 106, p. 17, Autriche 1944-9. Z Europe. MAE; Rathkolb, Wiedererrid1tu11g. pp. 37ff; Fiesingcr. Balllwusplur:.diplomarie. pp. 65ff. A confidante for the German Foreign Office in Vienna reported that by l 955 Kreisky had establishec.I a virtual "Socialist Parallel Foreign Office" ("Neben• Ausse11amt"). The Socialist control over OVP foreign ministers became complete with Kreisky's appointment as State Secretary in 1953. See Valjavec report ''Aktuelle aussenpolitische Stromungen und Gruppen in Osterreich... 24 March I 955, 21 l-00/94.19/423/55, vol. 46, 309, PA-AA. Bonn: Bischof. "Spielball'!". pp. 133-6. 119. Erhardt to Byrnes, 23 October 1945, 740.001 19 Control (Austria)/L0-2345, RG 59, NA. 120. Ibid .. anc.I Erhardt to Byrnes, 26 October 1945, Winant to Byrnes. 25 October 1945, FRUS, 1945, UJ, 638L 121. Byrnes lo Erhardt. 2 and 21 November 1945. ibid., pp. 646f, 657f. 122. Bischof. "Spielball?", pp. 139-42; Klaus Eisterer. Die Sc/111:eiz als Parmer: Zum eige11stii11digen A11jJe11ha11de/ der Bwules/iinder Vorar/berg 1111<1 Tirol mit der £idge11osse11schaf1 1945-1947 (Vienna: Braumiiller. 1995). 188 Austria in the First Cold Wcu; 1945-55 123. "Autbau und Aushau des Ausw~irtigen Dicnstcs .. , 13 January 194 7. reprinted in Rahtkolh, Wiedererrichtung, pp. 49-63: the "re-emancipation .. theme is central to Fiesinger's Bulllwusplat~-Diplomutie.p. I 0 and pu.1sim. 124. Bischoff had conceded to President Herriot that "Austrian Nazis often were more fanatical than the Germans", Bischoff to Gruber, 22 February 1946. 110.564-pol/64. Box 2, AR: Waldbrunner to Gruber. 30 April 1946. 111.105-pol/46, 111.405-pol/46 & 111.404-pol/46. Box 6, AR: Knight, "Besiegt oder herfreit'r', pp. 77, 79; Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", pp. 392-438. The ··red" Bischoff is mentioned in the Kreisky interviews. KP. 125. Josef Leidenfrost, "Karl Gruber und die Wcstorientierung Osterrcichs nach 1945". in Osterreich.1 Freiheit. pp. I 01-19. Communist propaganda attacked Gruber for his affinity with the Americans as an "American agent". A 1948 character sketch by the Polish diplomat Wladyslav Tykocinski noted: "his servility ... makes the Foreign Minister a confidante of American policy in Central Europe". I am indebted to Wlodzimierz Borodziej for providing me with a translated excerpt of this report from the Polish Foreign Ministry Archives. 126. A draft of Gruber\ "confidential instructions .. of I April 1946, 110.860-pol/46 in Knight. "British Policy .. , p. 68f: see also Schmid's talk with Sargent. I 0 April, and Mack conversation with Gruber. 26 April. FO 0,71/55257. PRO; Kleinwaechter's memorandum of 12 April in FRUS, 1946. V: 328f; and memo of conversation (Kleinwaechter-Acheson). 19 April. 863.00/4-1946. RG 59, NA: Bischoff to Gruher, 9 April, 110.402-pol/46. 110.966-pol/46, Box 6. AR. 127. See the next chapter. 128. Gruber's "Private and Confidential Report on the Austrian Situation .. of 7 March enclosed in Erhardt to Byrnes, 12 March 1946. 86J.OO/J- I 246, RG 59, NA. 129. !hid.; Erhardt to Byrnes, 22 May 1946, 863.00/5-2246, and Adams to Byrnes, 21 August 1946, 863.00/8-2146, RG 59, NA. 130. Sherwood, Roo.ff1•e/t and Hopkins, p. 911: Scharf criticized Gruher for playing off East against West. Rauchensteiner, Zwei, p. 152. 131. Mack to FO, 20 March 1946, FO 371/55256. PRO. 132. Jebb memorandum, 29 May 1946, FO 0,71/55121, PRO. For an intellectual history of "domino thinking" see Frank Ninkovich, Modernity and Power: A History of' the Domino Theorv in the TH·entieth Celllurr (Chicago: Chicago University Press. 1994). 133. Bevin to Mack, 21 April 1946, FO 371/55267, PRO: Wodak to Scharf. 17 April 1946, Parteiproporz, p. I 08f; Scharf's gloomy picture of Communist attacks on the Socialists stirred Bevin into action, FO 371/55282, PRO. 134. Bevin to Mack, 21 April, and Mack to Bevin 29 April 1946, FO 371/55267, PRO. Throughout the entire occupation period the Americans kept a close watch over the stability of the great coalition: see Man fried Rauchensteiner, "Gcregclte Verhliltnisse? lnnenpolitische Mantivrierraume und ihre Spielrcgcln", in Im•entur 45155. p. 270,f. 135. Denby to Williamson, 19 June 1946, Box 4, Lot 54 D 331, RG 59. NA. D6. Rolf Steininger, Los 1•011 Rom" Die Siidtirolfi·age 1945146 wzd das Gruher-De Gasperi-Ahkommen (Innsbruck: Haymon. 1987): and Siidtirol im 20. Jahrhundert (Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 1997), pp. 215-54. 361-92: Michael Gehler (ed.), Verspielte Se/hsthesti1111nung" Die Siidtimlfi·age in US-Geheimdienstherichten wzd iisterreichischen Akten. Eine Dokumentution (Innsbruck: Wagner. 1996), pp. 21-81. 557-70. 137. Wimmer Diary, 3 July and 15 August 1946, cited in ibid., pp. 413, 445. 138. Rolf Steininger, "Karl Gruber und die Siidtirolfrage 1945/46", in Osterreichs Frl'iheit, pp. 71-100. 139. Eduard Reut-Nicolussi, cited in American intelligence report, 12 July 1946, in Verspielte Se/bstbestimmung "· p. 387f. Notes 189 140. Wodak memorandum for Scharf on Austrian treaty negotiations. May 1952. in Purteipropor:. p. 9o3f: Sch~irf, Emeueru11g. p. 133f. 141. Bischof, "Making". p. 111. Gruber only found out about the London decision half a year later from Schmid in London. 142. 19 and 21 December 1945. in Czaky. Dok11111entmirm. pp. 58-61: and Renner. "Amtria: Key for War and Peace", foreign Affi1irs. 26/4 ( 1948). pp. 589-603. Early on the prominent old Socialist Julius Deutsch pleaded for strict neutrality and equidistancc from the emerging power blocs. in Dok11111e111a1io11, pp. 76-9. 143. Gernot Heiss. ·"'Eine Kette von Begehenhciten' - 996/1996". in Heiss and Konrad Paul Liessmann (eds). Das Milleni11111: E.1·sm·s ~11 11wsend .lahren (Jsterreich (Vienna: Sonderzahl. 1996). pp. 17-19. 144. Waldhrunner in Moscow claimed this was "the policy of his Government". letter Roberts to Hayter. 26 April 1946. FO 371/55257, PRO. 145. Bischoff to Gruber. 21 February 1946. 110.563-pol/46. Box 2, AR. 146. Clark quoted in "Austria. Bridgehead to Blocs'!". Nni· York Po.11, 23 September 1946. attached to 112.321-pol/46. 113.008-pol/46. Box I. AR. 147. Mallet memo (Fig! conversation). 20 June 1950. FO 371/84906. PRO. 148. 28 March 1946. in nokwnentmion. p. 63: Gehler introduction to Rede11. pp. 16-21. 149. 29 March 1946. Gehler. Redrn. pp. 113-18. I 50. Bischoff letter to Herriot. 14 July 1945. reprinted in Rathkolh. Wiedererrichtung. pp. 162-5: Bischoff. "Vorschliige zur Bereinigung unseres Verhliltnisses lllr Sowjet• Union". 27 November 1946. 111.105-pol/46. 113.561-pol/46: and Braunias to Gruber. 13 November 1946. 111.115-pol/46. 113.427-pol/46. Box 6. AR. I 5 I. American intelligence report. 12 July 1946. \lenpielte Sel/Js1/Jesti111111w1g". p. 388. I 52. This change of thought can he traced in his two Foreign Atfi1irs essays. "Austria Infclix". 25/2 ( 1947). 229-38. and "Austria Holds On". 26/3 (1948). 478-85: Bischof. "Spielhall"". p. I 37f. 153. 23 December 1947 and 30 June 1948. in Rede11. pp. 212-14. 234-41 and passim: Bischof. ··Making". pp. 123-6. Notes to Chapter 4 I. Letter Charles P. to Sarah Kindleherger. 16 August 1946. in Charles P. Kindleherger. lhe German Eco110111Y. /9./5-/CN7: Charles P Ki11dlei>e1Rcr°s Lerren .fi-m11 the Field. with an historical introduction by Glinter Bi,chof (We,tport: Meckler. 1989). p. 79. 2. Ciaddis. \Vi' No11· Kll!m. pp. 26-53 (citation p. 37f): Gcir Lumlestad. The 1\111ericu11 'F1n1,ire· (Oslo-Oxford: Oxford Unil'er~.ityPress. 1990). pp. 31-115. 3. Molo101· Rrn1e111/Jcr.1. pp. 8ff: Zuhok and Plcshakov. Inside the Kre111lin ·.1 Cold \Vi1r. and Mastny. Cold \\\1r and Sm·iel Sernrin·: a good 'urnrnary of the irnpcriali-,t Stalin and this recent literature can he found in Gaddis. \Ve Nmr Knmr. pp. 26-53: Robert C. Tucker: "The Cold War in Stalin's Time: What the New Sources Reveal". Diplonwlic Hi.11or\". 21 /2 (I ')97 ). 274. -l. Molotm· lfr111en1/Jer.1. p. 8. 5. Ste\cn Merrill Miner. "His Ma,tcr's Voice: Viachcsla\ Mikhaiim·ich Molotm· as Stalin's Foreign Commissar". in Gordon A. Craig and Francis L. Loewcnheim (eds). '/he Diplonwts /939-/979 iPrinceton: Princeton University Press. 1994). pp. 65-100. 6. Zuhok and Plcshakm. Inside. p. 3; Konstantin V. Pleshakm. "Joseph Stalin's World View". reprinted in Thomas G. Paterson and Robert J. McMahon (eds). 7he Origins o(lhe Cold \Vi1r (Lexington: D. C. Heath. 1991 I. pp. 60-73. 190 Austria in thl' First Cold ~fo1; 1945-55 7. Tucker. "Stalin's Time". pp. 27.l-81: Dimitri Volkogonov. Stalin: hiwnph and Tragcdr, transl. Harold Shukman (Rocklin: Prima. 1992): Robins and Post. Political Paranoia, pp. 265-75. 8. Mastny, So\'ict fnsernrit_\'. p. 17. 9. !hid .. p. 23. I 0. Melvyn P. Leffler, "Inside Enemy Archives: The Cold War Reopened". Ff1reign Affi1irs. 7514 ( 1996). pp. 122-8: David Holloway. Stalin and the Bo111h: The Sm·iet Union and Ato111ic Enc1gr 1939-1956 (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1994). pp. 166-7 L Pechatnov. "Big Three''. pp. I 7fL Aleksei Filitov. "Problems of Post• War Construction in Soviet Foreign Policy Conceptions during World War II". 111 Gori and Pons (eds). Soi·ict Union. pp . .l-22. 11. /hid .. p. 14. 12. Molotm• Rrn1c111/Jer.1, p. 59. L\. Mastny, Sm'iet lnsecuritr. p. 20. 14. So he told Eden in 1941. Anthony Eden in 1/ine. 17 July 1950. quoted in Alexander Dallin. "Stalin and the Prospects for Post-War Europe". in Gori and Pons (eds), Sm·ict Union. p. 187. I 5. Filitov. "Problems", p. Uf. 16. Naimark. Russians. p. 66. 17. This is the conjecture of an anonymous and undated intelligence review (end of 1947). File 120. Fig! Papers. 18. !hid. 19. Naimark. R11.1.1iw1.1. Soviet policy in Korea I.Viii he the subject matter of a forthcom• ing book by Kathryn Weather.-.by. who has read this chapter and confirmed parallels in Soviet policy in Austria and Korea. 20. Filitov, "Problems". p. 6f. 21. /hid .. p. 18. 22. Franz Mathis, "Deutsches Kapital in Osterreich vor 19.18''. in Thomas Albrich ct al. (eds). Timi und dcr Anschlufi: Vora11.1.1ct:11ngen, F,nt1vickl11nge11. Rah111cn/Jeding11ngen /9//\-/931\ (Innsbruck: Haymon. 1988). pp. 435-51. 2.'l. Rathkolh. Washington rnfi Wien. pp. 232ff. 24. Knight, in Wortpmtokolle, p. 42L 25. Erhardt to Byrnes, 18 October 1945. FRUS, 19"15. Ill. 630-2. 26. Erhardt to Byrnes, 24 November 1945. ihid., 659: 30 October 1945. ALCO/M(45)7. 27. Walt Rostow of GA and Walter Levy. the oil expert. drafted this document. 11 November 1945. Box .l. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA: Byrnes to Winant, 29 November 1945. FRUS, 1945. !IL 668-H 28. Erhard to Byrnes. 12 December 1945. ihid .. 680f: Troutbeck minute. 27 February 1946, FO 371 /55256. PRO. 29. Naimark. R11.1.1iw1.1: for Korea. see Weathersby (forthcoming). 30. Clark to JCS. 26 Fehruary 1946. FRUS, /W6. V. 3 Uf: Troutbec1' minute. 27 February 1946. FO 371 /55256. PRO. 31. Troutheck minute. 27 Fehruary 1946. FO 371 /55256. PRO: Marget memo. 2.l February 1946, Rox 41, Clark Papers. 32. Mack to Bevin, 22 February 1946. FO 371 /55256. PRO. 33. Marget memo "Russian 'Loan·", 23 February: Clark letter to Figl. 26 February 1946: Austrian note (n.d.). Box 41. Clark Papers: Dulles. Cfulllces of' o Lif(,time. p. 197. 34. Erhardt to Byrnes, 2J March 1946. FRUS. 1946. Y. 322: Wilfried M~ihr. "Von der UNRRA zum Marshall-Plan. Die amerikanische Finanz- und Wirtschaftspolitik in Ostcrreich in den Jahren 1945-1950". PhD Di.-.s .. University of Vienna 1985. pp. 64-6. The Soviets exported 30.000 tons of Austrian oil per months to C1echoslovakia Notes 191 and Germany. memo of conversation (Gruber. Thorp et al.). 4 September 1946. FRUS, 1946. V, 367. The Soviets treated the oil installations as extraterritorial prop• erty seized under Potsdam and refused to pay taxes to Austria; Erhardt to Byrne-,, 23 March 1946, ihid.. p. 322. 35. Stourzh. "Er-,chlitterung", p. 309. 36. On .. total control'' and "tutelage" see Bischof and Leidenfrost (eds). Bemrmwulere Nurio11; Angerer in Ableitinger er al. (eds). Besa1~1111g.pp. 159-67. 37. Grul>er Redrn. 273 and passim. 38. Erhardt to Byrnes. 27 November 1945. FRUS, 1945. III, 376. 39. Memo of Renner-McCormick conversation. 10 November 1945. 863.00/11-2045. RG 59. NA. 40. Mack to Bevin, 20 December 1945. FO 371/46624. PRO. 41. Patterson to Byrnes, 28 December 1945. FRUS, 1945, III, 691; Renner exaggerated and spoke of I million Soviet soldiers. see his McCormick interview. 42. Byrnes to Patterson. 24 November. and Byrnes to Erhardt, 26 November 1945. FRUS, 1945. III, 661-5. 43. Halifax to Byrnes. 28 November 1945. FRUS. 1945. III. 666f; Roberts to Dekanasov. 4 January 1946. FO 371 /55151. PRO. 44. Sargent minute. 20 March 1946. FO 371 /55256. PRO. 45. Byrnes to Erhardt, 5 January, and Acheson to Winant. 19 January 1946. FRUS, /946. V, 288, 298; FO to Moscow. 31December1945. FO 371/55151, PRO. 46. Byrnes to Kennan. 7 February, and Clark to JCS. 4 April 1946. FRUS. 1946. V. 302f. 325. 47. Vienna to War Office. 31 January 1946. FO 371/55151. PRO. 48. Mack to FO. 7 January, and Harvey minute, 15 February 1946. FO 371 /55151. PRO. 49. Clark speech before National War College. 9 October 1946, Box 41. Clark Papers. The British estimate was 90,000 Soviet troops. see .. Note on Troops in Austria". FO 371/55152, PRO. 50. Dean. Colville and Burrows minutes. 18 and 19 June and 19 March 1946. FO 371/55152 and 55256, PRO. 51. Marget figures in letter to Frank. 16 October 1946. Box 4. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA; see also GLlnter Bischof. "Mark W. Clark und die Aprilkrise 1946". Zeirgeschichre. 13/7 ( 1986). 249. 52. EXCO/P(46)73. Report of the Finance committee on Austrian Budget and Occupation Cos1'. (March 1946). FO :nt/55284; troops level estimate by US War Department. FRUS. 1945. III, 691. On German occupation. see Liberman. Does Conquest Pm-. pp. 36-68: and Christoph Buchheim. "Die besetzten Uinder im Dienste der deutschen Kriegswirtschaft wiihrend des Zweiten Weltkrieges", in Vierre!juhrshefiefiir L.cirgeschichre. 3412 ( 1986). 117-45. 53. Memo to Overseas Reconstruction Committee. 12 July 1946. FO 371/55285. PRO; Bischof. "Clark". p. 249. 54. The Soviets received 112.5 million and the Western powers 37.5 million AS each. Vienna to Control Office. 23 July 1946, FO 371/55285. 55. Occupation cmts .'>hould be no more than 25 per cent of the Austrian budget. Vienna to Control Office, 26 September and [3 December! 1946. FO 371/55286-87, PRO: memo of conversation (Clayton-Hilldring Clark). 17 September 1946, FRUS, 1946. V. 371. 56. The occupation costs should be no more than 15 per cent of the Au,trian budget. or 131 schilling' in each quarter, Vienna to Control Office. 4 December 1946. FO 371/55287. PRO. 57. The comersion rate to the dollar at this time was I : I 0. See Bischof. "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", p. 317 n. 77. 192 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55 58. Gruher-Kisclev correspondence (April-May 1946) in file 122. Fig! Papers. 59. There are various documents concerning bilateral contacts and Austrian attempts to huy back the oil installations. file 122, Fig] Papers. 60. Knight. "British Policy"·. p. 75: "'fears" in Monicault to Bidault. 17 and 19 June 1946. vol. 12 L Autriche 1944-1949. MAE: 19 June 1946. in Dok11111e11tatio11. p. 79f. 61. Wildner minute, 13 July 1946. in Osterreich 1111d die Gmfi111iichte. p. 107f. 62. "Soviet Economic Policy Toward Austria". 740.00119 Control (Austria)/1-3047. RG 59. NA. 6.1. Clark to JCS. 6 July 1946. Box 34. CF. HSTL. On USIA. Otto Klamhauer. "Ein Uherhlick liher die Entwicklung und Organisation der USIA-Konerns··. in Die USIA Betrie/Je in Niederiistcrrcich. pp. 1-24: and "Die Frage des Deutschen Eigentums in Osterreich ... in .!uhr/Juch .fi"ir Zeitge.1chichtc 1978 (Vienna: Uicker. 1979). pp. 127-74: Rauchensteiner. Sondcrf{i//. p. l 79f: Fisch. Repumtirmen. p. 134. 64. A total of .14.745 of 74J 1.1 hectares controlled hy the Soviets were arahle. Mack to FO. IOAugust 1946.F0.171/55116.PRO. 65. Wildner minute ( Koptelov-Gruher meeting). 13 July. and Wildner minute (Figl• Kourasov meeting) 15 July 1946. in ().11erreich 1111d die Cmf!111iichte. pp. 108-14: Soviet definition in Tsine\ to Fig!. 16 July 1946. File 122. Fig] Papers: and English translation of this letter. Box 41. Clark Papers: Knight. ··British Policy". p. 75. citing from chronology of July crisis over ()erman asset>. 24 July 1946. FO 371/53119. PRO. 66. Sckirf memo for Fig!. 29 July 1946. tile 122. Fig! Papers. 67. For a list of 70 enterprise' and puhlic companies nationali/ed. see Annex I to ALCO/P(46)102 and ALCO/M(46)28: Fig! letter to Kourasm . .ii July 1946. 1n ()11crreic/1 w1d die Gm/i111iichte. pp. 114-7: Rauchensteiner. Sondnj(i//. p. 181. 68. Williamson letter to Denby. 31 July I 'J46. Box 4. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA. 69. Clark to JCS. 26 Fehruary 1946. FRUS. V. ·' 12-15: 28 February 1946. rnl. 11. Clark Diary. On the winter of 1946 as a turning point see Dulles. Clw11ce.1. p. 208. and Bi.schof. ··c1ark". 70. McCreery to War Office. 28 February 1946. FO -171155144. PRO. American intelli• gence also argued that the Soviet strategy ("Kulagin Plan") was to force the Western powers out of Austria. "Smiet Economic Policy Toward Au.stria··. 30 January 1947. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/1--1047. RG 59. NA. 71. Clark to War Department (for JCS). 6 July 1946. 86-1.00/7646. reprinted. In Acheson to Byrnes (in Paris). lJ July 1946. FRUS. 19../6. V. 357L Knight ··Briti;.h Policy". p. 76. 72. ··oraft message to Gcner~il Clark··. 8 July 1946. FRUS. /9../6. Y. -156f: published in !)SB. 21 July 1946. 12.if: Leidcnfrnst. ··Amerikani,cl1c Besavung;.rnacht'·. p. 627L Molotov refused to di;.cuss German assets in Pari,. 73. !hid .. p. 635: Clark letter to Fig!. IO Jul) 1946. Box 41. Clark Papers: Klambauer. USIA. 27. 74. On the Soviets' ··had publicity"" sec Clark's 22 April 1946 speech. reprinted in Bischof. ··c1ark··. pp. 246--51. and National War College speech. 9 October 1946. Box 41. Clark Papers. 75. Bevin to Byrnes. 12 July 1946. 86-1.00/7-1246. RG 59. NA: Rauchensteiner. So11i/er/iJ/I. p. 183. 76. Fisch. Rej1umtio11e11. pp. 2-11. JllJ. 77. Albrich and Gisinger. /30111/Jen~rieg:Beer and Karner. Krieg 011.1 der f,ufi. 78. Bischof. "Foreign Aid··. pp. 79-9 I: Wehcr. ··();.terreichs Wirtschatr·. pp. 267-98. 79. Hoover visit to Austria and conference with Au;.trian orticiab. l 'i April 1946. Box 41. Clark Papers: letter from 17 August 1946. in Kindleherger. Gemwn f,-rn11om1·. 19../5 -1947. p. 95: Fig! letter to Allied Council. I October 1946. file 124. Fig! Papers: Notes 193 45th Cabinet meeting, 19 Novt:mber 1946, Ministerrato.protokollc. AR. The serious• ness of the Austrian food situation was also discussed in the British and American cabinets, CAB 128/5 and CAB 128/6. PRO: Box I, Matthew Connelly Papers, HSTL; United Nations. Economic S111Ter of' E11mpe 1949 (Geneva. 1950). p. 27: Klaus Eisterer, Fmn;iisische Be.rnt;1111gspolitik: 71rol 11nd Vomrlherg 1945146 (Innsbruck: Haymon. 1991), pp. 31-76; Alan S. Milward. The Reconstruction of' Western Europe 1945-1951 (Berkeley: California University Press, 1984 ). p. 14; Mahr. "UNRRA zum Marshallplan··. pp. 71-88. 80. Franz Nemschak. fr11 Years of' A11stria11 Eco110111ic Recow'n- (Vienna. 1955). p. 56. 81. Memo of conversation (Figl-Balmer), 26 March 1947, and Minutes of meeting (Sagmeister-Balmer). 14 January 1948. File 124, Fig! Papers. 82. "Red-Led Vienna Mob Demands Allies Leave". Ne1r York Times, 6 May 1947, p. 18; Rankin memo for Clark, J 5 May 1947, 740.00119 Control (Austria)/5-1547. RG 59, NA. For "failed putsch'', see Gruber putsch. Lihemtion and Libert_\', p. l 28f. and Cronin, Power Politics, pp. 50-2. 83. Wildner minute of conversation (Rcnner-Komun), 17 May 1945, 65-pol/45, 42- pol/45, Box I, AR. 84. Dulles to Marget, 4 November 1945, Box 14, Eleanor Dulles Papers. DDEL. 85. "Abschluss emes Kompensationsabkommens Osterreich-CSR". I 03/pol/45, Box I, AR. 86. Eisterer, Fru11;iisiche Besat;11gnspolitik, pp. 33ff; and Schwei;; "Motivenbericht" (rn. November 1945), and the entire file "WarenverkehrsbUro". 318-po/45, 397- pol/45, Box 2. AR. 87. The US delivered 15.000 bales of cotton for Viennese luxury items: the French exchanged phosphates for Austrian magnesium: the British accepted only hard cur• rency and refused barter deals; the Soviets took what they wanted from "German assets". Eisterer, Schwei;, pp. 39-71. 88. Kourasov letter to Fig!, 12 November 1948, file 125, Fig! Papers. 89. Timothy Naftali, "Creating the Myth of the Alpenfestung: Allied Intelligence and the Collapse of the Nazi Police-State", CAS, V ( 1997), 203-46: Albrich/Gisinger, Bombenkrieg. 90. Thomas Albrich. "Fremde", Historicum (Summer 1996). 23-8. 91. Nikolai Tolstoy, The Minister and the Massacres (London: Century Hutchinson, 1986): Anthony Cowgill et al., The Repatriationsfi-0111 Austria in 1945: The Report of' an 1nquin· (London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1990). 92. Perz and Freund essays in Zeitgeschichtetag 1993. pp. 209-24. 93. Thomas Albrich, 'Asylland wider Willen", in Bemrmundete Nation. 217-44; and Der Exodus durch Osterreich (Innsbruck: Haymon. 1987); Gabriele Stieber. "Die Li:isung des F!Uchtlingsproblems 1945-1960", in Osterreich in den Fii11f~igern, pp. 67-93. 94. Fig! interview, 26 February 1946, File 120, Fig! Papers; on postwar anti-Semitism see Knight. Wortprotokolle; Pauley. Prejudice, pp. 30 I ff. 95. Erhardt to Byrnes. 3 June 1946. FRUS, 1946, V, 348. 96. John Lukacs' introduction to George F Krnnan and the Origins ol Containment. 1944-1946 (Columbia: Missouri University Press. 1997), p. 7. 97. David Robertson, Sir and A/J/e: A Political Biography of' James r: Bvmes (New York: Norton, 1994 ). 98. Hamby, Man, pp. 338-60. 99. Woods and Jones, Dawning of' the Cold War. pp. 98-129; Leffler, Preponderance o( Power, pp. I 00-40; Bullock, Bevin: Foreign Secretary, pp. 121-354; Larson, Origins (!l Containment, pp. 212-30 I; Isaacson and Thomas, Wise Men, pp. 253-385; Boyle, 194 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55 American-Sm·iet Relations, pp. 54ff: McCormick. Ame rim's Hal( Centu1T, pp. 43-71: Walker. Cold War, pp. 29ff: Cohen, Ame rim in the Age o( Sm·iet Pm1·er, pp. 21 ff: Qingzhao, From Yu/ta to Pan111w1jon, pp. 69-95. I 00. Eduard Mark, "The War Scare of 1946 and its Consequences"', Diplomatic Historr, 2113 ( 1997), 383--415: Robert L. Beisner, "Patterns of Peril: Dean Acheson Joins the Cold Warriors, 1945--46", Diplomatic His/on', 20/:l ( 1996), 321-55. IOI. Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", pp. 339-58, 454-75. 102. Erhardt to Byrnes. 26 February 1946: Clark to JCS, 26 February 1946, FRUS, 1946, V, 310-15: New York Times, 28 February 1946. 103. Williamson memo to Fussel, 11 March: Matthews memo to Byrnes, 20 March 1946, Box I, Lot 54 D 331, RG 59, NA. 104. Nn1· York Times, I March 1946. p. 10. I 05. 2 March 1946, vol. 11. Clark Diary, CP. 106. Daily State Department briefs, 14, 15, 27 February and 4, 7, 8. 22 March 1946, Box 21, Naval Aide Files, PSF, HSTL. 107. "Soviet Pattern of Action in Austria"'. Intelligence Review No. 7. 28 March 1946, Box 15, ibid. I 08. "Soviet Policy - A Summation". Military Intelligence Review No. 12. 2 May 1946. Box 16, ibid. 109. Burrows and Sargent minutes. 19 and 20 March 1946, FO 371/55256. PRO: Bischof. "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", pp. 347-5 l. 110. Foreign Office paper approved by Bevin. 5 April 1946. FO 371/55256: JP (46) 81, 29 April 1946. FO 371/55257-28, PRO. 11 l. "Transmitting Memorandum on Austrian Situation", Erhardt to Byrnes, 12 March 1946. 86.HJ0/3-1246, RG 59. NA: Bischof, "Spielba!J'I", p. l 32f. 112. Les K. Adler and Thomas G. Paterson, "Red Fascism: The Merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American Image of Totalitarianism, 1930's-1950's'', Amerirnn Historirnl Rn·in1·, 74/4 ( 1970), 1046-64: Abbott Gleason, Totalitaria11is111: The Inner Histon o( the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 73-88. 113. Bischoff to Gruber, 15 February, with "pro domo" minute by Orisini-Rosenberg, 8 March 1947, 105.798-pol/47, Box 30, AR. 114. "Conference with Newspaper Men", 22 April 1946. Box 6, CP: "An American Abroad". Time, 24 June 1946, pp. 27-30: 'The Washington Merry-Go-Round". Washington Post, 13 and 14 August 1946. 115. Knight, "British Policy", p. 70. 116. Clark to JCS, 4 April 1946, FRUS, 1946, V, 324f: 6 April 1946, vol. 11, Clark Diary, CP: Bischof, "Clark", pp. 233-7, 248. 117. Mack letter to Troutbeck, I May 1946, FO 371/55257, PRO: numerous Fig! memo• randa of conversation with the Soviet leaders in Vienna in the Fig! Papers. 118. "Future of Austria". I January 1946, FO 371 /55143. was presented to the British Cabinet on 31 January and approved on 4 February 1946, CP ( 46) 34, CAB 129 and CM 11 (46), CAB 128/5, PRO: Mack to Bevin, 6 July 1946, FO 371/55146: Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", p. 423f. Alfred Ableitinger, "Grof.\britannien und das Zweite Kontrollabkommen: Genese und Gehalt des britis• chen Regierungsentwurfes vom 4. February 1946". in Ableitinger et al. (eds), (Jster• rcich wller Alliierter Besut:ung, pp. 71-109. 119. William Taubman, Stalin's American Policy: Fro111 Entente to Detrnte to Cold War (New York: Norton, 1982), p. 145; Zubok and Plesahakov, Imide, pp. 36-77: Mastny, Sm·iet lnsecuritr, pp. 23-9. 120. Byrnes to Erhardt, 21 March 1946, FRUS. 1946, V, 318-20: 16 April 1946, as ALCO/P(46)54, and 25 April 1946. ALCO/M(46)2l. Notes 195 121. Williamson letter to Erhardt. 13 June 1946. Box I. and "Memorandum of Progress: Economic Reconstruction in Austria". 23 July 1946. Box 4. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA: Bischof. "Responsibility and Rehabilitation". pp. 475ff. 122. Erhardt letter to Williamson, 26 July 1946, Box I. Lot 54 D 331. RG 59, NA. 123. Clark speech before National War College. 9 October 1946. Box 6. CP: Mahr, "UNRRA zum Marshallplan". pp. 71-94. 124. Walt. W. Rostow, The Dit•ision of Europe af1'r World War II: 1946 (Austin: Texas University Press, 1981 ); Gi.inter Bischof. "Der Marshall-Plan in Europa 1947-1952", Aus Politik und Zeitf!,eschichte, B 22-23/97 (23 May 1997), 6f. 125. Erhardt letter to Williamson. 26 July, and Hilldring memo (drafted by Williamson) to Galbraith, 9 August 1946, Boxes I and 4. Lot 54 D 331, RG 59, NA; Mahr. "UNRRA zum Marshallplan". p. 94. 126. Erhardt to Byrnes, 30 April 1946. 863.00/4-3046; Erhardt to Byrnes. 22 May 1946, 863.00/5-2246, RG 59, NA. 127. Galbraith to Clayton. 27 March 1946, Box I, Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA: Kindleberger, German Eco110111r, p. 78. 128. Patricia Blyth Eggleston, 'The Marshall Plan in Austria: A Study in American Containment of the Soviet Union in the Cold War". PhD Diss .. University of Alabama, 1980. 129. Angerer. "Frankreich"', pp. 147-63: Erhardt to Byrnes, 11 September 1947, 863.00/9-1147, RG 59, NA. 130. Clark to Echolls (Civil Affairs Division, War Department), 21 August 1946. Box 4. Lot 54 D 331: Dulles in Kindleherger. German Econom\'. p. 77; Marget to Frank. 16 October 1946, Box 4, Lot 54 D 331. RG 59. NA: Robert Mark Spaulding. Osthande/ and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe fmm Bismarck to Adenauer (Providence: Berghahn. 1997), pp. 296-348; Gunther Mai, Der Alliiertc Kollfrollrat 1945-1948: Alliierte Einheit - deutsche Tei lung~ (Munich: R. Oldenbourg. 1995). pp. 173-256 and passim; Milward, Reconstruction, pp. 8-43. 131. Alan S. Milward. "'Deutscher Auf.\enhandel und der Marshall-Plan". in Charles S. Maier and Gi.inter Bischof (eds). Deutsch/and /llJ(/ der Marshall-Plan (Baden• Baden: Nomos. 1992), pp. 475-510; Michael Gehler, "'Kein Anschlu13, aher auch keine chinesische Mauer: bstereichs aul3enpolitische Emanzipation und die deutsche Frage". in Ahleitinger et al. (eds) Die Alliiertrn und Osterreich. pp. 206-31. 132. Hilldring memo to Kindleberger, 16 September 1946. Box 2. and '"United States Policy in Assisting Austria", 6 November 1946. Box 4, Lot 54 D 331. RG 59, NA; "GA Memorandum on Economic Policy" attached to "Memorandum on Economic Program for Austria", 8 August 1946. Box 4, ihid; Erhardt to Byrnes. 27 November 1946, FRUS, 1946. V, 382. 133. SWNCC 324/ I of 16 December 1946. and 324/2 amended on 30 January 1946, became 324/3 approved and sent to Clark on 15 February. see SWNCC-SANAS Files, RG 353 (Scholarly Resources microfilm, roll 27): Hilldring (Chairman of SWNCC) memo to Marshall forwarded to Clark as "Recommendations", SWNCC 324/3. 31 January 1947, FRUS, 1947, III. I 167f. 134. /hid. 135. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Stutesman 1945-1959, vol. IV (New York: Viking. 1987); Lettler, Preponderance, pp. 141-81; Woods and Jones, Dm1·ni11f!,, pp. 133-52: Bullock, Bel'in: Foreign Secretarr. pp. 357-92; Maier introduction in Germanr and the Marshall Plan. 136. Hilldring memo, 17 March 1947; Report hy SWNCC "AD Hoc" Committee. 21 April 1947, FRUS. 1947. III, I 98f. 204-19; Scott Jackson, "Prologue to the Marshall Plan: The Origins of the American Commitment to a European Recovery Program'', Journal of" American History, 65 ( 1979). 1043-68. Melvyn P. Lettler. 196 Austria in the First Cold War, 1945-55 "The American Conception of National Security and the Beginnings of the Cold War". Amerirnn Historirnl Revien·, 89/2 ( 1984), 346-400; "The United States and the Strategic Dimensions of the Marshall Plan", Diplomatic Histon, 12/3 ( 1988), 277-306; and Preponderance, pp. I 57-64. 137. Clark left Austria on 5 May. Immediately after his return he started giving public speeches lashing out against the Soviets. see May 1947, vol. 13, Clark Diary, CP. 138. Erhardt to Marshall. 24 April 1947, FRUS, 1947, II. 575: Gruber, Liberation and Libert.\', p. 111. 139. Neu· York Times, 8 June 1947, 8: FRUS, 1947, II. 1182-4; Gruber, Liberation and Libert\', pp. 130-8: Scharf, Erneuerung. pp. 163-70; Fischer, Ende, pp. 213-30; Michael Gehler. "Die Figl-Fischerei von 1947: Eine politische Atfare mit Nachspiel", in Gehler and Hubert Sickinger (eds), Politisclze Afjdren und Skandale in Osterreich: Vrm Mayerling bis Waldheim (Thaur: Kulturverlag, 1995 ), pp. 346-81. 140. Keyes to JCS, 12May 1947,FRUS.1947,II, 1172f. 141. Erhardt to Marshall, 9 May 1947. ibid .. l 17lf. 142. JCS to Keyes. 25 May 1947, ilJic/., 1177. 143. /hid., 1185: Mahr, "UNRRA zum Marshall Plan", p. 129f. 144. Bullock. Bevin: Foreign Secrewrv, pp. 393-427; Pogue, Marshall: Statesman, pp. 216-36; Scott D. Parrish and Mikail M. Narinski, "The Turn towards Confrontation: The Soviet Reaction to the Marshall Plan. 1947", Cold War International Historv Project, Working Paper No. 9 ( 1994 ): Bischof, "Marshall Plan in Europa", p. Sf; Zubok and Pleshakov. Inside, pp. 193-8; Mastny, Sm'iet Jnsecuritv, pp. 27-9. 145. Orisini-Rosenberg (Sofia) to Gruber, I July 1947, 108.051-pol/47, 107.651-pol/47, Box 54, AR. 146. Mastny, Soviet lizsecurif.\', p. 27; Rotter (Prague) to Gruber, 17 July 1947, 108.216- pol/47, Box 54, AR; Charles P. Kindlebcrger, Marshall Plan Da\'.\ (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987), p. 158. 147. Cabinet decision reprinted in Czaky, Dokumentation, p. 151; Mahr, "UNRRA zum Marshall Plan". pp. 245-7; Gruber, Liberation and Libert_\', p. 139f. 148. Vollgruber minute (Gruber conversation), 8 July 1947, 108.194-pol/47, Box 54, AR; Florian Weiss, "Die schwierige Balance: bsterreich und die Anfange der west• europaischen Integration 1947-1957", Vierteljahrshefte fi.ir Zeitgeschichte, 42/l ( 1994 ), 71-94 (citation p. 74 ); for the satellites· responses, see Box 54, II-pol/ 47, AR. 149. IO July 1947, ALCO/M(47)53 and Annex A. 150. 25 July 1947, ALCO/M(47)54; Keyes in FRUS, 1947, II, 1190-2. 151. Fig! note of 15 July 1947 in Czaky, Dokumenwtion, p. 15lf; New York Times, 18 July 1947; Eggleston, "Marshall Plan in Austria", p. 101. 152. Fig! quoted in Keyes to JCS, 19 July 1947, FRUS, 1947. II, 1187. 153. Erhardt to Marshall, 17 July, Keyes to JCS, 19 August; Marshall to Vienna Legation, 23 July 1947, FRUS, 1947, 11, 1186-95; Scharf fed putsch rumours to the French, Bethouart to Bidault, 17 July 1947, vol. 121, pp. 98-101. Autriche 1944-49, MAE. 154. Keyes to JCS, 22 August 1947, FRUS, 1947, 11, 1197-1200; New York Times, 19 August 1947; Mahr, "UNRRA zum Marshallplan", pp. 158-67; Rauchensteiner. Sonderfa/l, p. 211 f. 155. In October 1947 American economic advisers in Vienna concocted a "neutralization plan" for the separate economic development of the three Western zones, pushing for American Cold War economic warfare. As a response to the Soviet "Kulagin Plan" it was intended to neutralize the USIA by cutting off its raw material and energy supplies and isolating it from export markets in the West. American economic Notes 197 aid was supposed to build up the industrial potential of the Western zone. Since such economic partition probably would have produced political division. the "neutraliza• tion plan" was wisely shelved as the Marshall Plan gathered steam. I 8 February I 948, SANACC 393. RG 353 (Scholarly Resources microfilm. roll 32): Eleanor Dulles to Vcdeler, 29 March 1948. 740.00119 Control (;\ustria)/3-2948. RG 59. NA: Mahr. "UNRRA zum Marshallplan". pp. 269-91: Arno Einwitschlager. A111aikanische Wirtscllllfispo/itik in Osterreich 1945-1949 (Vienna: Biihlau. 1986). pp. 61-75. 156. MLihr, "UNRRA zum Marshallplan". pp. 14 7-51: Eggleston, "Marshallplan in Austria". pp. 168-98. 157. Pogue. Marslwll: Slllte.1111w1. pp. 237-57: Michael Wala. "Selling the Marshall Plan at Home: The Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery". Diplomatic History. JO ( 1986). 247-85. I 58. Charles S. Maier. "Why Was the Marshall Plan Successful''". Trun.wtlantic Perspecli\'e.1, I 7 (I 988). 21-4: Donald W. White. The A111erirnn Century: The Rise & Decline of' the United Stutes u.1 a World Power (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1996 ), I 90f: McCormick. America's Hulf~CrnturY, pp. 78-86. 159. Milward. Recomtruction. p. 96 (table 15): Weber. Osterreichs Wirtschaff'. p. 286 (table 12): Office of US High Commissioner. Austria: A Gmphic Su/'\'eY (March 1953 ): Weiss. "Schwierge Balance". pp. 78-82: Bischof. "Marshall-Plan in Europa". p. 14f: and "Der Marshallplan und Osterreich'', bitgeschichte. 17/11-12 (1990). 463-74: Wilfried Mahr. Der Marsllllllplan in Os1erreich (Graz: Styria. 1989). 160. Gaddis. We N1111· Kno11-. pp. 26-53. 161. Maier. "Alliance and Autonomy". in Lacey (ed.). Tru11111n Presidencr. p. 274. Notes to Chapter 5 I. "Political Stability and Economic Refonm". Dowling to Department of State. 9 September 1952. 863.00/9-952. RG 59. NA: the spectre of Austria as a "European Korea" had been raised before. memo of conversation (Donnelly. Schlirfl. 21 May 1951. attached to letter Dowling to Williamson. 25 May 1951. 763.00/5-2551. ihid. 2. Gruber speech delivered at the Uni\crsity of Vienna. 7 January 1953. 300.014-K/53. KdM. BK/\-AA. AdR. reprinted in Gmhcr Reden. p. 413. 3. Stourzh. St[/{1/.11·<'rtmg. p. 11 f. 4. Bischof. "Rcsponsiblity and Rehabilition". 531 f. 5. Troutbcck to Burrows. 9 May 1946. cited in Knight. "British Policy". p. 97: Schmid conversation with Troutbcck reported to Gruber, 7 March 1946. Box I. London Embassy Files. BKA-AA. AdR. 6. Note d'orientation conccrnant traite de paix avcc l'Autriche. 18 June 1946 hy .luin. ml. 108. MAE. also cited in Angerer. "Frankreich". p. 242: Margit Sandncr. Oic .fiw1:ii.1i.1ch-ii.1terrcichi.1T/1Cn Be:ie/11111grn 1viihrrnd der Be.1a1:1111g1:cit 1·011 1947 hi.1 1955 (Vienna, 1985). p. 93. 7. Patricia Dawson Ward. The Threat of' Prnce: J11111cs F lfrmn and !he Council /ll h1rcign Mini.11ers. 1945-1946 (Kent. OH: Kent University Pres.s. 1979): Martina Kessel. We.1te11mpa 1111d die deutsche fril1111g: Eng/ische 1111djiw1;ii.1i.1c/1e /Jeu1.1ch• lund;wlitik uul de11 Aufirn111inis1er/.:/lnfi'ren;en 1·on 1945 his 1947 (Munich: Oldenbourg. 1989): James L. Gormly. Fm111 Potsdu111 to the C11/d War: Big Three f)ipl1111wn· I 945-19-17 (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources. 1990): Robertson. Sir and Ahle. pp. 444-8. 198 Austria in the First Cold Wc11; 1945-55 8. Stephen E. Kertesz, The Last European Peace Conference: Paris 1946 - Cm~flict of Values (Lanham: University of America Press, 1985), p. 25. 9. 29 Decemher 1945. Clark Diary: Memo of Conversation. 2 January 1946, and Riddelherger to Matthews. 31 January 1946, FRUS, 1946, V, 283-6, 299f: Yedcler, 6 Fehruary 1946. Folder "Treaties", Box 4, Lot 55 D 374 (Records of the Central European Division 1944-53), RG 59. NA: Bischof. "Responsibility and Rehahilitation", pp. 538, 852-4. I 0. Stourzh, Staatsvertmg, pp. I 0-12. 11. Note d'orientation, hy General Juin. 18 June 1946. vol. 108, Autriche 1944-1949. MAE: Angerer. "Frankreich". pp. 240-8. 12. FRUS, 1946, JI, 88-166: UK Delegation Brief No. 8 for Paris, 19 April 1946, FO 371/SS247. PRO. 13. Ibid. 14. FRUS, I 946. JI, 9 J:l. nn. 41 and 42. IS. FRUS, 1946. l, 914-16. 939f: FRUS, 1946, IL 931: Ward, Threat. p. 122. 16. Robert Knight. "Kalter Krieg, Entnazifizierung und bsterreich", in Verdriingte Schuld. pp. 37-51: Dieter Stiefel. ·'Der ProzeB der Entnazifizierung in bsterreich'', in Klaus-Dieter Henke and Hans Woller (eds), Politische Sii11herw1g in Europa: Die Abrech11111111g mil Faschi.rn111s und Kolla/Jomtion 11ach don Zweitrn Weltkril'g (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. 1991 ), pp. 108-46 (esp. p. l l 6f). 17. Stourzh: Staatwertmg: Kurt Steiner. "Negotiations for an Austrian Treaty", in Alexander George et al. (eds). U.S.-Sol'iet Sernritr Cooperation: Achin·e111e11ts - Fail111·es - Lessons (New York-Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988). pp. 46-82; Cronin, Greut PoH·er Politics: Knight. "British Policy": Angerer. "Frankreich": Bischof. "Responsibility and Rehahilitation". 18. Angerer, "Frankreich", p. 250. 19. FRUS. 1946, ll, 146Sf. 1469-76: Bischof, "Responsihility and Rehabilitation", pp. 5S6-60: Stourzh, Staat.1vatmg. p. I Sf. 20. Clark to Marshall, 24 January 1947, FRUS, 1947. IL l 15f. For Austrian atrocities in the Serbian occupation, see Manoschek. Serbirn istjwlenfi·ei1; Herzstein, Waldheim. 21. FRUS. 1947. ll, 12-38: Thomas Alhrich, "Jewish Interests and the Austrian Treaty", in CAS. I ( 1993), 147-S I: Bischof, "Responsihilty and Rehabilitation", pp. 582-8; Stourzh. Staat.1\'ertmg, pp. 21-31. 22. Gusev's questioning in FRUS. 1947. JI, 121-4. reprinted in Gruber Reden, pp. 160-2: Wildner and Schiiner minutes of 5 and 14 Fehruary 1947. IOS.712- pol/47, Box 40, ll-pol/47. BKA-AA, AdR. 23. Overmans, "Losses", p. 295. and chapter I. 24. Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation". pp. 588-604: and "Introduction" to Kindleberger. Lelfers. pp. xxvii-xxxiv; Stourzh. Staat.11·errrag, pp. 31-42; Bullock, Bn·i11: Foreign SecretwT. pp. 375-92: Deighton, Impossible Peuce. pp. 135-67; Philip Zelikow. "George C. Marshall and the Moscow CFM Meeting of 1947", in Diplomacr & Statecrufi. 812 (1997), 97-124. 25. Rathkolb, Waslzing/011. pp. 232-42. 26. Gesamthericht tiber den Yerlauf der Moskau er Konfernz, I 08.749-pol/4 7, Box 41, JI-pol/47, BKA-AA. AdR; Gruher Reden, pp. 166-8: Bischof, "Responsihility and Rehabilitation". pp. 60S-l 9. 27. Letter Dulles to Yandenherg. 29 March 1947. Moscow CFM, Box 533, Dulles Papers, Princeton. 28. Memo of conversation (Wodak. Cheetham), 6 May 1947. 106.901-pol/47, Box 41, 11-pol/47. BKA-AA, AdR. 29. "Austrian treaty". Secretary of State to Cabinet, FO 371/63963. PRO. 30. Ginshurg to Cohen, 12 June 1947, FRUS. 1947, JI, S93f. Notes 199 31. On Ginsberg. Kleinwaechter to Gruber. 4 May 1948. 113.381-pol/48. Box 83. ll• pol/1948, BKA-AA. AdR. 32. Knight. "British Policy", pp. 123-34; Angerer, "Frankreich". p. 284f: Bischof. "Responsibility and Rehabilitation". pp. 653-66; Stourzh. Staat.1·1·ertrag. pp. 42-4. 33. Mai. Ko111ro/lrut, pp. 449ff. 34. Stourzh, Staatsrertrag, pp. 34-48. 35. Douglas to Marshall, 19 December 1947. 740.00119 Council/12-1947. RG. 59, NA: Yollgruber conversation with Morin (vice-chief of Bidault's Cabinet). to Gruber. 15 December 1947, 111.382-pol/47, Box 55 (Panzerakten). ll-pol/47. BKA-AA. AdR. 36. Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation". pp. 673-9: Stourzh. Slllatsrertmg. pp. 49-53: US refusal to pay "lump sum" in Kleinwaechter dispatches of 3 and 23 April 1948, 113.664-pol/48. Box 85. and 113.176-pol/48, Box 83, II-pol/1948. BKA-AA, AdR: Angerer, "Frankreich", p. 306f. 37. Kleinwaechter to Gruber, 4 May. 113.381-pol/48: Bischoff to Gruber. 28 May, 114.296-pol/48; Vollgruber to Gruber 2 and 10 June. l 13.994-pol/48 and 114.285- pol/48. Box 83. ll-pol/48, BKA-AA, AdR; Knight. "British Policy". pp. 175-86: Angerer. "Frankreich". pp. 285-92. 38. Let1ler, Prepmzderance, pp. 266ff: Mastny, Sm·iet /nsernrity. pp. 63ff: Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside, pp. l 38ff: Holloway. Swlin and tlze 80111/J. pp. l 96ff. 39. Cronin, Great Power Politics. pp. 70-94: Stourzh. Stuatsi·ertrag. pp. 54-69: Angerer, "Frankreich". pp. 299-323: Bischof. "Responsiblity and Rehabilitation". pp. 727-821. 40. Angerer, "Frankreich", pp. 323-43. 41. Cronin. Grrnt Power Politics, p. 99. Frank Costigliola has pointed out that the Anglo-Americans frequently referred to the French in NATO with similarly femi• nine metaphors, 'Tropes of Gender". pp. I 69ff. 42. Hanns Haas, "Osterreich 1949: Staatsvertragsverhandlungen und Wiederbe• waffnungsfrage", in Jahrh11chfiir Zeitgesclziclzte 1978 (Vienna. 1979). pp. 175-200; Rudolf G. Ardell and Hanns Haas, "Die Westintegration Osterreichs nach 1945". in (J11erreichisclu! Zeit.1chrifi.fiir Politik11·i.1.w:11.1'<-lwfi. 4/J ( 1975). 379-99. 43. James Jay Carafano, "'Waltzing into the Cold War': US Army Intelligence Operations in Postwar Austria, 1944-1948". in CAS. Vll (forthcoming. 1999); Brown. "U.S. Army in Vienna", p. 91 f. 44. War Department. Intelligence Division. lntelligrnce Rci·ie\\'. 52 ( 13 February 194 7 ). p. 55. Naval Aide Files. Box 18, HSTL. 45. Melvyn P. Letller. 'The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War". German Historical Institute Occasional Paper No. 16. Washington. 1996. 46. Mastny, Soriet lnsernrit\', pp. 47-97: Gori and Pons (eds). Sm·iet U11io11 a/Ill Europe. 47. Gunter Bischof. '"Prag liegt westlich von Wien': Internationale Krisen im Jahre 1948 und ihr EintluB auf Osterreich". in Bei·or111111u/ete Nation, pp. 315-45: Hanhimiiki, Cmztoining Coexistence. 48. Rankin to Marshall. 18 March 1947. in U11derstwuli11g A11.1tria, p. 133. 49. Erhardt to Marshall, 18 July 1947. 863.0017-1847. RG 59. NA. reprinted m U11der.1twuli11g Austria. pp. 231-3: Brown, "U.S. Army in Vienna". p. 201 f. 50. James Critchfield memorandum, attached to memo Williamson to Dort. 16 September 1947. 863.00/9-1647. RG 59. NA. 51. John Magruder Memorandum. 7 July 1945. in Gesellschufi. p. 111: Arnold Kopeczek. ''Fallbeispiele des Kallen Krieges in Ostcrreich 1945-1965". Phil. Diss .. University of Vienna, 1992, pp. 38-43. 52. Bethouart to the General Commissar for German and Austrian Affairs. 17 July 1947. vol. l 21, pp. 98-10 I. Autriche 1944-1949. MAE: Erhardt to Marshall. 200 Austria in the First Cold W(ll; 1945-55 27 August 1947, FRUS, 1947. II, I 199f; Oliver Rathkolb, "Austria and European Integration after World War I!", CAS, l ( 1993 ), 44. 53. For different views see Oliver Rathkolb, "Die 'Putsch'-Metapher in der US• AuBenpolitik gegenUber bsterreich 1945-1950", in Michael Ludwig et al. (eds), Der Oktoberstreik 1950: Ein Wendi'punkt der Zweitrn Republik (Vienna: Picus, 1991 ), pp. 113-37, and Christian Stifter, Di<' Wiedemufi-iist1111g 0.1terreichs: Die geheime Remilitariserung der H'estlichen Be.1l1f;u11gs;o11en 1945-1955 (Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 1997 ), pp. 92ff. 54. Erhardt to Marshall, 18 September 1947, 740.00119 Control (Austria)/9-1847: Keyes' "Strategic Survey of Austria" with appendices in 863.50111-6547, RG 59, NA; the "neutralization plan", 18 February 1948, is in SANACC 393, RG 353, NA (Scholarly Resources microfilm of SWNCC/SANACC Records, roll 32); Mahr, "UNRRA zum Marshallplan", pp. 266-73. 55. Erhardt to Marshall, 18 September 1947, 740.0019 Control (Austria/9-1847, RG 59, NA: Eleanor to John Foster Dulles. ''Aw.trian Problems and their lmportance in World Reconstruction'', 3 March ( 1947). Box 31. Dulles Papers. Princeton. 56. Yergin. Shattered Pean', p. 328. 57. Keyes to European Command. US Army, IO November 1947, FRUS, 1947. II. 1201. 58. Erhardt to Marshall. 4 March 1948, 863.0013-448, RG 59. NA. 59. On Gruber's critics in his own party, see Michael Gehler. '"'Politisch unabhangig', aber 'ideologisch endeutig europaisch': Die OVP, die Vereinigung christlicher Volksparteien und die Anfonge der europaischen lntegration 1947-1960", in Oster• reich um/ die eumpiiische lntegmtion, p. 307f. 60. Erhardt to Marshall. 11 February 1948, FRUS. 1948, II, 1462; Marshall to Vienna, 21 February 1948, 863.00/2-1148. RG 59. NA. 61. Angerer, "Frankreich", pp. 267-84. 62. Cheetham and Cullis minutes, 6 and 9 March 1948. FO 371/70395. PRO. 63. Marjoribanks minute, 20 February 1948. FO 371/70395. 64. Marjoribanks, Strang, Kirkpatrick, Sargent and Bevin minutes. 12 to 20 February 1948, FO 371 /70409. PRO; Knight, "British Policy", pp. 129-35: Bullock, Bei·in: Foreign Sec/'i'tarv. pp. 513-48. 65. "Zur Entwicklung der wcstlichcn Union", December 1948, in Gruber Reden, pp. 270-2. 66. "Conversation with Austrian Vice-Chancellor". Bevin to Cheetham, 30 March 1948, FO 371/70396; Knight, "British Policy", 147: Wodak's tendentious report in Diplo111atie. p. 586f. Scharf\ biographer glosses over the Vice-Chancellor's change of heart in treaty strategy, Stadler. Schii1f pp. 323-38. 67. Gallman (London) and Erhardt to Marshall, 24 and 27 March, 740.00119/3-2448 and /3-2748, RG 59, NA: 15 and 20 March 1948. Box 21, Naval Aide Files, PSF, HSTL Nen York Times. 2() March 1948: Bischof, "Responsibility and Rehabilitation", pp. 697-9. 68. Melvyn P. Leffler has analysed this "security dilemma" - East and West trying to enhance their security and thereby provoking additional fears in the adversary. thus increasing apprehen;,ions on both sides - in Specter of' Co1111111111is111, pp. 65-96. 69. On tutelage. see Be1·omw11dete Notion, and Bischof, "Spielball'1", pp. 139-45: for a subtle critique of the "tutelage thesis" sec Thomas Angerer, "Der 'bevormundete Vormund': Die franziisi;,che Besatzungsmacht in Osterreich", in Osterreich 1111/er al/iierter Besut~wzg. pp. 159-67. What Letller asserts about Japan is also true for Austria: "If the Japanese were not permitted to control their own destiny, they would become di;,illusioned with U.S. tutelage". Prepm1dem11ce, p. 346. 70. Erhardt to Williamson. 5 November 1947. and Vedeler to Erhardt. 22 December 1947. Box 2. Lot 54 D 331, RG 59, NA. Notes 201 71. Bethouarl to Cherriere, 2 March ... Note de Direction d'Europe pour le General Cherriere. I March. and Cherriere to Direction d'Europe. 3 March: Bidault to Cherriere, 5 March, and Cherriere to Bidault. 6 March: Bethouart .. de Vienne pour General Cherriere", 21 March 1948. vol. 112. pp. I 18f. 173-9, 188f, 191-7. 237-9. Traitc d'Etat, Autriche 1944-49, MAE: Marjoribanks minute. 15 April 1948. FO 371170409. PRO: Emile Bethouart. Le Battaille pour I 'Autriche (Paris, 1966). pp. 125-63: Angerer, .. Frankreich". pp. 290-2. 72. "Aktionsplan", Kommunistische Parlei Osterreichs. Landesleitung Wien. 15 November 1948. Dossier 2. Box I U 16. Le Fonds des Archives du Ministerc de la Defense - Service Historique de I' Armee de Terre a Vincennes (MD/Vincennes): Bischof, "Prag liegt westlich von Wien". pp. 70 (facsimile of front page). 317. 336f: Mastny, Sm·iet !nsecuritr, p. 57: Bischof... Responsibility and Rehabilitation". pp. 709-23: Fritz Weber. Der Kalle Krieg in der SPO: Koalitio11.1·11·iichte1: Pru11111utiker Ullli Rernlutioniire So;iulisten 1945-1950 (Vienna: Verlag ftir Gesellschaftskritik. 1986). 73. Vojtech Mastny, "Stalin and the Militarization of the Cold War". llllernational SecuritY. 9/3 (1984/85 ), I 09-29: McCormick. A111erica 's Half' Crnturr. pp. 99-1 14: the domestic 'ide of "militarization" in Michael Sherry. /11 the SlwdOH' or War: The United Simes since the 1930s (New Haven: Yale Univer,ity Pre,s. 1995). pp. J 23ff. 74. In August 1947 24 per cent of Americans felt .. high price, .. wa' the mo't important problem. and .. foreign policy" came next with 22 per cent: in April 1948 38 per cent felt that .. preventing war and working out peace" wa' the mmt important problem of the time and only 8 per cent thought it wa' "high prices". see George H. Gallup. The Gallup Poll: Puh/ic Opinion 1935-1971. vol. I (New York: Random Hou,e. 1972). pp. 6 72. 726. 75. Mar,hall to Reber. JO March 1948. and .. The /\ustrian Treaty in the CFM" (NSC 38). 8 December 1948, FRUS, 1948. II. 174. 1510-35 (citation p. 1513): GUnter Bi,chof. .. Der Nationale Sicherheibrat und Osterreich". in Ableitinger et al. (eds). Osterreiclz 1111/er Alliicrtcr Besat~1111g 1945-1955. pp. 114-20. 76. "Report by the Joint Survey Committee to JCS". 5 March 1948. CD 6-2-30. Box 26. RG 330. NA: Cronin. Great Pmrer Politics. p. 64. 77. Marjoribanks minute. 6 May 1948. FO 371/70397. PRO: Cullis private diary (xeroxed portions in the hand' of the author). 78. Rauchensteiner. Smzderfiill. pp. 305-8: Glinter Bi,cl10f. "Osterreich - ein ·gehcimer Vcrbiindeter· de' We,ten'? Wirhchafts- und 'icherhcit,politi,che Fragen der Inte• gration au' der Sicht der USA ... in (Jstcrreich und die europiiisclzc lntegmtirm. pp. 425-50: for Stifter·, tendentiou' revisioni't account. 'ee Wiedem11/i'iist11ng. pp. 671l. 79. Marjoribanks minute. 11 March 1948. FO 371/70396. PRO. 80. Stifter. WiederlJ£'\rnfllwng. pp. 51 ff and p111.1i111. 81. .. Status of the Austrian Security Forces ( /\rmy and Gendarmerie )''. .I. Lawton Collin' Memorandum for the Secretary of the /\nny. 7 January 1949. P&O 091 Austria TS. Box I 50. RG 319, N/\. 82. Keye' to JCS. 20 April: Erhardt to Mar,hall. 21 September: Marshall to Vienna Legation. 30 November 1948. FRUS, 1948. II. 1365. 1373-6. Stifter. Winlem11/i'ii.1- 111ng. pp. 90-109. 83. Yost to Marshall. 8 and 9 /\pril 1948. 740.00119 Control (Austria)/4-848 and /4-948. RG 59. N/\: Keye' to JCS. 22 /\pril 1948. FRUS. 1948. II. 1419. Bi,chof.... Prag liegt westlich von Wien· . ._ p. 325f. Cheetham wrote in his diary: .. During all of tho'e days the Rus,ians were keeping up a sort of cat-and-mouse surveillance about travel to Schwechat lairportj and Vienna. Sometime' they would hold up car' 202 Austria in the First Cold War, 1945-55 for hours. causing a great deal of bother without creating a complete scandal", parts of unpublished Cheetham diary in author's possession. 84. Wedemeyer (ClNCEUR) to Keyes, 28 August; Keyes to Wedemeyer, 1 September 1948; and Huebner (EUCOM Heidelberg) to Department of the Army, 10 November 1948, Box 6, Lot M-88. RG 43. NA: "'Site location-Vienna Airstrip", Woodbury memo for G-2, USFA, 15 November: and "'top secret" Irwin cables to War Department, 8 and 22 December 1950. all in 763.5/ 11-1550, 12-850, 12-2250, Box 3929, RG 59, NA: Erwin A. Schmid!. 'The Airlift that Never War: Allied Plans to Supply Vienna by Air, 1948-1950". Army Historr, 43 ( 1997-8), 12-23. 85. Fig!, Gruber, Helmer, Raab. Scharf, Waldbrunner and Koerner (Renner's successor as President) were listed in the top-security category. These lists were periodically updated: see Strong Memo to Allen, 15 May 1953. Box 16, Lot M-88. RG 43, NA. Helmer suggested contingencies for an Austrian/American "'break-through" out of Vienna in case of sudden hostilities, memo of conversation (Donnelly. Helmer), 18 April 1951, attached to Dowling to Williamson, 25 May 1951, 763.00/5-2551, RG 59, NA: for the Western airfields' locations outside of Vienna, see map (p. 50). 86. "'U.S. Army Courses of Action in the Event of a Soviet Blockade of Vienna", memo• randum for JCS. 30 September 1949, P&O 091 Austria TS (29 September 1949), Box 150, RG 319, NA. 87. Keyes to Department of the Army (for Vorhees), 29 June 1949: status reports and annexes by Keyes to Department of the Army, 14 April, 19 May, 25 May, 26 July and 27 July 1950: Memorandum Williams to Perkins, 17 August 1950, Boxes 6 and 7, Lot M-88, RG 43: "Emergency Stockpile for Vienna", IO June 1949, 091 Austria TS, ACofS (G-3) Operations, Decimal File 1949-50, Box 151, RG 319; on the liqui• dation of the "squirrel cage". see the Thibodeaux dispatch to State Department, 1 October 1953. 763.5-MSP/l 0-153, RG 59, all NA; there are also files in Box 7, Lot 58 D 72, RG 59, NA. 88. "Proposed U.S. Policy in the Event of a Blockade of Vienna for the ls.suance to the Commanding General, U.S. Forces in Austria" (NSC 63/1), 16 February 1950, and "Report by the National Security Council on Future Courses of U.S. Action with Respect to Austria" (NSC 38/5), 27 April 1950, FRUS, 1950, IV, 372f. 389-91. 89. Erhardt to Acheson, 2 March 1950. 763.022/3-250, RG 59. NA. 90. Memorandum General Keyes, I 0-16 February 1950, Visit to the Department of the Army, 17 February 1950, P&O 091 Austria TS (28 Feb 50), Box 151, RG 319, NA: Caccia to Foreign Office. I April 1950, FO 371/84928, PRO. 91. Keyes to Department of the Army. I February 1950. FRUS, 1950, IV. 476-8. Stifter, Wiedemuf\riistung, pp. I 03, 121 f. 92. JCS 1868/153, 3 December 1949 (along with earlier drafts), in tile P&O Austria TS 93 Dec 49), Box 151, RG 319, NA; and 1949 tile "Equipment of Austrian Gendarmerie regiment", Box 150, ihid.: Chester J. Pach. Jr, An11i11g the Frl'I' World: Thi' Origins of' till' United Sillies Militan· A.1si.1tw1n' Pmgmm. 1945-1950 (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press. 1991 ), pp. 211-13. 93. NSC 38/4, 17 November 1949, FRUS. 1949, II, 1190-7 (citation p. 1191); '"Military Assistance for Austria". Memo Burns for Secretary of Defense, 11 January 1950, and this entire tile on MAP assistance for Austria, in CD 6-2-30, Box 26, Office, Administrative Secretary, Correspondence Control Section. Numerical File (September 1947-June 1950). RG 330. NA. 94. Future Courses of US Action with Respect to Austria (NSC 38/4 ), 17 November 1949, FRUS, 1949, Ill, 1190-7: Johnson to Acheson, 27 April: and Webb to Johnson, 16 May 1950. FRUS. 1950. IV, 478f. 95. Memo of conversation (Acheson et al.). 7 March 1950, Box 65. Acheson Papers, HSTL. Notes 203 96. "The Current Position in the Cold War", 27 April 1950, CD 337 (Four Powers), Entry 199. Box 193. RG 330. NA: Future Courses of Action with Respect to Austria. 23 February 1950, 663.001/2-2350. RG 59, NA: and NSC 38/5. 27 April l 950, FRUS, 1950. IV, 387-94; Ernest R. May, Amerirnn Cold Wilr S!ralefiy: flllerpreting NSC-6/\ (Boston: Bedford Books, 1994); Leffler. Prepo11dem11ce. pp. 355ff: Mastny, Soviet lnsecurilY. p. 92f: Bischof. "Besatzungsmacht USA", pp. 121-9. 97. NSC 38/5, FRUS, 1950, IV, 387. 98. Mastny. Sm·iet /11securitY. pp. 23ff, 80ff and pi1ssi111; Zubok and Pleashakov. Inside, pp. 78ff. 99. The British High Commis>.ioner. Sir Harold Caccia, considered the threat of pan• Germanism in Austria greater than the danger of Communism, letter Caccia to Kirkpatrick, 25 January 1950, FO 371/84897, PRO. l 00. Rahkolb cites documentation by the Austrian Peace Council, Die Aufi'iist1111g Oster• reichs. Dokumenle 1111d fo.rnche11 (Vienna. l 95 l) in Washi11g1011. p. 145. I 0 l. Report on the conversations on Austria's Internal Security. l l August l 950, FRUS, 1950, IV, 488-94; summary in Burrows to Bevin, l 6 August 1950, FO 371/84929. PRO. I 02. These were the most reliable anti-Communists Figl, Scharf, Gruber (Helmer was added later), Caccia to Younger, 14 September, and Gainer conversation with Trimble, 20 November 1950. FO 371/84930. PRO. I 03. On Soviet clumsiness see Dean Acheson, Presenl al the Creation: M_\' Years in the S/ille Depa/'/mrnt (New York: W.W. Norton. 1969), pp. 313. 646: on Stalin's blun• dering foreign policy during l 948-53 see Mastny. Sm·ie! /11sernrilY. pp. 4 7-62, and Gaddis, We Now K11mr, pp. 113-29. I 04. William Stueck, The Korean War: An /11tema1io11i1/ Histon (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1995): Leffler, Prepo11dem11ce, pp. 361-97; Gaddis, We Nml' KnoH'. pp. 54-84; Mastny. So1·ie1 lnsernri!r, pp. 98-133. I 05. The American perspective can be gathered from the correspondence in Box 7, Lot M-88, RG 43, NA: "Communist Demonstrations against Wage-Price-Agreement in Austria", Caccia to Bevin with attached minutes and Gruber telegram of 5 October to Western power>.. 9 October l 950. FO 371 /84923. PRO: Gunter Bischof. '"Austria looks to the West': Kommunistische Put>.chg:efahr. geheime Wiederbewaffnung und Westorientierung: am Anfang der flinfzig:er Jahre". in Os!crrcich i11 dc11 Fii11f~igern,pp. l 8'.1-209: Michael Ludwig Klaus Dieter Mulley and Robert Strcibel (eds). Der Ok1oherstreik 1950: t'in Wc17ilef'tlltkl dcr Z1l'eilc11 Rcpublik (Vienna. 1991 ). 106. CGUSFA (Salzburg) to War Department (for JCS), 13 October: JCS (War Department) to CGUSFA, IO October 1950, Box 9. Geographic File 1948-1950, RG 218. NA. 107. Gruber to Acheson, 5 October; Matthews (State) to Marshall (Defense). 11 October: Acheson to Marshall with attached memo "Internal Security in Austria". 30 October: Pace (Secretary of the Army) to Marshall, 18 November 1950. CD 092 Austria (1950). Entry 199. Box 177. RG 330. NA. l 08. Stueck. Korean War, p. 5. I 09. /hid .. p. 71: Lct1lcr. Prel'ondemnce. p. 393. l l 0. "Austria and the Military Assistance Program". 3 April 1950, 763.5/4-:150: "Post• Treaty Defense Forces-Austria". Thibodeaux to State Department. 28 September 1953. 663.001/9-2853. RG 59. NA: "Allocation du Major Marden G-3 - Q. G. USFA - 7.4.1954". in Olle-Laprune to Chef de l'Etat des Forces Armees lere Division. l 2 March l 954. I U 19, Army Archives. Vincennes: Stifter, Wiedcrhe1rnfji11111g, pp. l 20ff. 204 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55 111. Harriman memo for President. 18 January 1952. 763.56fl- I 852. RG 59. NA. 112. "Austrian Aid Program··. attached to memo Bonbright to Ohly. 20 November 1951. 763.5-MAPfl 1-205 I. RG 59. NA. 113. "Position of Austria in Western Europe'". 5 February 195 I. 763.00/2-551. RG 59, NA. Briefing Paper for the Secretary of State !Acheson! for His Use in Connection with the Visit of the Austrian Chancellor (Fig!). 9 May 1952. Box 9. Lot D 223. RG 59. NA. 114. "Financial Appendix" to US Objecti\·es and Policies with Respect to Austria (NSC 164fl). 14 October 1953, FRUS. 1952--4. Vll/2. 1921. 115. Stifter. Wicderrmfi·11st1111g. pp. 164-71. 116. Kopeczek. "Fallbeispicle". 52-6: Fran; Olah. Die Eri1111en111gen (Vienna: Amalthea. 1995). pp. 11-52: Rathkolh. Washi11g11111. p. l-\6f. 117. Letter Kidd to Williamson. 7 Octoher 1950. Box 7. Lot M-88. RG ..[\.NA. 118. Rutter memo of conversation (with Polcar. chief of the Vienna OVP and president of the Austrian Aero Club),-\ October 1951. Box 8. Lot M-88. RG 43, NA. 119. "p11.c;R1v1-Doc;" is dated 22 December 19-\9. Various versions of the "p11.c;R1vi'' plans are in the .series P&O 381 PIM TS (with dates). Box 2-\8. RG 319. NA: Robert A. Wampler. "Ambiguous Legacy: The United States. Great Britain and the Foundations of NATO Strategy. 19-\8-1957". PhD Diss .. Han·ard University. 1991. pp. 1-51: Kenneth W. Condit. The Hi.11orr o( the .!11i111 Chief.\ of" Staff" 1947-1949 (Wilmington: Gla1ier. 1979): Leopoldo Nuti. "Security and Perceptions of Threat in Italy in the Early Cold War Years. 1945-5."l". in Gori and Pons (eds). Sm·ier Union. pp. 420-4. 120. Donnelly to Acheson. 17 Octoher 1951. 663.00lf!0-1651. RG 59. NA. For these French Spcrn·orherci11111grn. with a detailed map or all 48 road hlocks, see Bruno W. Koppensteiner, "Die 'geheimc' Wiederhcwaffnung". unpuhlished 'eminar paper, University of Sal1hurg ( 1998). Mr Koppensteiner. a retired officer of the Austrian Army. was granted access to hitherto top-secret documents in the Tyrol military district office. 121. Irwin (CGUSFA-SalzburgJ to Director JAMAG (London). 6 Fehruary 1951. CCS 383.21 Austria ( 1-21-44) Sec 18. Box 7. RG 218: Donnelly to Williamson. 3 Octoher 1951. 763.5 MAP/I 0-351. RG 59. NA. 122. Eisenhower to JCS. 9 March and 2:l April 1951. in Louis Cialamhos er al. (eds). The Papa.1 of" D11·ig/11 [)({l·id Ei.1rnhm1·cr: NATO mu! 1/1e C11J1!/>Uig11 of 1952, vol. XII (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Pre". 1989). pp. I 07 n. 4. 236: Bonhright to Hickerson. 6 August 1952. and Radford to Wilson. 9 Decemher 1953. FRUS, 1952-.+. VIl/2. 1774-6. 1932-4: "Tre., Secret". Olle-Laprune to Bethouart. 21 Septemhcr 1954. Box I U 19. Army Archives. Vincennes. 123. Mastny. Sm·ier !nsecurirr. p. 74f. While individual American military hard-liners did favour a pre-emptive atomic strike against the Soviet Union. this was never top-level official American policy: see Marc Trachenherg. Hi.1111rr & S1ru1cgr (Princeton: Princeton Uni\ ersity Pres.,. 1991 ). pp. !00-52. 124. Nash (Chief MAAG -Italy) to Secretary of Defense. 17 September: USINCEUR to War Department. 12 Octoher: Arnold tCGUSFA-Sal1hurg) to USINCEUR (Naples). 5 Decemher 1953. all 383.21 Austria. Box 7. RG 218. NA. Dulles to Wil,on. 24 October 1953, 763.5/10-2453. RG 59. NA. Thompson to Department of State, 21 Octoher: Memo Bonhright to Merchant. 22 October; Dulles to Thompson. 27 Octoher 1953. FRUS. 1952-.J. Vll/2. 1923-6. 125. Thompson to Dulles. 28 Septemher 1953. 663.001/9-2853. RG 59. NA. 126. Radford (Chairman or JCS J to Secretary or Defense. I I Septemher 1956. 763.5- MSP/ 10-1056. RG 59. NA. On Austrian defence cooperation with NATO. see Rathkolh. \Vashi11g11111. pp. 121-7. Notes 205 127. "Equipment for Austria". Maj. Gen. Jonson (USAF) to Radford 11nd Aufin11ninistl'r 1945-1953 (Innsbruck: Haylllon, 1991 ), pp. 144-5 I: and Michael Gehler, "Kur1.vcrtrag flir C)stcrreich'' Die westliche Staatsvertrags• Diplolllatie und die Stalin-Noten von 1952", Vierte!sjuhr.1/tefie fi'ir Zeiti;esc/1ichte, 42 (1994), 243-78: Gaddis, We Nmr Knmr, pp. 125-9. 146. Lahouchere to Allen, I August: Lahouchcre to Hancock, 13 August: Lahouchere to Hancock, 20 August 1952, FO 371/98069-98070. PRO. 147. Josef Lcidenfrost, "Die UNO als Forum flir den (istcrreichischen Staatsvertrag'' Volll Wiener Apell 1946 his zur Brasilicn-lnitiative 1952", in Stour:h Festschrifi, pp. 261-75. 148. Hogan, Munlwll Plan, pp. 336-426. 149. "Financial Appendix", NSC 164/1, FRUS, 1952-4, 1922. I 50. "Political Stability and Econolllic Reform", Dowling to State Department, 9 September 1952, 863.00/9-952. RG 59, NA. I 5 I. "The Anticipated Impact of Western Rearmament upon the Austrian Economy", 6 February 195 I, Thibodeaux to State Departlllent, 863.00/2-65 I. RG 59, NA. I 52. The same was true for the Moody Program to increase Austrian productivity, sec Hilton memo to Tesoro. 29 January 1953. 863.00/1-2953. RG 59. NA: Kurt Tweraser. 'The Politics of Productivity and Corporatislll: The Late Marshall Plan in Austria, 1950-54", CAS. I II ( 1995 ), 91-1 I 5. I 53. "The Foreign Trade Licensing Issue and its Implications for United States Policy on Austria", Thibodeaux to State Department, 7 December 195 I, 863.00/12-75 I, RG 59, NA. 154. Kenney tECA adlllinistrator in Vienna) to FigL and Figl to Kenney. 19 July 1952. 863.0017-2852. RG 59. NA. 155. Memo of conversation (Loewenthal, Byington, Allen). 14 July 1952, 863.00/ 7-1452. RG 59. NA. 156. The Johnstone Report of I December 1951, 863.00/12-151, RG 59, NA. Kommentar ~l/111 Johnstone Bericht 1952 \sic\. enclosed in Thibodeaux dispatch of 10 June 1953. 863.00/6-1053. RG 59, NA. 157. "An Estilllatc of the Austrian Politico-Economic Situation". Dowling to State Department, 24 Septclllber 1952. 763.00/9-2452, RG 59, NA. 158. Dowling to State Departlllent, 9 September 1952. 863.00/9-952. RG 59. NA. 159. /hid. Notes to Chapter 6 I. Molotr11· Re111e111hers, p. 336. 2. Memo of conversation (Johnpoll-Fcrdinand Graf). I 9 April 1955. Box 7. Lot 58 D 72. RG 59. NA. 3. Mastny. So1·ie1 lnsernritr, p. 174. 4. Vladislav Zubok, "Soviet Intelligence and the Cold War: The "Small' Committee of Information, 1952-53". Diplonwtic Hi.11on·. 19/3 ( 1995), 458. 5. Vojtech Mastny, "Kremlin Politics and the Austrian Settlement'', Pmhlem.1 in Co111111uni.1m, 31 ( 1982), 37-51: Vladislav Zubok, '"Soviet Intelligence'', p. 471; Allly Knight. Beriu: Swlin '.1 Fir.11 Liet1te11a111 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993 ). pp. 176-99: and James Richter. "Re-examining Soviet Policy Towards Germany in 1953", l:'urope-A.1iu Studies, 45 ( 1993 ), 6 71-91: and Khmshchel' 's Douhle Bind: lntemutional Pressures und Domestic Coalition Politics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994): Molotm· Rrniem/Jer.1, p. 336: Miner, "His Master's Voice", in The Dip/011wr.1. pp. 65-100. Notes 207 6. Richter, ..Soviet Policy'·. pp. 67 1- 91 (citation p. 681 ); Knight, Beriu. pp. 191-7; Zuhok, ··soviet Intelligence", pp. 460-72; Molorol' Remembers, pp. 333-7; Mastny, Sm•ier l11 seruriry. pp. 178-85; Gaddis. Now We K11011'. pp. 129-3 l ; Valur Jngi mundarson, ''The Eisenhower Administration, the Adenauer Government. and the Politkal Uses of the East Gernian Uprising in 1953". Diplomaric Hisrory, 2013 ( 1996). pp. 381~09. 7. Va lentin Falin. Polirische £rin11enmgen (Hamburg, 1993). p. 324: and Zub-Ok. based on an analysis by Vladimir Semyonov of 17 October 1959. in ··soviet intell igence'', p. 462. 8. Alfons Schilc her (ed.), Osrerreich 1111d die Grl!flmiichte: Dok11me11te :.11r IJsterre• ichischen Aujlenpo/itik 1945- 1949 (Vienna. 1980). 154-79: Stourzh, Staws1•errrag, pp. 86-89; Ludwig Steiner. ·'Die AuBenpulitik Raabs als Bundcskan z.ler'', in Bru.~a lli and Heindl (eds), Raah. p. 2 17; Bischof. "Gruber und die Anfiinge des ·Neucn Kurses···. pp. 154ff. 9. Dowling to Dulles. l 0 June. and Richard Davis. "Recem Soviet Policy in Austria''. in Thompson to Dulles. 25 August 1953, FRUS, 1952-4, Vll/2. p. 1866f: Rauchensteiner. So11de1j£1/I, pp. 3 16- 18. 10. Ludwig Jedlicka interviews wi th Julius Raab, 16 February 1962. KP. The Americans suspected that Soviet displeasure with Raab in 1945 was not due to hi s questionable afllliation with the prewar authoritarian governm enL~. but because of hi~ .. firn1 hehav• iour·· during the negotiations in September 1945 over the bilateral oil company. "Raab\ Exclusion from First Postwar Austrian Government". Dowling to State Department. I April 1953. 763.00/4- 153. RG 59, NA. Raab left few personal papers. One of the best ~ource~ to gauge Raab·s thinking about international affairs arc the confidential and lengthy reports by Professor Fritz Valjavec. a Balkans specialist who was teaching in Munich, where he had gathered a team for s LUdying trends in Southeasrern Europe ("St11die11gruppe Siidost"). He penned regular well-infom1ed reports on the Austrian scene for the German Foreign Office - a combination or intelligence assessments. chatty ''kiss-and-tell'' incerviews with public officials, iuid impressioni stic public opinion surveys. ··Roosevelt lefties" can be found in the report on Raab's US trip, 12 January 1955. 752-05/94.19/137/55, 306, vol. 3, PA-AA. I I. Thompson to IJulJcs, 5 November, and Yost lo IJullcs, 18 November 1953, 763.00/I 1-553 and /11 - J 853, RG 59, NA; Gehler, "'Figl- Fischerei' ... pp. 375- 9; Steiner. "AuGenpolitik Raabs", p. 2 I 5f; author's personal interviews with Ludwig Steiner and Alfred Makca. 12. H. Pierre Secher. Bruno Kreisky: Chancellor of Ausrria (Pittsburgh: Dorrance. 1993): Kreisky, Z111iKhe11 den Zeiten: Wolfgang C. Miiller. "Bruno Kreisky". in Palitiker. pp. 353-65. 13. On Bischoff ''the notorious fellow traveller on the left", see Tokyo dispatch to Foreign Office. 24 May 1955, 5 12-03/94.19, 3 13. vol. 40, PA-AA; Steiner. "Raab's AuBcnpolitik", p. 2 I 7f; author's personal interview with Ludwig Steiner and William Hayter. One of many examples of Bisehoff's odd revisioni st reports, whicb left the Foreign Office in Vienna incredulous, was that the Soviet Un ion was not econom.icall y exploiting its satellites any more th an the British were .. ntllk.ing" their colonies and the Americans tbe rest of the world, see Bischoff to Gruber. 20 March 1950, 122.622-pol/50, Box 146, BK.A-AA, AdR. 14. The Western capitals were full of suspicion that the Austrians did not give them all the details ab-Out their initiative to test the Kremlin in the neutral option via the Indians. Aldrich to Dulle.<., 23 June 1953, 663.001/6-2353, and Thompson to Dulle~. 11 July 1953. 663.00117-1153, RG 59, NA. Kreisky also complained LO the American~ that "Raab's policy towards Russia was carried on behind our backs". memo of conversation ( Kreisky- Yost). 8 March 1954. KP. 208 Austria in the First Cold V\1<11; 1945-55 15. Bi,chof, "Cold Warrior": Cichkr introduction to GruhN Rl' 27. Gunter Bischof, "Before Lhe Break: The Relationship between Eisenhower and McCarthy. J 952- l 95r, M.A. thesis, University of New Orleans, 1980, pp. I 07- 24; David Mayer:s, The Ambassadors and America"s Soviet Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. J78 -97; Michael Ruddy. The Cautious Diplomat: Charles E. Bohlen and the Sol'iet Union. 1929-1969 (KenL OH: Kent State University Press. 1986). 28. Athan G. Theoharis, 711e Yalw Myrhs: An Issue i11 U.S. Polirirs, 1945-1955 (Columbia: Missouri University Press. 1970), pp. 130--94: Bennett Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges: The U11i1ed States and Ea.Hern Europe (New York: New York University Press. 199 l ), pp. 45-9. 29. Isaac Deutscher. RLtssia offer Stalin (London: Hamish Hamilton. 1953). p. 156. 30. Mayers. /\111hassado1;~. p. 176. /\critical view of McCarthy's anti-Communism is in M. J. Beale. American Amicommunism: Combating 1he Enemy Within. 1830- 1970 (Baltimore: Johni. Hopkins Uni versity Press, 1990): a more sympathetic view of panisan anti-Communism in John E. Haynes. Red Scare or Red Menace? American Co1111111111is111 and A11ticom1111111is111 in /he Cold War Era (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996). 3 l. Bischof, "Before the Break"; and "The Politics of Anti-Communism in the Executive Branch during the Early Cold War: Truman. Eisenhower and McCarthy(ism)", in Andre Kaenel (ed.). A111i-Comm1111is111 aud McCarthyis111 in the United States ( 1946-1954 ): Essays on rhe Poli1ics and Cult11re of rhe Cold War (Paris: Editions Messene. 1995), pp. 53-78: Jeff Broadwater. Eisenhower and the Anti·Co111m1111ist Crusade (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press. 1992). 32. John Young, Wi11s1011 Churchill's Last Campaign: Brirai11 and /he Cold War 1951- 1955 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1996); Peter G. Boyle (ed.), The Ch11rchi/J• Eisenhower Correspo11denN 1953-1955 (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Un iversity Press. 1995); Mastny. Soviet lnsecuriry. p. 174; on the domestic politics of Churchill's summitry see David Carlton, "GroBbritannien und die Gipfcldiplo• matie". in Bruno ThoB and Hans-Erich Volkmann (eds). Zwischen Ka/rem Krieg und En1spw1111mg: Sicherheirs- 1111d Dewschlandpolitik der 81111desrep11/Jlik /111 Mlichte• system der Jahre 1953- 1955 (Boppar on Austria see Stourzh. S1aat.11'ertrug. pp. 88-90. 111-16: Bischof. "Anfiinge des 'Neuen Kurses' ... pp. 159-70. 40. Dockrill. Eisrn/w\\'er'.1 Nrn·-Look. 41. "Basic National Security Policy.. ( NSC 162/2 ). replacing Truman ·s NSC 68. 30 October 1953. FRUS, 1952-4. pp. 577-96. 42. I 66th Meeting of the NSC, 13 October 1953. and "U.S. Objectives and Policies with Respect to Austria.. (NSC 164/1 ). 14 October 1953. FRUS, 1952-4. VII/I. 1909-22: Bischof. "Besatzungsmacht USA ... pp. 129-33. 43. John Colville. The Fringes of Pmrer: /() Dmrning Street Diaries, 1939-1955 (New York: Norton. 1985). p. 683: Eisenhower to Churchill. 22 July 1954. in Correspondence, p. 163. Eisenhower's "gender trope" is the typical macho Cold War oversimplication of Soviet relations by way of a sexual metaphor. Costigliola. 'The Nuclear Family". pp. 163-83. 44. Richard Immerman. 'The United States and the Geneva Conference of 1954: A New Look". Di11/0111atic Histon·. 14 ( 1990). 4 7-8: Rupieper. "Berliner Aussen• ministerkonferenz... pp. 427-53. 45. Memorandum of Breakfast Conference with the President. 20 January 1954, folder "Meetings with the President 1954 (2)". box I. Memoranda Series, Dulles Papers. Princeton: Gabriel, American Cm1cc/Jfion of Ne111ralitr. p. I 75f. 46. On Austrian views at Berlin, Mueller-Graaf to Foreign Office. 20 February 1954. 21 1-00/55, vol. 2, PA-AA. Dulles statement in 18th meeting, 12 February 1954. and Dulles in 19th Plenary Session. 19 February 1954. FRUS, 1952-4, VII/I, 1061-5, I 088-9: he drafted this statement himself, Draft of Statement with handwritten cor• rections, 13 February 1954. Box 78, Dulles Papers, Princeton. On the Berlin CFM see Stourzh. S1aa1.11·crtrag, pp. 116-25: Cronin, Great Poll'er Politics. pp. 129-36: Gabriel. A111erirnn Crmception of Ne111mlilr, pp. I 66ff: the active Austrian role in Kreisky Papers. 47. Eisenhower-Churchill meeting, 26 June 1953. Box 2. Ann Whitman Diary Series, DDEL: Young, Churchill's Last Campaign. pp. 266-72: Martin Gilbert, Nl'l·er Despair, vol. VIII: Winston S. Churchill (Boston: Little Brown. 1988). p. 1002f: Colville, Fringes, pp. 692-5: Bischof. "Eisenhower and the Austrian Treaty ... pp. 151-3. 48. "Chronology of Austrian Treaty Negotiations ... 16 April 1955. Box 3. Lot M-88. RG 43. NA: Sven Allard, Russia and the Austrian Swte freutr: A Cose Study of Sm·iel Polin· i11 Europe (University Park. PA: Penn State University Press, 1970), pp. 120-30; Bruno Thol.l, "Modellfall Ostereich'' Der iisterreichische Staatsvertrag und die deutsche Frage 1954/55''. in Thol.l and Volkmann (eds). Z1ri.1chrn Kaltem Krieg und Enlsponnung, pp. 94-107. -19. Steiner, "Negotiating", pp. 126-9: Tl101.l. "Modellrall Osterreich''", pp. 93-107; Bischof, "Eisenhower and the Austrian Treaty ... p. I 54f. 50. Saki Dockrill, Britain '.1 Polin· fin· West Ci'mwn Rear1110111rn1. pp. 133-50: and "Britain and the Settlement of the West German Rearmament Question in 1954". in Michael Dockrill and John W. Young (eds), British Foreign Polin-. 1945-1956 (London: Macmillan, 1989). pp. 149-72: James G. Hershberg. '"Explosion in the Offing·: German Rearmament and American Diplomacy. 1953-1955 .. , Diplomatic Historr, 16 ( 1992), 511-49. 51. Penfield to Department of State. 16 December. and memo Merchant to Murphy. 23 December 1954. FRUS, 1952-4. VIl/2. 1992-7: the Communist press campaign is in Mueller-Graaf to Foreign Office. 30 January 1954, 210.0 I /55. vol. I, PA-AA. 52. John Van Oudenarcn. Drilente in f,'urope: The Sm·iel Union wul the West since 1953 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 1991 ). p. 32. Notes 211 53. v. Nostitz minute, 14 February 1953, 210-01 /55, vol. 2; Austro-German relations arc summarized in the minute "Status der deutschen Fi.irsorgestellen in Osterreich". 20 May 1954, 210-02/55, vol. 41, PA-AA. Mueller-Graaf was concerned about the provocative meetings escalating into '"AnschluB rallies". Kreisky, n.d. ( 1954 ). KP: for Austro-German relations see Gi.inter Bischof, 'The Historical Roots of a Special Relationship'', in Harald von Rieckhof and Hanspeter Neuhold (eds), U11eq11ul Partners (Boulder: Westview), pp. 84-92: Michael Gehler, "'Kein AnschluB. aher auch Keine Chinesische Mauer': Osterreichs aussenpolitische Emanzipation und die deutsche Frage, 1945-1955", in Osterreich unter alliierter Besat;ung, pp. 205-68. 54. '"Was heabsichtigen die Sowjets mit ihrem ji.ingsten Angehot", Valjavec report. 21 March 1955, 211-00/94.19, 309, vol. 46, PA-AA; on the French "Anschlul.\ trauma", Angerer. "Frankreich", pp. 147-62. 55. Memo of conversation (Raab-Dulles et al.). 22 November 1954, and documents in FRUS, 1952-4, VII/2, 1981-9; for Mendes-France's "neutralist machinations" and the Chauvel connection. Valjavec report of 15 March 1955, 211-00/94.19/403/55. 309. vol. 46, PA-AA; Stourzh, Staatsvertrag. p. 128; Angerer, "Frankreich", p. 353f; Austrian roots of French initiative in KP. 56. Valjavec to Foreign Otlice, "Bundeskanzler Raab Uber seine Amerikareise" of 12 January 1955, 762-05/94.191137 /55, 306, vol. 43, and "Neuorientierung der iistere• ichischen AuBenpolitik", 15 March 1955, 211-00/94.19/403/55. 309, vol. 46. PA-AA. 57. Molotov never forgave Khrushchev for his '"deceptive" new policy and maligned him as a "Bukharinite". an unprincipled "rightist" and a "pacifist", and denounced "peaceful coexistence" as a "slogan" (Molotov Remembers. pp. 354-65, 388ff.). 58. "Stalin was gone hut Molotov was still around, and he had put together that policy along with Stalin. Therefore, the views of Stalin were really the views of Molotov and Stalin. Which one of them played the first violin'? No doubt Stalin. But Molotov had played his own violin as loud as possible." Nikita S. Khrushchev. Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost 7itpes, trans. and ed. by Jerrod L. Schecter with Vyacheslav V. Luchkov (Boston: Little Brown, 1990). pp. 72-80 (citations pp. 74-6). Molotm• Rememhers, p. 336f; Kreisky. bvischen den Zeiten, pp. 472ff: Mastny, "Kremlin Politics", p. 41 f: Richter, Khrushchei"s Double Bind. pp. 62-73: Zuhok in Bischof and Dockrill (eds), Cold War Respite (forthcoming). 59. Deutscher, Russia afier Stalin, p. 141. 60. Allard, Russia, pp. 154-91; Stourzh, Staat.1·1·ertrag. pp. 132-8; ThoB, "Modelfall Osterreich''", pp. 107-23; Mastny, "Kremlin Politics". p. 41 f; the record of Austro• Soviet diplomacy in March-April 1955 is now available in the state treaty files GZ. 319.798-pol/55, BKA-AA. AdR; for a selection see Osterreich 1111d die Grofimiichte. pp. 236ff; Otto Eiselsherg. t-'rlehte Geschichte 1919-1997 (Vienna: Biihlau, 1997). 61. Bohlen to Dulles, 25 March 1955, in FRUS, 1955-7. V. 14-16; a copy of the Soviet Foreign Ministry's 24 March note in FO 3711117787, PRO; Stourzh. Stiwt.\\'ertmg. pp. 136-40; Allard. Russia, pp. 171-84; Thof.\. "Modefall Osterreich')", pp. 118-23: on Molotov's motives (based on Soviet Foreign Ministry files) Manfried Rauchenstciner, "Es war einmal ein prachtiger Fri.ihlingtstag". Die Pres.ve. 11/12 May 1991, '"Spectrum'', pp. 1-2. 62. Memo of Conversation (Dulles-Gruber), 25 March 1995, FRUS, 1955-7. V. 16-19; Gruber articulated Dulles's warnings during an ambassadors' conference in Vienna, 28 March 1955. 320.920-pol/55, 319.796-pol/55, BKA-AA, AdR. reprinted in Osterreich und die Grofimiiche, pp. 254-67. Robert Bowie. the director of the State Department Policy Planning Staff. analysed the situation in the same vein (personal interview with Bowie). 63. Allard, Russia, p. 144; Valjavec report "Neuorieung der iisterreichischen Aul.\enpolitik", 24 March 1955, 211-00/94.19/423/55. 309. vol. 46. PA-AA. 212 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55 64. Kreisky praised Thompson, "the best negotiator with Moscow that the West ever had". and "the most important American diplomat that 1 had to the pleasure to meet", see /111 Strom der Politik: Der Memoirrn ;H·eiter Tei/ (Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau, 1988). p. 72. 65. Thompson to Dulles. 30 March 1955, FRUS, 1955-7. V, 22-4, and Thompson to Dulles, 4 April 1955, 663.001/4-55, RG 59. NA. 66. 245th NSC Meeting, 21 April 1955, FRUS. 1955-7, V. 53. 67. Harrison, "Record of Conversation with Austrian Ambassador", 25 March 1955, FO 371/J 17787, PRO. 68. Bohlen to Dulles. 8 April 1955. 663.001/4-855. RG 59. NA, and Bohlen to Dulles, 31 March 1955, FRUS, 1955-7, V, 26-8: about Bohlen 's frustrations in Moscow, Mayers, Ambassadors, pp. 191-202. 69. Bischoff argued that Soviet "anti-AnschluB" moves were designed to prevent a par• tition of Austria and terminate the American presence in Western Austria, which was leading to an ever-tightening Austrian military integration into the West. Bischoff to Foreign Ot1ice, 27 February 1955. in Osterreich wzd die Gro/lmiichte. pp. 242-5. Soviet propaganda had made Austrian "rearmament" and integration into Western defence a major theme of their campaign against the Paris Agreements. Allard, Russia. pp. 131-54 (especially p. 150). Khrushchev told Raab in 1958 that the Kremlin had decided to conclude a treaty in 1955 because "it was the time of the genesis of NATO and many strategists expected Western Austria to become a bridge in the Western alliance". Kreisky, Z1visclze11 den Zt'iten, p. 472: Steiner, "Negotiations". pp. 62 and 70: ThoB, "Modelfall Ostcrrcich'?", pp. I 99ff. 70. Harrison minute "Austria", 23 March 1955. FO 371 II 17787. PRO. Raab. of course. had recognized early on that this very NATO forward strategy or blocking the Alpine passes also was the major obstacle for an Austrian treaty: this is a recurrent theme in the Valjavec reports in PA-AA. 71. 245th NSC Meeting, 21 April 1955, FRUS. 1955-7. V. 52f. 72. On the Austrian police force that would form the nucleus or the future Austrian army, see NSC's Operations Coordinating Board, "Progress Report on United States Policy toward Austria" (NSC 164/1 ). 14 October 1955. FRUS. 1955-7, XXVI, 23-8: on Austrian rearmament. Bischof. '"Gcheimer Verblindeter"'", pp. 447-50: and Oliver Rathkolb, Waslzi11gton, pp. 120-7. 73. Thompson to Dulles, 6 April 1955. 663.001/4-655. RG 59, NA. 74. "Memoranda of conversation" by Alexander Johnpoll based on confidential inter• views with Pittcrman, 25 March. and Helmer, 8 April 1955, Box 7. Lot 58 D 72, RG 59, NA: Stadler. Schiirf: p. 419: Schtirf's suspicions, Allard. Russia, p. 140. 75. Department of State to Thompson, 19 April 1995. FRUS, 1955-7. V, 49f. 76. Instructions to the Amhassador, Foreign Office to Vienna, 2 April 1955. and ·Tripartite Statement", Foreign Office to Vienna, 4 April 1955. FO 371/J 17788/, PRO: "Editorial Note", FRUS. 1955 7. V, 28f. 77. From the composition of the Austrian delegation the British Amhassador in Vienna, Sir Geoffrey Wallinger. expected serious work on details. Wallinger to Foreign Office, 29 March 1955. FO 371/J 17787, PRO. The legal adviser Verosta, who was considered one of the most influential "neutralitsts" on the Ballhausplatz pushing for agreement with the Kremlin and accepting an open clash with the Americans. was on the delegation. Valjavec report, "Aktuelle aussenpolitische Strhmungen und Gruppen in Osterreich". 17 March 1955, 21 I-00/94.19/423/55, 309, vol. 46, PA-AA. 78. Kreisky's detailed record of the Moscow negotiations revealed the partisan disagree• ments and tensions, KP, Kreisky Foundation. The Western ambassadors still felt deceived by the daily briefings since Bischoff was very "vague". Bohlen to Dulles, 14 April 1955, FRUS. 1955-7. V, 38. Notes 213 79. The intense partisan disagreements over neutrality are voiced in the Johnpoll inter• views with Helmer and Pitterman. Ferdinand Graf, the OYP State Secretary in the Interior Ministry. thought that Raab suffered from a "messianic complex" when it came to neutrality. Johnpoll interviews, Box 7, Lot 58 D 72, Rg 59. NA. The same partisanship still characterizes much of the historiography of the party historians, Stadler, Schiir( pp. 409-31. and Alois Mock. Ludwig Steiner and Andreas Kho! (eds). Neue Fakte11 ;11 Staat.1Tertmg and Ncutralitiit (Vienna, 1980). 80. FRUS, 1955. V. 33-43: Stourzh, Staut.11"ertrug, pp. 131-72: Glinter Bischof. "0ster• reichische Neutralitiit, die deutsche Frage und europaische Sicherheit 1953-1955". in Rolf Steininger et al. (eds). Die doppelte Ei!l(liimmung: E11ropiii.1chc Sicherheit wzd die deutsche Fruge in den Fiinf.igem (Munich, 1993), pp. 154-66: Yan Oudenaren, INtellfe in Eumpe, pp. 30-5: Kreisky. Zwischen den Zeitrn, pp. 467-76. 81. FRUS, 1955-7, V. 66-109: Sourzh. Stuutsi•ertrag, pp. 163-70: the oil negotiations in Rathkolh, Washington, pp. 232-59: a draft of the "Vienna Memorandum" is in the KP. The ·'fattening" ("miisten") comment was articulated hy the German Attorney General Dehler from the Liberal Party. see v. Nostitz minute, 4 November 1952. 210-01/55 III 16570/52, 137. vol. I, PA-AA. 82. Before Raah travelled to the US, Gruber advised him to he forthcoming in the Jewish restitution matter and not "to overestimate Jewish influence, even though they hold important positions of influence in the media and finance". Gruber added that he had been defending Raab against charges of being an undemocratic reactionary. Raab in turn thanked Gruber for defending him against "red Jewish propaganda". Handwritten letter Gruber to Raab. 23 October. and Raab to Gruber, 29 October 1954. I am grateful to Gottfried Heindl for providing me with xeroxes of these letters. 83. Rathkolh. Washington. pp. 212-32: Alhricht. "Jewish Interests". 84. Thompson to Dulles (in Paris). 12 May. and Thompson to Department of State. 14 May 1955, FRUS, 1955-7. V, 101-3. I 12f: Stourzh, Staat.11-ertmg, p. 167. A draft copy of Figl's statement can he found in the KP. 85. "Neutralism in Austria". memo Muller to Allen. 15 June 1955. 763.00/6-1555. RG 59. NA. Notes to Conclusion I. Abraham Lincoln. Annual Message to Congress. I December 1862. 2. "Evaluation of Possible Transfer of USIA Complex to Austria Prior to Treaty Settlement". Thibodeaux to State Department, 663.001/18-1353: "Results of Austro-Tripartite Working Group on Article 35 and 42 of State Treaty". 663.001/1- 2154. RG 59, NA. 3. See table I in chapter 4. 4. Fisch. Reparatimzen. 5. This was also Raah's thinking. see the Yaljavec reports "Neuorientierung der iister• reichischen Aussenpolitik", 15 March, 211.00/94.19/403/55, and that of many Austrian foreign-policy experts. see "Was beahsichtigen die Sowjets mit ihrem jiing• sten Angehot an Osterrcich''", 25 March 1955, 211.00/94.19. both 309. Box 46. PA-AA. Cronin, Great Po\\"er Politics. pp. I 60ff: Stearman. Sm'iet Union. 6. This was recognized hy Austrian leaders at the time. see Valjavec report. "Was beabsichtigen die Sowjets". cited in previous note. 7. Letter Ross (Rome) to Ward, 23 May 1955. FO 3711117801. PRO. 8. "Yoralhergerisch-schweizerische Verteidigungsgesprache", Valjavec Report. 19 April 1955. 230-00/94.19/663/55. 314. vol. 51, PA-AA. 214 Austria in the First Cold Ww; 1945-55 9. Saki Dockrill's essay on "the Eden Plan" in Bischof and Dockrill (eds), Cold War Respite: Piotr Wandycz, "Adam Rapacki and the Search for European Security". in Craig and Loewenheim (eds). The Diplomats. pp. 289-317. 10. Memo of conversation (Lemherger, Allen. Appling). 18 October 1954. 763/10· 1854. RG 59. NA: Hanhimliki. Containing Coexistence. I I. Both Molotov and Bulganin impressed on the Austrian delegation that the Austrian solution could not serve as a model for Germany. Portisch interview with Kreisky. KP; Adenauer speech in Goslar, 22 April 1955. Adenauer Foundation, Rhiindorf; "JnformationserlaB zur Regelung der Sprache", hy Hallstein, 20 April 1955. 304512-03/94.19/537/55. 312, vol. 49. PA-AA. Adenauer denounced the Austrian solution of 1955, "the seedy Austrian mess" ("Sch1veinerei"). Hans-Peter Schwarz. Adenauer - Der Staatsmw1n. 1952-1967 (Stuttgart: OVA, 1988), p. 184. A different view in Michael Gehler, "State Treaty am.I Neutrality: The Austrian Solution in 1955 as a 'Model' for Germany''", in C AS. III ( 1995). 39-78. 12. "Adenauer had no confidence in the German people. He was terrified that when he disappeared from the scene a future German Government might do a deal with Russia at the German expense", Michael Gehler. "Westintegration und Wiedervere· inigung - Adenauers Demarche hei Kirkpatrick am I 5. Dezemhcr 1955 ein MiGversttindnis'r, in Geschichte in Wissensclwfi 11111/ U/1/erricht, 43/8 ( 1992). 4 77-88. IJ. On "triple containment" sec Gi.inter Bischof, "The Origins of West German Independence 1945-1955: From Occupation to Alliance". in Gernum Politics and SocietY, 27 ( 1992). 115: on "self-containment" see Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Germanr, Amerirn, Eumpe: Fortr Years of' German Foreign Polin· (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1989). p. I 56f; Reynolds 's introduction to Origins, p. 14. 14. Hanhimliki, Co/1/ai11i11g Coexiste11ce. p. 179: Cronin. Grea/ Pmrer Politics, p. 162f; H. W. Brands. The Specter o( Neutralism: The U11ited States and the Emergrnce 1!( the Third World, 1947-1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989). 15. Mathewson memo for Secretary of Defense. 22 April 1955; Wilson was still con· vinced that the Soviet move was designed to frustrate German rearmament, see memo NSC. 25 April 1955, both in NSC 164/1 (I). Box 7. Special Assistant for NSC Affairs. NSC Series, Policy Papers Suhseries. DDEL: 245th and 246th NSC Meetings. 21 and 28 April 1955. FRUS, 1955-7. V. 52-4. 59: the Dulles statement in the 245th meeting, Box 6. NSC-Series. Ann Whitman Files, DDEL. 16. USCJNCEUR to CGUSFA (Salzburg). 5 September 1955, and various cahles in Box 7. Lot 58 D 72. RG 59, NA. 17. Rathkolb, Washington, pp. I 20ff. 18. Military personnel in civilian clothes and "soft" material (food, "offshore pur· chases". etc.) - hut no military hardware or heavy weapons - regularly crossed the Brenner from Italy to Germany and vice-versa with the "full approval of the Austrian Government". Sec confidential memo attached to letter Thompson to Freund, 11 April 1956. 663.002/4-1156. The Vienna Embassy denied such ship· men ts, Hoover to Vienna Embassy, 663.00216-2156. The Austrians chose a loose interpretation of neutrality in such matters and permitted transits of military ship· ments "as much as they could get away with". Thompson to Dulles. 5 July 1956, 663.002117-556, RG 59. NA. 19. Brands. Specter of' Neutralism; see also Gabriel. American Conception. 20. Collfaini11g Coexistence, pp. 181 ff. 21. John Foster Dulles. "An Historic Week", Department o( State Bulletin, 30 May 1955. 871-6; Bipartisan Legislative Leadership Meeting, 3 May 1955. Box 3. Legislative Meetings Series. Ann Whitman Files, DDEL. 22. The Soviets suggested meeting in Vienna for the 1955 summit: hut in Dulles's mind. honouring Austrian neutrality would send a had signal to the Germans. The 1961 Notes 215 Kennedy-Khrushchev summit meeting in Vienna, and the 1975 Helsinki Accords, stand tall as symbols of dhente. 23. Michael Gehler and Wolfram Kaiser, '"A Study of Ambivalence: Austria and European Integration 1945-95", Co11temJHJran· l:'uropean Hi.iron·. 6/ I ( 1997). 75-99. 24. Gaddis, We N(m· Knmr, p. 289. 25. Valjavec report, '"Stimmungsriickschlag in Wien". 17 April 1955. 211.00/94.14/ 190 I 0/55, 309, vol. 46, PA-AA. 26. The Americans recognized Raab's emancipation early on, Richard Davis. ··Recent Soviet Policy in Austria", 25 August 1953. FRUS. 1952-4. VI!/2. 1882-93 (citation p. 1887): and "Austrian Neutrality'', memo Rutter to Freund. 15 September 1953. 663.00 I /9-1553, RG 59, NA. 27. Thompson to Department of State, 6 September 1955, 663.001.00/9-655 (and many more documents in this file). RG 59, NA: Rauchensteiner, Die Zwei. pp. 323-JO: Angerer. "Frankreich··. pp. 267-84. :rn. It never escalated into a "tyranny of the weak" of the sort that the superpowers later experienced with such clients as Ulbricht and Castro. or Diem and Somoza. sec Reynolds\ introduction and the Zubok and Pleshakov essay in Reynolds (ed.). Origins. 7, 53-76: Gaddis, We Now Know, p. 284f. 29. /hid .. p. 289f. 30. Pelinka. 'Tabus". in lm·e11t11r 45155. pp. 23-32. 31. Bischof. "Austria - A Colony'1" 32. Austrian observers guessed that. in case of a public opinion poll. 80 per cent of the Salzhurgers and more than 50 per cent of the Western Austrians would vote for the occupation powers to stay, see Valjavec report. '"Das Risiko der iistcrreichischen Aussenpolitik". 25 April 1955. 211-00/94. 19. 308. vol. 46. PA-AA. An American survey on Salzburg noted on the prospective end of the American occupation that the "little man is acutely unhappy about the potential economy loss and in many cases is fearful for his future safety'". Torbert (Salzburg) to Department of State. 663.001/4-2055, RG 59. NA. 33. See my introduction and review article and the Uhl, Pelinka and Herzstein essays in A11striw1 Historical Memon· und Nutimwl Jdentin·. in CAS. V (1997). 1-19. 64-102. 116-34. 302-41: a different view in Stourzh. "Erschiitterung und Konsolidierung". pp. 307-11. 34. 25 Yeurs tRP-f(mds /962-/9R7 (Vicnna. 1987). 35. An OVP politician made the comment that the Soviets were right in fearing Cierman soldiers who had stood at the gates of Moscow: hut meanwhile "the Germans ha\'c been Americanized and the Americans have become the Prussians" ("1·erpre11.1.1f'1. Valjavec report. "Was hcahsichtigen die Sowjcts" of 21 March 1955. PA-AA. 36. The ratio was the same in overall European terms. The Marshall Plan poured I J billion dollars of aid into Western Europe - the Soviets extracted as much frorn their Ea;,tern European client states. Sec Barbara Jelavich. Historr of' the Balkun.1. \'OI. II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1983 ). p. 344. cited in Reynolds 's intro• duction in Origins, 17. 37. Gaddis. We Now Knm«. pp. 284-7. 38. Thompson to Dulles. 5 May 1955. FRUS. 1955-7. V. 77-9: .. Post-Treaty Austrian Economic Problems". memo Tesoro to Freund. 12 October 1953. 663.00 I II 0-1253: ··Austria's Econornic Position under Draft State Treaty". Joint Vienna Embassy/ Mission Dispatch. 28 September 1953. 663.001/9-2853: "Evaluation of Possible Transfer of USIA Cornplex to Austria prior to Treaty Settlement''. Thibodeaux to State Department. 13 August 1953. 663.00 I /8-1353. all RG 59. NA. Select Bibliography AUSTRIA Archives and Manuscript Collections OsrERRF.rcmscm:~ STAATSt1RCH1v. ARCH/I' 1JN1 Rt1•un1.1K. V1r.NNt1 IAdRI Bundeskanzleramt. AuJ3enamt. Abteilung IT-pol [BKA-AA] Kabiaett der Ministers [KdM] Nlf./Jf'llOS'f'f.RRF:ICHISCNIJS l.J\NVIJSllllCHH: ST POLrtN Leopold Figl NachlaB [FPl STJFTUNG BRUNO KRE!SKY ARCJJ/\( VJCNNtl Bruno Kreisky NachlaB [KP) Ora{ Histories Bruno Kreisky. I February 1984 (Oliver Rathkolb interview) Bruno Kreisky. 27 January 1971 (Gerald Stourzh in terview) Bruno Kreisky. 19 March 1985 (Hugo Portisch in terview) Printed Sources Bundespressedieast. Osterreichisches Jall1'b11c/1, 1945-1955 (Vienna: Staatsdruckerei. 1947- 56). Enderle-Burce!. Genrude. Jerabek, Rudolf and Kammerhofer, Leopold (eds), Protokoll'' des Kabi11e1tsra1es der Prm•isorischen Regierung Kar{ Re1111er 1945, vol. l: ·.. . i111 eigmen Haus Ord111mg sclwff'en' - Prorokolfe des Kabinensrates 29. Aprif 1945 bis 10. Juli 19.+5 (HomNiemrn: Ferdinand Berger. 1995). Gehler. Michad (ed.), Verspie/te Se/bstbestimnumg? Die Siidti1v(f'rage 1945146 in US• Gehei111die11srberichte11 111ul osterreichischen Akre11: Ein Dok11me11tatio11 (Innsbruck: UniversiUitsverlag Wagner, 1996). Knighl, Robert G. (ed.), '/ch bin daflir die Sache in die /.ii11ge ~11 7.iehe11 ': DieWortprorokolle der os1erreichiscf1e11 Bundesregienmg von 1945 bi.1 1952 iiber die £11[sdziidig1111g der J11de11 (Frankfurt/Main. 1988). 6s1erreichische Bundesregierung. 25 Ju/ire Stualsverrrag: Pmrokolfe des Swats- 1111d Festuktes smrie der J11bifiii1111s1·e1m1stalt1111gen i111 In- 1111d A11s/1111d. 4 vols (Vienna: Hundesvcrlag. 1981 ). Nor-Weijl-Rot Buch: Darstellunge11. Dok11111e/l(e 111ul Nacf11veise :;ur Vorgeschid11e 1111d Geschichte der Okkupation Osrerreichs (Nach A1111liche11 Quellen) (Vienna: Staato;• druckcrei. 1946}. Schilchcr. Alfons (ed.). Os1erreid1 11nd die Gr~f3111iic/11e: Dok11111e111e :11r 6.werreir.hischen i\ufienpofitik. 1945-1955 (Vienna: Geyer, 1980}. --, "Die Politik dcr Provisorischen Regierung und der Alliierren Grol.lrnlichte bei der Wiedererrichtung der RepubLik Osterreich", vol. ll: [Doc11111ems], Phil. diss., University of Vienna. 1985. 216 Select Bibliographv 217 Verosta, Stephan (ed.), Die intemationale Stelhml{ Osterreichs 1938 bis 1947 (Vienna: Manzsche Verlangsbuchhandlung, 1947). Wagnleinter, Reinhold (ed.), Diplomllfie ~ivische11 Parteipropor~ u11d Weltkonf/ikt: Briefe. Dokumente und Memoranden aus dem Nachla/J Walter Wodaks. 1945-1950 (Salzburg: Neugebauer, 1980). Perso11a/ Papers Raab-Gruber Correspondence Personal /nten·iews Alfred Maleta. 27 May 1986, Vienna Margarethe Ottillinger, 22 June 1983, Vienna Ludwig Steiner, 20 May 1986, Vienna Hans Thalberg, 14 May 1986, Laxenburg THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Archives and Manuscript Collections NAl!ONAL ARCHIVlS, WASHINGTON, DISTRICT OF COL.UM/!IA [NA] Civil Branch RG 43: Records of International Conferences, Commissions and Expositions World War I! Conferences European Advisor Commission Records of the Council of Foreign Ministers Austrian Treaty Files, 1945-55 (Lot M-88) RG 59: General Records of the Department of State, 1943-55 Decimal Files Records of the Office of Western European Affairs, 1941-54: Subject Files Austria 1945-50 (Lot 54 D 331) Austrian Desk Files (Arthur Compton File) (56 D 294) Records of the Central European Division, 1944-53 (Lot 55 D 374) Subject Files Relating to Austrian Affairs, 1954-65 (Lot 58 D 72) Subject Files Relating to the Austrian Occupation and Peace Treaty, 1949-55 (Lot 58 D 223) Harley A. Notter Papers Papers of the Policy Planning Staff Charles E. Bohlen Papers Military Branch RG 218: Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff RG 319: Army Staff, Plans and Operations Division (Decimal Files) RG 330: Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense RG 353: Records of the Interdepartmental and Intradepartmental Committees: State Department (on microfilm) Records of the State-War-Navy-Coordinating Committee, 1944-47 [SWNCC] Records of the State-Army-Navy-Air Coordinating Committee, 1947-49 ISANACC] 218 Select Bih/iographr FR.1NKUN D. Roo.\'L\TU L111R,\Rr: HmL PARK, Nn1· Ym1i; !FDRLJ President's Personal File IPPF] Official File iOFJ Map Room Files [MRFJ President's Secretary's File IPSF] Safe File Confidential File Diplomatic Correspondence Departmental Correspondence Subject Files Adolf A. Berle Papers Henry Morgenthau, Jr ""Diaries" John Cooper Wiley Papers H \/iii\ S. T/IUMAN LiHRAR\', /NIJ/:f'LNf)/;NCI:. MtSSOURI Papers of Harry S. Truman [HSTPJ President Secretary's File f PSFJ Naval Aide Files NSC Meetings NSC Discussions Intelligence File Subject File White House Central Files IWHCFI Official File !OF] President's Personal File f PFJ General File [GF] Confidential File !CF] Dean Acheson Papers Matthew J. Connelly Papers Charles P. Kindleberger Papers Charles W. Thayer Papers Oral Histories Richard M. Bissell, Jr Oliver Franks Charles W. Kindleberger H. Freeman Matthews James W. Riddleberger Harry B. Price Oral History Collection (Marshall Plan) D1m;111 D. EISLNHOWFR PAl'LRS, AHIHNL:, KANSAS fDDEL] Ann Whitman File [AWFJ Ann Whitman Diary Series Administration Series Cabinet Series Legislative Meetings Series DDE Diary Series Dulles-Herter Series International Series Select Bihliograph\' 219 NSC Series White House Central Files Confidential Files [CF] White House Office Files, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs. 1952-61 [WHO! NSC Series Special Assistant Subserics John Foster Dulles Papers Eleanor Lansing Dulles Papers Alfred M. Grucnthcr Papers Pri\'llle Papers Edwin M. J. Krctzman, "Four Powers in Three-Quarter Time: Tales of the Austrian Occupation. 1945-1948" Om/ Histories Charles Bohlen Robert R. Bowie Eleanor Lansing Dulles Livingston Merchant Charles M. Yost S1cr1.FY G. Menn A.vn F1111csroNL L!1111A1111..1. PR/NC/JON UN1vua.1·n; PR!NCFTON, Nu\' lERsn· John Foster Dulles Papers John F. Kennan Papers Om/ Hislories Charles E. Bohlen James F. Byrnes Eleanor Lansing Dulles Llewelyn E. Thompson Charles W. Yost HOUGllFON LtHRARY, H,\R\'i\IW US!VlcRStrt; CAMllRWG/c, MASSACHU.\LTIS Joseph E. Grew Papers John Pierpont Moffat Papers T11r Ci1Anu. L111K\RY Mm A11u1ivrs. T11r CnAIJH, Cl1.111usroN, SourH CAROUNA Mark W. Clark Papers and Diaries [CPJ Personal 111/erviews Hugh Apling. 30 March 1987, Vienna. Virginia Ware Adams, 29 December 1982. Washington. DC Jacob Beam, 16 June 1988, Washington. DC Simon Bourgin. 16 June 1988. Washington. DC Robert R. Bowie, IS June 1988, Washington, DC Eleanor Laming Dulles. 30 December 1982. Washington, DC Halvor Ekern, 28 March 1987, Arlington. Virginia 220 Select Bihliography Milton Katz, 31 March 1983, Cambridge, Massachuselts Charles P. Kindleberger, I February 1984, Cambridge, Massachusetts Edwin Kretzman, 3 March 1985, Providence, Rhode Island Jacques Reinstein, 22 July 1986, Washington, DC Horace Torbert, 31 March 1987, Washington, DC Printed Sources FoRt.ICN RuAJJONS or 1111c UNrrrn S1M1s [FRUS] (WAs111~GTON. DC: C1ovrn~ME~T PR1~11~c; 0FHCE) 1943 vol. I: General (1963) 1944 vol. I: General ( 1966) 1945 vol. II: General: Political and Economic Matters ( 1967) 1945 vol. Ill: European Alfrisor\" Commission; Austria; Germam· ( 1968) 1945 1•0/. IV: Eumpe ( 1968) 1945 vols I and JI: The Conference of" Berlin (The Potsdam Conference) ( 1960) 1946 1•01. II: Council of" Foreign Ministers ( 1970) 1946 vol. V: The British Commo1111"ealth; Western and Crntral Europe ( 1969) 1947 vol. JI: Council of" Foreign Ministers; Germam· and Austria ( 1972) 1948 1•01. II: Germanv and Austria ( 1973) 1948 1·0/. IV Eastern Europe; The Sm·iet Union ( 1974) 1949 \'Of. I: National Securitr Afji1irs; Foreign Economic Polin· ( 1976) 1949 \'OI. Ill: Council of" Foreign Ministers; Germanr and Austria ( 1974) 1950 1•0/. I: National Security A.fji1irs; f(1reig11 Economic Polin· ( 1977) 1950 1·0/. IV Crntral and Eastern Europe: The Soviet Union ( 1980) 1952-1954 vol. /: General: Economic and Political Matters ( 1984) 1952-1954 vol. II: National Security Affairs (1984) 1952-1954 vol. VII (in Mo parts): Germanr and Austria ( 1986) 1955-1957 vol. V: Austrian State Treat.\'; Summit and Foreign Ministers Meetings, 1955 (1988) 1955-1957 vol. XXVI: Central and Southeastern Europe ( 1990) The History of"the Joint Chief1· of"Srafj"and National Polin· Kenneth Condit, 1947-1949, vol. 2 (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1979). Walter S. Poole, /950-/952, vol. 4 (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1979). Robert Watson, 1953-1954, vol. 5 (Washington, DC: Historical Division, Joint Chiet\ of Staff, 1986). Boyle, Peter G. (ed.), The Churchill-Eise11hower Correspondence, 1953-1955 (Chapel Hill: North Carolina University Press, 1990). Heideking, Jiirgen and Mauch, Christof (eds), American Intelligence and the German Resistance to Hitler: A Documentary Hi.lforr (Boulder: Westview, 1996). Kimball, Warren F. (ed .. ), Churchill and Roose1•elt: The Complete Correspondence, 3 vols (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984 ). Nelson, Anna Kasten (ed.), The State Department Polin· Planning Stafj' Papers, 1947-1949, 3 vols (New York: Garland, 1983). Rathkolb, Oliver (ed.), Gesel/schaft und Politik am Begi1111 der Zll'l!itrn Repub/ik: Vertrau/iche Berichte der US-Militiirad111i11istratio11 1945 in rnglischer Originalji1ssung (Vienna: Biihlau, 1985). Soviet Diplomacv and Negotiating Behavior: Emerging Nen· Context ff1r U.S. Diplonwcv. Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, 96th Congress, I st Session (Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, 19 May 1982). Sdect Bih/iogmphY 221 United States Element Allied Commission in Austria. lhe Relwhiliwtion o( Austria. 1945-1947. :l mis. --. A11.11ria: A Gmf'hic Sun·n· (June 19-19). U.S. Strategic Bornhing Survey. 01·er-all Re/)(!rl ( t·uropcan War) (:lO Scptemher 19-15 ). --. The 1:-!fi•crs of" Srmtegic Hm11hing on the Gcrmiln Eco11mn1· (Overall Economic Effects Division. :l I Octoher 19-15 ). Wagnleitner. Reinhold (ed.). Undenlm11/i11g Austria: The f'olitirnl Reporr.1 and A1w/r.1es of' Milrlin F Her;, Politirnl Officer of" rhe US l.egation in Viennu 1945-1948 (Salzhurg: Neugehauer. 198-1 ). GREAT BRITAIN Archives and Manuscript Collections Puiuc R1ccmm Ou !ct., Kie 11· CAB I :rn. 129: Cahinet Minutes and Memoranda FO :l7 l: Foreign Office Correspondence and Minutes FO 800: Ernest Bevin & Orme Sargent Papers PREM -1. 8. 11: Prime Minister\ Office Files (Churchill. Attlee. Churchill) Plll\'.\l lc f'll'UI.\' John Cheetham Diary Michael Cullis Diary Pierson Dixon Diary and Papers John Sclhy-Bigge Memoirs f'Ul'iO\'.\/. /\'/UI\ //cl\\ Harold Caccia. 26 March 1986. London John Cheetham. 1-1 and 19 March 1986. London Michael Cullis. 9 Octoher and 1-1 Decemher 1985. 17 January 1986. London John Winterton. 28 Octoher 1985. Ncwhury Printed Sources [)on 1n \'/\ 01 B11111\11 Poun 01 u1s1 11 I DBPO I (London: H.M. Stationery Office) Sei: I.\'()/. I: The Confi•n•nn· ur Porsd11111 . .l11/.1·-1\11g11.11 1945 ( 198-1). So: I. rn/. II: Confi·n·11c1·.1 and Con1·er.1urion.1 1945: London. Wi1.1hi11g1011 w11/ Mo.1<·011· ( 1985). Sa I. \'()/. /\!: Hritilin mu/ Amcricu: ,\/omic f.-n('fg\', Bi1sc.1 Ull(/ Food. 12 /)l'Cc111/Jcr 1945- 3 I ./11/Y 1946 ( 1987). FRANCE Minisri·re des 1\.ffi1ire.1 f.'!n111ghc.1. :\n'/1i1·1'.1 f)i/i/01111iliq11e. Quui d'Orsm-, Pilris IMAEJ Serie/. Europe 19-1-1-1955. Sous-scrie Autrichc. 222 Select Bihliographr Ser\'iC<' Histori£111e de /'Arnu;e de frrre, Clwreuu de Vi11ce1111es, Vi11ce1111es Comrnandement en Chef des Forces Fram;aises en Autriche. I lJ45- I 950. SOVIET UNION Ministnium flir Auswartigc Angelegcnheiten dcr UdSSR. UdSSR-0.1rerreich 1931\-1979: !Jok11111rnte u11d Mmeriolil'll (Moscow. 1980). GERMANY Pmn 1sc111cs Alic1111 fl/ .. ) /\c·s1L\11m;r.vA1111.s. Bo.vs I PA-AA I Ahteilung :l. Rcferat 304 bsterrcich 94. I lJ Politischc Beziehungen der BRO zu dern frcmden Land 82.00 Politische Beziehungen des fn:mden Landes ;u dritten Staaten 83.00 Militirpolitik des frcmden Landes 84.00 Sn1 lFV Personal lntc1Tinr., Wilhelm Grewe. 2lJ April I lJ86. Bonn Horst Groepper. 15 April 1986. Bonn NEWSPAPERS. MAGAZINES Berichte u11d !11f(m11urio11rn The Eco110111isr f)ie Furche Nnl' York Hcruld fri/){(11e Nrn· York Times Nn1'.n\'eek /)ie Pre.1se Sol:/)[11ger Nochrichren Ti111e \Vil'ller K11rier \Voshi11gto11 Post PUBLISHED MEMOIRS. DIARIES. SPEECHES Acheson. Dean. Prcsc111 111 the Creotion: Mr Yeo rs in the Srutc !Jep11rt111en1 (New York: Norton. I lJ6lJ). Bethouart. Emile. La Batai//e Pour f,',\11trichc (Paris: Presses de la Cite. llJ66). Select Bibliography 223 Brusatti. Alois and Hildegard Hernetsberger-Koller (eds). Zeuge der Stwule Null: Dils Togelmch t.:ugen Marg11rerha.1· 1945-1947 (Linz: Trauner. 1990). Byrnes. James F.. Sprnking Frw1klr (New York: Harper & Brothers. 1947). Churchill. Winston S .. 7i-iumph and hllgedr (Boston: Houghton Miftlin. 1953 ). Clark. Mark W .. Calrnlated Risk (New York: Harper & Brothers. 1950). Colville. John, Fringes of Pml'er: /)mrning Street Di11ri<'s 1939-1955 (New York: Norton. 1985). Dilks. David (ed.). The fJi11ries of Sir Alnwu/er Cadoglln /93!:\-IW5 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1972). Djilas. Milman, Com·erslltions 11·ith Stlllin. trans. Michael B. Petrovich (New York: Harcourt. Brace & World. 1962). Dulles, Eleanor Lansing. C/11mce.1 o( ii Lifi'ti111e: A Memoir (Englewood Cliffs: Prcntice• Hall. 1980). Eiselsberg. Otto. Erlf'hte Geschichte 1919-1997 (Vienna: Biihlau, 1997). Eisenhower. Dwight D .. Mllndute fiir Chllnge: The White House Yrnrs, 1953-1956 (New York: Doubleday. 1963 ). Ferrell. Robert (ed.), Off the R<'Cord: T/Je P1frute P11pers of' Hurn· S. Ji-11mun ( Hannondsworth: Penguin. 1980). -- (ed.). The l:'isrnhm1·cr /Jillries (New York: Norton. 1981 ). Fischer. Ernst, Das Fnde Einer Jl/11sion: Erinnenmgrn 19../5-1955 (Vienna: Molden. 1973). Gehler. Michael (ed.). K11r/ Gru/Jer: R<'lien und f)ok11mrnte 1945- 1953 (Vienna: Biihlau. 1994). Gruber Karl. Bi'lll'l'l'll Lihemtion UJl(f LihertL· Austrill in the Post-W11r World. trans. Lionel Kochan (London: Andre Deutsch. 1955 ). --. t:in politisches f"ehm: Ostcrreichs Weg :11-ischl'll dm /Jiktll!UJTll (Vienna: Molden. 1976). Harriman. W. Averell and Elie Abel. Specilll 1-;n\'()_\' to C/111rchill i/Jl(/ Stlllin /9../1-1946 (New York: Random House. 1975). Hughes. Emmet John. The Onleul of Pm1·er: ,1 Poli1ic11I Memoir of the f-:i.ll'J1/11111·er Yeurs (New York: Athencum. 1963 ). Jones. Joseph. The Fifieen Weeks (f-dmf({n· 21-Junf' 5. 19../7) (New York: Viking. 1955). Kennan. George F.. Me111oir1. 1925-1950 (Boston: Little-Brown. 1967 ). --. Mt'moirs, 1950--1963 (New York: Pantheon. 1972). Khrushchev. Nikita S .. Khru.1hchn Reme111her.1: Th<' Gia.most 7itpes. trans. and ed. Jerrod L. Schecter and Vyacheslav V Luchkov (Boston: Little Brown. 1990). Kindleberger. Charles P.. The Gem1w1 Econo111r, 1945-1947: Charles P. Kind/ehergcr's Le tiers Jiwn rhe Field. with an historical introduction by Glinter Bischof (Westport: Meckler. 1989). Kopele\'. Lev. No Jailfi1r Thought. trans. Anthony Austin (London: Secker & Warburg. 1977). Kreisky. Bruno. t:ri11neru11grn au.1·.fi'in(Juhr:ehlllrn (memoirs. vol. I) (Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau. 1986 ). --. fl/I Stml!l dcr Politi/.:: /)er Mrnwiren :11·eiter fril (memoirs. vol. II) (Vienna: Kremayr & Schcriau. 1988). Molden. Fritz. Beset:e1; foren, Biedermiinner: Ein Bericllf 11111 0.1tcrreich (Vienna: Molden. 1980). Olah. Franz. /)ie lo-rinncr11ngl'll (Vienna: Amalthca. 1995 ). Renner. Karl. fJenkschrifi iihcr die Gnchichte der U11a/1hiingigkcit.1erk/iim11g 61terreichs !Ill(/ die Ei11.1et:11ng dcr Prm·i.1ori.1chl'll Rcgiemng da Rep11hlik (Vienna: Staatsdruckcrei. I lJ45 ). Rcsis. Albert (ed.), Molotm· Rememhers: Inside Kremlin Politics: Co111·er.111tions 11·ith fi'lix Chun· (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. 1993). 224 Select Bihliogroph\' SchiirL Adolf. Dsterreiclzs Emrncrung 1945-1955: Das er.1/e Julzr:elznt da :1t'eiten Repul>lik (Vienna: Wiener Volbhuchhamllung. 1955 ). Thalherg. Hans J.. \' BOOKS Ahleitinger. Alfred. Siegfried Beer and Edward G. Stavdinger (eds). 1J.11erreiclz 1111ter ulliertcr Resllt:11ng 1945--1955 (Vienna: Biihlau. 1998). Aichinger. Wilfried. Sm1:jetisc!ze 0.1terreic!zpolitik 19./3-1945 (Vienna. 1977), Alhrich. Thomas. Ernd11s d11rclz (J1terreiclz: [)ie jiidi.1clzrn Fliiclztlinge 1945-19./8 ( lnnshruck: Haymon. 1987 ). -- and Arno Gisinger. /111 Bo111/w11krieg: 7/m/ 111/(/ \1rm1rll>erg 19./3-19./5 I lnnshruck: Haymon. 1992). --. Klaus Eisterer. Michael Gehler ct ill. (eds). (Jsterreich in drn Fiin/;igem I Innshruck. Studien,·erlag. 1995 ). Allard. Sn:n. Russia and the A11strill11 Stllte heutL· A Case Study of' Sm·iet Polin· !University Park. PA: Penn State Uni\ersity Press. 1970). Arnhrose. Stephen E .. Ei.1e11hm1·cr: The Presidcnr I New York: Sirnon & Schuster. 1984). Bader. William B .. A11.1trill lwt11·ern Eu.it wul West. 1945--1955 (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1966). Balfour. Michael and John Mair. f(Jur-Po11·er Contml in Gcmu1m· and 1\u.1triu, 1945-19./6 (London: Oxford University Press. 19)6). Barker. Elisaheth. Aust rill /918-197:! (London: Macmillan. 197.\J. --. C/111rclzi// lllld Edrn ut \Vur I London: Macmillan. 1978). Baumgartner. Marianne. 'Jo, de.1 1rnrc11 hu/t sch/ccl1te 7.citcn ... ': /)lls Krieg.1oule 1111d die 1111111it1elbure Nuclz~rieg.1;citin den /ehe11.1gc.1chic/1tlichc11 Lr:.iih/1111gc11 1·011 Fiw1e11 im Mo.111·iertel ( 1-'rankfurt: Peter Lang. 1994 ). Beer. Siegfried. Der '1111111omli1clze' An.1ch/11fi: Britisclzc (}11crrcic!z1,oli1ik :.1\'isclzen Co11llli11111rnt 1111d !IJ'/Jeil.1rn1rn1 1931--193./ (Vienna: Biihlau. 1988). -- and Stefan Karner. !)er Krieg uus der Lu/i: Kiimtrn 11nd Steiemwrk /l).f./-1945 (Gnv: IL Weishaupt. 1992 I. -~-(ed.). /)ic 'hri1i.1clze'S1ciemwrk !Gra/: llistorische Lmdeskommision Steiern1ark. 1995). Bischof. Glinter and Josef Leiden frost (eth). Die lw\'(!n111111dcte Ni1tio11: {J.11crreiclz ullil die 1\lliierlrn 19./5 -/9./9 ( lnnshruck: Haymon. 1988). -- and Stephen E. Amhrose (eds). !:'iwn/111\\'er: :\ Centeni/n· :\s1<'.1.1111e111 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1995 I. -- and Anton Pelinka (eds). Co11ten1pomrr i\11.1triu11 Studies. 6 Yols (New Brunswic·k: Transaction. 199.l-98) [C\SJ. Brands. H. W .. Jr. Cold \Vi1rrior.1: /:'i.1ni/11111·er's Genemlion und i\111erici111 !-i1rcig11 Polin· (New York: Columhia LJ niYersity Pre", 1988 ). --, Tlze Specter of' Neutmli.1111: Tlw Uni led Slille.1 UI/(/ the L111ergc11ce of' the Thin! \Vorld. 1947-1960 (New York: Columhia Gniversity Press. 1989). Brix, Emil. Thomas f'riischl and Josef Leidi:nfrost (eds). Gncl1iclz1e :11 i1c/zrn Freiheil If/I(! Ord111111g: Gcruld Stour:lz :11111 60. Gelmr/1/ilg (()ra/: Styria. 199 I) [Stor:lz Fc11.11·/zri/iJ. Select Bibliograph\' 225 Brusattti, Alois and Gottfried Heindl (eds), Julius Raah: l:'ine Biographic in t:in~eldursfl!l lungrn (Lint: Trauner, 1987 ). Bullock. Alan. Ernest Bel'in: foreign Secretun· 1945-195 I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985 ). Bundy. McGeorge. Danger and S111Timl: Choices about the Bomh in the First Fifh Ycurs (New York: Random House. 1988). Butschek. Felix. Die (j.1·terreichische Wirtsc/111/i 1938-1945 (Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer, 1978). Clemens. Diane Shaver, Yalta (London: Oxford University Press. 1970). Cohen. Warren I, Amerirn in the Age of'Sm·iet PmvC1; 1945-1991 (The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations. vol. IV) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Craig, Gordon J\. and Francis L. Loewenheim (eds), The Diplomms 1939-1979 (Princeton: Princeton Univero.ity Press, 1994 ). Crockatt, Richard and Steve Smith (eds), The Cold War: Pust and Present (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987). Cronin, Audrey Kurth, Great Power Politics and the Struggle m·er Austria, 1945-1955 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1986). Dachs, Herbert, Peter Gerlich and Wolfgang C. MUiier (eds), Die Politi/.:er: Karrieren und Wirf.:('// Bedeutrnder Repriismtu/1/en der Z11·eitrn Republi/.: (Vienna: Manz, 1995 ). Deighton, Anne (ed.), Britain and the First Cold War (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990). De Santis, Hugh, The Diplomacy of' Silence: The American Foreign Sen·ice, the Sm•iet Union, and the Cold Ww; 1933-1947 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983). Deutscher, Isaac, Russia af'ter Stalin (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1953). Diefendorf. Jeffrey M., Axel Frohn and Hermann-Josef Rupieper (eds), Americun Policy and the Reconstruction of' West Gennam-, 1945-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Dockrill, Michael and John W. Young (eds). British Foreign Polin-, 1945-56 ( Ba:,ingstoke: Macmillan, 1989). --, The Cold War 1945-1963 (Atlantic Heights: Humanities Pres:, International, 1988). Dockrill. Saki, Eis!'nhowt'r'.1· New-Look National Securitv Polin', 1953-61 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996). --, Britain's Polin· f(Jr West German Rearma111rnt 1950-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991 ). Einwitschliigcr, Arno, Amerikanische Wirtsclwftsspolitik in Osterreich 1945-1949 (Vienna: Bi\hlau, 1986). Ei:,terer. Klau:,, Frmdisische Besat~ung1politi/.::Tirol l/l/{I \!orar//Jcrg 1945146 (Innsbruck: Studienverlag. 1991 ). --, Die Schwei: als Partner: Zwn eigenstiindigrn Aufienhmulel der Bundesliinder Vomrlbe1g lf/l(I Tirol mil der Eidgenossensclwfi 1945-1947 (Vienna: Braumtiller, 1995). Etzersdorfer, Irene, Arisiert: Eine S1,urensicherung im gesel/sc/wfilichen Untergrund der Repub/if.: (Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau, 1995 ). Fiesinger, Klaus, Bal/hausplatzdiplomatie 1945-1949: Reetablierung der Nachlmrsclu~f'ts be~iehungrn und Remganisation des Aus\\'iirtigen Dien.\'les als Formen uufienpolitischer Reemanzipation Osterreichs (Munich: Tuduv, 1993 ). Frauenleben 1945: Kriegsende in Wien (Vienna: Hi:,torisches Museum der Stadt, 1995). Friedrich, Jbrg, Dus Ge.1et~ des Krieges: Das deutsche Heer in Ri!filund 1941 bis 1945 - Der Proze/J gegen dus Oberko111ma11do der Wehrmacht (Munich: Piper, 1993). Gaddis. John Lewis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold Will' History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997). --. The United States and the Origins of' the Cold War, 1941-1947 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972). 226 Select Bibliography - -. StrateRies of Co111ainment: A Critical Appraisal of Posrwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982). --. The Long Peace: Inquiries into 1he Hisrory of rhe Cold War (New York: Oxford University Pess, 1987). Gehler, Michael. and Hubert Sickinger (eds), Polirisc/1e Ajjare11 u11d Skandale i11 6.werre• irh: Von Mayerling bis Waldheim (Thaur: Kulturverlag, 1995). --. and Rolf Steininger (eds). Osterreirh und die e11mpi:iiscl1e ln1egrG1ion 1945-1993 (Vienna: Bohlau, 1993). Gellman, Irwin F.. Secret Affairs: Franklin Roosevelr. Cordell Hull. arid Sumner Wef/es (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1995). George. Alexander L.. Philip J. Farley and Alexander Dallin (eds), U.S.- Soviet Security Cooperatio11: Achie1•eme111s - Failures - lessons (New York: Oxford Uaiversity Pre''· 1988). Gilbert. Mania, Winston S. Churchill, vol. VU : Road to Victo1••. 1941- 1945 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986). --. Wi11 .vto11 S. Clwrchill. vol. Vlll: Never De.1·pair. 1945-1965 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1988). Gleason, Abbott. Totalitarianism: The Inner lii.worr of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press. 1995). Gori, Francesca and Silvio Pons (eds), The Sovie1 U11ion and Europe in 1he Cold \¥(11: 1943-53 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996). Grose. Peter, Gemleman Spy: The l{fe 1~f Allen Dulles (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994). Hagspiel. Hermann, Die Ostmark: Os1ef'l'ich im Gro}Jdeurschen Reich 7938 bis 1945 (Vienna: Braumiiller, 1995). Halliday, Fred, The Making of the Second Cold War, 2nd edn (London: Verso, 1986). Hamby. Alonzo L.. Man o.f the People: A Life o.f Harry S. Trum.a11 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). Hammond. Thomas T. (ed.), The Anatomy of Communist Takeovers (New Haven: Yale Universi1y Press. 1975). -- (ed.), Wirnesses w rite Origins of rhe Cold War (Seatlie: UniversLty of Washington Press, 1982 ). Hanhimiik.i. Jussi M .. Containing Coexistence: America. Russia, and 1/ze 'Finnish Solution' (Kent. OH: Kem State Universiiy Press, 1997). Hanisch, Ernst, Der Lange Schauen des Staates: Osrerreic/1isc/1e Gesel/schaf1sgeschichte im 20. Jahrhwu/ert (Osterreichisceh Geschichte 1890-1990) (Vienna: Ueberreuter, 1994). l-larbutt, Fraser J., The Iron Curtain: Churchill, America, and che Origin.~ of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press. 1986). Harper, John Lamberton, American Visions of Europe: Franklin D. Roosevelt. George F. Kennan. a11d Dean G. AC'heson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Haynes, John E .. Red Scare or Red Menace? American Co1111111111is111 and A111ico1111111mis111 in rhe Cold War Era (Chicago: rvan R. Dee, 1996). Healc, M. J .. American Amicommunism: Co111bari11g the Enemy Within, 1830-1970 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1990). Heer. Friedrich, Der Kampf 11111 die osterreichische ldentiriil (Vienna: Bohlau. 1981). Heer. Hannes and Klaus Naumann (eds), Vernichtw1gskrieg: Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941-1944 ( Hamburg: Hamburger Edilion, 1995). Herzstein, Robert Edwin, Waldheim: The Missing Years (New York: Arbor House, 1988). Hobsbawm, Eric, The Age of Extremes: A History of rhe World, 1914-1991 (New York: Vintage, 1994). Hobell, Lothar and Othmar Huber (eds), Filr Osterreichs Freiheir: Karl Gmber - la11desha11ptman11 tmd A11jle11111inister 1945- 1953 ( lnnsbruck: Haymon, 1991 ). Select Bibliography 227 Hogan, Michael J. and Thomas G. Paterson (eds), t;xplaining the Hislon· of' American Foreign Relations (Camhridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991 ). --, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of' Western Europe. 1947-1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Hollerer, Siegfried. Verstaatlichung wul Wirtschafisplw11111g in Osterreich ( 1946-1949) (Vienna, 197 4 ). Holloway, David, Stalin and the Bomb (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994 ). Horwitz. Gordon J., In the Shadow of' Death: Li1·i11g Outside the Gates of' Ma111/wuse11 (New York: Free Press, 1990). Immerman, Richard H. (ed.). John Fosler Dulles and the Diplonwcr of' the Cold Wiir (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). Isaacson, Walter and Evan Thomas, The Wise Mm: Six Friends and the World Ther Made (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986). Jagschitz. Gerhard and Stefan Karner (eds), Menschen nach dem Krieg - Schick.rnle 1945-1955 (Schallaburg Exhibition Catalogue, 1995). James, Robert Rhodes, Anthonr Eden (London: Macmillan. 1986). Kettenacker. Lothar, Krieg ~ur Friedenssischerung: Die /Jeutschlandplonung der hritischen Regierung 11-iihrend des Zweiten Weltkrieges (Giittingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989). Keyserlingk. Robert H., Austria in World War II: An A11g/o-A111erirn11 Dilemma (Kingston• Montreal: McGill-Queens Univer.sity Press, 1988). Kimhall, Warren F., The Juggler: Franklin Roosn•elt as Wartime Statesman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991 ). Kindleherger, Charles P., Marshall Plan Du\'.\ (Boston: Allen & Un win. 1987). Kos, Wolfgang and Georg Rigele (eds), lm·rntur 45155: 0.1terreich im ersten Jahr~ehnt der Zweiten Repu/Jlik (Vienna: Sonderzahl, 1996). Kovrig, Bennett, Of' Walls and Bridges: The United States and Eastern Europe (New York: New York University Press, 1991 ). Kriechhaumer, Roher! and Franz Schausherger (eds), Volkspartei - Anspruch und Realitiit: Zur Geschichtl! da OVP seit 1945 (Vienna: Biihlau, 1995). Lacey, Michael J. (ed.). The Truman Presidencr. Woodrow Wilson Center Series (Cambridge: Camhridge University Press. 1989). LaFeber, Walter, America, Russia, lllld the Cold W{//; /945-/996, 8th edn (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1997). Larson, Deborah Welch. Origins of' Co11tain111e/lf: A Psrchologiclll Erplllnation (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1985). Leffler, Melvyn P., The Specter of' Cm111nw1ism: The United States and the Origins o( the Cold Ww; 1917-1953 (New York: Hill Wang. 1994). --, A Preponderance of' Power: National Securitr, the Truml/n Administration, all(/ the Cold War (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1992). -- and David S. Painter (eds), Origins of' the Cold War: An International Historr (London: Routledge, 1994 ). Leonhard, Alan T. (ed.), Neutrality: Chllnging Concepts wzd Practises (Lanham: University Press of America, 1988). Liherman, Peter. Does Conquest Par" The Erploitation o( Occupied Industrial Societies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). Light, Margot. The So\'iet Theorv oj'lntemational Relutimzs (New York: St Martin's. 1988). Louis, William Roger and Hedley Bull (eds), The 'Special Relationship': Anglo-American Relations since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). Lundestad, Geir, The A111erirn11 'Empire' and Other Studies of' US fin·eign Policy in a Comparatil'e Perspecth·e (Oslo-Oxford: Norwegian and Oxford University Presses 1990). 228 Select Bibliograph\' --, The Americm1 Non-Polin' Tmrnrds Eustern Europe 1943-1947: Uni1'ersalism in {/II Area Not of' Essential Interest to the United States (New York: Humanities Press, 1978). Luza, Radomir, Austro-German Relations i11 the Anschlu/i Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975) --, The Resistance in Austria, 1938-1945 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984). McCormick, Thomas J., America's HalfCenturr: United Srates Foreign Polin' in the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). Mahr, Wilfried, Der Marshall Plan in 61terreich (Graz: Styria. 1989). Mai, Gunther, Der alliierte Kontrollrat in Deutsch/and 1945-1948: Alliierte Einheit - delllsche Tei lung:' (Munich: R. Oldenbourg. 1995 ). Maier, Charles S., 111e U11111a.1·tem/J/e Past: Historr, Holocaust, and German National ldentit_1· (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1988). --- (ed.), The Origins of' the Cold War in Europe: Era of' a Divided Continent (New York: Markus Wiener, 1991 ). --, Jn Search of' Stabilitv: Explorations in Historical Political Economr (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). -- and GUnter Bischof (eds), The Mar.1hall Plan in Germanr: West German Dei•elopment within the Framework of' the European Recm'eJ)' Program (New York: Berg. 1991 ). Manoschek, Walter, 'Serbien ist jtulenfi·ei': Militiirische Besat;ungspolitik und Judem'er- 11ichtung in Serbien 1941142 (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1993). Manti, Wolfgang (ed.), Politik in Osterreich: Die Zwl'ite Repu/J/ik: Bestand und Wandel (Vienna: Biihlau, 1992). Mastny, Vojtech, The Cold Wllf' and Soviet /11sernritr: The Stalin Years (New York: Oxford University Press. 1996). --, Russia and the Cold War: Dip/onwn', Warf(1r<', and the Politics of' Co1111111111ism, 1941-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979). May, Ernest R., 'Lessons' of' the Past: The Use and Misuse 1f Historr in American Foreign Polin· (London: Oxford University Press, 1973). -- (ed.), American Cold Wlll' Strategr: NSC-68 (Boston: Bedford Books, 1993). Mayers, David, The Ambassadors and American Soviet Policr (New York: Oxford University Press. 1995). --, George F Kennan and tlze Dilemmas of' US Foreign Polin· (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). Meiss!, Sebastian, Klaus Dieter-Mulley and Oliver Rathkolb (eds), Verdriingte Schuld. Verfehlte Siihne: Entna;ifherung i11 Osterreich 1945-1955 (Vienna: Verlag flir Gesellschaftskritik. 1986 ). Merl, Edmund, Besat~ung;eit im Miihlriert<'I (GrUnbach: Geschichte der Heimat, 1989). Messer, Robert L., The End of' an Alliance: James F. B.1·rnes, Roosevelt, Truman, and the Origins of' the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982). Milward, Alan S., The Reconstruction of' Western Europe 1945-51 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984 ). --, The European Rescue of' the Nation-State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Mosely, Philip E., The Kremlin in World Politics: Studies in Soviet Polin· and Action (New York: Vintage, 1960). Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Gennanv: A History of the Soviet Zone r~f Occupation 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1995). Nasko, Siegfried (ed.), Karl Renner in Dokumenten und Erinnerungen (Vienna: Bundesverlag, 1982). Select Bih/iograplzr 229 Ne1mchak, Franz, fr11 Yi'ars (}l A11stria11 Ec(}no111ic D1Telo1J111ent 1945--1955 (Vienna: Association of Industrialist;,, 1955 ). Oudenaren, John Van, Dhrnte in Eumpe: The S{!\·iet Union mul the West .1i11u' 1953 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991 ). Pach. Chester J.. Jr. Armi11g the Free World: The Origi11s of' the United States Military As.1istm1ce Pmgm111, 1945-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1991 ). Paterson. Thomas G .. So1·ict-A111erican C(}11fi"{)l1/utio11: Po.1'11\'ilr Reco11.1trnctio11 and the Origins of' the Cold Wi1r (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973 ). Pauley. Bruce F.. Hi1/e1; Stalin and Mussolini: 7iitalitario11is111 in the 7il'rntieth Centun (Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, 1997). --. Fro111 Prejudice to Persl'Cution: A Hi.1ton of' A11stria11 A11ti-Se111itis111 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1992). Pelinka. Karl Re111u:r :ur Ei11fi'ihm11g ( Hamhurg: Junius. 1989). -- and Erika Weinzierl (eds). Dil.I gmfie 7i1hu: (f1terreichs U111ga11g 111it seiner Vergangenheir (Vienna: Osterreichischc Staatsdruckerei. 1987 ). -- and Rolf Steininger (eds), (J1rerreich u111/ die Sieger (Vienna: Braumi.iller. 1986). Plaschka. Richard G., Gerald Stourzh and Jan Paul Niederkorn (eds). Was heif!r Osterre• ic/(' !11/wlt 111/il U111filllg de.1 ()sterreichhegriff\ 1·0111 IO. Jahr/11111dert bis Heute (Vienna: Akademie der Wissenschaften. 1995 ). Pogue. Forrest C .. Geo1ge C. Marshall: Stute.111w11 1945-1959 (New York: Viking. 1987 ). Portisch. Hugo and Sepp Riff. ()1rerreich II. 2 vols (Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau. 1985-6). Rathkolh. Oliver. Washingtm1 mfr Wien: US-Gmfinwchtpolitik 111/il (J1rerreich 1953-1963 (Vienna: Biihlau. 1997). Rauchcnsteiner. Manfried. Der So111/njii/I: Die Be.rnt:ung.1;eir i11 D.1ter/'l'ich 19"15 l>is 1955 (Gra1: Styria. 1979). --. Die Zll'ci: Die Grofic Koalitio11 in 01terreich 1945-/966 (Vienna: Bundesvcrlag. 1987). --. /)er Krieg in (J1rerreich ''-15 (reprinted Vienna. 1995 ). -- and Wolfgang Ehchmann (eds). 0.1rerreich /9'-15: Ein Ende 1t11il 1·ielc Anfiinge (Gr~v: Styria. 1997). Reynolds. David (ed.). The Origi11.1 of' the Cold Wur i11 l:urope: Imemutio11al Pcr.1pec1i1·c.1 (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1994 ). -- and David Dimhlcby. An Ocmn A1wrt: The Relutionship hetH·ce11 Brilili11 and A111erirn in !he 7\1·rntietl1 Ccnt111T (New York: Vintage. 1989). Richter James G .. Khr11.1hchn '.1 /)ouhlc Bi11d: lntenwtional Pressure and /)0111ntic Coalition Politics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni\ersity Press. 1994). Riesenfellner. Stefan and Heidcmarie Uhl. fodes:eichen: 7.eitgeschichtliche Denk111u/kultur (Vienna: Biihlau. 1994). Rioux. Jean-Pierre, "/he fourth Ripul>lic. /9'-14-1958. trans. Godfrey Rogers (Cambridge: Camhridge University Press. 1987 ). Robertson. David. Sir mul Ahle: A Politirnl BiogmphY of' .Jw11es F !Jrrnes (New York: Norton. 1994 ). Robins. Rohen S. and Jerrod M. Post. Politirnl Purunoia: The Ps1·chof"'litics of' Hut red (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1997). Rothwell. Victor. Brililin a11d the Cold Wur /941-1947 (London: Jonathan Cape. 1982). Rostow. W. W .. The Ui1·i.1ion of' Eumpe ufier World \Vi1r fl: 1946 (/\ustin: Uni\·ersity of Texas Press. 1981 ). --. tum1w u/tn Sta/i11: Fi.1cnhml'cr's Three /)ecisirms of' Morch 11. 1953 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982). Ruddy. Michael T .. The Cautious f)iplonwt: Clwrles t·. Bohlen a!1(1 the Sm·iet U11ion, 1929-/969 (Kent. OH: Kent State Unin:rsity Press. 1986). 230 Se/ecr Bihliogmphy Rupieper. Hermann-Josef. Der he.1e1:1e Verhiinde1e: Die amerikanische Drn1.1chlandpolitik 1949-1955 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. 1991 ). Safrian. Hans. Die Eichmann-Miinner (Vienna: Europaverlag. 1993 ). Sainsburg. Keith. The Turning Poinr: Roo11Tell, Stalin, Ch11rchill. and Chiang Kai-Shek. 1943 - The Mo.1·coH~ Cairo, and Tehemn Confcrrnces (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1986 ). Sandner. Margit, Diefiw1:ii.1i.1ch-ii.11erreichi.1chrn Be:ie/11111gen triihrend der Besat:ungs:eit i·on 1947 his 1955 (Vienna. 1985). Schmid!, Herwig, Miir: 31!: Der De111.1che f:'in111arsch in 0.1/erreich (Vienna: Bundesverlag, 1987). Schmidt. Gustav (cd.J. 0.11-We.11-Be:ie/11111gen: Konfimwlir111 11nd Dhrnle 1945-191!9, 3 vols ( Bochum: Brockmeyer. 1993 J. Schwartz. Thomas Allen, America's Gcmwm·: John.!. McClor and rhe Fede ml Rep11hlic of Gernwnr (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1991 ). Schwarz. Hans-Peter. Adrna11er - /)er Sraat.1111<11111: 1952-1967 (Stuttgart: OVA, 1991 ). Seeber. H. Pierre. Brww Krciskr: C/wncellor ofA11srria (Pittsburgh: Dorrance, 1993 ). Siedcr. Reinhard. Heinz Steinert and Emmerich Talos (eds), Osrerreich 1945-1995: Ge.1ellsclwfi-Polirik-Ku/111r (Vienna: Verlag flir Gesellschaftskritik, 1996). Slusser. Roher! (ed.), So\'ier Eco110111ic Polin· in Pos111·ar Ger111anr (New York: Research Program on the USSR. 1953). Stadler, Friedrich (ed.). Verlriehenc Vernunfi I & II: Emigration und E1il iisrerreichi.1cher Wissensclwfi (Vienna: Jugend und Volk, 1987-8). Stadler. Karl R .. Adolf" Schii1f Mrnsch - Poliriker - Sraa1.1nwnn (Vienna: Europaverlag. 1982). Stearman, William Lloyd. The Sm·ier Union and rhe Ocrnparion o/Ausrria: An Analr.1i.1 of Sm·il'I Polin· in ;\uslria. 1945-1955 (Bonn: Siegler. 1962). Steininger, Rolf and Michael Gehler (eds). Osterreich im 20. Jahr/11111der1, 2 vols (Vienna: Biihlau. 1997 ). --, Siid!iml im 20. Jahrh11nder1 (Innsbruck: Studienvcrlag. 1997). --. Jlirgen Weber. Gi.inter Bischof er al. (eds), Oie dop/Jelte Eilllliin111111ng: Eumpiiische Sicherheil wul de111.1che Fmge in den Fiinf':igern (Munich: Hase & Koehler, 1993 ). Stiefel. Dieter, En111u:ifi:iemng in 0.11erreich (Vienna: Europaverlag. 1981 ). Stifter, Christian. Die Wiedemufi"ii.1111ng 0.1/erreichs: Die geheime Remilirurisiemng der \l"l'.lllichen Be.1m:w1g.1:onen 1945--1955 (Innsbruck: Studienverlag. 1997). Stiller, Jesse H .. Geo1ge S. Messer.1111irh: Diploml/l of' Den10c1rnT (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Univero,ity Press. 1987). Stourzh. Gerald. Geschichle des 0.11erreichi.1chrn S1uut\'ertmge.1, 1945-/955: Osterreichs Weg :ur Nelllmlitiit. 3rd edn (Gral: Styria. 1985). Stueck, William, The Koreun Wi1r: An l11tl'nw1i1111al Hi.1/on· (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1995 ). Svoboda. Wilhelm. Oil' Parlei. die R1p11i>lik 11nd der Mwm mil drn t"ielrn Ge.1ichrern: U1kur Helmer t11J(/ (J11errcich II - Eine Korrek111r (Vienna: Biihlau, 1993 ). T;ilos, Emmerich. Ernst Hanisch and Wolfgang Neugebauer (eds). NS-ffrrrsclwfi in Ostl'r• rl'ich /931!-1945 (Vienna: Verlag flir Gesellschatb,kritik, 1988). Thomas, Hugh, Armed 1i"11ce: The Beginnings of 1/w Cold \Vi11: 1945--1946 (New York: Athcneum. 1987 ). Thompson. Kenneth W., Schools of' Though! in lntemalional Relu1io11.1: !111erprell1lio11.1, /.1.1ue.1. wul Momlitr (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1996). Thoss, Bruno and Hans-Erich Volkmann (eds). Zwischrn Kal1e111 Krieg wul E11tspw11111ng: Sicherheil.1- lfll(f Deutschland1wliti/.: der B11ndesrc;n11/Ji/.: i111 Miichte.1T.1/em der Juhff 1953-1956 ( Boppard am Rhein: Harald Boldt. 1981 ). Trachtenberg. Marc. Hi.1101-y and Stmtegr (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1991 ). Select Biblio;;mphr 231 Tweraser. Kurt, US-Militiirregierwzg O/Jeriisterreich 1945-1950. vol. I: Sichcrlzeit.1politische Aspekte der amerikw1ische11 Be.1at~1111g in Ohcrii.1terreiclz-Siid 1945-1950 (Linz: Oberiisterreichisches Landesarchiv. 1995 ). Uhl. Heidemarie. Zwisclzen Versiihnung U!l{I Verstiir1111g: L'ine Kontro1·erse um <)sterreichs histori.1che ldl'lltitdlfii11/';.ig Jahre 11ach dem 'Anschlz1/i' (Vienna: Bohlau. 1992). Wagnleitner, Reinhold. Corn-Coloni~a1io11 a11d the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of' the United States in Austria afier the Second World War. trans. Diana Wolf (Chapel Hill: Univen,ity of North Carolina Press. 1994). -- and John Blair (eds), c'znpire: Amerirnn Studies. Swiss Papers in English Language and Literature, vol. I 0 (Ti.ibingen: Narr. 1997). Walker. Martin, The Cold War: A Historr (New York: Henry Holt. 1993). Ward. Patricia Dawson. The Threat of' Prnce: James r: Bvrnes and the Council of' fi1reign Minister.1, 1945-1946 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. 1979). Weber. Fritz. Der Kalte Krieg in der SP(): Koaliti1m.1·11·iichte1; Pmgmatiker llllli Revolutirmiire So~.ialistrn. 1945-1950 (Vienna: Verlag fiir Gesellschaftskritik. 1986 ). Weil. Martin, A Prem· Good Club: The fimnding Fathers of' the U.S. foreign Scn·ice (New York: Norton. 1978). Weinzierl, Erika and Kurt Sklanik (eds), Das neue ()1terreich: Geschichte der Zweiten Repuhlik (Graz: Styria, 1975). Weiss. John. Jdeolog1· and Death: Wlir the Holornust Happrned in Gennam· (Chicago: I van R. Dec. 1996 ). White, Donald W .. The American Crntlll'Y: The Rise and Dec/i11e of' the U11ited Stutes usu World Pmrer (New Haven: Yale University Press. 1996). Whitnah. Donald R. and Edgar L. Erickson. The American Occuputio11 of' Austriu: Planni11g and Eurlr Years (Westport: Greenwood, 1995). Woods. Randall B. and Howard Jones. Dmrni11g o(the Cold War: The U11ited Stutes Quest .fiJr Order (Athens. GA: University of Georgia Press. 1991 ). Wright, William E. (ed.). Austria since 1945 (University of Minnesota: Center for Austrian Studies, 1982). Yergin. Daniel. Shattered Peace: The Origins of' the National Sernritr State (Boston: Houghton Miftlin. 1977). Young John, Winston Churchill's Last Campaign: Britain and the Cold Wm: 1951-1955 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996). Ziegler, Meinrad and Waltraud Kannonier-Finstcr. Ostcrreichs Gediichtnis: O/Jer Eri1111em und Vi'rgessen der NS-Vergangmheit (Vienna: Bohlau. 1993). Zubok, Vladislav and Constantine Pleshakov. Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: Fm111 Stalin to Khrushchei· (Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press. 1996). DISSERTATIONS AND UNPUBLISHED WRITINGS Angerer. Thomas, '"Frankrcich und die Osterreichfrage. Historische Grundlagen und Leitlinien 1945-1955", Phil. dissertation (University of Vienna, 1996). Berg, Matthew Paul, "Political Culture and State Identity: The Reconstruction of Austrian Social Democracy. 1945-1958". PhD thesis (University of Chicago, 1993). Bischof, Gi.intcr. '"Between Responsibility and Rehabilitation: Austria in International Politics, 1940-1950", PhD thesis (Harvard University, 1989). --, '"Before the Break: The Relationship between Eisenhower and McCarthy. 1952-1953". MA thesis (University of New Orleans. 1980). -- and Saki Dockrill (eds), Cold War Respite: The Genem Summit of' 1955 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. forthcoming). 232 Select Bihfiogruphy Brown, Ralph W., IIL "A Cold War Army of Occupation" The U.S. Army in Vienna, 1945-1948". PhD thesis (University of Tennessee. Knoxville 1995 ). Carafano, James Jay." ·waltzing into the Cold War': US Army Intelligence Operations in Postwar Austria, 1944-1948", CAS. Vil (forthcoming). Eggleston, Patricia Blythe, 'The Marshall Plan in Aw.tria: A Study in American Containment of the Soviet Union in the Cold War". PhD the.sis (University of Alabama, 1980). Knight, Robert Graham, "British Policy towards Occupied Austria 1945-1950", PhD thesis (London School of Economics, London University, 1986). Koppensteiner, Bruno W., "Die ·geheime' Wiederbewaffnung", unpublished seminar paper, University of Salzburg ( 1998). Kopeczek. Arnold, "Fallbeispiei des Kalten Krieges in Osterrcich, 1945-1956", Phil. dissertation (University of Vienna, 1992). Leidenfrost, Josef, "Die arnerikanische Besal!ungsmacht und der Wicderbeginn des Politischen Lebens in C)sterreich, 1944-1947". Phil. dissertation (University of Vienna, 1986). Mahr, Wilfried, "Von der UNRRA zum Marshall-Plan: Die amerikansiche Finanz- und Wirtschaftshiife an Osterreich in den Jahren 1945--1950", Phil. dissertation (University of Vienna, 1985 ). Rathkolb, Oliver, "Die Wiedererrichtung des Ausw~irtigen Dienstes nach 1945", report for Austrian Ministry of Science, 1988. Schiicher, Alfons, "Die Poiitik der Provisorischen Regierung und der Alliierten GroBmachte bei dcr Wiedererrichtung der Republik Osterreich". Phil. dissertation (University of Vienna, 1985 ). Schmid!, Herwig A, 'The Airlift that Never Was: Allied Plans to Supply Vienna by Air, 1948-1950". Arnn Hiswrian ( 1998). Wagnieitner, Reinhold, "Grossbritannien und die Wiedererrichtung dcr Repubiik Osterre• ich", Phil. dissertation (University of Salzburg. 1975). Wampler, Robert A., "Ambiguous Legacy: The United States, Great Britain, and the Foundations of NATO Strategy. 1948-19.'iT, PhD thesis (Harvard University, 199 i ). Index Acheson. Dean. 67. 94 of by Americans. I J8. 15.l-4: and Adenauer. Konrad. 3. 142. 151: and mistrust Yugoslav demands. 107. 110. 112 of Gennan people, 214 n.12 Austrian Treaty Commission. I09 Administration of Soviet Property in Austria (USIA). 85. 91. 101. 150 Balmer. Desmond. 90 Advisory Committee on Postwar Foreign Bauer. Otto. 55 Policy. 22 Benton Amendment to the Mutual Security Allied Council. 43. 70. 81: and First Control Programme. 128 Agreement. 82. 8.l. 84: and Second Control Berchtesgadcn. 9. 153 Agreement. 95. 100. 141 Beria. Lavrenti. 131. 132. 134 Allied Council Finance Commitlec. 42 Berle. Adolf. 44 Allman. Karl. 69 Berlin Crisis ( 1948 i. 2. 3. 117 ""Alpine Fortress"" (A/pe11fi·st1111g ). xii. 91. 122 Bcthouart. Emile. 111. 115. 155 American Office of Military Government Bevin. Ernest. 40. 74. 106. 114 (OMGUS). 97-8 Bidault. 115 Anschlul). 7-13. 22. 24: French trauma of. 11: Bischoff. Norbert. 57. 60-1. 68. 72. 76. 134. British and. I 0-1: Americans and. 11. 165 143. 146. 155. 207 n.13 n.26. 186 n.87: Soviets and. 12: Soviet rear Bohlen. Charles ('Chip"). 136. 145. 146 of a ··new Anschlulr·. 140. 141. 212 n.69: Bricker Amendment. 136 prohibition in Austrian treaty. 151 British Foreign Office. 23. 24. 26. 27. 44 Anti-Comintern Pact. 8 Budapest Coup. 76 anti-scmilism. Austrian. 13-14. 54. 66. 92. Bulganin. 151 148-9 Bullitt. William. 8 appeasement. I 0. 11. 12 Byrnes. James. 39, 8]. 93. 94. 98. I 06 Armstrong. Hamilton Fish. 22. 66 Attlee. Clement. J9 Caccia. Harold. 155 A11/.~ehot.121 Cadogan. Alexander. I 0. 25 Austria. see 1111dcr Coalition Government: Cannon, Cavendish. 23 Communist Party: currency conversion: Chauvel. Jean. 25. 142. 155 dena1ification: Foreign Ministry: neutrality: Cheetham. John. xiv. I 09. 155 rearmament~ reparation~:resi~tance: CherTicrc. Paul. 67. I 09. 115. 155 Socialist Party Churchill. Winston. 21. 2J. 29. 40. 43. 48. 93. Austria. geostrategic importance of. 4. 46. I JO. I 36. 140 98-9. I IJ. 116. 145-6. 150. 152. 162 Central Jntclligencc Agency tCIAJ. and secret n.41 rearming of Austria. 121: and organi1:ation Austria as victim. xi. 10. 18-19. 58. 61-J of "Volunteer Freedom Corps"'. 125. 136 Austrian Foreign Ministry sec Foreign Clark. Mark. 42. 43. 49. 70. 82. 85-6. 94. 95. Office 98. 99. 106. 108. 155. 181n. 168 Austrian National Socialists. 8 Clayton. William. 67 Austrian Postwar Occupation 1011al division. Coalition Government. Austrian. stability of. ::>8. 29. 47 xi. 73-4. 83. 90. I 27- 9 Austrian ('"Peace"") Treaty. and American ·coca-coloni1.ation ·. 2 intransigence. 110-11. 116. 118. 124, 126: COMECO'.\I. 103 first drafts, I 06: and failure of den:vification. COMI'.\IFORM. 103. 111 xi. 70. 106-7. 141: and London Deputies Communi<;t Party of Austria. Western fear or meeting ( 1947). 107-8: and legacy of subversion by. xi. 3. 35. 58. 69. 115: riots World War IL 105. 108, 148-9: shadow over postwar food shortages. 90. 99. I 04: of Germany. 105. 107. 124. 135: short plan' for a putsch in Austria. 115- 16. 120 (abbreviated) treaty. 123-7: and withdrawal communist threat. to Austria. xi. 99. 114-2.l 233 234 Index Conference of European Economic Cooperation Falin. Valentin. 132 !Paris Conference of 1947). 99. 106 'female' Austrians. IO. 111. 165 n.14. 199 n.41 Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM): London Figl. Leopold. 18. 52: start of political career. CFM I 1945). 106; New York CFM ( 1946J. 54-5. 65. 69: recognition of government. 107; Moscow CFM ( 1947). 98. 108-9; 70. 90. 91. I 0 I. 112; becoming head of London CFM ( 1947J. 109; Paris CFM Foreign Office, 133. 139. 149 ( 1949). 110; Berlin CFM I 1954 ). 124. 'First' Cold War. 3 139-40; Deputies of. 107. 109-10 Fisch. Jiirg. 87 Council on Foreign Relations, 21. 22 Fischer. Ernst. 34. 57. I 55: incorporation of Czechoslovakia. 11, I 00; coup, I 0 I former Nazis into postwar government. 58 Cullis, Michael. xiv. 155 Flory. Lester. 6 7 cuJTency conversion. Austrian. +2-3. 177 n.109 food shortages in postwar Austria, 89-90 Foreign Office Research Department De Gaulle. Charles. 22. 25. 153 (FORD). 21 denazification. Austrian. xi. xii. 3. 70. 73. 83, Foreign Ministers Meeting: of 1943. 25. 28: 106-7: Soviet opportunism and. 53-+. 70. of 1945. 93 107. 133 Foreign Ministry/Office. Austrian: isolation demilitarization (<.lisannamcnt). 3 or. 60: construct of official state doctrine. Deputies. see Council of Foreign Ministers 61-3: Grube1"s leadership or. 71-2 Deutscher. Isaac. 136. 143 Foreign Research an<.l Press Service ( FRPS) displaced persons (DPs). 91-2 see Foreign Office Research Department division of German and Austrian Economic "Future of Austria. The" (Harrison Affairs (GA). 96 Memorandum). 22-3 Dockrill, Saki. 137 Dollfuss. Engelbert. 8. 9. I 0. 18. 35. 53. 54. 66 Gaddis. John Lewis. 78 domino theory. 74: 1·is-<1-1·is Austria. 113 Geneva Summit. 3. 131. 151 Omw11dw11p[:ffhiffliil1rrsgesellsclwfi I DDSG). '·German a"ets", 27. 39. 79-86, 91. 94. 96. 82. 91. 109 I 03. I 04. I 09. 110, 124, 126: definition of, Dowling. Walter. comment on "Europe's 41, 80-1. 85. 108-9 Korea". I. 104, 112. 128-9, 155 Gerii. Josef. 59 Dulles. Allen. 66. 152 Ginsberg. David. I 09 Dulles. Eleanor, 91. 155 Grew. Joseph. 46 Dulles. John Foster. I 09, LB. 13+. 137. 138: Gruber. Karl. 51. 64. 65. 66. 69. 155: early views on a neutral Au.qria. 139. 142. 143. life. 70-1: leadership of Foreign Ministry. 144. 148. 151 71-2: foreign policy, 73-7. 95. 99. 100. I 05. I 08. 110. 114. 188 n.125: and ''lessons Eckardt. Josef. 68 of 1938". 114. 121: re.signation of. 133. Eden. Anthony. 25. 140. 1+5 144. 147 Eiselsbcrg. Otto. 143 Gusev. Fe<.lor. 107. I 08 Eisenhower. Dwight D .. I 22. 130: foreign policy or. 135-6; '"Chances for Peace" Habshurg. Otto. 54 speech. 137. 139. 140. 145 Hagspiel. Hermann. 20 elections. November 1945. 69-70 Hanhimaki. Jussi. 152 Engerth, Wilhelm. 68 Hanisch. Hugo ..'2. 33 Erhar<.lt. John. 81, 96. IOI. 112. 115. 155. 187 Harrison. Geoffrey. 24. 144-5. 146. 155 n.116 Helmer. Oskar. 53. 54. 155: early life. 55. 59. European Advisory Commission (EACl. 28 147 39.47 Herz. Martin. 68 European Defense Community ( EDCJ. 135. Hilldring. John, 67. 96 140 Holocaust. Austrians' role in. 1:1-7 European Payments Union ( EPU ). 96. I 03 Hoover. Herbert. 90 European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan). Hopkins. Harry, 7.1, 77. 78. 84. 89. 90. 96. 98. 99-103: Stalin's Hornbostel. Theodor. 7. 57. 16+ n. I respome to. 111 Hughes. Charles Evans. 22 Export-Import Bureau: establishment of. 91 Hull. Cordell. 11 Index 235 llichcv. Ivan, 156 Mallet. lvo. 155 Indian Initiative. 134. 147 'Marilyn Monroe Doctrine', 2 industry, Austrian postwar, 88-9: gains Marjoribanks. James. 155 during World War IL 17-18. 26-7 Marshall, George C .. 98. 99 Interdepartmental Committee. 27 Marshall Plan see European Recovery Program "Iron Curtain", 45: partial lifting of in Central Mastny. Yojtech. 13 7 Europe. 51 Mauthausen. 16-17 Irwin. Leroy. 122, 155 McCarthyism. 136 McCrecry. Richard, 49, 86. 155, 180 n.166 Jackson, C. D,, 137 Mendes-France. PieITe. 141 Jiigerstlitter. Franz. 18 'Mental map', 178 n.129: Austrian in World Jessup, Philip, 125 War IL 13. 58: official British. 45: Jewish restitutions. 148 American diplomats', 46-7 Johnstone, Harry. 128 Messers111ith. George, 11 Joint Chiefs of Staff (American JCS), 99 111ilitarization of p(btwar Austria, xii. 75 Ju in. Alphonse. I 05 militarization of the Cold War, 75 Ministry of Economic Warfare, 27 Kennan, George, 45-6: "long telegram", 93, models of postwar planning for Austria. 22-6 124. 135: dismissal of as US amhassador in Molden. Fritz. 65 Moscow, 136 Molotov. Yyacheslav, 6. 25, 79, 93. I 00, I 06, Kersten Amendment. 136 I 07, 130. 131-2, 156, 211 n.58: stance Keyes, Geoffrey. 99, I 00-1, 113. 117, against neutrality, 134, 136-7, 139. 140: 118-19, 151 demotion of. 143 Keyes Plan .1ee rear111ament of postwar Monicault, de Louis. 155 Austria Morgenthau. Hans, xii. 56. 124 Keynes, John Maynard. 27 Moscow Declaration. x. xi. 7. 23. 24. 25: Khrushchev, Nikita, 130. 131, 132, 142-3. 151 frcnch response to, 25. 29, 37: incorporation Kidd, Coburn, 155 into postwar independence declaration. 57. Kindlehcrger. Charles. 78 81: Gerald Stourzh and, 185 n.68 Kleinwacchter. Ludwig. 57. 66-7. 68, 72, 76. Mosley. Philip. 106 155 Miih/1·iertel. 33. 38. Konicv. Ivan, 34, 38, 43, 49, 60, 68. 70, 82, Munich syndrome. 11 83, 95. 156 Mussolini. Benito, 8. JO Koplenig, 59 Korean War, 3, 120 National Security Council (US): and papers K(irncr, Theodor. 6 7 on Austria, NSC 38. 116. 119: '.'JSC 68. Korp, Andreas. 70 119. 123. 125: NSC 38/5. 126: NSC 162/2. Kourasov. Vladimir. 85, 91, I 00. 156 138: NSC 164/L 87. 138 Kreisky. Bruno, 19. 3--L 72, 13."\, 139, 147. neutrality. Austrian. 26. 75. 76. 131: 152, 155 perceived repercussions on German Kulagin Plan, 85 Question. 132-3, 135: Italian fear of. 151: Kunschak. Leopold. 57 Swiss fear of. I 5 I: partisan disagreements over. 134. 147. 213 n.79 Laloucttc. M. R .. 156 neutrali1.ation plan. American. I 0 I. 196 n.155 Uinderkonfi,rnc 51, 69 'Never Forget' public exhibition. 63 LeMay, Curtis. 117 Niebuhr. Reinhoill, xii Lembcrger. Ernst, 72 Niemeyer. Otto. 27 Lippmann. Walter, 135 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Liihr, Alexander, 14. I 08 and Austria. 2. 111, 119. 121. 122. 152. 214 looting. Soviet see reparations n.18 Ludwig, Eduard. 65 Nutting. Anthony. 144 Mack. William. 74. 82 occupation costs. 84. 87: US starts paying for Mai sky Commission. 80, 170 n. I 04 own, 99: Soviets. British amt French Malenkov, Georgi. 131. 136: demotion of, 143 assume own. 122. In 236 Index occupation doctrine (theory). xi. 61-2: selling reparations. Austrian. 26. 27. 30. 36-41: it ahroad. 64-7: insertion in slate treaty. I 4LJ looting hy the Soviets, 37-8. 76. 79-82. Organization of Economic Cooperation and 86-8. IOI. 104: agreement to stagger Development. I 03 payments. 148. I 50; sa also German Office of Strategic Services (0SS). and puhlic assets: Potsdam Conference opinion in Ost111urk. 20. 23 resistance. Austrian wartime. I 9. 65 Oudenarcn van. John. 141 revolutionary-imperialist paradigm. 5 Richter. James. I 32 Papen. von Franz. LJ. 82 Roherts. Frank. 45. 93. 135. I 55 Paris Agreements of 1954. 140. 142 Roosevelt. Franklin D .. 8. 2 L 43. 44 Paris Conference of 1947 sec Conference on Roslow. Walt. 137 European Economic Cooperation Riicklm1ch. 53 Paris Peace Conference of 1919. 11 Payart. Jean. 155 Sanaphla (Austro-Soviel oil company). 41-2 Peace Campaign. Soviet. 125--6 Sargent. Onne, 44 Pearson. Drew. 95 Sch~irL Adolf. 41, 53. 155: early political "'Percentage Agreement"· of 1944. 44 career. 55. 69. 72, 74. 75: as rumour• Picsch. Hans. I 08 monger. 113. I I 8. I 34: disassociation with ··Pilgrim·· plans. 122 Indian Initiative. 135. 147 Pittcrman. Bruno. 147 Schmidt. Heinrich. 68. 72 Porkkala. naval hase return of. 151 Schiiner. Josef. 57. 60-1 Potsdam Conference of 1945. and Au>trian Schuman. Maurice. I JO reparations. 37. 39--40. 49. 69. 80-1 Schuschnigg. Kurt. 8. 'J. 10. 18 Potsdam Protocol. 81 Schwar1.enbcrg. Felix. 145 Prague Coup of 1948. 76. I 04. 110 Second Control Agreement. 72 Pmpor;. 56 Secret Sen·ices. 4: see 11/so CIA: OSS Provisional Renner Gmcrnmcnt. 36. 41. 173 Sclhy-Higge. John, xiv. 38 n.40: turning down of oil deal with Sovich. SemyonO\. Vladimir. I 32 42: Wcst"s reaction lo and non-recognition "Short"" Treaty see Austrian Treaty of. 45-8. 67-8: Truman's recommendation Socialist Party of Austria, 35. 59 of recognition. 49: hrcaking of its i~olation. South Tyn1L 73. 74-5 49-51: coalition formed after war, 56: Stalin. JoscL 3. 23. 26. 30. 35. 79-80. 93. isolation from western zones. 60 JOO, 104: death oL 130-L 136-7: hardlinc puhlic law. 84. 99 foreign policy. 131-3. 139-40. 142-3, 21 I n.58: notes on Germany (I 952). 127. 138 Raah. Julius. 4 I. 53 130, 133. l 34, 139. 140, Stassen. Harold. introduction of ··armed 142. 143. 147. 155. 207 n.10: entry into neutrality'" possihility. I 38. 13LJ politics. 54 Steiner. Kurt. 140 Radford. Arthur. 138. I 52 State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee Radio Free Europe. 125 .. Triple Containment .. or Germany. 151 rcannamrnt of hy West. 117: plans to Trout heck. John. 2.6. 29. I 05 .supply in case ofhlockade. 117-18 Truman. Harry S .. -t'i. 67. 9.1: containment Vyshinski. Andrei. I S6 speech. 9.+. 98. 11 () Waidhokn an der Ypps. 5.1. 6'.i Ulhricht. Walter. .1 Waldhrunner. Karl. 72. United Nations Declaration Regarding Forced Waldheim. Kurt. x. 6'.i. 71. 1'.i.f Tran.srers of Property in Enemy-Controlled Waley. Dav id . .+O Territory. 81 Wllrenverkehnl>iim. 91 United Nations Relief and Rehahilitation Warsaw uprising. 20 Administration (UNRRA) . .19. 82. 90. 98. Welles. Sumner. 11 IOI Wildmann. Karl. 6.+ United States State Department: Austrian Wildner. Heinrich. S7 Desk. 95. 96: Division of German and Willia111son. Francis.%. I 5'.i: drafting of Austrian Economic Affairs. 96 .. short .. treaty. 12.6 USIA sec Administration or Soviet Property Wi111111er. Lothar. 7'.i in Austria Winant. John. 28-lJ Winterton. John . .+7-8. 67. IS5 Vandenherg. Arthur. LJ.1 Wodak. Walter. 72. Vedcler. Harold. I 06. I SS World Jewish Congress. 108 venereal disea.scs (VD). in Soviet ;one or World War II. Austrian economy during. Austria. :1.1 17-18 Verdross. Alfred. 61. 65 Verosta. Stephan. 6.f-5. 71: .. neutralist ... 2.11 Yalta Summit. .+.+. 1.16 n.77 Yost. Charles. I 55 Vienna. Soviet .. Liheration .. of. .10-2: Yugoshtv ia. de111ands for reparations from estahlishing quadripartite control. .+8-9: Au'1ria. 107. 151 postwar food shortages. 59-60. 67. 78. 90: arrival of Western high commissioners to. Zheltov. Aleksej . .flJ. 95. 156 68: apprehension in after Prague coup. 112: Zuhok. Vladislav. 1.12