Mobilization of Ethnic Autonomies in Georgia

CEU eTD Collection Diffusion of Ideas of Ethnic Mobilization in Minority Regions: In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Department of International Relations and European Studies Cases of South Ossetia and Abkhazia International Relations and European Studies European and Relations International Supervisor: Professor Erin Kristin Jenne Central European University European Central Word Count: Word Count: 14 202 Budapest, Hungary Nana Papiashvili Submitted to Submitted 2007 By CEU eTD Collection mobilization in mobilization modify linear model Beissinger’s mobilization andof devisemy model own of ethnic other in close explain succession, timingthe of regional independence and movements why they followoften each I ethnic mobilizationconcentrate one diffuse ethnic from group to anotherwithin astate? on linked. This theoretical question: broader helpaddressthe will diffusion theory causally whetherandtowhatextenttheseconflictsI investigate were In this thesis, of ethnic South the andconflicts. Abkhazian Ossetian between the isinterconnection there some mobilization. be itFrom seems this resolved timing that andthe haveyetto to day. conflicts 1993, the I in conflicts South Ossetia and Abkhazia. These intowar simultaneously turned in 1988- Caucasian countries and especially in whichGeorgia, faced a civil war and ethnic two in South the dramaticmost and was complicated the period Thetransition republics. chain reaction in the union republics as well as within the most of autonomies of those complicated stages of mobilization with the diffusion elements of of a cyclicalcharacter. elements diffusion the mobilization with stages of complicated influenced each andethnicother, mobilization in minority underwentthese regions well as those with the central government.stages I conclude progress. that theTo conflictstest for indiffusion, South the GeorgiaOssetian and Abkhazian cases in 1988-1992 the timeframe tosee how the have I also trace the connections between the cases as The fightfor independence during the collapse of Sovietthe Union a prompted minority regions . To testthestaged model,I useprocess-tracing within Abstract i how how can theideasof Inorder to CEU eTD Collection from my family and friends during writing the thesis and throughout my studies at CEU. andacknowledgeFinally, want toenthusiastic theI received support encouragement I year. academic whole the for and thesis the for support and help enormous her for Futasz I wouldsuggestionsAlso, onReka thanklike topic. my the to academic supervisor, thesis. Iam Robertespecially grateful Nalbandovto for hisvaluable and comments thecompletion for wasof importance Jenne, asherof a crucial andsupport this guidance manner. First of my gratitudeall, goes deepest my to Professorsupervisor, Kristin Erin Extensive number of individuals has contributed to this research in one or another or one in research this to contributed has individuals of number Extensive Acknowledgements ii CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 51 BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSION...... 47 ...... 34 CHAPTER 4 – ABKHAZIA CHAPTER 3 – SOUTH OSSETIA...... 23 CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF THE CONFLICTS...... 14 CHAPTER I: ...... 7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK INTRODUCTION...... 1 Table of Contents:...... iii Acknowledgements ...... ii Abstract...... i Table ofContents: ..Wr...... 45 4.7. War 4.6. Secession...... 43 4.5. Militarization of the ...... 40 Abkhazian Forces 4.4. Legalization...... 38 4.3. Core Political Groups...... 36 4.2. Diffusion ...... 35 of Ideas 4.1. The Window of Opportunity...... 34 ...... 32 3.7. War 3.6. Secession...... 31 3.5. Militarization ...... 30 of the Ossetians 3.4. Legalization...... 28 3.3. Core Political Groups...... 26 3.2. Diffusion ...... 24 of Ideas 3.1. The Window of Opportunity...... 23 2.2. Minority Regions during the Georgian Independence ...... 18 Movement 2.1. Nationalist Mobilization in Georgia (1989-1993)...... 14 1.3. Model of Ethnic Mobilization in Minority Regions...... 10 1.2. Diffusion of ...... 9 Ethnic Conflicts 1.1. The Tidal Wave of National Mobilization...... 7 iii CEU eTD Collection infancy one diffuse from ethnic group to another within astate? theoretical broader help the question: address whetherinvestigate towhatextent and conflictsthese werecausally linked. This will I thesis, this In conflicts. Abkhazian the and Ossetian South the between interconnection 1992, which inwas settled ayear later 1993. From timingthis itseems thereis that some between Georgiain andAbkhazia followed increased by 1989, ina severe conflict armed 1988, reached its military inphase 1990 and was temporarily settled in 1992. Tension in escalated conflict be this haveGeorgian-Ossetian resolved day.to yet to conflicts The Georgian-Abkhazian and Georgian-Ossetian the war: into turned that two conflicts and ethnic minorities major five with multi-ethnic, most the is Georgia counties, Caucasian andway.three dramatic From complicated most in such a transition the underwent of states the internalfaced conflicts. ethnic wars and TheCaucasus South region republics by end the of 1980s. While fighting their own battles for independence, some reaction not only in union republics, butin most of autonomousthe units within those Toft, in her book “The Geography of Ethnic Violence: identity, interests and ininterests Toft, “The her the identity, Violence: of Geography book Ethnic internal explainfocusing violenta variety on conflict of Forexample,variables. Monica issuesseveral haveIn theliterature, addressed and of to scholars conflict ethnic tried Midlarsky (ed). 1 Stephen M. Saideman and Erin K. Jenne, “The International Relations of Ethnic Conflict” in Manus I. Manus in Conflict” ofEthnic Relations International “The Jenne, K. Erin and Saideman M. Stephen 1 intheir are conflicts ethnic of relations international the of studies Generally, movementsIndependence in Formerthe Soviet Union form the took of a chain and there is much that is still unknown about the phenomenon of ethnic conflict. ethnic of phenomenon the about unknown is still that much is there and Handbook of War Studies III, INTRODUCTION forthcoming 1 how can theideas ethnic mobilizationof CEU eTD Collection 2 in succession. other each close follow often they why and movements independence regional of timing the specifically explain none of them However, in particular. conflicts explaining Georgian factors the important authors I have cited addressmass hostility a securityand provoke whichdilemma, eventually war. leads to the issue of thegrowth whatof toencourage use government, their power leaderscome to who belligerent leads to mobilization begins elite-led asecurity war. The in with which pattern dilemma resulting provoke and theyin actions engage and leaders touchbelligerent choose masses the when hostility on mass with Theformer leadingelite-led ethnic war:mass-ledthe conflicts to and patterns. begins of that group to act. willingness toact, and establishing political institutions for the group increases theability increasescohesion group’s identity and andof group that titular separate the promoting institutionsthe of autonomous regions promotes secessionisminstitutionalizing because ethnic when groups. core no dividedor are there institutionally ethnofederal mightavoid that ethnic when is problems states the any dominant group collapse ethnofederalism and state focusing on ethnic minority Haleseparatism. argues Toft fails, however, to happen. explainto likely is conflict the indivisible, as the territory the view timing conflict in the sides two issue of the conflicts. Henry Hale somedeals with ethnic conflictsindivisibility turn of territory,” develops violenta theory of indivisible territories and explains whilewhy others do not. According to her theory, when International Security 5 World Politics 4 World Politics 3 Territory Stuart J,Kaufman, “Spiraling of Ethnic War: Elutes, Masses,and Moscow in Moldova’s Civil War,” Collapse,” and Survival State Ethnofederal of Sources Institutional We Stand: “Divided Hale, E. Henry Svante Cornell, “Autonomy as a Source of Conflict: Caucasus Conflicts in Theoretical Perspective,” Theoretical in Conflicts Caucasus of Conflict: Source a as “Autonomy Cornell, Svante Monica Duffy Toft, Duffy Monica (Princeton University Press, 2003) , Vol. 54, No. 2, (2002), 245-276 , Vol. 56, No, 2, (2004), 165-193 , Vol. 21, No. 2, (1996), 108-138 The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests and the Indivisibility of 4 Stuart Kaufman focuses on elites. He distinguishes two paths of 2 3 Cornell, argues too, that 5 All these 2 CEU eTD Collection up with my model own for explaining intrastate processes of ethnic mobilization. explain ethnic mobilization mobilization explain ethnic of various ethnic groups mightthat provide not theory aspecific does generally literature The moreand difficult. different is diffusion of process that mean may this diffusion; of mechanism within-state a suggest which regions, minority are myanalysis of objects the contrast, In them. already had state apparatuses, making this closer to diffusion making apparatuses, had this already to closer state Beissingerstate. himself atdiffusion looked between Union Sovietthe which republics, that ideas of ethnic mobilization diffuse from ideasthat of mobilization diffuse ethnic one ethnic to another group address independencefor is anda farmore straightforward process. linear regions because of regionsthe heis looking atare all for whichquasi-states, mobilization minority in mobilization explain adequately not can still model diffusion Beissinger’s However, another. after mobilization nationalist causing one period, glastnost’ the the tide of evolvednationalism and theformer spreadthroughout Sovietrepublics during “National Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet Union,” Beissinger discusses how independencemovements between union republics in Sovietthe Union. In his book closer atdiffusion helooks because explaininggets states to within of diffusion of but betweenconflicts do states address not diffusion Mark within Beissingerstates. atexplainingdiffusion aregood the authors another. The from to state one conflict ethnic diffusion Ethnic Fear,Diffusion, andEscalation,” talkof Conflict: specifically about another.from Davidin to one “The of Donald Lakeand Spread International Rothchild, To getatthetiming addresswe need of thediffusion conflict the to conflicts of Both theories are a good my forfoundation specifically Both nottheories area butdo research, good intrastate conflicts. Therefore, my research question asks whether itis askswhether possible question my Therefore, research conflicts. 3 within a state. That is why I came across states that within within a single CEU eTD Collection that wherethat do groups not have ismobilization apparatuses, their state-like notlinear,but Beissinger’s model mobilization.of This model modifies Beissinger’s theory by showing from isdistinct which regions, minority for model mobilization ethnic test and be analyzedusingBeissinger’s in diffusion theory a modified way. Finally, Idevelop two cases: the case of the minority opinion beenhas not adequately beyond union the generalized republics. Ialso compare regions of South Ossetianhope tocontribute to theory of mobilizationethnic Beissinger that develops, which in my and Abkhazia, which will theceasefires. ending with and war the into went mobilized, regions minority the when moment the with starting and cases. Abkhaz This model is case specific andcovers period the from 1988 to 1993, Ossetian South the both describes that mobilization national of model a developed have happen differentlythanin the SovietUnion republics? question: asecond will address thesis theory, the diffusion concern ofthe which question thesis of ethnic mobilization within an these regions, obvious linkemerges. Besides the main periods distinct analyzing when However, way. own in their reasons own for isolation in in war. resulting similar way,and Ossetia often South haveseem Abkhazia mobilized to republics. Many underwent these process the of groups mobilization inof ethnic a inof within mobilization national Union groups autonomous affected Soviet the the tide the how show Abkhazia and Ossetia South of cases The period. glastnost the during influencedmobilization by nationalist tide ofnationalismthe sweeping the Soviet Union of initself process the was in which Georgia, situated wereboth These conflicts conflicts. The objects of testing my theory are the South Ossetian and the Abkhazian This thesis has both theoretical and practical implications. As for the theory, I theory, the for As implications. practical and theoretical both has thesis This How How did ethnicmobilization take place within minority regions? Did this 4 In order to answer this question, I question, this answer to order In CEU eTD Collection analysis to show why my theory is better than alternative explanations at accounting for accounting at explanations alternative than better is theory my why show to analysis and resources and d)have examined been bymanycompeting theories – Idothis ideas for diffusion of multipleof SovietUnion, the collapse are when there opportunities of time the during c)arebeing traced in samestate, the government have same the institution,b) have quasi-state a) donot that minority regions becausearetwo they theory for the tests and Abkhazia areperfect Ossetia South agreedon. was cease-fire temporary 1980s from late theearlywhen the till above,the starting discussed mobilization 1990s, Abkhazia, republic, anautonomous both underwentmultiple stages ethnicof ethnic mobilization model for minority regions. South Ossetia, an autonomous oblast and vice versa. and of Abkhazians the mobilization ethnic the on mobilization Ossetian of South effects diffusion the concerning conclusions draw I section, each analyzing After government. central the with War - - Succession - Legalization - Militarization Organization Political Core of Development model. seven These phases are:Window of Opportunity displayedinethnicmobilization stages which different follows the seven to each case from 1988 till both ethnic mobilized1993, when groups intensively. Ianalyze theextent frame time the chosen I have apparatuses. state without regions minority for specifically this prism mobilization the through model, ethnicthe of mobilization whichIdeveloped across minority minority Iuseintensive regions, across “mobilization cycles.” constitute that state the with interactions multiple on depending cyclical, . To test the diffusion, I will also trace connections between the cases as well as The cases of South Ossetian and Abkhazian cases provide excellent test of test of the excellent casesprovide and Abkhazian Ossetian South The casesof In order to test the viability of my model of diffusion of ethnic mobilization process-tracing 5 in the two case studies. I analyze – Diffusion of – Diffusion Ideas – of CEU eTD Collection of of South the Ossetian and the Abkhaz regions in late 1980-earlythe 1990s. mobilization ethnic the which explain to they extent andthe regions ideasthe of between diffusion extent of determine the other on to the of each movement effects the summarize same state. the within movement other the from inspiration its got movement one how A -- movements concluding section on actual the at Iwilllook effectof methoddiffusion ofprocess-tracing. the using the is analyzed presents case Each cases. these explain can model mobilization the how showing the findings in developments Georgia. The third andfourth explorechapters twocasestudies the of the researchBeissinger model. The second chaptergives an of overview conflictsthe and political the where I of ethnic forminority mobilization explainingregions, howitwill builds on and modifies model mobilizationof helps me build my model; own I afterwards present my model own is and which of one his basic framework best-known staged of the mobilization, the boundaries. Thelast sectionmodel depictsstate Hroch’s of chapter of nationalist the Then I discuss what Union. diffusion Soviet the across diffused and evolved is nationalism of and tide the how howdemonstrates the ideas of ethnic mobilization diffusefirst Beissinger’s Iintroduce chapter, theory diffusion nationalof mobilization, which across the In Conclusion. the and Case; Abkhazian the Case; Ossetian South the Conflicts; the how. and one other the from inspiration its got region in one movements as well. I will theory diffusion the compare testing for cases well-chosen are they is why That movements. the these conflicts to each other stage by stage, and determine if the The thesis is divided into five major parts: Theoretical Framework; Overview of Overview Framework; Theoretical parts: major five into is divided thesis The 6 CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge University 1999),Press, 89 7 Press, 2002), 48-58 6 In turn, endthe of communism in furtherEastern Europe radicalized and spread reform movements asserted sovereign control over their states vis-à-vis the Soviet empire. regimes asthe with speed astonishing satellites, collapsing communist East European society. political and civil of development the for base a frame as nationalist useda thus reformists Baltic The elites. republican the of position well. as Republics important role in mobilizing independence movements in neighboringthe Baltic streetandplayedagendas tothe an their took organizations political 1988. These by initiated fronts emerged popularthe in that in Baltic Republics the summerof the demandsaround for secession. In Balticthe republics, thedriveindependence for was spirit reformist of and liberalization the closely following rights, cultural and linguistic and movement, autonomy increased demandsfreedom of for around centered mobilization issues. (ecological)environmental Later, protests these intodeveloped nationalist began hismostinitial were reforms, economic organized economic around protests and with the effects of a tidal influence of 1.1. The Tidal WaveofNationalone Mobilization nationalism on another. When Gorbachev R. Beissinger, Mark Valerie Bunce, Valerie glasnost’ By fallthe 1989, of nationalistthe revoltagainst the SovietUnion emergedin the itUnion was foreseeable that disintegrated Sovietthe As MarkBeissingerstates, . Gradually, the newly-emergent nationalist movements began to mobilize to began movements nationalist newly-emergent the . Gradually, SubversiveInstitutions: the Design and the Destruction of Socialism and the State CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CHAPTER I:THEORETICAL Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State 6 These fronts primarily took a national form, despite the vulnerable the despite form, a national took primarily fronts These 7 7 (Cambridge University CEU eTD Collection 10 9 8 the of documents the from directly copying even contestation, of tactics their borrowing Union drewon Baltic experience, the in Soviet elsewhere the The activists committee. a coordinating establishing another, one with contact initiated had movements nationalist representatives of Ukrainian, Armenian, Georgian, Lithuanian, Latvian, andEstonian a “tide in importance nationalism” rise USSR. By to giving the of across June 1988, vital had that interconnectedness” “a senseof created maintain order were using to the communicated authorities methods actions and andthe eachothers’ groups copied linkages between theissues and were thegroups that protesting, ways the in which these to more direct challenges of the parameters of the national order. leadingraised publicexpectations, escalation to the of life from demands quality issuesof within the hard-line similarleadership behavior of the Soviet onwhich inspired Baltic dissidents to organize their demonstrations, own which provoked the state part andof theArmenian successinfluenced activists,of some the protest decision and unrepressed mobilization by Jewish acts Russian refuseniks, hippies and nationalists so ofon thedown Crimean the line.Tataractions. dissidentsConflict For the mostto conductpart, engagingto thestreet, in demonstrations groundfor whiletesting the furthersmall-scale the a policeprotest watched campaign, themJewish refuseniks closely but did not interfere. This camebeing into in quicklyEastern Europe across diffused Unionthe itself. nationalist revolt within the USSR. Consequently, a powerful tide of nationalism that These people were not allowed to travel abroad or serve in the military inthe or serve abroad travel to allowed not were people These Beissinger, Beissinger, Within Soviet the block, bythe spring of of 1987, small hippies,groups ecologists, Gradually, these demonstrations started to assume a uniform pattern. The Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapseof the Soviet State, Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapseof the Soviet State 9 , Russian nationalists, and Baltic dissidents began taking their politics their taking began dissidents Baltic and nationalists, Russian , 8 60 , 68 10 8 CEU eTD Collection Rothchild putit, through “lessons learned” from one conflict toanother. As Rogers notes, one place to another. from andbe arecontagious can transmitted holds conflicts that conflict of ethnic theory One way of spreading involved the diffusionthe ideasof between republicsthe of Sovietthe Union. Diffusion conflict is indirectly, or, as Lake and 1.2. Diffusion ofEthnic Conflicts its territory, resulting in two bloody ethnic wars on Georgian soil. Georgian Tbilisigovernment. soughttostem tidalthe wave ofnational mobilization on Moscow, its minoritynational reformers rode the independencetidal wave of of union againstrepublics regions werefor union republics andtheotherfor autonomous republics. Inotherwords, as the riding their ownGeorgian Republic founditself on opposite ends of two tidal mobilizationwaves of – one wave of mobilization unionthey independence. The followed by other were also declared which republics, against was notmistaken. the By 1990, the Baltic States had begun to secede from the Soviet Union; 11 –hadbecome of inevitable. thespecifically, departure Baltic republics the – state Soviet the of break-up least apartial at that conclusion the came to chief advisor actions of one another. In the wake wereshared, andorganizational sought inspiration challenger groups resources from the of the events transnationally, of borrowed and the exported summerconsciously were models nationalist which of 1989, Gorbachev’s Estonian Popular Front. Nationalism assumed the form of tidal wave in the ways in Beissinger, WhatBeissinger describedas mainly a tidal wave ofnational mobilization Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapseof the Soviet State 9 , 87 11 In this,he CEU eTD Collection 14 diffusion, andescalation 13 12 of air”. out thin materializing “literally of canevolve out nothing, conflict Inthis case, ethnic level ofmobilization. increase their others the before preemptively mayresponse best their ethnic challenge theirbe tostrikecontracts, existing center or in the claimsin absencethe of any in change underlyingthe political of groups againstpower the they make, if the groups update their beliefsabout likelythe of demands otherin groups theircountry. own Even believe others to may groups cause elsewhere conflict Similarly,ethnic areabroad. dissimilation ethnic now more likelyin stimulating effects” “demonstration of importance the for to argues Kuran demands. increase itsown andagitation itmight movement, successful independence group’s similar observesanother group if one example, For demands. seek greater to another ideas. process the mainly is newof aspecialtypediffusion of concerned with communication, scholars and other enthusiasts, when poets, artists, historians contribute tothe contribute historians artists, when poets, enthusiasts, andother scholars phases of national movements: Phase Ais purely the cultural involvingone, afew fundamental three identifies Hroch Europe. in Central mobilization nationalist of model 1.3. Model of Ethnic Mobilization in Minority Regions and the lessons that are drawn by the copycat groups. scene, the on groups of beliefs initial the conditions, local upon depends above, mentioned information can jump borders easily and diffuse widely. Whether this happens, as Ibid. Everett M.Rogers, Everett Rothchild,editors,Donald andLake A. David 12 According to Kuran, from diffusesAccording conflictinspires to when agroup country one Among the many models of ethnic mobilization, one of the best-known is Hroch’s is best-known the of one mobilization, ethnic of models many the Among Diffusion of Innovations (Princeton University Press,1998), 26 (New York: Free Press, fifthedition, 2003), 5-18 10 The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: fear, 14 13 Ideas and Ideas CEU eTD Collection 17 University Press, 1985), 22-24 http://www.pacte.cnrs.fr/Recherche/RC14/1-1-Kaufmann-_Conversi_draft3.pdf state. the with interactions multiple involving linear than cyclical more is process the why justifies must why pass they through legalizationthe instage mymodel, also, explains for theregions, and much more makes difficult mobilization apparatus of absence state This apparatus. lack that -- astate are regions minority layerdown one that entities federation that already which diffusion the quasi-states, unitsnationalisticare the of mobilization across in hada a legal status as separate was notmobilization confined totheunion mainly Beissinger republics. on concentrates entities. In my thesis,Beissinger’s model islinear also too andshould begeneralized minority to sinceregions I deal with may be usefully distinct intodivided sub-phases. The same can be saidBeissinger. about action.” phase C islargely bythe in national identities to determined prior which ways are formed during occurs what since examination, intensive worth not is action nationalist that was that “Phase noted Hroch B Although C)”. was (Phase movements national notmass to leads elites necessarilynationalist destined to pass over into Phasemass national movement, which usually leads fullto nationhood. C,” his assumptionpolitical and program,character social a acquire to begins whatmovement the when Hrochagitation, patriotic calls “the most important phase”; and Phase C is the rise of the 16 15 of national formalization andculture creation ‘discovery,’ Beissinger, Miroslav Hroch, Miroslav Conversi, Daniele and Kaufman Eric In my opinion, Hroch’s model is too general for predictive utility; his three phases of emergence the why and how ignored largely “has Hroch that notes Beissinger 17 Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapseof the Soviet State Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe ( Ethnic and Nationalist Mobilization, 11 15 ; Phase B is of period the London, New York: Cambridge York: New London, 16 CEU eTD Collection y Opportunit Window of opportunity Windows of mobilization/ ethnic for conditions of Existence of mobilization. The second stage is Thesecondstage mobilization. of can be historical orsome types other offactorsgrievances givethepush that for the start conditions mobilization. Those group basisgive a for that conditions the Irefer to stage the With process. mobilization the for sufficient and necessary Table.1 ĺ Development of Core Political Window of Opportunity until mobilization war breaksout: Groups model is toadifferentthat adapted set of –minority units regions. from the Abkhazis at another stage. Because of these differences I came up with my own Abkhazis from the South Ossetians at one stage, and butvise versa rather -- by the South backOssetians and forth. mightdiffusemobilization differentstages at of andmobilization in not a linearfashion, For example, ideasideas missingIargue ofmobilization,in ofethnic that stages are Beissinger’s. which of mobilization can be borrowed by the War When developing my model, Ichose aspects which,in my arebothopinion, Another thing that distinguishes my model from Beissinger’s is the multiple is the Beissinger’s from my model distinguishes that thing Another I have identified seven different periods of mobilization, from the start of start the from mobilization, of periods different seven identified have I ideas Diffusion of “otherness” ideology of creation Definitionand Groups Core Pol. ent of Developm influence verbal high-level of capable individuals, prominent leaders, clan n nucleus: mobilizatio ethnican Creationof diffusion of ideas,diffusion Legalization adoption of laws adoption statements; community; ational authorities/intern letters” to higher claims: “open ideological “legalizing” for opportunity Windows of ĺ Legalization 12 which is probably one of the most tion Militariza groups small among of arms ion (re)distribut and possession on, Accumulati ĺ Militarization ĺ windowsopportunity of Diffusion of Ideas Secession irredentism claims secession/ stage: Final pre-war ĺ Succession War actions Military ĺ CEU eTD Collection sections: two last as the aswell contention, tothe and attributable conflict ethnic of violent mobilization. for side alegalbasis the‘rebellious’ gives ‘legal’the section, of comprising various statements and adoption the laws, of which mobilization when mass aroundgathers actual specific personalities or Next groups. is progression of the themobilization ideology process.phasesimportant of model,the ideasthe when mobilization of from diffuses outside and of The“otherness” third section is the is nucleus created, of the strife, which increases the probability of the future succession and war . 13 Militarization is characteristic CEU eTD Collection 18 Union. SovietGeorgians againstthe Countermobilization among ethnic was minorities virtually withsimultaneous of that the countermobilizations, and the most serious violence occurred in the autonomous regions. aggressiveOssetia.most pursued Abkhazians and The the Ossetians autonomous republicsthe ofAdjaria andAbkhazia and the Autonomous Oblast of South Georgia: in regions autonomous three are There minorities. national own their mobilization,However, Georgians during hadtofacewith internal national problems glasnost’ 2.1. Nationalist Mobilization inGeorgia (1989-1993) Abkhazia. and Ossetia of minority inSouth the with region accordance mobilization national the Iconcludeconflicts. bygiving summary of the in politicalthe situation Georgia during the of background historical the of overview brief a give I then regions. minority the of Georgian nationalist mobilization, which was happeningin parallel with mobilizationthe situation in from Georgia endthe 1980s of the till beginning the of 1990s, covering the for abetter First, understanding of dynamicsthe Iintroduce of conflicts, the political the conflicts. the to introduction general a I present Abkhazia, and Ossetia South of regions Escalation,” ed. in Steven E.Lobell Philipand Mauceri, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 62-64 Moldova, and Tajikistan, Horowitz,Shale Before discussing each stagesof the of ethnic mobilization in autonomous the Georgia pioneer wasoneof republicsof Union Soviet the the which used the policy of policycallindependence Mikhail Gorbachevof tofor endof atthe 1980s. CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OFTHECONFLICTS 2: OVERVIEW CHAPTER Identities Unbound: Escalating Ethnic Conflict inPost-Soviet Azerbaijan, Georgia, “Ethnicin Conflict and International Politics: Explaining Diffusion and 18 14 CEU eTD Collection Ukraine and Armenia, although, only in Georgia “irreconcilables” mentality dominated “Democraticthe Union” in in groups andRussia radical Balticnationalist the republics, with from such Sovietrepublics, as radicals hadclose contacts other political prisoners, former other and Tsereteli Gamsakhurdia, -- “irreconcilables” of Georgian leaders 21 Former Soviet Union 20 EuropeanStudies. 1994) ed. by Donald, V.Nationalism andHistory: the politics ofnationSchwartz building in post Soviet Armenia,Azerbaijan andGeorgia and Razmik,19 Ranossian. (University of Toronto: Center for Russian and East not even had time toholdits founding congress when Aprilthe tragedy happened. had front This republics. Baltic the in formed those to similar Front a Popular evolved changes, people whereFrom 200,000 around participated. intelligentsia liberal the which was Novemberdemonstrationthe in against constitutional1988 theproposed National Democratic Party, were initiators of the subsequent mass demonstrations, one of national andwas of Georgian not thepreservation concerned culture openly political. hadinGroup been that in Theagendaestablished 1977 mainly of Georgia. groups these Gamsakhurdia Zviad activist dissident former and specialist literature foreign the time, same 1987, in response to open the atmosphere accompanying Gorbachev’sAt reforms. the The first in opposition “Ilyagroupings appearedinSociety” Georgia, Chavchavadze late Georgia’s mobilizationnationalist and struggle for independence from Sovietthe Union. Soviet ruleuntil late 1980s. The country’s ethnic with problems evolved together Ibid., 43 Wheatley, Jonathan On Gamsakhurdia see Stephen Jones, Stephen see Gamsakhurdia On Notwithstanding themultiethnic composition, remained Georgia peaceful under The more radical groupings,like the Society of St. Ilya the Righteous, or the 19 Watch Helsinki the based on which was Helsinki Union, created the (England: ASHGATE, 2005), 42 Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution: Delayed Transition in the Populism in Georgia: The Gamsakhurdia Phenomenon 15 21 The 20 , in , CEU eTD Collection 26 http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/0472098985-ch10.pdf University of Michigan Press, 2006), 248-279. Protecting theNation in Postcolonial andPostcommunist States, http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/ContBorders/eng/ch0201.htm Boarders of the Caucasus popularity among Georgians with his nationalistic rhetoric. On October 28,1990, multi- andGamsakhurdia his bloc “Round – Table gainingFree Georgia”more started and more Georgian land, and asmore loyal Russianto power than Georgian.”to authentically on living arrivals recent “foreigners, as non-Georgians in viewing united GeorgianGeorgians independence. supported rule.Soviet As opinion polls heldfivemonths after the tragedy 89 showed, per cent of Georgian political life. The April in massacre a sense united Georgian the nation against of development further in the crucial were that events of sequence path-dependent 25 24 23 22 independence. chalked slogans mentioned Abkhazia; however, main the focus was still Georgian from union republic, separate Georgia. declarationthe made in March by Abkhazians in Lykhni demanding recognition as a full dead, of which 16 werewomen. The 9April originally begandemonstration in protest of usingAs gasand toxic shovels. sharpened a therewas result, dozensof wounded and19 Sovietthe Union outside the Georgian were parliamentattacked by Sovietthe troops by set Gorbachev. political game, the movements rules the accepted opposition.mainstream the of Elsewhere, the opposition Toft, Wheatley, Ibid. Nodia, Ghia Stephen Jones, Georgia: Nationalism from under the Rubble, in Rubble, the under from Nationalism Georgia: Jones, Stephen The Geography of Ethnic Violence, In Jonathan Wheatley’s words, 9 April was a “critical phase,” as it instigated a On 9 April 1989 peaceful advocating Georgia’sdemonstrators independence from Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution Political Turmoil inGeorgia and the EthnicPolicies of Zviad Gamsakhurdia 24 , ed. by Bruno Coppieters (VUB University Press, 1996). 92-94 22 23 At the demonstration, few painted banners or 16 25 In addition, most opposition parties were parties opposition most addition, In , s41-43 ed. by Lowell W. Barrington (US: The After Independence: Making and , in 26 Contested Soon CEU eTD Collection 2006. http://www.nato.int/acad/fellow/96-98/losaberi.pdf 29 28 27 smuggling. Theirleader, Gamsakhurdia JabaIoseliani, inFebruary denounced 1991 and grouping uniting around5000men, whoweresubsistingmostly on robberies and drug paramilitary groups. of growing weaponry tothe available power of ex-Soviet bythelargeamountworsened caused by Soviet declaredtothe Union blockade by Gamsakhurdia, economic the situation, economic and especially Atensepolitical region on 11 December,1990. independence Ossetians’the declaration of and theirof abolished an status autonomous in facedin was annulled OssetiaGamsakhurdia where war South the president1990, the widely criticized26, 1991 with 86 per cent of the vote.for However,Union. Soviet his in the aftermath,unpredictable GeorgianGamsakhurdia parliament passed a declaration on the independence of Georgia from the was 98.9 percent of Georgian voters. On secondthe anniversary Aprilthe of Tragedy, the style by referendum whichwassupported organized independence, aseparate Georgian on of government.Instead of participatingin Gorbachev’s referendum in March 1991,Gamsakhurdia becameGamsakhurdia head the of SupremeCouncil the of Georgian the Republic. The won impressively, almost70 per gaining cent of After seats. the thevictory,first crisis party and democratic parliamentary elections held were inwhich blocGamsakhurdia’s that George Anchabadze, Losaberidze, David U.S. Library of Congress http://www.aboutgeorgia.net/history/index.html?page=12 Gamsakhurdia’s main headache was the was mainheadache Gamsakhurdia’s May on of Georgia the Republic of president first the waselected Gamsakhurdia 28 The Problem of Nationalism Georgiain 29 History of Georgia: Post-communist Georgia 1990-2003 , “Rise of Gamsakhurdia,” 17 http://countrystudies.us/georgia/16.htm Mkhedrioni , (Tbilisi: The Caucasus Institute, June 1998) (horsemen) paramilitary , last update December, 25 update , last 27 CEU eTD Collection 33 32 31 30 mobilization. slogan he came up with, “Georgialed for(ethnic) Georgians,” toethnic that According to most formobilize. them served to asanopportunity structure of Georgian the government Russian and many foreign scholars,2.2. Minority Regions during the Georgian Independence Movement it was Gamsakhurdia Council head president. become of the in effect,the a State – and thesituation. March1992,they invited In EduardShevardnadze return Georgia to to and Military Council Georgia,of understood they that incapable were of controlling the demonstrators thewholethroughout Kitovani andheaded country. Ioseliani, the who acivil and This existingthe warof escalated anti-Gamsakhurdia government. pro in theGeorgian firstencouragedpresident his borders rebel supporters Georgia to against andfled Chechnya. to wasoverthrown in battle center Gamsakhurdia a the when after of Tbilisi, two-week fall 1991. Theend of 1991 and beginningthe of 1992 is known as “Tbilisithe Winter,” under into in an conflict thecontrol The turned not president. the armedof confrontation entirethe political opposition, demanded that Gamsakhurdia resign. So, militarythe was commander Tengiz Kitovani, led of by National Guard the part biggest their the “Round Table–FreeGeorgia,” rose against the president, formation the announced of a newparty. and with the support of almost Nodia, Anchabadze, Losaberidze, Wheatley, Meanwhile, the situation in the autonomous regions was escalating; weakness the escalating; was regions in situation the autonomous the Meanwhile, In fact, Gamsakhurdia never renounced his presidency and even from the outside Political Turmoil inGeorgiaand the Ethnic Policies Zviadof Gamsakhurdia Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution TheProblem of Nationalism in Georgia History of Georgia: Post-communist Georgia 1990-2003 33 homogenizing of objective his nationalism, extreme Gamsakhurdia’s 30 In August of the same year, after a split in the 18 , 55 32 31 CEU eTD Collection 36 35 Centerthe forStrategic and International Studies, 1994), 122-124 34 and territorial weredispersedstatus thecountry. around As for the population,Ossetians when 1922, weregranted region, statusof the autonomous Ossetians hadno they intermixed with Georgian villages. This is intermixture explained by fact the that until Ossetianspopulation. throughout the region arescattered and their villagesare formeans themajority local of the and income-generating serving asasignificant Range, Mountain Caucasus the on pass strategic a and route transit economic important neverby its distinguished infrastructure. resources or However, region is the an (Alania), which forms region. the Ossetian South Russian Federation.forces tothe met peacekeeping nearand sentjoint Yeltsin Sochi and Shevardnadze after power there wasUnlike an escalation of violence, and only on 24 June was a ceasefire agreed on, Abkhazia, comingto had foryear. Shevardnadze’s exactly on beengoing Even after a Ossetia South Ossetia was center. Georgian mobilizationduring the was raised them again, of reminded their hatred of the past changedby said, theflag and one, republic, whichwasbefore of SovietGeorgian the they as because, movement independence Georgian by the actions first the to negatively reacted TheAbkhazambitions. andOssetians their separatist expressed communities movementdid have not time todo anythinganti-Ossetian anti-Abkhazian or before these problems. Georgia’s ethnic exacerbated thus minorities toward overstatements extremist his and ethnically, not if culturally Georgia Wheatley, Nodia, Shireen T. Hunter, T. Shireen South Ossetia occupies 1/6th of Georgia’s territory bordering North Ossetia bordering North of territory Georgia’s 1/6th Ossetia occupies South By the time of Gamsakhurdia’s removal on January 1992, the war in South Political Turmoil inGeorgiaand the Ethnic Policies Zviadof Gamsakhurdia Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution 35 The Transcaucasus in Transition: Nation-Building and Conflict 36 19 34 Nodia writes, The Georgian Independence , 70 (Washington D. C.: CEU eTD Collection Caucasus, (2005), 2001), Abkhazians of FSUthe numbered 105,308,(i.e., they made upjust 1.8% of the of Georgians living in Abkhazia could not communicate with one another. one with communicate not could in Abkhazia living Georgians of language.their According second tothe1979estimate, almost25% of Abkhaz and 44% Abkhaz language,Abkhazians and considered their 78.8%claimed Russianas primary 42 http://www.omniglot.com/writing/georgian2.htm 41 40 39 38 37 as in scriptopposed script. Cyrillic to the Georgian is it from written isGeorgian; different Abkhazians the Caucasus. Thelanguageof North ethnicity in people tothe are people havingkinshipties of Georgians, than a different the Georgia. for importance economic and strategic crucial has Abkhazia north, the to road important an and service rail only infrastructure, andrichdeveloped mineral economic agriculture accessto the resources, on the Black Sea and borders Russia to the North. Because connected Russianto the Federation, asingle through tunnel. of its tourist resorts, for lasttogether the in two or centuries three partof the northern Georgia, which is well- Bothsides livedissues conflict. viewof the hadacontroversial Thegroups of other. the conflict. before the region the local inin population comprising 66.2percentof the region the outnumbered Georgians, Georgia. Autonomous Oblast of South Ossetia, whilelived 99,000 some of parts inother Ossetians (roughly 3% of populationthe of Georgia) of which some 65,000lived in the Toft, The Georgian is the original script among 19 scripts in the world. Ibid. Ibid. Cvetkovski,Nikola KetevanTsikhelashvili, http://www.ecmi.de/cps/download/Abkhazia_SouthOssetia.pfd The Geography of Ethnic Violence, Abkhazia constitutes almost per12.5 cent Abkhazia constitutes itof isthe Georgian territory; situated 38 The history of relations between Ossetians and Georgians was one of the key http://www.caucasus.dk/chapter2.htm The Georgian – South Ossetian Conflict TheCase Studies of Abkhazia and South Ossetia 37 Accordingcensus, 1989Soviet tothe were164,000 there 40 Furthermore, Abkhazians,like the South Ossetians, 92 20 , Danish associationfor Research on the 41 % 93.5 than more 1989, In 39 , draft Chapter, (30 September (30 Chapter, , draft 42 In1989,the CEU eTD Collection (Brussels: VUBPRESS, 1996). 45 from from Defence the Council in May 1993, whilefighting Gamsakhurdia’s supportersas 46 44 43 territory. its on base military paramilitaries1921 constitution fivemonths before. The Abkhaz initiated military action, backed by from the1925constitution,law,howrestored Georgians which to similar the hadreinstated Russia’sactivities, following the 23Julyincident, when Supremethe SovietAbkhazia of a passed north separatist theareatorepress weresentinto forces andparamilitaries government Caucasus regions into Georgia Abkhazian as the wasan autonomy.Republic incorporated and directlyjoined the Georgian SSR under Thislasted Treaty the Union. status of until 1931, when from Republic of ItAbkhazia. kept statusuntil this when December 1921, SSRAbkhaziathe the RussianOn 31 March 1921, Abkhazia was given status the independentof SovietSocialist from history:the however Abkhazians lived in Abkhazia, Georgians hadlived also there. Abkhazian territory first; a similar dispute existed andArmenians,were Russians, Greeks others. in South Ossetia. Onepopulation of Abkhazia comprised 17.8%Abkhazians, andGeorgians; 45.7% the rest thing is the clear 1989, of census Soviet the to according itself, Abkhazia In started. conflict the when population of Georgia). Alexei Zverev, Alexei Anchabadze, Tsikhelashvili, Ibid., 93 As for theAbkhazian Autonomous Republic,dispute aseparatist escalatedwhen inhabited overThere isadispute whichgroup andAbkhazians between Georgians History of Georgia of History The Case Studies of Abkhazia and South Osseti Ethnic Conflicts inthe Caucasus 1988-1994 43 Unlike Ossetians, Abkhazians were a minority in the region http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/ContBorders/eng/ch0103.htm 46 Shevardnadze managed to remove Kitovani and Ioseliani and Kitovani remove to managed Shevardnadze 21 44 ed. in a Contested Borders in the Caucasus 45 , CEU eTD Collection Soviet Union Vol.15, No. 1(summer 1990), quoted in Alexei Arbatov and others, ethnic mobilization stages and whether and to what andwhether andto extent mobilization conflictswerelinked.ethnic stages these the AbkhaziansandOssetians the specifically how undertook chapters two South analyze next The cases. both in defeat Georgia’s with ended which in war, resulted mobilization whoseized opportunity the in chaotic countermobilize.the Their of situation to Georgia Abkhazians, and Ossetians South the like minorities ethnic for moment right the was This Georgia, whichlater increased minorities’ the independence. toGeorgian resistance of atmosphere intolerance ethnic aggravatedthe of mobilization minority the in regions of the country.way, with strong nationalist rhetoric, not taking intoaccount the multi-ethnicAs composition Mearsheimerhad undergone path the of nationalist mobilization in a dangerous and uncompromising noted,was extremely complicated by endthe 1980s the of andbeginning of 1990s.Georgiathe in the late 1980s, hypernationalism and the were forced to fleetheregion. were forced by defeatcatastrophic Abkhazians.the Around 14,000 people died and300,000 another 50 http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get4.cgi?directory=spring99/&filename=cotter.htm Studies, 49 48 at Toft, “The see Geography himself. of Gamsakhurdia Ethnic was as Conflict,” ofGeorgia) 102regions ofthe one – (Mengrelia Mengrelians are Abkhazia 47 to have suicide. committed wasreported after and soon defeated was militarily year, Georgia previous the to returned managed first Gamsakhurdia todefeat supporters. the president’s whohad himself, ofStates(CIS)membership,accepting theCommonwealth Independent Shevardnadze well, John Mearsheimer, “Back to the Future: instability in Europe after the Cold War,” Anchabadze, JohnM. Cotter, “Cultural Security Dilemmas and Ethnic Conflict inGeorgia,” Most Georgians living in Abkhazia were supporters of Gamsakhurdia, as most Georgians living in living Georgians most as Gamsakhurdia, of supporters were Abkhazia in living Georgians Most 47 Vol. XIX No.1, (spring 1999). afterWith Russiansupport, Shevardnadze. seizedagainstwho weapons their To conclude, the situation in Georgia -- political, economic or ethnic relations -- relations ethnic or economic political, -- Georgia in situation the conclude, To History of Georgia of History 49 48 The war ended with the Georgian government’s Georgian the with ended war The 22 Managing Conflict in the Former The Journal of Conflict International Security, 50 CEU eTD Collection ‘window of opportunity’ for minorities tomobilizeagainst the Georgian government. government between Gamsakhurdia and the opposition. It was therefore the right time --At central there was acivil over thesame war time, politics. form of anti-minority agenda which was mainly againstdirected the Soviet/Russian communist rule buta took president of Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, obtained popularity a nationalisticthrough opportunity” “golden the given were and it for conditions favorable had they when mobilization ethnic less toparticipatedangerous” in public protests. encourage participationenvisaged in to and“itdemonstrations was lessbecoming and policy glastnost the Furthermore, in Georgia. chaos political and nationalism massive of 3.1. The Window of Opportunity of thesis. the part in concluding the be summarized will and in chapter similarities the fourth the mobilization Abkhazian the with analyzing together bedrawn will cases Abkhazian the and Ossetian South the between parallels 52 University Press, 2001), 90 51 Core Political Groups mobilization model:mobilization Windowof Opportunity in ethnic the presented thesevenstages through process mobilization the analyze Wheatley, StuartJ,Kaufman, South Ossetian ethnic mobilization started at the end of the 1980s, in the context in the 1980s, the of end at the started mobilization ethnic Ossetian South In thisI present ethnicSouth Ossetia in mobilization chapterthe in I 1988-1993. Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution 52 to mobilize. The leader of the nationalist movement, later the first the later movement, nationalist the of leader The mobilize. to Modern Hatreds: the Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War CHAPTER 3 – SOUTH OSSETIA 3 – SOUTH CHAPTER ĺ Legalization ĺ Militarization 23 ĺ Diffusion of Ideas 51 So, the South Ossetians started the , 72 ĺ Succession (Ithaca and London: Cornell ĺ Development of ĺ War. The CEU eTD Collection 53 lower than political status union the however,ideologicallythey republics; were primed many autonomies, which werecreated “Matrushka.” base,an Those on of hada ethnic of structure federation the Soviet gave the republics, which regionsautonomous or 3.2. Diffusion ofIdeas discrimination. existingeconomic the Overall, the Ossetians’ mobilization issue. political or balance ethnic like was problems more other of top on came a issues reaction economic to Georgian nationalismThese in Georgia. thanregions other to to in contrast standards living lower their of because decliningmore and more in 1980s,andthe Ossetians expressed their dissatisfaction was region the for budget state the of share A relative Abkhazia. than economically Theregionmuch morewas Ossetia disadvantaged situation. economic of South strengthening position the of language Georgian the on territory the of Georgia. Tskhinvali capital (the of Ossetia)South came with introductionthe of 1988lawthe on and Tbilisi between relationship in the point turning The Abkhazia. as level same the on SocialistRepublic. SovietThey felt that therefore they toa were entitled status territorial share of region’sthe population than did Abkhazians in Abkhazianthe Autonomous other side of the border within the Russian Federation. Ossetians also comprised a largerOssetia, which was lower the thanGeorgians. Theirmain dissatisfaction was thatrooted in the administrative status of Southof North Ossetia – an autonomous Republic on the Kaufman, Generally, main the problem of Ossetiansthe was fearfor and grievances towards According toNodia,most of Union Sovietthe republics consistedone more of or the with do to had Georgians the towards Ossetians the of grievance Another Modern Hatreds , 99-100 53 24 CEU eTD Collection 54 wants to be independent of Russia, why we can't beindependent of Georgia?" independencemovementraised question the secession from of "If Georgia: Georgia for secessionist movements. In the case of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, the Georgian reemerging nation-state ofGeorgia. nation-state reemerging newly the against Ossetians South the mobilize to them helped This “otherness.” of asense constructing enemies, astheir imageof Georgians an were creating Ossetians Consequently, weaken drive inGeorgia. secessionistto the in Ossetians the order Ossetia, whichmeans separating from Georgia. Russia putall its into efforts supporting mobilizeopportunity preserve theirto forces inorder theSovietto Union join or North the andseized Ossetians, North the with lose ties their causethe would independence Georgian that saw Ossetians the collapsing, started Union the when But Moscow. line as Ossetianowere ruleddistinctthey both from North South, separating by the was there Union, Soviet the of condition the In them. with uniting at aim and Ossetians them. from ideas copy could which mobilizingfor independence andtheGeorgianNagorno-Karabakh, were regions by For instance,conflicting regions endof wereTransnistria inMoldova and the 1980s of mobilization autonomousthe regions which also started period.during glastnost the clues as to theirfuture status even at Georgia. Examples were both union states and some independence from Georgia. It seems that the autonomies were looking at other states for deserved which nation, asaseparate sawthemselves Ossetians the that itis evident this, Nodia, It must be noted that the South Ossetians preserve kin ties with the North the with ties kin preserve Ossetians South the that noted be must It Political Turmoil inGeorgiaand the Ethnic Policies Zviadof Gamsakhurdia 25 54 From CEU eTD Collection 57 Nagorno-Karabakh, Trans-Dniestria, Tajikistan Nagornii Karabakh, Pridnestrove, Tadzigistan http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/inside/publications/0419dissertation.pdf Cases in Georgia 56 55 were authorities communist Ossetian local the first, At management. administrative poor from to city’ssystem, the whichsuffered which wasattributed water typhoid epidemic, state. of the citizens the increase in across livingstandards an the guaranteeing incapablebut of was thatthesystem Ossetians, less thanNorth Georgiansor earned that Georgians, than less earned Ossetians South that not was problem the says, Pryakhin As in than restof Georgia. was lower livingin the of per person region the standard that the national found as talksOssetian the to turned researchers South gradually the politics, Nykhas was mainly organized around economic problems in beginning.the However, Institute. was teachingHistory Alan Tskhinvali ideologue, at the mainChochiev, who Pedagogical OssetiaSouth of Georgianthe Supreme Soviet. It operated underleadership its the of (region) of in Oblast A.N.) Autonomous wasformed the Shrine, Popular translation: (in Nykhas” “Adamon Ossetians of movement a national 1988, in early Thus, membership. answers among which non-official were organizations, organized according tonational their disadvantaged economic status from the Georgian officials, they started looking for Ossetian Autonomous Oblast (SOAO). When the Ossetians could not3.3. CorePolitical Groups attain redress for Ibid. VladimirPryakhin, Cornell, E. Svante Already in early was 1988, popular protest building in OssetiaSouth duetoa As Vladimirwrites, in aRussian researcher, Ademon Pryakhin, beginning,the Already in 1988, asmallgroupof mobilizingOssetians hadstarted in South the 55 (Sweden, Stockholm: Uppsala University 2002), 191 Autonomy andConflict: Ethnoterritoriality andSeparatism in theSouth Caucasus – Regionalnie konflikti na postsovetskom pronstranstve: Abkhazia, Yuzhnaya Osetiya, ( ) (Moscow: 2002),132-204 Regional Conflicts in Ex-USSR: Abkhazia, South Ossetia, 26 57 56 CEU eTD Collection Caucasus, 2005), 59 58 Ossetians. shifted Georgians,the were blamed towards who for poorliving the conditionsof the its small gainHence,attention with chauvinismto strength began ethnicities. regard to held responsible for epidemic.the This changed by midthe 1980s,when Georgian notes, this letter framed the conflict as a contest for national dominance: the Ossetian framed as a letter the for national conflict thisnotes, contest the dominance: set a precedent forwould othersuccess their that hoped and regionsautonomy at efforts Abkhazian that the with wishedsympathized to join the Russian Republic. As A.N.the wrote aletter in an KaufmanAbkhaz newspaperin April 1989 sayingthattheOssetians due to a supportive letter from the Ossetians to Abkhazians. Alan Chochiev, the leader of in rule.would Soviet participate that activities challenge position could also beexplained but unwillingness the of localthe population to issues Ossetians around mobilize the movement. by raised popular This moderate the not claim widespread support in the SOAO. There wascould organization the stages, the early level. In national the to no political) or (economic charismatic leader who could Ademon region.the was firstNykhas attemptmaterial byOssetians tobringthe concerns primary in Georgia.language topreservethe minority Its traditions goal was and culture minorities’. ethnic of mentality inthe chauvinism Georgian of fear spreading for responsible mass-mediawasheld print or Georgian the Besides, character. anti-Georgian Pryakhin, Cvetkovski,Nikola Soon tensions between the Ossetians and the Georgians increased considerably increased Georgians the and Ossetians the between tensions Soon in claims territorial no had still A.N. Front Popular Ossetian the point, this At 58 Regional Conflicts in Ex-USSR The South Ossetian movement for improving living conditions soon took an http://www.caucasus.dk/chapter2.htm The Georgian – South Ossetian Conflict , 132-204 27 (Danish association for Research on the 59 CEU eTD Collection Research Center. GCI: Georgia, Tbilisi, 2003-2005. Autonomous Oblast of South Ossetia, Autonomous The SSR of Abkhazia (1989-2006).” Regionalismthe 62 61 60 asmost of andthe by Ademon as“anti-democratic discriminatory,” Nykhas condemned by those citizens residing in Georgia who had no command of Georgian. creatingfavorable conditions in all enterprises establishmentsand for learning Georgian all types of scientific and educational papers in Georgian. Also, efforts should be put into spheres of itsociety; envisaged securing andorganizing the creation and publication of ProgramState on Georgianthe Language, be declaring Georgian to used in all public Georgians and the South Ossetians was still ahead. between place. the and Butlocal fighting took full-scale Ossetians Gamsakhurdia) of by in between irregularGeorgians Zviad 1918,clashes (encouraged groups independence anniversary the of declaration of celebrated their On 26 May,asGeorgians in andGeorgians Ossetia.South between firstclashes Ossetians This letter triggered the opening of aGeorgian branch Tbilisi of inUniversity Abkhazian the capital.Sukhumi, for expressed the in Abkhaz letter, his against the an support campaign open group’s already inmentioned, springthe of 1989, Alan Chochiev, leader the of Ademon Nykhas, to autonomous republicmade was to Georgianthe Supreme Sovietby A.N.the As 3.4. Legalization autonomy. and name Ossetia’s South abolish to wanted nationalists Georgian from front secession wanted popular anddominance while overlocal Georgia Georgians, Cvetkovski, Kaufman, Communisti The plan, which for makingcalled Georgian only the public for language life, was In August 1989,theCentral Committee issued of Georgian SSR adecreeonthe upgrade firstIn 1989,the Ossetia’sthe request to oblast statusfrom autonomous Modern Hatreds, , No 196, 25August,1989, ed. in Tamaz Diasamidze, “Regional Conflicts in Georgia –the The Georgian – South Ossetian Conflict 85-127 28 www.rcc.org 61 62 60 CEU eTD Collection 67 (UK: CURZON Caucasus World, 2001), 165-166 (1989- Abkhazia of SSR 2006).” (GCI: Georgia, Autonomous Tbilisi,the Regionalism The ResearchCenter. 2003-2005).Ossetia, of South Oblast Autonomous –the Georgia in Conflicts 66 64 people into two administrativepeopletwo into units within SovietUnion.the claiming that itOssetia gainedmomentum. The Ademon Nykhas had senta petition to Moscow, was politically and economicallywas rejected by both Tbilisi and Moscow. absurdis Oblast language state the Ossetian”. Autonomous Ossetian South the to divide the “In SSR: Georgian Articleconstitution the of add following smallthe 75of sentencethe to to Ossetian first Deputy Chairman of the South Ossetian by issuing“the Ossetian 4 adecree Program on on Language” on State September. The Oblispolcom Comr. Sanakoev M.G desired 65 63 agenda. Ossetia’s North and South on high was south and north of The of problem question becamegreater. the unification thecollapse,the after course, of collapse of the Soviet Union, the border between North and South Ossetia was fragile; following statement: Ossetians had apoorworking knowledge of Georgian. made to defuse crisisthe by publicorganizing forums for both Ossetians and Georgians. Pryakhin, Cornell,Svante E, Pryakhin, Kaufman, Sovetskaia Ossetia In September 1989, the South Ossetian movement for unification with North with unification for movement Ossetian South the 1989, September In As the leader of North OssetiaCentral Committee Plenum on nationality questions.” of that thetime, A. unificationGalazov, administrativedividedinto two andwe questionthe demand units; that of thoughtframework that before “It ofthe North ofseems a anddemocratic South to usOssetia statepolitically thebe examinedsmall Ossetian at andthe CPSUpeopleeconomically should be absurd that within the Regionalnie konflikti na postsovetskom pronstranstve Regional Conflicts in Ex-USSR Modern Hatreds , No 188, 28September1989, ed. in Tamaz Diasamidze, “Regional Small Nations and Great Powers: astudy of ethnopolitical conflict in the Caucasus , 107 , 132-204 29 , 145 63 The South Ossetians responded Ossetians South The 66 65 The appeal contained the www.rcc.org 67 Some attempts were Some attempts 64 decree This CEU eTD Collection (Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Military Empowerment. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007) 69 68 can kin actor be and/or state. amilitary alliance radicalization is emphasizedbyE.Jenne.Among other thethirdthings lobby or party by a third party. The involvement externalthird leverage party or minority of assisted militarily were sides conflicting both since regions, minority in the mobilization of ethnic issueimportance in the progression further hada the The militarization great for surebecauseof nature of unofficial the the fightingarming possessed. both sides arenoexception.conflicts Thisissue is vaguest, the asnothingprobably canbe declared 3.5. Militarization ofthe Ossetians 1990. November. first The armed began conflicts atthis lasting point, till beginning the of on by 23 stopped Ossetians armed They were region with demonstrations. peaceful theOssetian on settlement theGeorgian tosupport in Ossetia,order of South capital the side declined decision, this several and thousand Georgian citizens marchedTskhinvali, to status toan Autonomous Republic within Georgianthe Supreme Soviet. The Georgian regional council of Ossetian South the oblastautonomous upgrade decided toits own the 1989, November, 10 on later, A month them.” represent Ossetians nor Abkhaz, declared:“… a nation should haveits autonomy only if itis settlementrooted – neither forums organized spontaneously in Georgian-populated and mixed villages. Moreover, concerns overthe problem were publicly adhocdiscussed community at Erin K. Jenne, K. Erin Pryakhin, 68 Militarization is a very delicate issue when discussing conflict. The Georgian conflict. is issue avery Militarization when delicate discussing a leader Party, Irakli In SeptemberTsereteli, of National the 1989, Independence Regional Conflicts in Ex-USSR Ethnic Bargaining inthe Balkans: Secessionist Kosovo VersusIntegrationist Vojvodina, , 145 30 69 In the case of South Ossetia, the CEU eTD Collection 72 71 Journal of Peace Research 70 arms, ethnic groups were able to start control andthe smuggling wasproblematic. And ofillegal because toa access profusion of war. Georgia, but in most of thebattalions’, whichled an to abundance of small weapons among civilians. Not in only republics of the former throughSoviet Union, the question ofillegal arms Federation. paramilitary Russian namely, the lobby of actors, kinds these exactly to connected was militarization formations or ‘armies,’ ‘national guards’, or ‘defence Ossetian Autonomous Oblast into the Soviet Democratic Republic of South into Ossetia. OblastDemocratic Republic Autonomous of Sovietthe Ossetian South Ossetian Autonomous Oblastof reorganize 20th the Convocation decided to theSouth 1990. The 14th Sessionthe region of proclaimedthe Oblastinterpreted its by Ossetians Councilstatus as a way to cut Ademon Nykhas outas of the system. a of unionIn response, therunning in parliamentarythe elections in Georgia. This was andrepublic could only be People’s within Deputies the an adopted when law election Supreme Soviet Georgian from the barring regional parties USSR on of20 theSeptember South 3.6. Secession smuggled from Russian military garrisons and other outside sources. with theOssetiansweapons organizedAbkhazians resistance armed In turn, andthe they would never have been able unleash to a violentmovementagainst local minorities. underboth presidents acquired a largeproportion of Sovietthe Army arsenal; otherwise, Tishkov, ”Ethnic Conflicts in the FormerUSSR” Valery Tishkov, “Ethnic Conflicts in the Former USSR: The Use and Misuse of Typologies and Data” Sovetskaia Ossetia According to Tishkov, militarization in both autonomies of Georgia happened Georgia of autonomies both in militarization Tishkov, to According The situation between the Georgians and the Ossetians worsened in summer 1990, , No., 180,(22 September 1990), , Vol. 36, No.5. (Sep., 1999), 571-572 31 www.rcc.org 70 Furthermore, the Georgian government Georgian the Furthermore, 71 72 CEU eTD Collection 76 Press, 1997), 356 Russian and American Perspectives 75 74 Russian-Georgian Relations”), (Moscow: Europe, 2006), 406 73 periodicallyJune, Russian troops assisted South the Ossetians with encouragementof the started. several thousand Georgian troops entered Tskhinvali, fighting and with casualties formation of the National Guard of Georgia. A few days later, on the night of 5 January, 3.7. War 12 the 1990, with Gamsakhurdiathe leadership blamingOssetians for political separatism. On oblastwas abolished11 December on andtheautonomous results, election the cancelled parliamentary leadership its held own 23December.elections on Gamsakhurdia When the nationalist ‘Round Table’ came to power in Georgia, the South Ossetian fighting escalated, with periodic Russian involvement. Russian periodic with escalated, fighting March EduardShevardnadze1992 appointed aschairman.In springthe of 1992, the council from was andwhich in interim state Gamsakhurdia was created, ousted an power government destroyed. been hadregion significantly forces.moreinjured.and than230were of economicFurthermore, the andthe structure social People) in Georgia. According to official statistics, 53 people died on the Ossetian side Georgianmore in IDPs(Internally than people becamerefugees or North 20,000 Ossetia Displaced military attention shifted towards the capital. Cvetkovski, Cvetkovski, Mark Bliev, Mark Edward Ozhiganov, “The Republic of Georgia in Georgia of Republic “The Ozhiganov, Edward th 74 of Decemberin Tskhinvali and Java, a state of emergency was announced. In the first days of 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia passed a law on the In late December, internal fighting erupted in Tbilisi between the opposition and opposition the between inTbilisi erupted fighting internal December, late In Already two months after the confrontation, the damage was considerable: damage was the confrontation, the months after two Already The Georgian – South Ossetian Conflict The Georgian – South Ossetian Conflict Yuzhnaya Osetiia: v kolliziakh rossiisko-gruzinskikh otnoshenii by Alexei Arbatov, and others. (London, Massachusetts: The MIT The Massachusetts: (London, others. and Arbatov, by Alexei 75 32 Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: 76 During the fighting in May and in May fighting the During (“South Ossetia: In Clash of 73 CEU eTD Collection and Relative Importance of Objective Antecedents,” of Objective Importance Relative and 77 section. concluding in the be drawn will Abkhazia and Ossetia South between parallels The separately. and discussed case Abkhazian the to employed Abkhazia in 1988-1993. The seven stages of the ethnic mobilization model bewill in mobilization will by side.Thenextchapter ethnic defeated the cover Ossetian the by was side in it andwas stopped a ceasefire Georgian war; andresulted Georgians and Ossetians clashed between the claims, the armed which caused made secessionist Ossetians the by Gamsakhurdia, Ossetia of South Oblast Autonomous of the abolishment war oflaws” to Georgianandthe government askedfor the status upgrade. After the “the socalled announced Ossetians South the assistance, military Russian and Ossetia and glastnost inthe period mobilization by Encouraged started 1988. their in kins North seizedOssetians during opportunity South the position, the disadvantaged economically stages of mobilization model.the Havingin background ethnic the andgrievance Joint Control Commission and joint CIS -Georgian - South Ossetian military patrols. agreed upon, and on 14 July 1992, aCISpeacekeeping operation began, consisting of a was Acease-fire acease-fire. and Ossetia South of question discuss the to met Yeltsin brokering aceasefire. On24June 1992,Shevardnadze andRussian Boris President Sovietthe center and Russianmilitants, though the Russiansplayed adecisive role in Shale Horowitz, “Explaining Post-Soviet Ethnic Conflicts: Using Regime Type to Discern the Impact To summarize, the ethnic mobilization in all South summarize, mobilization underwent Ossetia ethnic seven To the the 33 Nationalities Papers, Vol. 29,No.4, (2001), 633-660. 77 CEU eTD Collection Rose Revolution 80 79 Abkhazians. they saw as Georgian minorities felt and threatened in mobilized response, struggling against what a “Tbilisithat a good portion of the inhabitantsfor of Georgia was neither Georgian nor Christian. The Georgians.” intensified, theautonomy. despite fact the cause“Georgia Georgians” for Tbilisi, of In One of the vocal4.1. The Window of Opportunity minority groups was the opportunity in the breakdown of authority in andin legitimacy Georgia.” of opportunity breakdown authority the Abkhazethnic faction of Abkhazianthe leadership, under Ardzinba, sawawindow of did not have time for its own minorities or other internal affairs. As Nodia explains,Georgia wasweak,focused asit was “the its on own struggle for independence,andtherefore minorities. of as a battlesuppression for the cry was interpreted destruction of its land,language and culture. So his slogan “Georgian for Georgians” the peril of the invoked Hiswritingsdominance ethnic the minorities. unnerved dissident earlier often Georgian nation Georgians jobsthe houses. had been better given Gamsakhurdia’s andbetter political and blamed both Moscow and the minorities for the 78 the Gamsakhurdiathe and government the evolved civil inwar Tbilisi gave theAbkhaz Ghia Nodia, “Conflict in Abkhazia” cited in Jonathan Wheatley, Jonathan in cited Abkhazia” in “Conflict Nodia, Ghia Ibid., 96 Toft, The Geography of Ethnic Violence During the era of perestroika, autonomous entities started seeking entities greater started autonomous eraof During the perestroika, First, Abkhazis the windowused the of opportunity for ethnic mobilization – that thought always and against grievances historical had always Abkhazians The 78 , 72 CHAPTER 4 – CHAPTER ABKHAZIA , 94 34 Georgia from National Awakening to 79 80 The collapse of CEU eTD Collection 84 83 the Netherlands: Kluwerlaw international, 2001), 11 82 Abkhazia reducing andfor ethnic share of the within latter the total the population. in Georgians of settlement the through policy a “Georgianization” implementing intentionally face the accusedStalin of of inAbkhaz TheAbkhazians Georgia mentality. Georgian feelings among the strong anti-fostered communities, Abkhazians two the between relations undermined drastically and finally settled the image of the enemy: in University, and Abkhazian-language broadcasting.television suchasthecreation State Abkhazprograms, of foran Abkhazian various finances extra Abkhazia Russianthe instead to Asof republic Georgia. a Abkhaziaresponse, wasgiven demonstrations orstrikes in 1931, 1957, 1965, 1967 and 1978,demanding the transfer of Georgia. During Soviet the rule, Abkhazians the constantly organized public status 1931, the of Abkhazia that wasdiminishedan Autonomous of Republic to within 81 with SovietRepublicthe Socialist Georgia of on the basis of a special union-treaty.” 1925, Abkhazia adoptedits ownconstitution, which Abkhaziaclaimed that was “United annexation of in Georgia 1921, Abkhazia wasproclaimed aSovietSocialist Republic. In 18 the 4.2. Diffusion ofIdeas conflict. of violent outbreak the and constitution the of restoration the was which act, to opportunity’ of ‘window another Tsikhelashvili, Kaufman, See Potier, Tim, Wheatley, th Furthermore, the politics of both Stalin Georgians by and Beria, ethnicity, Abkhazia had always enjoyed some form of autonomy within Georgia, starting in century.in after As chapter, second Russian already the mentioned Modern Hatreds, Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution The Case Studies of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Conflict inNagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and SouthOssetia: A Legal Appraisal 85-127 81 35 , 8-9 , 73 83 , (Hague, 84 82 In CEU eTD Collection http://www.abkhazia-georgia.parliament.ge/Publications/Georgian/ghia_nodia_1.htm 85 Union”. within Empire/Soviet Russian their the status to vision confined in independence SovietUnion, Abkhaz Abkhazians“As the obtained the nationalist always hadthesense of but“otherness”, by late the 1980s this feeling wasintensified. had They Abkhaz. the of enemy the were Georgians mentality: Abkhaz in the element Communist Party AbkhazianParty Communistof Themeeting Forum the Georgia. established Nations of the of (Obcom) Committee Oblast Abkhazian the to conversation a for invited up of artists,scientists, and InNovember1988, themembers writers. were of group this made time, of that intelligentsia the was representing that of activists camefrom a group 4.3. CorePolitical Groups the Abkhazians. face of Georgia would have to fight simultaneously on two fronts: with the Ossetians and in the asthe ‘enemy’ success, for chances Abkhazians’ could factincreasedthe have This year. a half over – slightly government Georgian the against mobilization the with Abkhaz Ossetiansthe mobilized almost simultaneously with Abkhaziansthe --preceded the as mobilization, Abkhazian on influence a great had have might Ossetia South of Oblast diffuse from autonomiesother of formerthe Union; Soviet especially, Autonomous the whentheunionmobilized calledforrepublics independence. Moreover,theideas could they deserved it. That is of a titular minority inwhy 1931. Once they were given status, the they came tobelieve that during the collapsestatus given the they were region, in theAbkhaz minority Abkhaz the were offact that the Soviet Union, the Abkhazians Ghia Nodia, At the time of collapse of the Soviet Union, there was a quite unambiguous In 1988, initiativethe for creating an Abkhazian national-political organization The Conflict in Abkhazia: National Projects and Political Circumstances 36 , 85 Despite the CEU eTD Collection http://www.abkhazia-georgia.parliament.ge/Publications/Georgian/labyrinth_of_abkhazia.htm 87 88 86 accessnot it. “Bzibi” extended publishedthe version of “Abkhazletter,” famous the whichhad“Bzibi,” called avery asGeorgians in living small Abkhazia could circulation, an form.took mobilization organized Abkhazians the Aydgylara, of establishment the with short, In strategy. future a and armaments up built and money collected also they Abkhazia; in organizations information Georgian familiesfrontcollected about andGeorgian and their activities Revolution and Leninism. Under authority the of membersAydgylara, of popular the opposed Georgianthe movement liberation by defending the ideas Octoberthe of languages. Russian the and Abkhazian the both in in 1989, “Aydgylara” cultural survival. publishing Accordingly, Abkhaziansstarted the thenewspaper by languageas theAbkhazthe lawfor introduced Georgians, wereafraid the their development and other issues. Like the Ossetians, the Abkhaz were greatly concernedwere by discussionsmeeting of theover Constituent the status Assembly eleven important people. onof 13 Abkhazia,December, 1988.and the director of the state museum. The Forum was led byAt thethe writer A. Gogua, uniting the Assembly,regulationChoreographer of State choirthere of Abkhazia, the director of the Union of Abkhaz writers, of migration,joinedby editors, deputy writers, the of rector Abkhazianthe University, State the (People’s Forum language (“Unity”of PFA)inAbkhazia, which “Aydgylara,” translation), was Vakhtang Kholbaia, Ibid. G. P. Lezhava, The Abkhazians also began the publication of another anti-Georgian newspaper Aydgylara came out in favor of the Soviet Union and Communist party. It by a authorized which Abkhaz wasdrafted “Aydgylara” the Obcom, The program Mejdu Gruziei iRasiiei Gruziei Mejdu Labyrinth of Abkhazia 86 (BetweenGeorgia and Russia) (Moscow 1997), 230-334 88 , (Tbilisi: Parliament of Georgia, 1999). 37 87 CEU eTD Collection 91 90 89 detailingSU, Abkhaz againstGeorgia grievances and right the demanding tosecedeand Party ConferenceCommunistof of the the letter an to theTwenty-ninth addressed open officials Communist Abkhaz instance, For Abkhazia. of status subordinate the protest demonstrations. The Abkhaz elites and politicians regularly wrote letters to Moscow to 4.4. Legalization cultural survival. andcenter wereconcerned with same the issue, of kind likelaw thelanguage anda months. In addition, bothby several Aydgylara preceded Nykhas Ademon the seethat wecan Ossetia, and South groups had the similar strategies of communicatingabout one-quarter of Abkhaz entirethe including population, of thousands non-Abkhaz. with the Georgians living in Abkhazia. On March 25 of sameyear,a counter-rally the held in was by attended Sukhumi 12,000 status 1921-31 of Socialist Abkhazia asaSoviet Republica status equal -- to Georgia’s. village of Lykhny in the Gudauta district nationals”. Abkhaz andGeorgian of Abkhazia. The PFA ASSRsought within Georgian SRR. The presentsituation can not ensure equality between to restore the Abkhaz of existence the impossible made absurd the and to relations inter-ethnic brought which ended with following“Thethe words: struggle imposed by Georgian nationalists Kaufman, Toft, Ibid. The Geography of Ethnic Violence, During the late1980s,ethnic tensions culminating peaked, inviolent If we draw parallels between the formation of core political groups in Abkhazia On 18 March,1989,ontheinitiative people PFA,the of 30,000 ralliedin the Modern Hatreds, 103 90 managed rallyfrontAbkhazianOverall, to popular the 89 95 38 91 CEU eTD Collection Conflict in theCaucasus 96 95 94 93 parliamentary elections, which targeted the Abkhaz Popular Front and Ademon Nykhas. Ademon and Front Popular Abkhaz the targeted which elections, parliamentary electionthe law prohibiting regionally-based parties from inparticipation the pending 92 join Russia. deputies, 26for Georgians and 11for otherminorities. were in reserved for Abkhaz 28 seats local reserved seats the Abkhazian Assembly; and ethnic quotas disproportionate largely constitution, establishing to the amendment chairman oftheSupreme Soviet. chairman elected was himself Gamsakhurdia and elections, the won Table Round Gamsakhurdia’s elections.inthe werecandidates from Asmentioned prohibited participating before, Abkhaz the party raninCommunists; againstthe blocs andOssetian elections the held nationalistin Six were general Georgia. 1990, October, elections parliamentary Abkhazthe and Georgian the whichauthorities, engaged ina“war of laws”. On 28 killed. Abkhazians five and Georgians eleven with Sukhumi, severely protested led confrontation and the tothefirstviolentclashes among in students Aydgylara wasbehind the growing tension around the university issue. TheAbkhaz The Georgian University. State Tbilisi the of a branch into University Abkhaz the of section Georgian sources The tensionsdecided peaked in1989,whenthe Georgian the toturn Supreme Soviet claimed therights of increasingprotect of Abkhaz chauvinism against Abkhaz. the Georgians that theyforinterethnic violence. precipitating The Georgian it foundgovernment necessary to needed to obtain control over it and that Toft, Tsikhelashvili, Lezhava, Toft, On power-sharing see Bruno Coppieters, The Geography of Ethnic Violence The Geography of Ethnic Violence At the beginning of At beginningthe conflictshifted1990s, the political of againtothe arenabetween Mejdu Gruziei i Rasiiei, 92 was signed 60people. by The letter The Case Studies of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, (London: The RoyalInstitute of International Affairs, 2001), 20-29 235 , 96 ,94 95 Central Asian andCaucasus Prospects: Federalism and In 1990, the Abkhaz parliament adopted an adopted parliament Abkhaz the 1990, In 39 93 These letters were widely blamed widely were letters These 96 9 Georgia responded by adopting 94 CEU eTD Collection Gothic Image Publication 1994), 154 99 98 97 resumed 10 Abkhazia1990. pass law,of 25 August, on votes sovereignty to declaredthe the deputies whose participation would befor necessary the minimumrequired 2/3 of of theAbkhazdisregardingIn response, boycott of Supreme the Soviet, Georgian the volunteers who felt obliged to help the Abkhazians with whom they felt strong kinship. strong felt they whom with Abkhazians the help to obliged felt who volunteers were Caucasus. Caucasianfighters Mostof North from the North ‘boeviks’ were the the players main the of One reasons. various of because Georgians the fighting nationalities various people of were there Abkhazian In the case, external assistance. or self-defence further mobilization of the Abkhazians, as 4.5. Militarizationit oftheAbkhazian Forces would be risky to rally withoutanother. onto group a hope of language. This chronology isindication a strong thethat ideas havediffused from one in 1989, October Abkhaziansthe the same adopted of kind law on Abkhazian the August 1989; South the Ossetians did samethe in September 1989.The following month, connection with each other: TheGeorgians adopted the law onthe Georgia languagein evident. The adoption of mutually language lawsexclusive on state happened in close is strongly Ossetia South Abkhazia and government, central parties: the three between Ardzinba, (ahistorian by astheelectedprofession) chairman Supremethe of Soviet. declaration was annulled by Georgians on the next day. Svetlana Chervonnaya, details further for SeeDiasamidze Tsikhelashvili, As in the case of the South Ossetians, militarization rolein in played agreat the As case the militarization Ossetians, South of the mobilization,To summarizestage diffusion ideas theof legalization the of th session of the Supreme Soviet of the Abkhazian ASSR elected Vladislav The Case Studies of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Conflict the in Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia andthe Russian Shadow 40 9 98 On the 4 th of December, the (Somerset: 97 99 The CEU eTD Collection regard for official policy official for regard scant with loyalties, local and preferences personal on based decisions hoc ad made Moscow, in generals 103 and Relative Importance of Objective Antecedents,” of Objective Importance Relative and 102 International Affairs, 1999), 77 disciplined andbadly and equipped,trained 3.5 million Georgian people should have explain.hard to Shubladze, According to evenif Georgianthe army poorly was is defeat Georgians the sides, both on fighters of number the considers if one However, clear evidence of to Russian support Abkhaziansthe in months firstthe of conflict.the it. whoauthorized or weretransferred many armaments fighting. bitter of months Russians.the Basayev’s help was crucial in leading Abkhaz forces toa total victory after contingentimportantled bythe leader Chechen Shamil Basayev, laterfought who against support from local Russian units and volunteers and from supplies Russia included an 101 Plate, Reinhardt Rummel, (Nomos Verlagsgeselleschaft, Baden-Baden, 1998), 172 von Bernanrd Greco, Ettore Bonvicini, by Gianni ed. Caucasus,” the and Baltic the from Issue Conflict: 100 and basesinAbkhazia Russian channeled through Bombora. at Gudauta subsequent operations. TheAbkhaz alsobenefited from Russian military support, Confederation of with playing amajorCaucasus People, Chechen fighters role in Confederation. of the newcenter the Abkhazians intoCPC and by the decision that the Abkhazians’ capital Sukhumi would be Sukhumi. Its initial of gatheredin by was setup on 11 November16 Caucasian peoples representatives 1991 affiliation came of Theirsupport of from Peoples Caucasus(CPC),which Confederation the the to Abkhazia was shown both by the admission of the Shale Horowitz, “Explaining Post-Soviet Ethnic Conflicts: Using Regime Type to Discernthe Impact Edmund Herzig, Edmund Shubladze, Sopiko Russia also equipped the Georgian forces. Local Russian forces and their commanders, as well as well as commanders, their and forces Russian Local forces. Georgian the equipped also Russia The Russian role had both a stabilizing and a destabilizing effect. There is no The Abkhaz leader,Vladislav mobilized hisArdzinba, forces from the TheNew Caucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia Responding to Conflict inGeorgia: A Need for Prevention? 102 Officially though, there is no factual evidence as to how to as evidence factual no is there though, Officially 100 41 Nationalities Papers 103 (New York: The Royal Institute of , Vol. 29,No.4, (2001), 633-660 in “Preventing Violent 101 Informally, CEU eTD Collection 106 24 13- 1996), Institute, Research Peace International (PRIO): (Oslo Berthelsen, Ole and Baev by Pavel edited 105 104 with ethnicthe Abkhazians, who votedtoestablish aNational Guard. during Soviet control rule the Theseof retained the werelater troops troops. substituted Russians in Abkhazia. stationed units military Soviet over control Abkhazian asserting Ardzinba signed orders As 1991, as December ‘attacks.’ early toresist failed militia these Abkhaz the demonstrators, for widespreadthe of because in the sympathy all cases, orpoliceposts militia the and to get access toweapons, ‘attacked’ Abkhazians when the onall some was common sides During of conflict. were the there occasions theprotests, weapons. officialsnow confirm Russia that officersprovided and in training addition to Abkhaz Georgians. bythe down shot was major Russian a by flown SU-27 a Russian observed from taking off andAbkhaz-controlled returning to territory, andin March 1993, war,eyewitnessesthe Russian participation; noted military Russian were SU-25s during for However, by Abkhazpossible tohaveachievedthe success some themselves. landscape Abkhazia,of poorly it andGeorgia’s mayarmed forces, disciplined been have given from intensiverocky But theGeorgian assistance outside. over army without Caucasus. had was atotal strength around 5,000,includingtroop from fighters the North the been able toprotect their a territory against minority lesscomprising which than 100,000, Kaufman, Dale, Catherin Shubladze, The Abkhazians themselves were mainly armed with hunting weapons, which weapons, hunting with armed mainly were themselves Abkhazians The CatherineFor itis Dale, impossible toexplain the victory of only 97,000 Abkhaz 105 104 Modern Hatreds, Responding to Conflict in Georgia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: Dynamics of the Conflicts 103-105 173-174 42 , in, “Conflicts intheCaucasus,” 106 CEU eTD Collection 109 (London: The RoyalInstitute of International Affairs, 2001), 20-29 108 Journal of Peace Research 107 arsenals. Russian from mainly ammunition, and arms of loads car April the 9 referendum, ofGeorgiansrepublic-wide 91% voted to secedefrom Sovietthe Union; on referendum. After this, events in Georgia developed very fast: on March 31, in a support than Armeniansthe fighting on Georgianthe side. General Baghramian Battalion, whichwas better organized andhad greater public was fighting in the Abkhazia war was the Armenian side. Bruno Coppieters mentions the voted for ‘yes,’voted Georgian-boycotted referendum Union, Sovietpreservingon the out of which 98.4% 4.6. Secession side. Russian because involvement, of uncontrolledthe border with Georgia from Russianthe participation of the North formation of paramilitary Caucasuspeople.or different The the Federation North Caucasians Russian the mainly was which militarization, of source in same the sharing party, both wars on Georgian bythethird wereassisted sides conflicting both Abkhazia, Ossetia and case of South territory is seen as the Tsikhelashvili, Coppieters, Bruno Valery Tishkov, ”Ethnic Conflicts in the Former USSR: The Use and Misuse of Typologies and Data,” During the war in Abkhazia, the Abkhazian side used no less than 1,000 railway 1,000 than less no used side Abkhazian the in Abkhazia, war the During On March 17 The process of diffusion can be traced on militarization stage as well. Both in th , theGeorgian Supremedeclared Soviet independence from SU; the May on The Case Studies of Abkhazia and South Ossetia 109 Central Asian and Caucasus Prospects: Federalism and Conflict in the Caucasus the in participating against prohibition Georgians’ the despite th , 1991, the Abkhaz, parliament took decisionthe toparticipate in a , Vol. 36, No.5. (Sep., 1999), 571-591 43 , 10 108 107 Another party that party Another CEU eTD Collection Soviet Socialist system inAbkhazia. system Socialist Soviet It underlined the tendency Constitution AbkhazianASSRthe of 1978 andthe of restoration 1925constitution.of the towards secessionout of 65) the Supreme from Soviet of Abkhazia Georgiaadopted a Resolution on the abrogation and of the Abkhazthe preservation Supreme Soviet declared of the full sovereignty. With a simple majority of votes (36 113 112 111 110 iterative character. and hasacyclical claims of secessionist the Again, process 1992. the declaration another independenceof from Abkhazthe by followed war the on 23 July was there again then Union; Soviet the from Georgian of independence the on declaration samethe 20 on September 1990; 9 April,on 1991the Georgian passedParliament a first declared independence from inGeorgian March 1989 in Lykhny; Ossetiansthe did madeby claims The Abkhazians parties. secessionist the the between chronologically Abkhazia. Republic of decided its on own state symbols, aflag andacoat of arms and proclaimeditself as the and sovereign states two between negotiations basisthe on of with Georgia communicate Union, andjoined theNorthCaucasus Confederation. reinstated 1925constitution,the which meantbeing within underGeorgia the Treaty of also representatives Abkhaz the counter-move, expected an In constitution. 1921 unrest, polling stations remained closed in of sections OssetiaSouth andAbkhazia. during presidential won 26, Gamsakhurdia the duetocontinued elections the election; Arbatov and others, and Arbatov Chervonnaya, Tsikhelashvili, Chronology for Abkhazians in Georgia Diffusion of secessionist ideas can be traced when The newof government Georgia ouster of the after Gamsakhurdia restored the drawing parallels Conflict in the Caucasus The Case Studies of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Managing Conflict 113 , , 157 , 378 http://www.cidcm.umd.edu 112 The Abkhazian Parliament declared that itwould that declared The Parliament Abkhazian 44 10 111 On July 23 rd of 1992, the of 110 CEU eTD Collection 116 On afull attack. of opened and frontal Georgians their because of the mistrust ceasefire inactive the previous during fighting.16 September, On Abkhazians broke the the which Shevardnadze hadbeen underEduard government supporters, andGamsakhurdia’s central between the continued the fight However, zone. in conflict the military observers agreed toa ceasefire when the United NationsThe UN enforced. deployed fifty around Georgian and Abkhazian,but all them of were broken. On 27 July, both sides 1993, city during the heavy war, many Abkhaz leftSukhumi, and only civilians, mostly Georgians, remainedbombings. in the of weeks first the In There sides. both on rights human of violation were constant the with happened several ceasefire agreements between involvedinbelieve were Russians the the that conflict. the troops, which armed where with T-72 arsenal,tanks andother made theGeorgians Abkhaz the Therefore, Caucasus. the of Peoples Mountain of Commonwealth the of behalf on acting Cossacks Chechens, the like Caucasians, North volunteer the by backed of Abkhazia from Sukhumi. tothenorthwest retreat made Abkhazians the and approval Shevardnadze’s without acted by (theZviadists supporters of Zviad Gamsakhurdia). AccordingCornell, to Kitovani kidnapped been had who government, Georgian the of minister the of search in Abkhazia 115 114 months. inconflict Abkhaziaon 14 August, 1992and started forlasted more fifteen than 4.7. War Ibid. Cornell, Chronology for Abkhazians in Georgia According to Human Rights Watch, the evolution of the war inAbkhazia war the of evolution the Watch, Rights Human to According Unlike South Ossetia, the war in Abkhazia was larger in The larger scale. armed warin the was Abkhazia Ossetia, Unlike South 114 Small Nations and Great Powers The reason for the start of the war was that the Georgian forces advanced to 115 offensivelaunched an Abkhazians inThe response , http://www.cidcm.umd.edu , 171 45 116 CEU eTD Collection 119 118 http://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/georgia/georgia953.pdf Role in the Conflict” 117 introduce Russianpeacekeepersin Thus, Shevardnadze agreedto region. conflictthe neither UNnor the OSCEwouldthe deploy agreeto theirpeacekeeping own missions, force tostabilizepeacekeeping in thesituation Georgia. By time,that was evident it that presidents of Armeniaeconomic problems and a andrefugee crisis -- attended a meeting withAzerbaijan. Yeltsin, along with the He Georgia. agreed to join the CISdeaths,more and than 200,000 people wereinternally tootherdisplaced regions of in order to establish Abkhaz. 27 September 1993,after eleven fightingdays of Sukhumi in was handsof the the Arbatov and others, and Arbatov Cornell, Human Rights WatchArms Project, “Georgia/Abkhazia: Violations of the Laws of War and Russia’s The war was devastating, especially forThe warwas around Georgians.devastating, especially the Itled 10.000 to 117 118 Small Nations and Great Powers facing Sukhumi, huge weeks thefallShevardnadze -- Withinof of two Helsinki: Human Rights Watch Managing Conflict , 388-389 , 174 46 , Vol. 7, No. 7, (March 1995) 119 CEU eTD Collection Ossetia and Abkhazia according to the seven stages comprising my model: Window of Window model: my comprising stages seven the to according Abkhazia and Ossetia the cases of South I tested Union, Soviet the collapse of the during and regions the regions. After giving the general historical background of political in situation Georgia less linearmore complicated, formobilization of process independence among minority mobilization.of However, my ismodel made up whichmoreof stages, the represent regions. In tobuildorder this model,exploited I basicthe framework of Hroch’smodel minority other and government central the with interplay involving iterative, more are regionsthe havefewermeans of independence. achieving theirTherefore, movements process of mobilization in my model are less linear inthan Beissinger’s model, because the diffusion element that Beissingerregions. speaks of.Beissinger’s model and I devised my model own of ethnic mobilization in minority However, both Thatis andlinear why is modified process. moreI a far straightforward independence the diffusion and he regions the because forare for which islooking mobilization all at quasi-states, the However, his modeldiffusion cannot adequately explain mobilization in minority regions, at diffusionthe independenceof movements between union republics in Sovietthe Union. ethnic mobilization between states but between doesnotaddressstates diffusion mobilization ethnic of ideas of diffusion explains Beissinger mobilization. ethnic of models Beissinger’s from different unionthe republics. In Iintroduced framework the theoretical it inminority and place is regions whether takes I alsoexamined mobilization howethnic from ethnic minority one group to another within a single stateandif yes, it how happens. I presented astaged model I presented minorityinto mobilization of account takes that region The aim of this thesis was to determine whether ethnic mobilization can diffuse CONCLUSION 47 within states. He looks CEU eTD Collection Ossetians and thedeserving thesame statusaswhat Georgiansthe foughtfor. In addition, South the Abkhaz had formed in “otherness,” ideology the of of created These minorities Georgia. breakaway Republic the same idea “used” themovementsregions tocounter which Federation, of the separatist the of being worthy Therefore, bothregions had support of a vital by importance of thirdthe party – theRussian statehood as enjoyed fragile border totheir the –North kin –duringOssetians Soviet regime. the Ossetians the and republic, independent an as experience a short enjoyed had Abkhazis Abkhaz saw themselves as distinct from the Georgians, based on previous experience: the and minorities atother in mobilizing formerthe republics. Soviet The Ossetians and the looking examplesautonomiesat the within whichwere of Georgia, union the republics stage of mobilization. The tide of nationalism character. minority during the glastnostandlinguistic extinction because of Georgiangrowing nationalism, an which took anti- period affected issuesdemographic fortheAbkhaz. Inaddition,regions both had also afear of cultural the and for theOssetians disadvantages wereeconomic which similar grievances, had Abkhazia and Ossetia South mobilization, the of background the In rule. Soviet Georgian government, which was mobilizationpreoccupied with nationalist against the samethe mobilization.for opportunity This opportunity of weakness the was the through these stages. After testing the cases, the following conclusions can be drawn. Legalization Opportunity A parallel can also be drawn in the diffusion of ideas in both cases in the second in the cases in both ideas of diffusion in the be drawn also can A parallel had minorities both opportunity, of window the mobilization, of stage first the In ĺ ĺ Militarization Diffusion of Ideas ĺ Succession ĺ Development of Core Political Groups 48 ĺ War, and analyzed the mobilization ĺ CEU eTD Collection their forces. In both cases, they were assisted by the Russian Federation and Federation the by Russian the forces. Inboth cases, they were assisted their of militarization for the same source sharedthe parties conflicting The mobilization. period. legalization the in ideas of diffusion a was there that shows chronology This language. Abkhazian the on law of kind same September 1989.The followingmonth,in October 1989,the Abkhazians adopted the lawthe on Georgiathe language inAugust 1989; South the Ossetians thedid same in developmentof language state the chronologically. can be traced The Georgians adopted on State Language programs Themutually adoption programs. for the of exclusive state taking borrowing or tactics ideas.and other and each were watching they --that movements thetwo between interconnection theAbkhazthat for successwould beaprecedent regions. other Thisshowsletter the Abkhazishope intheir supporttothe asnoted their above, Ossetians expressed the letter, 120 of 1989. This was reprinted letter May on 5, 1989 in spring in the Nykhas Ademon of behalf on movement Abkhaz the to addressed Chochiev Alan that is letter open the two betweenthe for aconnection Evidence November 1988. first ideas, was of these one in A.N., the created in the early andthen Aydgylara 1988, how the ideas of ethnic mobilization can diffuse within a state. If we look at the diffusion --Ademonfronts popular in andNykhas inOssetia South Abkhazia – Aydgylara showed Georgians. for the as sovietother republics, namely, andsome Georgia, of movesthere andtactics weresame Cornell, The process of diffusion can be traced through the next three stages of stages three next the through be traced can of diffusion The process law concerning the legalization is stage, of example during diffusion Another the The next phase is the mobilization of core political groups. The formation of the of formation The groups. political core of mobilization is the phase next The Autonomy and Conflict , 191-193 49 Literaturuli Sakartvelo. 120 In this In CEU eTD Collection mobilization with the diffusion elements of a cyclical character. of stages the complicated through goes regions inminority mobilization ethnic the that conclude I end, the It other. each influenced have movements the that indication strong the strategies of dealingas are in Ossetia factAbkhazia aresimilar, and thecorepolitical The South groups that with the center politicalcore makingandgroups, the same legal andstatements secessionist declarations. responses to the of mobilization ideasof each others’ in copying ideas each stage, of with diffusion the actions of the center, in asimilar way, mobilization ethnic seven of stages Abkhazia underwent Republic of is a in conflicts” Georgia. “frozen so-called similar way, with the same outcome. regionsautonomous experienced bloody wars, whichweretemporarily in “resolved” a At present, they constitute Sovietthe Union appeared inevitable, they theirdeclared sovereignty. Finally,both de facto states and are of when collapse the later, Union, and Soviet of the part meant which state, of the a part war 23 on July 1992. Bothregions at firstthe stage expressed their toremain willingness then declaration again from independence wasanother of Abkhaz,by there followedthe Union; from of Soviet passedthe independence Georgian on the adeclaration Parliament secessionist claim from Georgian on 20 September 1990;on 9 April, Georgian 1991the April, 1989had statements secessionist against SovietUnion; the Ossetiansthe made a independence from inGeorgian March 1989 in Lykhny; Georgians’ demonstration on 9 declared first declarations. TheAbkhazians is in similarity Another secessionist the paramilitary formations from the Northern Caucasus, which had ties with Russia. To conclude, Autonomous Oblast the of South Ossetia and Autonomous the 50 CEU eTD Collection Chronology for Abkhazians Chronology for in Georgia Svetlana. 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