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Routledge Handbook of the

Galina M. Yemelianova, Laurence Broers

Peoples, and lore

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781351055628-3 John Colarusso Published online on: 12 Mar 2020

How to cite :- John Colarusso. 12 Mar 2020, Peoples, languages and lore from: Routledge Handbook of the Caucasus Routledge Accessed on: 27 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781351055628-3

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 aky21) h ot-etCuainfml,t hc icsinadAbkhazian and Circassian which to (Greek , being perhaps Caucasian latter North-West the belong, the 2018), Markey laetlnusi ik steatnm(efdsgain,Proto-Indo-European (self-designation), autonym the is links linguistic clearest forms, have various may in Proto-Indo-European, , termed their also language, bequeathed mother an and Their been India. to of Ireland most from across the both expanded to arti which lending meaning mounds, word grave Turkic large under dead their buried in known, populations mountains diverse highest linguistically the and harbours ethnically region three most The of the 1990s. the form of for the the the largely one in of with in known has them become stage collapse and have world in the Caucasus the erupted North Since on the that continent. and emerged wars states has that These part nations. of southern sovereign part the it however, signi USSR, a considered occupy traditionally not did geographers region the , of fi.Telcl hmevs uiul,lc n o h eina hl.Tenm is for name The word whole. Indo-European a old as an outside region those upon by the based area for be the the one may to mountains, lack given and of (Proto-Indo-European curiously, one chain Greek exonym, a themselves, from an by locals taken termed dominated The is region it. what a of is lies name Seas The Caspian Caucasus. and Black the Between tpet omteYmaacmlx(orht hr ilni C) hc a the was which 2018:107 BCE), millennia (Reich third the culture into to Proto-Indo-European north (fourth the of expanded complex to city basis (), Yamnaya the belong Age Adygheya for the Caucasus of Bronze named form the culture, republic to (Maikop) to Caucasus north-western linked The the BCE). identities in millennium linguistic (fourth and Age Bronze ethnographic oldest The fi t rmr agae pkni nae h ieo Spain. of size the area an in spoken being languages more or fty EPE,LNUGSAND LANGUAGES PEOPLES, aristos ff ho faCuainlnug aiy(oaus 03 97 oaus and Colarusso 1997; 2003, (Colarusso family language Caucasian a of shoot Indo-Iranian , * kówko- * fi nin epe n cultures and peoples Ancient arya- ilmound. cial Gothic , ‘ n rt-ot-etCaucasian Proto-North-West and ) cousins onColarusso John Introduction LORE hauhs ’ ‘ htsae eidi h oead n fthe of One homeland. the in behind stayed that fi 3 32 atpaei h aeu fErp,although Europe, of make-up the in place English , ’ lorfre oagopo nomads early of group a to referred also high Konn21:25.Outside 215). 2013: (Kroonen ; * a-r- ugnCulture Kurgan – 0.Bt cultures Both 10). ĝ - the-inde ‘ * ih lofty high, ari-, from , * fi aryo- nite. ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 eei ihroteeris xmls ymr hntomillennia. Evliya two than traveller more Ottoman by the examples, earliest by the collected hitherto specimens Çelebi, seventeenth-century the antedate These of shift the ehp ida Trahv19) h idas ftedsrc fSnia hwtesame the show Sindica, language, of Indo- district an in the Sindhuka Gaelic one of and Sindians, Sindh, Circassian , The as of in forms 1999). two early (Turbachov in Ubykh, Sindian are in inscriptions perhaps one These 2014). with al. Abkhazian, et and (Mayor clothing Scythian be depicting give to vases sources Classical Greek . on the tions as such obscure, the remain us Others exonym. Circassian early rctv) from ), steKrea tesm ota in as same (the Kerketai the as ot-etCaucasian North-West pa lai,scubda agaen ae hnteeeet etr oteSlu (Seljuk) Seljuq the to century eleventh the than later , (autonym no for Romans language and a of as the core succumbed by used , the exonym an formed Iberia, Caucasian which Classical to back go enepee as reinterpreted modi person-collective, mountains ti osbeta h yatn mieetbihdo rmtdAkai,Goga and Georgia, , promoted Iberia. or called then established portion, eastern bu the as Byzantine in Albania) the CE, (Caucasian century that Alwania fourth possible the is in It state a as tianity pa ftenmru tncgop ob on nteCuau.Sm r identi are Some Caucasus. the in found be Our to groups culture. ethnic numerous Maykop more the the far of speak become homeland culture, to the neighbouring promises give a family the is, linguistic have homeland, that precise. important been would the complex, and this detailed locate regional it of has help a understanding that homeland only abstract of in prior part not status Indo-European would it realistic render Caucasus of a also the question but to achievement culture, link major the re Yamnaya A a our issue. Hitherto be of contentious would and see comparison. a prehistory it (2019; of link, range Bomhard understanding this by our long supports of work research terms from further in and both If 2018), 2019). (Reich Mallory archaeology also and genetics in research 1997). (Colarusso fricative palatal voiceless, a is /x/ where people eaGoga ae nfc ti al icsino vnAbkhazian, even or Circassian early is it fact in name, Georgian a be 6). and 4 acsa agae r ihi rctv ons hs o These sounds. termed Proto-Indo-European fricative of sounds fricative-like in or sonorant rich abstract otherwise are languages Caucasian from dissimilation a bizarre gically o o xml,Proto-Indo-European example, for So, ḫḫ h aletfculhsoyo h einge akt h erinaoto fChris- of adoption Georgian the to back goes region the of history factual earliest The h uhr fcasclatqiy ecnat hmevso hs Proto-Indo-Europeans, these of themselves descendants antiquity, classical of authors The of lines convergent of because traction some gained recently has Pontic Furthermore, h ot fAkai obc oClhso h lsia eid hl eeal ae to taken generally While period. Classical the of to back go Abkhazia of roots The ur fi English , aino the of cation fi ’ Sionainne Abkhazian , s ennso oelnugso h acss hs r on as found are These Caucasus. the of languages some of remnants rst ’ * wt < (with s o// hsnm a ese orpeetarlcId-ra paiggroup. speaking Indo-Aryan relic a represent to seen be can name this /h/, to /s/ * * * r- ‘ t h(eis oe oa od,lxdvclcrs a hnb enas seen be then can cords] vocal laxed cords, vocal [open (series) dh Shannon ’ ĝ h ocle ltai hoy and theory, glottalic so-called the , ‘ people a. fi ƛ ‘ * re standard -r9a t hshptei scalled is hypothesis This ocls rhse- n < and hissed-l or voiceless a > ’ coe oa od,tne oa od](eis.As,teNorth-West the Also, (series). cords] vocal tensed cords, vocal [closed MloyadAas2006:122 Adams and (Mallory rblsu tribal ’ ’ si Circassian in as , ic a Since . * ’ p rt-noErpa.Freape onssc as such sounds example, For Proto-Indo-European. h a-xw fi ue paig h r ern at n akt,thought jackets, and pants wearing are who speaking, gures ffi epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, ff ǝ x, r gis h aain(asnd mie(e Chapters (see Empire (Sassanid) Sasanian the against ers -r ‘ fi Kirke * ‘ igfaueta esIainaatfo noAynis Indo-Aryan from apart Iranian sets that feature ning péh people ‘ fSindh of ‘ to.ignite.by.lightning-to.drop.down-absolutive.case 2 ur ’ ad 33 Cre,teecatesfo h dse) an Odyssey), the from enchantress the (Circe), ‘ ‘ ’ ǝĝ Pontic fi re wt 9 tnigfravie pharyngeal voiced a for standing /9/ (with e ’ Ubykh , nId-uoenrvrnm lose in seen also name river Indo-European an , sakartvelo ’ ,(/ ḥ * ’ h ti otoesa,rqiigtypological requiring controversial, is It . has dh 2 hrnel.Teroso Georgian of roots The pharyngeal). a > /isthe .Awna locle Caucasian called also Alwania, ). a-d * – ff .Teeegneo h typolo- the of emergence The d. ) ont ihProto- with cognate is 3) ǝĝ rtnil addtsfrthe for candidates tangible ‘ -oorn laryngeal A-colouring fi e eeto h ehiusof techniques the of nement wt d from /d/ (with 1 quo- ‘ nonsense ƛ ḥ i(s) * ‘ fi * laryngeals , dmustbe be such able, /r/) ’ ’ ‘ ,Hittite ), sloping- inscrip- ‘ the- ’ ’ , . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 Kimmerians h nin rneAeHtio r-itt ntla hto h hmw,formerly Chemgwi, the of That . pre-Hittite of Hatti Age Kimergoy Bronze ancient the the of That n ayh.Tefre adrda a sDgetnfo rnsmtm nthe in sometime Tati the from are Daghestan groups as far Iranian-speaking as other wandered The former 1985). The Bailey Talyshi. and and (Abaev component one notelclCrasas hi aeprit oti a sta fteEs icsinspeaking Circassian East the of that as day this assimilated to they persists the where name was Caucasus, Their empire north-western . this these local the from of the in emerged Most into settled that Hungarian. These group into . Another speaking loans scrutiny. with Hunnic scholarly Circassian contact undergo by prolonged to attested had yet as they have peoples, Basin Caucasus Carpathian northern the into the moved they Before (). bu a as served o It fending . Umayyad way Juda- Muslim that adopted the in it and religion, remarkably , the state Most of 1980). a break-up (Golden the as from empire ism formed steppe in clear) a not homeland Khaganate, is Turkic their Turkic Western date. or from (Hunnic later polity extended Altaic-speaking a an at later been the now while is Jews, what into being up them Iran of north-western many CE, lennium Alæ-g-ket-tæ eiefo ale Iranian earlier from derive Indo-European that course, introduced ignored). been of are all culture (providing, indigenous have North-West Maykop be region families, Altaic to the and language Indo-European, seem to from Caucasian, Caucasian Languages South Caucasus. three or the Kartvelian the to and comm.), Caucasian North-East pers. Caucasian, Tuite, (Kevin Anatolia h aiht,o h n ad n sabu a as Rus and the where hand, one the on Caliphate, the Alani sei.I hudb oe htwieteOstascnie hmevst edirect be to themselves consider is South (autonym) the termed self-designation be while their now would that , Under what noted the of 14). led base be of This Chapter the descendants reaches. should forming sought (see mountainous Georgia, It the , - into into Ossetia. the over again North once spilling of day retreated them groups they to present these the to of from pressure precursor one the Alans, the in Caucasus war-like Kingdom, northern The the in steppes. refuge the of speakers which Caucasus, southern 7). Chapter the pre (see into century up nineteenth early pushed the gradually in control pre- been and Russian the has Anatolia under from eastern came East attested of is Middle language that Indo-European northern language an the Caucasian originally North-East itself, Armenian only Daghestan period. the to modern is The references Alwanian (Dag- from 6). region, Daghestan Apart Chapter a southern . as Azerbaijan, (see north-eastern of and Azerbaijan language Georgia, of Udi south-eastern the nation estan), by Turkic-speaking continued the is language now Alwanian is and invasion, Turkic n ih oehr httoohrCrasa ae a re may Circassian other two that here note might One n ru htboeo broke that group One have to seems This Empire. Khazar the of seat the was Caucasus the 969 to CE 650 From n fthe of One lhuhteei oeeiec paenmswt s-,teGoga oaietoponym locative Georgian the /sa-/, with names (place evidence some is there Although fi ,a in as x, h aeatnma Persia, as autonym same the gives but , ,re Ws Circassian (West fGekacut,Georgian accounts, Greek of fl ‘ Sasun csKimer-go-y(a) ects Alan--tribe-collective Hatiquoya ’ fi peusr oteRsin)wr einn oeeg seCatr6). Chapter (see emerge to beginning were ) the to (precursors s epe ose euefo xadn uns oe eeteIranian the were power Hunnish expanding from refuge seek to peoples rst nTre)ta erinmyhv ensoe ate otews in west the to farther spoken been have may Georgian that ) in or ff Qabar-ta Hatuquoya arya rmteKaa miei h it etr a h Magyars the was century ninth the in Empire Khazar the from - na ‘ - Kimer-region-ones.of m ‘ ‘ -collective fteAryans the of re onColarusso John fi fl gimiri s ilnimC.Teete one h Alanic the founded they There CE. millennium rst ff csHati-quo- ects rbtenteetoadtesepst h north, the to steppes the and two these between er ’ ff oteAasddetrit hi aeu as make-up their into enter did Alans the so , 34 . rsltsn rsuefo rhdxChristian Orthodox from pressure proselytising ‘ Iran ’ ’ ahrterfllr eest tribe, a to refers folklore their Rather . o hi uoy osntcontinue not does autonym their So, . ’ htis that , ’ n a re may and , ’ osbeCuainrosi the in roots Caucasian possible s ‘ Hatti--ones.of ‘ Kabardians ‘ ff Iron fl rbtenBznimand Byzantium between er c eoeehi origins. ethnic remote ect fl ’ Both . c hto h ancient the of that ect ’ seCatr14). Chapter (see ) Iron ’ luigto alluding , and fi s mil- rst Alan Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 n.I slkl htfo hspro aiu ruso usa rnirpol,uulytermed usually people, frontier Russian of Russian. groups speak various period this from that likely is It one. ikaebsdo saying: a on based ol aiyo h hrmtv a loo icsinoii,ternm en a being name their The origin, Sheremeteva. Circassian Yelena of to also married was was Sheremetovs , the an of during family father noble his by killed dentally t eist hs.TeNrhWs acsa agae lodistinguish also languages intermedi- Caucasian third North-West a The add Udi these. language to Caucasian series North-East ate the and languages, Caucasian West rm16 ni e et n16.Hsscn o,Ia vnvc (1554 Ivanovich in Ivan Terrible, son, the second His Ivan 1569. as in known death (popularly her until IV 1561 Ivan from that point Groznyi Ivan the Russian to good were Kabardians, aewt the with made numerous have languages linguists. Caucasian such by all mouth acquired > the has q of Caucasus, < front the [k]-like the with In between into written it. a is uses moved usually rarely that has mouth, but stops, that the contrast, a uvular language in Indo-European and back an velar farther Ossetian, between made contrast ones and a sounds have also All .) the of coast Sea Black al-Mas the writer, on Dioscurias, and of traveller centre ‘ Arab trading tenth-century the The in Caucasus. business do to interpreters The 18) tte eaeaprn htteesetwyt cesGogafo h ot was north the from Georgia access to Petersburg way St. easiest territory. the Ossetian that the apparent through became then It (1783). by settled until history 14). varied Chapter a and (see with Caucasus horde the northern a are the as in as Great persisted speaking, the ), Catherine Central (also of (Kyrgyz) The Kirghiz Daghestan. lowland of (also Karachai- sein,peaigtewyfrtewrt oewt h icsin,wihbgnin began which Circassians, the with come to war the 7). for Chapter (see way 1801 the preparing Ossetians, iharie om rsnl ut,a ih/t with as quote, single or comma raised a with the of languages the what know to wished who Caliph a of tells writer in mountain present the to told tale lsr ftevclcrst il oto ampli of sort a yield to and cords vocal diversity the enormous of their closure termed Despite being Caucasus. these features, the common in some share except they the else complexity ori- at were nowhere them that spoken Caucasian, rattled Kartvelian/South ginally pebbles, and of Caucasian North-East sack languages Caucasian, a North-West the back what his him behind asked from Caliph out the replied, drew and When Caliph scholar lord. the his like, before were stood and returned scholar onano Tongues of Mountain ff iae ( ricates h ukcsekn icas(icas ucee h hzr.Fo hmaoethe arose them From . the succeeded (Qipchaqs) Turkic-speaking The nteegtet etr h igo fGogabcm usa Russian a became Georgia of Kingdom the century eighteenth the In Russia century sixteenth the In osatwt h on ytm,altrefmle hwgotleetv tp,md with made stops, ejective glottal show families three all systems, sound the with start To least at are there Today ’ tn around stand t fi s-etr oa egahr ln h le,sek fteRmn eurn 130 requiring Romans the of speaks Elder, the Pliny geographer, Roman rst-century ete nteCuau,weete r o nw as known now are they where Caucasus, the in settled , ‘ ts fi ’ and , eswr ie n osn i or coa to scholar court his sent so and like, were dels 2 fl tsraeo h ogebae sin as blade, tongue the of surface at ‘ ’ ‛ ch h icsin aetonms rvt ritmt n,adapublic a and one, intimate or private a names, two have Circassians The . hs aih swa hs agae r like are languages those what is Caliph, O This, ’ ’ ‘ ons n orsodn rctvs( fricatives corresponding and sounds) vnteFearsome the Ivan n pk f7 ain eiigtee(ak21) oenTurkish modern A 2019). (Mauk there residing nations 72 of spoke and Malkars nieoslnugs ra features areal languages, Indigenous fi t agae eogn otetreCuainlnug families, language Caucasian three the to belonging languages fty wikheremet ,o h ihmaoso h ot-etrgo,adthe and region, north-west the of meadows high the of ), epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, ’ eain ihtenrhr acss tlatwt the with least at Caucasus, northern the with relations s , ’ wisheremet ,to icsina ie ai Temryukovna, Maria wife, a as Circassian a took ), 35 ’ ’ aort ntergo hnsitdt the to shifted then region the in favourite s .(oteeCrasa nqeyad ejective adds uniquely Circassian these (To /. fi d lotppigsud hsi marked is This sound. popping almost ed, ‘ shed i)yud o wn o einvolved, be to) (want not do you (if) n hs aewt h i raised tip the with made those and , fi dot oetm asdadthe and passed time Some out. nd ‘ s ’ and , ‛ d,cle h acssthe Caucasus the called udi, Kafkázets areal ’ . ‘ sh etrsb linguists. by features ’ ons.TeNorth- The sounds). – ‘ ch 1,wowsacci- was who 81), snua)adstill and (singular) ’ and ‘ sh ’ ‘ public sounds ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 h ylbei ett h osnns eymc h irrsse ohwms languages most how e to In system . the mirror of of the colour much The the a/). very colours this: ~ consonants, like /æ the the variants, where to back speech, and left interpret front or is speci into two height, syllable divided of of languages the systems some vowel contrast vertical (in a their vowel only for open show famous are that languages These three /v/. 81. had as Ubykh realised and is ants rounding the Georgian, in consonants rounded are there /tskh/ the consonants, two only with a begins alveolar that uvularised Mtskheta a of being town Georgian the example, amnccutr osnns swith as consonants, clusters harmonic clusters /t where zeuhdaeto etCrasa srnee:/t rendered: is Circassian West of Bzhedukh odi opsdo otpu ipemrhms(a simple / plus sian root a (su of end composed swallow to is about word were a one though as mouth, the numer- of have back also the Most in doubled. something. languages made latter be some In these sometimes sounds, absent. of can l-like perfect frequently Many ous themselves unusual. make is that seem consonants /o/ now languages sustained these although have these languages con- systems, North-West large are, vowel the have incompatible to normal they also contrast retain is languages as but Caucasian mouth unusual inventories, North-East the The sonantal as opening 1960). So, (Kuipers because sense articulation. openness, phonological consonantal its retained a having with vowel open this eoeqiecmlx atclryvrs ae o xml,tetteo attl (Colar- tale Nart a of the example, 49 for Take, 2002: verbs. usso particularly complex, quite become in Russian an to contrast a eiso eaie n vlrsdsud,ta ssud aewt iutnosvelar simultaneous with made sounds with plus is as that stop closure, sounds, labial uvular uvularised of and or velarised Nakh closure clusters of or Vai some series the throat has permit for the which except with Batsby, 2011). clusters (Nichols made lack and clus- pharyngeal languages sounds a Ingush, Caucasian initial emphatical Chechen, palatal- permit North-East as and branch, languages the rounded the well Caucasian whereas addition, at North-West as In ters, or The growl. throat common, constricted. a the are with epiglottis in almost consonants made rendered sounds are ised pharyngeal they have where also epiglottis, languages Caucasian North-East w ie palisfaue otesronigconsonants. surrounding the to features its all up given produced. itself) (on pauses -direction-toward-halt-past-speci otero ftemuh ocle retro so-called mouth, the of roof the to ǝ ć h ot-etCuainlnugsaetplgclyaern.Kbrinhs4 conson- 48 has Kabardian aberrant. typologically are languages Caucasian North-West The h opooyo l hs agae swa scle gltntv.Ti en that means This agglutinative. called is what is languages these all of The n osqec ftetasaec faguiaielnugsi htwrscan words that is languages agglutinative of transparency the of consequence One h atein(ot acsa)lnug aiylcsteeruddcnoat,but consonants, rounded these lacks family language Caucasian) (South Kartvelian The w a- ƛ ’ ’ γ ffi ǝ a-g stol-óv h--/man--ergative-plural -ha-m-a/ nms rmaso erin erinas emt ag nta lseswithout clusters initial large permits also Georgian Georgian. of grammars most in ’ ‘ e)o netd(in inserted or xes) k a /t Say ’ w /isa r-ar u-bouieeeigolqeit-change.of.state-what-for-self-at-surface evening-oblique sun-absolutive ara-ra-r/ – ( 50) ’ стол h .Sc ogvrs(eesitdt onb -a/ r edl nesodand understood readily are /-ra-/) by a to shifted (here verbs long Such ). /! fl ‘ cinllnug hr na an where language ectional ’ single ‘ n hnsy [t says then One h h u asso h oio tSunset at Horizon the on Pauses Sun the Why - ’ ов ’ table-possessive.plural ) osnn as ihgotlcoue.As,nt,frauvularised a for note, Also, closure). glottal with (also consonant ff fi iae uhcmlxcnoat r sal termed usually are consonants complex Such ricate. e) aho hc a ipemaig si etCircas- West in as meaning, simple a has which of each xes), fi -eudasouie ( c--abs(olutive) h ǝ .This ]. onColarusso John mts fl ’ h aia fGoga versus Georgia, of capital the , vrtneli xdsud,a in as sounds, exed 36 ‘ ‘ schwa h men the ‘ ffi ftetables the of ‘ a ar eea essa ne sin as once, at senses several carry may x trainer ’ stenurlvwl aighistorically having vowel, neutral the is ǝ ’ fi γ ‘ ‘ a /t Say - p a-r al eta oe poe oan to opposed vowel neutral a cally sasbeto osso.Ti sin is This possessor. or a as h speci the ’ ffi sti ateapesget,if suggests, example last this As . e) ntefot(pre front the on xes), ’ . š h y a/! ǝ shred ḥ - ø-q a-m ’ fi esnwy[h sun] [the why reason c n hnsy [t says then One ’ h ot-etand North-West The . hc nteoriginal the in which , ǝ -z-fa-z-a-t ff t ’ c hywork they ect k ’ bili ‘ fi harmonic h e) the xes), ] with a], ‘ h sweet -y-a-- ’ , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 her aktesbeto nitastv n h ietojc fatastv stesm.T give To same. the as transitive a say of languages for direct Caucasian verbs the English, their and using mark intransitive example an to an of tend not. subject also or the action They mark the categories. for vouch more can speaker or the eleven whether is to that up evidentiality, , etc. able, pre movement re and spatial in which object, indirect subject the determines agae lohv asv osrcin) hr h cini ngigo unful or on-going is action the where constructions), passive have also languages iepten sepandi h etprgah n o o esndrcl.Teelanguages These directly. person for not and Caucasian call paragraph) North-East might next one the the what verbs, or in have action these explained punctual as to pattern, to contrast tive opposed In as action. continuous in unusual verb, languages to the opposed in as nuances habitual aspectual denote to come sentence. the in information pre the with of verb polypersonal all a su almost but have recapitulates also verb languages Kartvelian The The on. is so languages and Caucasian often movement, North-West are the languages in Kartvelian the verb personal and The orders, ). scrambled (SVO highly subject-verb-object have can Ingush and Chechen egtv ae h hr asltv)sewed ‘ (absolutive) shirt ergative the case) (ergative so-called ful the some by in shown action is verbal This the undergoes or receives ossin ihsbet ntedtv ree h eiie eb fmto rdirection or motion in of oblique Verbs or genitive. dative the the even in or objects dative have the even in can subjects with possession, called are action incomplete reads h a eiga h shirt the at sewing was She ƛ l fteCuainlnugsaewa stermed is what are languages Caucasian the of All ƛ h ytxo l fteelnugsi codnl eyrich. very accordingly is languages these of all of syntax The ś ‘ ś that noun the marking is doing are languages these what but backwards, seem may This ‘ ‘ ś ‘ nadto,teeaepyhlgclvrsweetesbeti nadtv rvrsof verbs or dative a in is subject the where verbs psychological are there addition, In ergative with systems These ‘ ‘ st ytx otlnugsaesubject are languages most syntax, to As ƛ ’ h a elasleep fell man The h a a h woman the saw man The h oa edtebook the read woman The h a i h dog the hit man The h oa ee tteshirt the at sewed woman The h oa ee h shirt the sewed woman The ogv neapei etCrasa (Adygheyan): Circassian West in example an give To . w w w ’ ’ ’ . ǝ ǝ ǝ ǝ ǝ ǝ -r ffi z-r z-m - tx z-r -m ø- -r a hr esnin person third xal ’ ḥ hti,i in it is, that , h asltv)(t h hr(nietojc ae sewed case) object shirt(indirect the (at) (absolutive) She - ø-y-a-w-a- a-m Ǯ ś Ǯ y w č fl ǝ a - y ǝ ǝ ƛ amø-y-a-d-a- na-m c hi eb o h rmaia ls ftesbeto bet(hsi nerga- an is (this object or subject the of class grammatical the for verbs their ect a - ya- - ø-y- z-r mø-y-a- -m arø-y-d na-r γ a a-b he-falls.asleep-past man-abs (a) ’ fl ƛ tiueo ujciiyt h cin lentvl,i a ee oan to refer may it Alternatively, action. the to subjectivity or attitude s ’ . csfreeypro ntesnec swl sfrsaillocation, spatial for as well as sentence the in person every for ects a - Ǯ ’ γ ǝ . fi ‘ γ y - w fl ue gender super a-a- a a-b o-b he-it-to-hit-to-past dog-obl man-abs (a) γ e.A ntehsoyo usa,mn ftesailpre spatial the of many Russian, of history the in As xes. cin hs agae loexhibit also languages These ection. a- ’ a oa-raiesitasit-she-sew-past shirt-abs woman-ergative (a) fl gi,aWs icsinexample: Circassian West a Again, . ‘ γ ’ pi ergative split xv om a etesbeta nadto,teeare there addition, In well. as subject the be may forms exive γ . a a-raiewmnasher-he-see-past woman-abs man-ergative (a) γ ’ a oa-b hr-biu she-it-at-sew-at-past shirt-oblique woman-abs (a) . ‘ a oa-b okolqeshe-it-at-read-at-past book-oblique woman-abs (a) ’ anti-passive . – epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, ’ bouiea ela nominative/absolutive as well as absolutive I a o completed.) not was (It . ’ , ytm,mrigmsuie eiie on,count- round, feminine, masculine, marking systems, ‘ h opee eigteshirt the sewing completed She ’ systems. ’ osrcin(actually construction 37 – object fl fi xo,literally exion, esleeps He ldwy(ihacs termed case a (with way lled ‘ ergative – ebodr(O re) although order), (SOV order verb but , ‘ h re oswteshirt the sew to tried She ’ ‘ hyuecsso a or cases use They . version fi xal ‘ i h sees she Him anti-ergative et.e hit to.her He fi s n eodpersons, second and rst ’ pre a , ’ essteanti- the versus fi a oe that vowel xal – ’ for ic these since , biu for oblique or fi absolutive fi lled: ‘ e have xes h to.it She ffi esees He e to xes ‘ poly- ’ Her or ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 bhzdaet.Tetoed fteCrasa ilc pcrm auhy(lsShapsugh (plus Natukhay spectrum, dialect Circassian the of ends two The . Abkhaz itnta el eetees l paescniee hmevst be to was T themselves Ubykh considered (the languages. speakers Abaza distinct all consider form Nevertheless, 1992), well. 2006a, as (Colarusso distinct Kabardian and Bzhedukh) and Abkhaz Ubykh Georgian languages Caucasian/Kartvelian South –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– sub-group Samurian Dargwa (k) Avar-Andic Nakh/Vainakh Vai languages Caucasian North-East –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Caucasian North-West 3.1 Table branch or sub-family and family by listed are languages actual The bk,nwmrbn,wstastoa ewe h icsinlnugsadthe and languages Circassian the between transitional was moribund, now Ubykh, at eginLzi aaaa gu/glUiAlwanian Botlikh Tsez Udi Aghul/Agul Karata Tsakhur Tabasaran Budukh Tsezic Itsari Rutul West: Khwarshi Akhvakh Kryz South: Kubachi Lezghian/Lezgin East: Abaza Hunzib Tindi Andi Kaytak Dargwa/Dargin Bagvalal Bezhta Ashqarawa Andic Chamalal Batsby Hinukh Ahchips Godoberi Avar Ingush, Chechen, Bzyb Abzhwi (Kabardian) Circassian East Svan Zan Adyghe igeinLaz Mingrelian zeuhMmhgMqahA()zk Hakuchi Ab(a)dzakh Shapsug(h)/Shapsegh Mequash Mamkheg Zhaney Chemgwi/T Bzhedukh Natukhay (moribund) h nieosCuainlnug families language Caucasian indigenous The ’ emirgoy/K ’ ap ’ nadaet itntlnug rmteohrAkaindialects Abkhazian other the from language distinct a dialect) anta ’ nieoslnug families language Indigenous mro aiuyYegeruqay Hatiquoy imirgoy onColarusso John 38 – Chirag 3 seTbe3.1). Table (see Adyghey oewould Some . (T ’ ap ’ anta) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 95 ag rmruhy37mlinfrtento fGogat nte ih million eight another to Georgia of nation the feature for rare million a Turkey. the 3.7 2016), eastern even roughly al. in that from et so range (Karafet much 1995) them so with ancient, align quite to be tend linguistics. to speakers in seem their languages of these genetics that langua note i these changes should of recent All and 13). isation Chapter (see valleys osnn lses n ee ae ht swt l acsa agae,so agglutin- show languages, Caucasian all with with as centuries that, back cases dating in , seven highly ative own and a its is clusters, example, has Svan consonant for Georgian (Laz). family. forms, Turkey the north-eastern earlier of into down member (Mingrelian) deviant proper Georgia from one of mere dialects a the to languages, down Caucasian Chechen North-West for the million de Unlike Caucasian 1.7 North-East Godoberi. from Circassian for of range diacritics survival hundred speakers dispute. many The 2011), this that conventions. of Nichols so resolution Turkish the Turkish, supplement on is extent to sim- than limited the invented a sounds even to be script. in since hinges to however, richer -based exists, far have a solution is will obvious in Kabardian, No di written use. Circassian, and without common familiar Circassian is plest for for more Turkish technical transcription language too Latin-based where their be a make Turkey, use to from linguists is While Circassians idea The to Circassian. accessible for alphabet Latin-based a myself nvriyi uky nvriyi iyweeatido h ouaini Circassian. Düzce is at population between the sounds taught of of representation is third its a Cyrillic e with where some consistent in is city not There is a Circassian dialects. script in literary Cyrillic languages. of university the emergence a Caucasian Unfortunately, the Turkey, various and in these, the University bene using in One and cultures languages. grammars other scripts, Cyrillic-based the Yanagi- 1989; of Khiba survival and homeland. (Hewitt original 200,000 their exceed in Circassian cannot of speakers 2013). form sawa Abkhaz some of speak million number a The half Perhaps them. speak atr Hri 91 1 pre 1981: (Harris nominative pattern ergative a an show show sentences tense Present essadmos hr sasr fin of sort a is There moods. and tenses her ugslv usd h acssnwa isoa oi sdi is it so , a derives as term now Caucasus The the Turkey. outside and live of Russia guages a pronunciation inside with older both Italian an by where contacts, as Italian to from referred commonly are fi Clrso21:164 2015: (Colarusso s n eodpro betpre object person second and rst paeso h ot acsa/ateinlnug aiy(rno 90 Hewitt 1990; (Aronson family language Caucasian/Kartvelian South the of Speakers ihrgr oteNrhEs acsa agae Fre n ask2018; Maisak and (Forker languages Caucasian North-East the to regard With establish to Turkey in movement a is there base, language this of existence the Despite h bk agaei e is language Ubykh The fi ’ .Frexample: For x. ~ ’ hr a ea aya ih su eight as many as be can There . fl v-a-ts cin o example: For ection. ’ er I-on-write ‘ ch – ‘ oiaieoe efc a h ujc nadtv fpossession of dative a in subject the has tense Perfect one. nominative ’ Zan – v-ts o h k eoea i.Nnt e eto h paeso hs lan- these of speakers the of cent per Ninety [i]. an before [k] the for 7.Aan l osdrthemselves consider all Again, 97). ff ’ – ’ er r o oetbihconsistency. establish to now ort 2.Vrsaemre for marked are Verbs 22). fi eoe h ilc pcrmrnigaogteBakSacoast Sea Black the along running spectrum dialect the denotes edsic tncgop,many groups, ethnic distinct ne I-write ‘ ff rt i)o it on (it) write I საქართველო ioiylnug oiisipsdb h rmi.One Kremlin. the by imposed policies language minority n cieyetnt t aesre sa mlmfrfasfrthe for fears for emblem an as serves fate Its extinct. ectively k ’ epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, ats-i ‘ rt (it) write I a-oiaie~ man-nominative fi e elc hs ftesbet erinis Georgian subject. the of those replace xes fl cincmeiinbtentepre the between competition ection ffi 39 e htmdf rin or modify that xes fi sakartvelo – fRsinrl a h nrdcinof introduction the was rule Russian of t ’ e aeucranftrsdet modern- to due futures uncertain face ges ’ cuaiein accusative ~ ~ v-i-ts v-u-ts ‘ * version ’ ‘ kra]wsatmtclyrendered automatically was [kirkas] ’ er Georgia er Ap k I-for.self-write ’ I-to-write ats-eb-i fl ṡ eiigi eaaehighland separate in residing cinwieps es ones tense past while ection wa ffi ’ oto nietobject indirect of sort a , utt siaehwmany how estimate to cult ’ erinhsnumerous has Georgian . (roughly, fl man-plural-nominative. c h eb including verb, the ect ffi ‘ rt i)t him/ to (it) write I ut,ti sfl to felt is this culty, ‘ ‘ rt i)for (it) write I mortals fi e,s that so xes, ’ .They ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 nedsielnug hne reinhsisonapae,isl on akcenturies back persist- going ethnic itself of alphabet, example own an its example, as has For Armenia, forms. Armenian now earlier change. is with language what despite and Anatolia ence eastern of inhabitants ol aeti y akt a to back /y/ this take could mayr rle rretro or trilled a h>.Ti otatetnsit oto h ebr fteSai rnhadties and branch Slavic the of members other the of most retro into is extends that contrast mouth, This the >). sh of and < roof >), the shch to < near as Latin into transliterated rma paethsoyfo Proto-Indo-European: from history apparent an from 00 387, 2010: * i it did ihtels aeoysltinto split category last the with oesc for such some aeednsadtepua,dsiertiigteoiia ee noErpa aefunc- case Indo-European seven original the ta retaining ‘ example: despite For plural, the tions. and endings case in sian h ra oehls,Rsinsae he-a otati its in contrast three-way a shares verbs Russian the Nonetheless, with area. align the singu- nominative morphology to is and opposed syntax semantics as The verbal activity Ossetian. Russian habitual and nominal- this Georgian or In the of repetition actions. of with of unusual nuances system or complexity aspectual lar verb yield rich simple to in The comparatively over of shifted a nouns. sorts to animate basic contrast in for two in tsarist its seventh stands retained Russian system a has the adjectival-pronominal exhibits Russian before Ossetian, it long or adjective Caucasus Armenian the Unlike region. penetrating the been of had conquest It SOV. 2004). is (Timberlake order Sentence English. in as dark-l, a origin nsa ont ace.Freape hr otId-uoenlnugsshow languages Indo-European most where 382 2004: example, Fortson For 2009; matches. (Dum-Tragut cognate Indo-European unusual of north-eastern branch the separate a in sub-family). Nogai Kipchak the plus family: of littoral), Altaic (all Caspian the Daghestan the from of members part along are Daghestan, old (in Also Kumyk/Kumuk millennia. three Karachai as much Azeri, as back going Greek, have to opooy trtisre retains It morphology. ebr fohrlnug aiishv adrdit h ein rmteIndo- Armenian, the are From older region. Somewhat the arrivals. two into late latter are the wandered Tati, Ukrainian have and and Kurdish, families Russian European other of Members for word its simply is feature oddest its perhaps but ways, many ‘ in unusual typologically rmthe from father etku itntv oRsinaetepltlsdcnoat,ohrieaint h agae of languages the to alien otherwise consonants, palatalised the are Russian to Distinctive Indo-European of branch Slavic the of sub-branch Slavic East the to belongs Russian h reindaetsoe nteCuau steEsenoe reinforms Armenian one. Eastern the is Caucasus the in spoken dialect Armenian The ’ ‘ > reini lotplgclyuuuli aigtrersud,a alveolar an r-sounds, three having in unusual typologically also is Armenian . mother ’ fl hsis This . xenllnug aiista aewnee noteCaucasus the into wandered have that families language External ec reinhsas eoea gltntv agae ihsprt a separate with language, agglutinative an become also has Armenian uence * mama erku fi elds § 61) nte hf sta fProto-Indo-European of that is shift Another 16.19). ’ > for rmProto-Indo-European from ‘ ’ two ieGoga tas xiisnmru osnn lses sin as clusters, consonant numerous exhibits also it Georgian Like . fl mama yerku – x(ieEgih / English) (like ex ‘ father akr(ntenrhwsenCuau,i h onanpsue)and pastures) mountain the in Caucasus, north-western the (in Balkar ’ fl wt t nEgihfr//i te agae) reinhas Armenian languages), other in /d/ for English in /t/ (with hr r he te od htso hscmlxhsoy(Fortson history complex this show that words other three are There . , cin emti n ietoa pre directional and Geometric ection. š deda d-e ’ fl sArrt rAad fnrhr . northern of Aranda or Arrernte is xso h rgnlsxPooId-uoencss n nthe in and cases, Proto-Indo-European six original the of exes fi en h odfrmte.Teol te agaeknown language other only The mother. for word the being eld-ablative * ‘ t oarv at arrive to /t/ sh դաշտ ‘ ’ West lk onsmd ihtetnu ld i Cyrillic (in blade tongue the with made sounds -like ř ,adauua lk rnh rl / trill French) (like uvular a and /, onColarusso John ta ’ š rna ilcs h letimgatlnug is language immigrant oldest The dialects. Iranian d ‘ * ‘ rmthe from sh fl mater ‘ 40 fi xd(nCyrillic (in exed ’ lk onsmd ihtetpo h tongue the of tip the with made sounds -like eld Hatti h uoy o reinis Armenian for autonym The . ’ nmntv) ne uks n Cauca- and Turkish Under (nominative). – h aeo h pre-Indo-European the of name the , * fi cuaie ihSOsnec order. sentence SVO with accusative, dw eld ō ’ > ~ta fi * e otevrshv largely have verbs the to xes ш twu ‘ rnltrtdit ai as Latin into transliterated , š s d-er-e ’ lk and -like > * t * oAmna ,note y, Armenian to tg w ġ fi u Vu 98,in 1998), (Vaux / eld-plural-ablative – > ‘ 9,wt many with 99), sh * ’ tgu lk sounds, -like Hay > fl ‘ ffi ksksi tap ectional e for xes * dwo One . yerku tku ’ /r/, ‘ щ he or > , , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 thsi aycssr-nepee h rpstoso t eb sapculnacs tis It nominative nuances. is aspectual syntax as The verbs >. æ its < on SOV. of is prepositions addition order the the tence with re-interpreted Cyrillic, cases in many written in has it . the with border the along mercenaries shah, Sasanian been largely has and 1964). 1792 (Abaev century. twentieth in and the Caucasus ians of northern course the the in of Russian standard region by replaced the entered which ml agae sYgnb fTjksa,adtePmrdaet.Ishsoia eaie were relatives antiquity. historical in Its Road dialects. Pamir the the far- and and , numerous of more Yaghnobi as languages small to example: shift For stress language. by expressed Indo-European any of man most the cases, collective old an is ‘ /-tæ/ The origin. its Iran takes Asia transparent: until which are from in names ending. and spoken Greeks The was the century. Jassic, by nineteenth dialect, mentioned the third of A end Digoron. conservative the more the and Iron ahii21) tsest aesitdt gltntv opooy tlati t genitive (Beri- its studied in be least to Pontic at begun morphology, name just agglutinative the only to whence has shifted Turkey, it have north-eastern One region, to Georgia. of the seems in in It coast especially presence 2017). Sea villages, long kashvili Black of its the number Despite a is Greek. in origin persists of dialect point this Romeyka, or Greek hsbac fId-uoenit naelptenwt h ot-etCuainlan- Caucasian North-West the 414 with with 2010: as pattern (Fortson clusters, areal Abkhaz consonant initial and an Ubykh, into Circassian, Indo-European guages, of branch this fAo n h ot fteDn(aas Crasa /t (Circassian (Tanais) Don the of mouth the /m (Circassian and kingdom Maeotis of the and to cases up retaining casus in conservative north is the it to belongs , the It Finally, Azerbaijan. Like and Sea. Iranian. Armenia gender. Caspian Western in the villages of few of sub-branch a coast western in southern spoken the is resem- Kurdish rim It of Iran. Azerbai- that dialect north-western in from dialects only Azerbaijan Iranian into not spoken over the spills was bles Talyshi It Daghestan. would loans. in Hebrew This also numerous but with present. jan, dialect ongoing in Persian areal a the Caucasian was to , of in opposed bit a as be complete to ergative be seem is it to nominative past considered is from the apparently in dialect syntax but Khalkhali action the etc.), the verbs Latin, in Greek, of Interestingly Russian, tense German, Azeri. English, present for the the used into in that wandered Iran to have north-western similar that script Latin-based languages a Iranian con in other largely are the Tats are The Talyshi Caucasus. and Tati belongs. (Farsi) osacri to seini classi is Ossetian in Caucasian Under Scyth- so-called the nomads, steppe Ukrainian, the of on languages Iranian based the of Balachka, descendant a dialect, is Ossetian Cossack the is mention passing of Deserving h eann orIainlnugsbln oteWsenIainbac owihPersian which to branch Iranian Western the to belong languages Iranian four remaining The h reso lsia niut a rdn ot ln h lc e os fteCau- the of coast Sea Black the along posts trading had antiquity classical of Greeks The . ’ Digor-on ~ fi Iron læg-t-æn e osi,b pious be worship, ce, sfo Indo-Iranian from is sother-human.plural, is Yazdigerd man-plural-dative fi da nEsenIainlnug,lnigi omdr ahoadsuch and Pashto modern to it linking language, Iranian Eastern an as ed fl n h Sarmatian the and , ec seinhsbcm gltntn,ee huhi a nine has it though even agglutinating, become has Ossetian uence fl n,sc steSk n ohhas(odas,wodominated who (Sogdians), Soghdhians and the as such ung, fi s ylbe ne lvcin Slavic Under syllable. rst ’ n sse in seen is and , * vzgl epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, fi Sarma ary- e oAebia.Teei ne an is There Azerbaijan. to ned ‘ fl ‘ otemen the to y h others the ā ec reigsuh ue-a,nwpiaiyspoken primarily now Judeo-Tat, south. creeping uence ad n ā nOsta meant Ossetian in ‘ m ok lne ae stare gaze, glance, look, ‘ Ayra-of.plural 41 ’ . ǝ ’ nteasneo rils de articles, of absence the In . Jassi Yezidi -w ǝ h eesaindb h oasas Romans the by stationed were who t ys)i rmteId-rna otfor root Indo-Iranian the from is (yas-) ’ /nt(osbet)a.p tteSea the at to)dam.up) not-(possible a/ h iyof city the , fl ec n uha ihGeorgian with as much and uence ’ ‘ , h reman free a - ‘ – fteAryans the of a) oeie emdPontic termed Sometimes na/). 5.Rsinas emt large permits also Russian 45). Osse-tæ ’ læg-æn . ff ’ r owietelanguage the write to ort hr r w dialects, two are There . Yazd sfo the from is – – man-dative bouie ihthe with absolutive, h aeo the of name the , ’ cuaie(swith (as accusative – n stesm as same the is and cuaie Sen- accusative. fi ieesis niteness As ‘ othe to horde Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 hi ae u hi agaei o oglc ugsigyta ale rgna Turkic a as origin earlier an the yet by suggesting Mongolic, led not suzerainty. when is Mongol to Horde language vassal their Golden but ( the Nogai name, Khan, from their (Genghiz) derive Chinggis of Nogais one, grandson The Latin-based or morphology. a or white agglutinative to black or script, twentieth or (west the -based (north of Karachaevo-Cherkessia an course from in the casus, Within written century. being eighteenth from the fi of went to end in Nogai and the written century Empire near is Great It Khazar the 1980). the (Golden erine of nation that component of a passing by the script. after spoken Cyrillic-based Caucasus a been the in have survived to have is thought alphabet is Cyrillic The language century. thirteenth the in both. for Kipchak base the the of collapse the since eryn h atta hs ilcshv nycm noteCaucasus the into nominative Altaic come of the is only well all Syntax have as is dialects cases. Typical these 1996). that six (Seegmiller that harmony, has back fact vowel noun or 14). the exhibit The front Chapter betraying either dialects agglutinating. (see be two Kabardino-Balkaria is must in these morphology word east a languages the farther of extent, Altaic bit vowels some most a to with spoken nomadism is As pursue Balkar still and they Cherkessia, (T where Abazas area, and north-western the Circassians in the written of was pastures it Earlier USSR. script. the Arabic of the di dissolution of words the variety after Some Persian replaced silent. been having often Cyrillic is Turkish as it such Turkey consonants, in whereas nounced, seCatr6.AebiaiAeii itntdaetfo htsoe nIa.Aeiis Azeri morphology. Iran. agglutinative in and spoken harmony vowel that with from still Anatolia, dialect di Azeris of distinct some (Albanian) of Turkish a are Alwanian majority who the Caucasian There is the Seljuks, of replacing Azeri where the Azerbaijan, variant and Azerbaijani by now a CE is spoken 6). what century language Chapter into eleventh the (see up the from reached descended in and is starting live, It Iran east. into them family, the came the distinguishing in of and Turkmen branch (Kyrgyz) with Kipchak Kirghiz the and Turkmen. to (Kazakh) and belong Kazak Azeri, all Turkish, Tatar, from remainder Latin with of the them variant while aligning Turkish branch, and the Oghuz in Georgian, also the Armenian, but alphabet, Turkish, Cyrillic. Greek in from the as well words in as written loan script been numerous has It has Russian. It forms. (possessive) rbcpritddsietesra fKmka natraelnu rna h a Nakh Vai peoples. The Nakh franca. Vai lingua the alternate of an exception as became the Kumyk Arabic with of 5). Daghestanis spread Chapter the the (see of despite most adopted persisted for largely Arabic franca Daghestan lingua CE century a tenth the By al obigwitni yilc h oa epeaesatrdars h otenCau- northern the across scattered are people Nogai The Cyrillic. in written being to nally h oa r h att aeetrdteCuau,hvn enlctdteeb Cath- by there located been having Caucasus, the entered have to last the are Nogai The The littoral. Caspian western the along Daghestan, of lowlands the in dwell Kumyk The h aahiBla,dvdda w tncgop ne oitrl,ihbttehigh the inhabit rule, Soviet under groups ethnic two as divided Karachai-Balkar, The zr al iwyi ilc pcrmsatn ihTrihi h etadending and west the in Turkish with starting spectrum dialect a in to midway belongs falls Azeri Azeri Caucasus. the in spoken family Altaic the of members four are There ff Kara rne npoooy h ocdvlrfiaiewitn< written fricative velar voiced the phonology: in erences oa)(e hpe 4.Telnug a oe amn and harmony vowel has language The 14). Chapter (see Nogai) ’ ap ta ’ na cuyn h olns aahii pkni Karachai- in spoken is Karachai lowlands. the occupying anta) ş Azeri ~ iga francae Linguae onColarusso John da ş both 42 ‘ a dog war ‘ stone ’ ’ zr switni ai cit the script, Latin in written is Azeri . 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Georgian the Georgian least the at leaves the one material of as Nart out and the peter Cau- tales and (Ingush (North-West the coast the Caucasians and Sea among small North-East massif Black is Caucasian the corpus the (Khadjieva the of of and Karachai-Balkars Abkhaz south Ossetians, found casian) Turkic also Iranian-speaking are the the Tales ). Abazas), 1994), Ubykhs, al. et (Circassians, peoples speaking Gaelic and form), ieenhcnuiswe hsrgo a ue yIaindnsis t he in chief Its dynasties. Iranian more by ruled was was Caucasus region this northern when the some centuries nineteenth with of portion view central Russia. to with Caucasus the ties eastern whereas to the open hostility, of propensity and a suspicion represented have to seem ieenhcnuyadaesila cieoa rdto oti a.Tenm tefi of proto-Iranian is a from itself is name It etc. The the Alanic, day. of Sarmatian, this Scythian, middle times, to the Classical * in tradition in Caucasus oral Asia Europe. the Central active medieval of in an of conquest still romances tsarist are antagonism the ‘ the and and of after strife century reminiscent recorded much conduct nineteenth be with chivalric to Ossetian), of began the traces They (especially with tone also dark but a by characterised and ‘ ioy oergoa oeinwsre of they was rest because cohesion the after regional Daghestanis years Some the thousand ritory. Arabic. of a use than rest to more failed the century, also eighteenth so from and late politically Daghestan, the and until Islam socially resisted apart stand people inlbtenei eagrtdacut fata ate)admt tlso osand often gods people, of imaginary (tales of myth tales transi- and heroic are battles) tales of actual these body of tone, 2002; accounts a fantastical (Colarusso (exaggerated is tales their magical, epic Nart of lore the Because between Nart is capabilities. tional The Caucasus fantastic northern with 2016). the endowed al. in et folklore of May source richest The steppe sagas (h)nr-tama aypol rmteCrasa n seincmuiiswt hmIdsusdthe discussed I whom with communities Ossetian and Circassian the from people Many Caucasian- North-West the among Caucasus, northern the across found is lore Nart The as emerged Russian century, mid-nineteenth the of conquests Russian the with Starting zr a igafac costesuhr acssfo h itet oteearly the to sixteenth the from Caucasus southern the across franca lingua a was Azeri uy noe h ttso igafac rmDgetnwswr oKbrinter- Kabardian to westward Daghestan from franca lingua a of status the enjoyed Kumyk ’ ’ Clrso20) h atrbigataiinlyapidtr o hm hyaerich are They them. for term applied traditionally a being latter the 2002), (Colarusso rna rgn hti rmteIainlnugsoc pknaogteSl Road Silk the along spoken once languages Iranian the from is that origin, Iranian fi toa epe.I yonwr aetre them termed have I work own my In people). ctional ‘ man-superlative nert ‘ brave ’ ’ tesuc of source (the oeRoman note , epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, fl ce nti.Aai n uy oehrcertainly together Kumyk and Arabic this. in ected Folklore nerd 43 Nero ymrlinversion). moral by Greek , ane:r ‘ tales ‘ man ’ Mye l 06 or 2016) al. et (May ’ , andros ’ tre,o at or stories, s fl (possessive ec was uence Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 h aysnmyocsoal eunt c sagiac nngtris hti,i eand he if is, that that raids, him night on tells guidance She but a him, advice. as over for act watch Tree to They lucky. Lady return Pleiades). are to occasionally Narts (the returns the may women Tlepsh sun seven despair baby of his is In the care cease earth him. the The to a lose to edge. him him eventually over no to tells her has him borne earth and and gives has the him heavens and Tree because the with Lady earth o into absence love the wanders his of reaches in dancing end Tlepsh hair falls encountered the Stubborn has Her She reach round. he edge Tree. cannot earth. that the he Lady the reach women that mistress, beneath to of quest, intends their deep group and god to a reach Narts The by shore roots the corpus. taken of sea Circassian is life a the he the upon in Eventually for is vital earth. Tree things the seeks Lady of Tlepsh, of forge, account the sole of This Maypole. the correlate an be may moon She crescent raids. the nocturnal Adif, on is warriors Last word, guide tree. warrior Greek the to world the of helps Eurasian of his embodiment source elbow the old defeat the of glowing to is embodiment whose warband, how the woman female is Warzameg a Tree typical to of wisdom Lady head explain and Amazan, bravery to corpus. of sian has act from an Psatina In who Warzameg lore dead. (he this young the Pigyi of in a and land adversary. portrayals the by severs) over female who rescued rules of (he who is Pizighash man life-giving-mother), reptile heroes, a (/psa-ti-na/ twin of Psatina mother spears). the also Megazash, Clrso18) h srdatybatfl ie n h oreo udnet h heroes. the to guidance of source the and wise, the beautiful, is radiantly She is the Caucasus. She northern these 1989). the Among entitled (Colarusso of characters. conference people women a many of 2012 among In history police. common of the degenerated sense by , dawning up of a broken capital be Ossetian to the had in that held brawl ‘ Narts, mass the a on into conference local a aeacuto h mzn aefmu yGektaiin n owihteoriginal exempli the idea which Eurasian alter- to old an one healing see an tradition, A we tree, Greek heart. Here earth. by broken the famous a on of made native. mingled dies Amazons is bloods and the warrior name their lover of a where names, male account is spot her her nate She of the slays one from tanned. hence mistakenly arises were forest, she spring britches they the warband worn that in male have dwell so to a They the-forest-intimate.pre exposed said women. knees /a-mez-a-n(e)/ of is warband her she Circassian a because left leads case have who last to woman the but in boots, Knees, and Golden Little and January, hi oetclf,wt t atr sasuc fhmu.Seas ae i rmthe from him saves birth also gives She who (Ossetian), humour. Dzerassa of are Urizmæg). ( source women Ækhsær (Ossetia notable a heroes, Other twin wild.boar-son.of) is Narts. to banter, other (/warza-meg/ the its Warzameg of the with treachery is leader, life, She Nart domestic (Circassian). Their the mother(-one.who.is) /-na(-ya)/ of and wife Iranian) (Steppe hundred sata-/ an be to seems there therefore Currently h Narts The is,Ld mzn hneteGreek the whence Amazan, Lady First, Con h atsgsas o also sagas Nart The role important and prominent the is corpus Nart the of feature striking most the Perhaps fi e oafwtlsbto ra neetaetreohrwmnalfo h Circas- the from all women other three are interest great of but tales few a to ned fi ’ tv ohro h abn,abn foehnrdNrs ec e ae/ name her hence Narts, hundred one of band a warband, the of mother ctive a ovnda aadn-akraSaeUiest n eou prevailed. decorum and University State Kabardino-Balkaria at convened was ff ‘ brave rprastebs con fteacetcneto h world the of concept ancient the of account best the perhaps er ’ ’ moon. s n ksræ ( Ækhsærtæg and ) fi ff db h hita re h nr re n t close its and Tree, the tree, Christmas the by ed nwy u eun hsee n mt-add In empty-handed. and chastened returns but anyway, onColarusso John fi ‘ ueo aaaa(seinStn)i paramount is Satana) (Ossetian Satanaya of gure armistice ‘ aysun baby 44 Amazon fi ‘ -ohr nteha fbtl against battle of heat the In x-mother. iebrave like ’ ’ sas aldLd atSn,Lady Sana, Nart Lady called also is , the , nteNr saga Nart the in ‘ ik Way Milky ’ .Hrcreaei icsinis Circassian in correlate Her ). ‘ ’ war etksteinfant the takes He . ’ ehp u to due perhaps , Amazon . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 hto arosadnbe.H scnevdtruharp,ads sconsidered is so and rape, a a through (Ho born Circassian conceived is forge, He the is brotherhood. of He warband god that Dumézil the nobles. the suggest in by features and him bastard These place warriors a mist. to would or links of links fog with Such that a god Vseslavevich. is storm Volkh he degraded Russian when trickster a enemies a is his is he strike he can and of shape, thunder custom change Caucasian to North-West his and be able Indo-European to old Bartinuquo the She of takes a echo He where an relationship. She fosterage, be that from Curiously may choose lore. Warzameg, This to Irish leader, son. and Satanaya at Nart Russian by marvel elderly in allowed to the also himself found save emerges along setting to He hero, mound, a is grown. Irish feast, grave Bartinuquo purpose when the treacherous a (Colarusso His gigantic a with in heavens. at is associated one raised poisoning the He often been is and Indra. animals He earth Indic have hunting Circassian. the with canonical would in and eagle, tales Chulainn, hunting an few Cú and which a hound devoted of to a was restricted that with activity, society is economic Indo-European He of 2006b). and component caste-like fertility a to function, third the term that warband the Maruts, his with we Indra band Vedic in warrior and this sky, In the him. across follows Valhalla from army his brothers ninety-nine rmtegaemud h aallwt hitaiyi striking. is fi with parallel The mound. grave the from a b.getgrn,tesuc fIndo-European of source the (be.)great-gerund, Krhw20) hscnitdo n hundred one of has consisted which tradition This a of 2000). example an Iran- (Kershaw is Indo-European It preserved. and Asia. been Caucasian thereby Central local and of Classical barriers mix ori- of linguistic a Indo-European steppes jumped is the the corpus to from the back lore that going ian note seem material on might Eurasia preserving One largely in Iranian, ginals. location focus and intermediate shall Indic, their Greek, I of Norse, traditions. virtue to by other sagas attest from Nart to tales the of because Ireland echoes parallels, from such show ranging however, Eurasia, exploits, crescent of their all their spans with therefore helmets, that symbol samurai a Mon- Japanese is of . the on It cres- north-west to visor. and of the the the in of comm.), form above embodiment pers. animated moon he on female Kortum, surviving Abaza, and the (Thor), (David a is light Norse golia She be her (Diarmed), gorge. Celtic withdraws to a brutish in she seems into is found response bridge however, She husband, a In moon. Her from contempt. cent window. death with a his her of to treats out plunges elbow and her ungrateful, sticking and by raids on husband icsin/ Circassian ue.H ih eamnfsaino htGogsDmzl(98 204 (1978: Dumézil Georges what of manifestation a be might He gures. ‘ mother orqo(ot-etCuain stemo the is Caucasian) (North-West Sosruquo h atnqo h utrBriuu sno atn,i ehp h leto h male the of oldest the perhaps is Bartin), of (son Bartinuquo Hunter the Bartinuquo, She h atcru o corpus Nart The of Some folklore. throughout widely found heroes like more are tales the in men The nte aeta ik oncunlrisi hto Adif, of that is raids nocturnal to links that tale Another ff e 91 10 1991: ner ’ aaay) nteAaacru h adi hrceie as characterised is band the corpus Abaza the In Satana(ya). , ’ eainhpt azmgi etidtriaeutlWrae ssvdand saved is Warzameg until indeterminate left is Warzameg to relationship s fi ‘ -if r-on-ht) h wlsi oe n ie ih ogieher guide to light gives and tower a in dwells She arm-joint-white). a-di-f/ ue n eal fpo hthv are onesweeit etc Slavic, Celtic, into elsewhere down carried have that plot of details and gures – ’ aall a ese nteWl uto os,wt dnleading Odin with Norse, of Hunt Wild the in seen be may Parallels . 4.I i soito ihsih esoslnst rs Cú Irish to links shows he smiths with association his In 14). ff ’ r h otdtie eito fteodId-uoenwarband Indo-European old the of depiction detailed most the ers isi ikhdt enegotiated. be to had link kinship s epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, Tlepsh fi dteteeo h eurce eo h emerges who hero, resurrected the of theme the nd ,Abkhazian fi uea ela aro.H a oc of a has He warrior. a as well as gure fi 45 ue uha os hr ei nr,and Indra, Vedic Thor, Norse as such gures twdsra eoi h opr.Being corpora. the in hero widespread st * inra, Aynar fl fi m rmarc n eprdby tempered and rock a from ame tv rtes rsddoe by over presided brothers, ctive Indo-Iranian ihtelte,/-nr/the- /a-yn-ra/ latter, the with , ‘ ayWieElbow White Lady ‘ warrior * Indra ’ eodfunction, second s ’ ‘ moon s arqoadhis and Sasruquo ,Hittite – 1)would 211) ’ mark a , ’ In(a)ra (West Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 os.Ttahak o hvli at u orqomcshim, way mocks this forever Sosruquo on but go could halt, We reprieve. chivalric a a for ask Indra for on I Vedic then asks jaws, held reprieve, its Totrash Totrash a is out overcomes rips treacherously horse. battle Totrash Sosruruqo second a mount bells, Indra his Hit- The the of of Totrash as sound trol Inara. battle. reminiscent have horse name second is woman, his whom the This same on making in lowly bells. of the him and with a advises Iranian eight fog horse She a by his (in brothers, death. cover aided Hill nine to into mother, Harama being is them of his He follow Tarhunas to one Totrash. must returns tite defeat is Totrash Sosruquo to that Totrash . ruse and a of that killed, gesture him been a already tells it, who grants Totrash Satanaya, and battle, the bei i ne rtih,weeh a edb h smith the by held sometimes says was feature even he he a where tale thighs, steel, Abaza or tempered an knees like In his dark, Chulainn. in able Cú is of he said quenched, also been Having Chulainn. ed ete rnsi oStny.Iepial she Inexplicably Satanaya. to it brings then He head. to continue can he that so receives his Tarhunas of myth: Hittite all the up in arise, the vomit characters, earth Ubelluri in Sosrusuqo from shift and makes monster a Totrash heaven with this hurting. though which severs shoulder Ea from his god mother substrate the of a When complains Ullikumi. latter Ubelluri, monster, upon chthonic a creates Teshub, god pnIda(i ea .89.I nUyhtl ors isl svsbefo frby afar from Indra visible to is up alludes himself messes This Totrash Totrash moustache. tale golden Ubykh Illuyanka. his an dragon, In of the 4.18.9). glint of Veda, the daughter (Rig the Indra upon wed to order Sosruquo in ties kinship ancient the by paralleled is to This Sosruquo hurts. ball, forces it then cotton 170 He that a 1961: sky. so like (Güterbock the myth shoulder, sky across god the his moving storm plough with cloud Hurrian Sosruquo earth storm makes a the of Totrash plough image tone. degraded chivalric a a in mercy 1981), o Totrash eyes, 1995). Watkins 1991; see comm., pers. Goble, (Paul he Vseslavev lances a Volkh forked Russian at use tung Indra, hints Narts Vedic serpent all with This whence 2010). prize, Jaimoukha battle a himself Totrash as tradition, bardic He living parallels. he ancient tale Abaza numerous an In feast. awarded giant, use troubled is Prometheus. one-eyed can a he Greek a He into to where is Sigurd. way gods, who Norse his the enemy forces of an and too feast vanquishes Achilles He a He Greek cyclops. attends weapon. with Greek a parallel the as like close (discus) a Nart shows the he spot soft Idav.Vta hrv.Jrugn,i itt Tarhunas Hittite in Jormungand, vs. Thor Vrtra, vs. (Indra fi Indian higtesomsretalaoe bnoe yhswradadteohrgods other the and warband his by abandoned alone, all serpent storm the ghting h otitrsigapc fSosruquo of aspect interesting most The h otcmlt ntneo h tr epn steodacuto h tr god storm the of account old the is serpent storm the of instance complete most The ’ ,duhe Gunlod. daughter s, ’ soma ff ‘ ikta ehsee rn.Ti yblssaadnn isi.W e this, see We kinship. abandoning symbolises This drunk. ever has he that milk s nr ege redhpwt h darkness the with friendship feigned Indra rn nepaainfrteeimtcln nteRgVd 33)(Doniger (3.31) Veda Rig the in line enigmatic the for explanation an ering ’ osah,adsateh ftejwwudin wound jaw the of echo distant a moustache, s n Iranian and haoma ’ os aisa h lmu.I natmtt eancon- regain to attempt an In clamour. the at panics horse s noetl ebrings he tale one In . samntosNr eitda akeswt glowing with darkness a as depicted Nart monstrous a is fi hswt ors as ors) natl rmthe from tale a In Sotrash). (also Totrash with ghts fi h RgVd,41.) orqobg o atto halt a for begs Sosruquo 4.18.9). Veda, (Rig ght onColarusso John fi hsasomsret aigisfre tongue forked its taking serpent, storm a ghts 46 c,adNreOi ihtegat Sut- giant, the with Odin Norse and ich, oee,i i tr o ate thas It battle. god storm his is however, , ptmrhccui rfte,a found as father, or cousin rpatomorphic – sana ) hr uab,rvlt h storm the to rival Kumarbi, where 1), ’ ’ eas orqowl e i for him beg will Sosruquo because , hound s h aia rn ihprlesto parallels with drink magical the , fl fi iesintoarage.Thisisanechoof et uas ikn i closely him linking humans, to re ’ nuysitdmlenaltrto later millennia shifted injury s ’ odnpotei asta he that jaws prosthetic golden s ‘ mselalloy! steel am I ’ og,adi hslocalised this in and tongs, s fl saram fi ce ytesretVrtra serpent the by icted higIlyna(Ho Illuyanka ghting ’ o utrnuc his renounce must son s ā .B takn from attacking By ). ’ n uso cuts and , ’ ei vulner- is He ‘ o s for ask you ff ff ner his Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 u ahrBtaz Ossetian Batradz. rather Loki but tolerate gods Norse the as just point, a ain,Wdn spoone wdn,adi atthis fact in and [wodan], pronounced is Wadan, variant, Syrdon stasaetyIainadi ain fteIndic name the His of Shapsugh). dialect, variant westernmost a the is (in Wadan and name.su or Iranian Wardana, transparently of that is is It which tales. 430), two 2016: Romance. Arthurian al. of et Grail Holy (May the resembles cauldron closely indicate-) (holy-reveal, Wats-amon-gæ mound. Pataraz the Souls. of of tree Keepers central the the line Woman, from the hung Old what where weapons Little explains mound, seize tale the to this and a up Here Man kurgan, stands a Old and in Little prodigiously placed the grows is by he raised because is died he have to seems Pataraz however, a born hi lr n otns,s ydni adndb h aeadargneo h Narts. the of arrogance and fame the by maddened is Loki Syrdon of so one loftiness, While and glory 207 their 3: vol. 1996, 149 monstr 2003: the (George kill of to gods head him the the Sumerian brings In Gilgamesh) parallel. ancient most the rnsdo pnteNrsb eadn mosbefasa lo rc o i ahr Patar- father. his Pataraz he hair, for price when but bad blood Jesus dead, as and of feats the resurrection impossible skin from the demanding return bad by to Narts parallel his with the close upon upon returns a doom salvation is brings but brought Maruquo This survives, Jesus corpse. 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Arab resist who heroes of generations four) name claim the (some bear three least at dses h in nbt consi n-yd h athr,ntbySeBartinuquo, She befell notably as hero, cave, Nart than The rather one-eyed. tree is hollow accounts is in both there tale caught in Nart is a giant Nart not hero The While the the Cyclopes. Odysseus. in Greek wherein giants the correlate the for standard Polyphemus 37) a saga a setting 2002, eye, Colarusso one see only (but have mentioned tales rarely is it Although Greek. Indo-Iranian, 34 Greek, sagas Norse, 2002, Slavic, (Colarusso as such Numerous traditions, Celtic. Indo-European and [wodan], familiar Iranian, Wadan more Steppe with form in son a form imparting neighbours. late Gothic Circassian, their a of to from solely dialect Wodan, based come Shapsugh is, roots (1964) have that the suspected has would through war Davidson actually He Gothic a Ellis paganism, evidence. into Hilda Germanic of late Germanic of ballad the hallmark internal a Goths as a on preserve steppe, the god, Iranian-speaking who era war the this Circassians, Christian in that the the suggest his near of over strongly , centuries mound tales has burial the early which a the and Dead, the builds in steppes the with Wardana that of the while mound, Hall note in grave Valhalla, should were a rides over One like Odin presides it nephews. tale. Odin in the slain Wardana the rage. pillar seizing while of blind central that by eye, large end a cautioned nephews a one in the were his nephews at in overtakes Odin his restored blind and of kills sight is pursues Devotees his one Wardana Odin horse. have while has rook. fastest will Sleipnir, Wardana a but horse, while bird, both, fastest standard Munin, corvine the in and Germanic a blind Hugin the is is brothers, Taking too brother as 2017). he ravens but (Gaiman two brother, had Odin) Odin (Norse Norse, Wodan, from god Germanic the oss etl a,adahde et factor. death have hidden motif. folkloric also peculiar a tales a and is Many which man, Christianity. warrior reptile early mounted a a and horses, of portrayed Caucasus front also North in is the tree She fruit-bearing between Yggdrasil. a Norse, holding of woman 101 of tree 2007: a cosmic (Kuzmina theme as through Eurasian the tapestry Europe Pazyryk the to northern the links of reached representation on Tree have lively Lady fact Tree, The in Circassians. 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Europe, a preserved of (Hunt produced has boundary lore has the ones their at arrived position as newly well and as themes languages among their These as history. them political, throughout or peoples Ubykhs, numerous Georgia. and of Circassians Svans the and among Laz, one typology as , Georgia, , traditional, and modern the either of theory be borders may linguistic the that within for and data Caucasus de of can often north-western also the sources to have In rich languages Daghestan. from These as grammar, their 2015). of in serve 1988, levels radically (Colarusso languages Eurasia. all diverge at in also These but complexity parallel syntax. features, extraordinary without areal show is shared Many linguistically, some grammars. and show ethnically languages indigenous Caucasus, The the of complexity The be,V .(1996) I. V. Abaev, (1964) I. V. Abaev, (1929 Primakov wrote Yevgeny who late traveler The Ottoman 2 an was Çelebi Evliya 1 peoples. speaking Indo-European the of that particularly asia, be,V .adH .Bie.(95 ALANS. (1985) Bailey. W. H. and I. V. Abaev, ——— Hypothesis. Substrate Caucasian (1988) The J. Proto-Indo-European: Colarusso, of Origins The (2019) R. Allan Bomhard, (2017) S. Berikashvili, (1990) I. H. Aronson, Prometheus. Classical the resembles which epic Georgian a of hero , culture the at is Amirani shown 4 map the See 3 ——— ——— ecie i rvl costeOtmnEpr n eod(Danko beyond and Empire Ottoman the across travels his described n 99 a n ftee swsYr ooo (1941 Voronov Yuri was as these, of one was 1999, and hc sas icse nCatr1. Chapter in discussed years. also 300 is over which back went region the in roots whose nadto otreidgnu igitcfmle,teCuau a o has Caucasus the families, linguistic indigenous three to addition In Publishers. oit o h td fCaucasia of Study the for Society Routledge. Studies Indo-European of Journal 2019). August 4 at (accessed online available agae fteUS,Lnusi tde:NwSeries New Studies: Linguistic 19-54]. 1992, USSR, Society, the of Languages Studies Indo-European of fi dehi rusta pa oeta n agae u tl aeasneo unity of sense a have still but language, one than more speak that groups ethnic nd (1992) 19)Pyei ik ewe rt-noErpa n rt-otws Caucasian. Proto-Northwest and Proto-Indo-European between Links Phyletic (1997) 18) h oa fteMts h aaaaCce nAosn .I,ed., I., H. Aronson, In Cycle. Satanaya the Myths: the of Woman The (1989). ff rmjrisgt notehsoyadoiiso uho h nin oeo Eur- of lore ancient the of much of origins and history the into insights major er rma fteKbrinLanguage Kabardian the of Grammar A rmaia ktho Ossetic of Sketch Grammatical A h otws acsa agae,aPoooia Survey Phonological a Languages, Caucasian Northwest The erin edn Grammar Reading A Georgian: opooia set fPni re pkni Georgia in Spoken Greek Pontic of Aspects Morphological soioeiooihsi slovar Istoriko-etimologicheskii ,25(1-2):119 ,2:3 7 9 47: , – epe,lnugsadlore and languages Peoples, – 11. – 05,wosre sPieMnse fRsi ewe 1998 between Russia of Minister Prime as served who 2015), – 124. 5.[ern fa ril nAosn .. ed. H.I., Aronson, in article an of [reprint 151. Conclusion References nylpdaIranica Encyclopædia Notes ocw SRAaeyo Sciences. of Academy USSR Moscow: . ’ 49 n dto.Clmu,O:Slavica. OH: Columbus, edition. 2nd , agr:Uiest fClayPress. Calgary of University Calgary: . ‘ seisooiazyka ossetinskogo immigrants nvriyo hcg,I:CiaoLinguistic Chicago IL: Chicago, of University . Seyâhatnâme – 5,a in an 95), ’ ot pa,hv ruh with brought have speak, to so , () 801 I(8): , fi e tncgop,epcal in especially groups, ethnic ned ( os1 Vols , ‘ ff oko Travel of Book fl uih LINCOM. Munich: . 2004). eta bhza politician, Abkhazian uential – odnadNwYork: New and London . 0.A pae eso is version updated An 803. – .Mso:VIKOM Moscow: 6. ff rdarfg to refuge a ered h nulo the of Annual The ’ nwihhe which in ) h Non-Slavic The h Journal The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:28 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781351055628, chapter3, 10.4324/9781351055628-3 a,W,Sliv .adClrso .(2016) J. Colarusso, and T. Salbiev, W., May, ut .G tasao n dtr.(2004) editor). and (translator G. D. Hunt, (1989) Khiba. Ho Zaira and G. B. Hewitt, ak .(09 onano oge.ASoyi the in Story A Tongues. of Mountain (2019) Hypothesis. B. Substrate Mauk, (2006) Q. Caucasian D. 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