The Europeanisation of Vocational Education and Training a Political
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The Europeanisation of Vocational Education and Training A Political Economy of Skills Perspective Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor Rerum Politicarum (Dr. rer. pol.) by Christine Ante Hertie School of Governance, Berlin 2015 1st supervisor: Prof. Dr. Anke Hassel 2nd supervisor: Prof. Dr. Klaus Hurrelmann Date of submission: 24 June 2015 Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. The Political Economy of Skills and Europeanisation 5 1.1.1. Varieties of Capitalism and Skills 5 1.1.2. The Influence of Europe on National Systems 18 1.1.3. The Europeanisation of Vocational Education and Training 27 1.2. Research Framework and Methodology 30 1.3. Structure 45 2. THE COPENHAGEN PROCESS: A POLITICAL ECONOMY PERSPECTIVE 46 2.1. A Brief History of European Vocational Education and Training Policies 46 2.2. The Copenhagen Process 54 2.3. The Political Economy of the Copenhagen Process 69 3. COUNTRY CASE: GERMANY 84 3.1. The German VET system 84 3.2. Implementation of the Copenhagen Process in Germany 96 3.2.1. Early Discussions on the European Qualifications Framework and 97 the European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training 3.2.2. Learning Outcomes 109 3.2.3. The German Qualifications Framework (DQR) 113 3.2.4. The European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training 126 3.2.5. Validation of Non-formal and Informal Learning 132 3.2.6. Quality Assurance 138 3.3. Conclusions 144 4. COUNTRY CASE: THE NETHERLANDS 151 4.1. The Dutch Vocational Education and Training System 151 4.2. Implementation of the Copenhagen Process in the Netherlands 167 4.2.1. Learning Outcomes 167 I 4.2.2. The Dutch National Qualifications Framework (NLQF) 170 4.2.3. The European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training 182 4.2.4. Validation of Non-formal and Informal Learning 188 4.2.5. Quality Assurance 193 4.3. Conclusions 198 5. COUNTRY CASE: UNITED KINGDOM (ENGLAND) 202 5.1. The English Vocational Education and Training System 202 5.2. Implementation of the Copenhagen Process in the United Kingdom 220 5.2.1. Learning Outcomes 220 5.2.2. Qualifications and Credit Frameworks 221 5.2.3. The European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training 228 5.2.4. Validation of Non-formal and Informal Learning 229 5.2.5. Quality Assurance 231 5.3. Conclusions 233 6. COMPARISON AND CONCLUSION 237 6.1. Comparison of the Impact of the Copenhagen Process on Germany, the 245 245 Netherlands and the United Kingdom (England) 6.2. Theoretical Implications 256 6.2.1. Is Europe Liberalising National Institutions? 256 6.2.2. Varieties of Capitalism and the Study of Europeanisation 265 6.2.3. Further Contributions to the Political Economy Literature 267 6.2.4. Implications for Further Research 270 6.3. Implications for Policy Discussions 272 BIBLIOGRAPHY 281 APPENDIX Annex I: The European Qualifications Framework 309 Annex II: The European Quality Assurance Reference Framework 313 Annex III: Youth Unemployment Rates in European Countries 319 Dissertation Summary 321 List of Author’s Publications 322 II INDEX OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1: Skills: General vs. specific: substantive vs. economic ........................................................ 12 Table 2: VET Systems in Europe ....................................................................................................... 37 Table 3: Core Features of the Three Case Studies ........................................................................... 42 Table 4: Overview of Interviews ....................................................................................................... 44 Table 5: Proportion of firms participating in apprenticeship training in Germany, 1990-2010 ...... 93 Table 6: Descriptor elements describing the Dutch qualification levels ........................................ 174 Table 7: NLQF Scheme.................................................................................................................... 175 Table 8: Qualifications Frameworks in England ............................................................................. 223 Table 9: Overview on the implementation of instruments and principles on the national level .. 214 Figure 1: Priorities for VET under the Copenhagen Process ............................................................ 54 Figure 2: Secondary Education, VET and Higher Education in the Netherlands ............................ 152 Figure 3: Development Process of Qualification Files in the Netherlands ..................................... 157 Figure 4: Choices in 14-19 Education and Training in England ...................................................... 205 Figure 5: Youth Unemployment Rates in Selected Countries in 2008, 2011, 2014 ..................... 2744 III ABBREVIATIONS A-Levels General Certificate of Education at Advanced Level (England) APL Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) BA German Federal Employment Agency/Bundesagentur für Arbeit BBL Dutch secondary vocational education programme/ beroepsbegeleidende leerweg BDA Confederation of German employers/Bundesverband der Deutschen Arbeitgeberverbände BIBB German Federal Institute of Vocational Education and Training/Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung BIS Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (England) BMBF German Federal Ministry of Education and Research/Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft BOL Dutch secondary vocational education programme/beroepsopleidende leerweg BVP Dutch practical work placements/beroepspraktijkvorming CBI Confederation of British Industry Cedefop European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training/ Centre Européen pour le développement de la formation professionelle CINOP Centre for Innovation in Education and Training/Centrum voor innovatie van opleidingen CME Coordinated Market Economy DfE Department for Education (England) DIHK German Association of Chambers of Industry and Commerce/Deutscher Industrie- und Handelskammertag DQR German National Qualifications Framework/Deutscher Qualifikationsrahmen für lebenslanges Lernen DGB German Confederation of Trade Unions/Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund ECTS European Credit Transfer System ECJ European Court of Justice ECVET European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training EQARF European Quality Assurance Reference Framework EQAVET European Quality Assurance in Vocational Education and Training EQF European Qualifications Framework ETF European Training Foundation EVC Dutch accreditation of prior learning scheme/ Erkenning van Verworven Competenties EU European Union GSCE General Certificate of Secondary Education (England) HAVO Dutch General secondary education/hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs HBO Dutch professional higher education/hoger beroepsonderwijs IV ISCED International Standard Classification of Education KMK Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany/Kultusministerkonferenz LEA Local Education Authorities LME Liberal Market Economy MBO Secondary vocational education/middelbaar beroepsonderwijs MOCW Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science/Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschappen NQF National Qualifications Framework NLQF Dutch National Qualifications Framework/Nederlands national kwalificatiekader NRTO The Dutch Association of Private Education Providers/Nederlandse Raad vor Training en Opleiding NVQs National Vocational Qualifications (England) O & O fondsen Sectoral Training Funds/Onderzoek en Ontwikkelingsfondsen OMC Open Method of Coordination OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (England) QCDA Qualifications and Curriculum Development Authority (England) QCF Qualifications and Credit Framework ROC Dutch Regional Training Centre/Regionaal Opleidingscentrum SBB Dutch Foundation for Cooperation between Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market/Stichting Samenwerking Berofsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven SSC Sector Skills Council SME small and medium-sized enterprises TUC Trade Union Congress UK United Kingdom VET Vocational Education and Training VMBO Dutch pre-vocational secondary education/voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs VoC Varieties of Capitalism VWO Dutch Pre-university education/voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs WEB Dutch Adult and Vocational Education Act/Wet educatie beroepsvorming ZDH Skilled Crafts Association/Zentralverband des Deutschen Handwerks V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am thankful for all the support, encouragement and advice I have received during the time of writing this dissertation. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Anke Hassel, who has supported me by providing academic guidance and encouragement throughout the entire research project. Her thoughtful advice helped me develop this project, ask relevant questions and keep the focus right. I would like to express special thanks to Prof. Dr. Klaus Hurrelmann who has stepped in during a crossroad and helped successfully finalise the doctoral process. This research project was funded by the Friedrich Ebert Foundation. During many discussions with the community of scholarship holders and during the foundation’s events, I gained valuable in- sights for this work and beyond, and made new friends. I would like to thank my interview partners for taking the time to share their perspectives on the Copenhagen process and its implementation in the member states. Without their commitment and openness, this dissertation would