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Home , Abasha, Abashidze, Adjarians, Akaki Tsereteli, Alaverdi Monastery, Argveti

Georgian Country and Culture Guide

მშვიდობის კორპუსი საქართველოში Peace Corps 2017 Forward

What you have in your hands right now is the collaborate effort of numerous Peace Corps Volunteers and staff, who researched, wrote and edited the entire book. The process began in the fall of 2011, when the Language and Cross-Culture component of Peace Corps Georgia launched a Country and Culture Guide project and PCVs from different regions volunteered to do research and gather information on their specific areas. After the initial information was gathered, the arduous process of merging the researched information began. Extensive editing followed and this is the end result. The book is accompanied by a CD with Georgian music and audio and video files. We hope that this book is both informative and useful for you during your service.

Sincerely, The Culture Book Team

Initial Researchers/Writers Culture Sara Bushman (Director Programming and Training, PC Staff, 2010-11) History Jack Brands (G11), Samantha Oliver (G10) Jen Geerlings (G10), Emily New (G10) Michelle Anderl (G11), Goodloe Harman (G11), Conor Hartnett (G11), Kaitlin Schaefer (G10) Caitlin Lowery (G11) Jack Brands (G11), Jana Price (G11), Danielle Roe (G10) Kvemo Anastasia Skoybedo (G11), Chase Johnson (G11) Samstkhe- Sam Harris (G10) Keti Chikovani (Language and Cross-Culture Coordinator, PC Staff) Workplace Culture Kimberly Tramel (G11), Shannon Knudsen (G11), Tami Timmer (G11), Connie Ross (G11)

Compilers/Final Editors Jack Brands (G11) Caitlin Lowery (G11) Conor Hartnett (G11) Emily New (G10) Keti Chikovani (Language and Cross-Culture Coordinator, PC Staff)

Compilers of Audio and Video Files Keti Chikovani (Language and Cross-Culture Coordinator, PC Staff) Irakli Elizbarashvili (IT Specialist, PC Staff)

Revised and updated by Tea Sakvarelidze (Language and Cross-Culture Coordinator) and Kakha Gordadze (Training Manager). December, 2015

1 Table of Contents

Forward 1

Table of Contents 2

Culture: An Overview 3

Introduction to Culture 4 Fundamentals of Culture 9 18 History 20 Tbilisi 38 Language and Dialects 42 Religion and Holidays 48 Food and Supra 61 Gender Roles 69 Music 73 Dance 81 Literature and 87 Theater and Cinema 99 Architecture / Notable Sites 101 Superstitions, Jokes and 115 Stereotypes Cultural Dos and Don’ts 117 Links to Audio and Video Files 123

2 Culture: An Overview

This first section of the Georgian Cultural Handbook will introduce the concept of culture, and then outline a few of its key components, which are often found below the surface. It will on the four fundamentals most relevant for you as a Volunteer in Georgia. The key will be not only to learn about what is below the surface in Georgia, but what is below your own surface. Peace Corps Georgia’s goal is to assist you in developing your cultural intelligence. Take a look at the equation below:

Knowledge about cultures (facts and cultural traits) + Awareness (of self and others) + Specific Skills (behaviors) = Cultural Intelligence

In the first part, culture is defined, the between values and behavior is examined, and you will learn about the different types of values each person possesses. In the second part, each section contains an introductory exercise that introduces one of five fundamentals of culture, followed by an explanation of the two poles of each concept, which are defined. In some cases, a follow-up activity is included.

3 Introduction to Culture

Defining “Culture”

Culture is a complex thing. Sometimes people use the word “culture” to describe the arts, dance, and music of a certain group of people. Other times they use it in reference to the language and history or the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes a group of people. Culture does, in fact, encompass all of these things. The best way to start to fully understand your own or another group’s culture is to break it down into aspects one can see (visible) and aspects that one cannot see (invisible). Think of culture as an iceberg. Some aspects are observable and others can only be suspected, imagined, or intuited. Also, like an iceberg, the part of culture that is visible (observable behavior – i.e. arts, dance, and music) is only a small part of a much bigger whole.

Linking Values to Behaviors

The iceberg metaphor demonstrates how certain aspects or features of culture are visible— they show up in people’s behavior—while many other aspects of culture are invisible, existing only in the realm of thought, feeling, and belief. Though different, the two realms are related to each other as the values and beliefs you cannot see affect behavior. To understand where behavior comes from means learning about values and beliefs. The behavior of people from another culture may seem strange to you, but it probably makes sense to them, and vice versa. The reason any behavior makes sense is simply because it is consistent with what a given person believes in or values. Conversely, when we say that what someone has done “makes no sense,” what we mean is that that action contradicts what we believe the person feels or wants.

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Activity 1: Values vs. Behavior Match the value or belief in the column on the left to a behavior in the column on the right. 1. Directness _____Use of understatement. 2. Centrality of _____Asking people to call you by your first . 3. External control _____Taking off from work to attend the funeral of an aunt. 4. Saving face _____Not helping the person next to you on an exam. 5. Respect for age _____Disagreeing openly with someone at a meeting. 6. Informality _____Not laying off an older worker whose performance is weak. 7. Deference to authority _____ At a meeting, agreeing with a suggestion you think is wrong. 8. Indirectness _____Inviting the tea boy to eat lunch with you in your office. 9. Self-reliance _____Seeking advice from superior on something you’re an expert on. 10. Egalitarianism _____Accepting, without question, that something cannot be changed.

Suggested Answers 1. Directness—Disagreeing openly with someone at a meeting 2. Centrality of family—Taking off from work to attend the funeral of an aunt 3. External Control—Accepting, without question, that something can’t be changed 4. Saving face—At a meeting, agreeing with a suggestion you think is wrong 5. Respect for age—Not laying off an older worker whose performance is weak 6. Informality—Asking people to call you by your first name 7. Deference to authority—Asking the headmaster’s opinion about something you’re the expert on 8. Indirectness—Use of understatement 9. Self-reliance—Not helping the person next to you on an exam 10. Egalitarianism—Inviting the tea boy to eat lunch with you in your office

Activity 2: “The Things We Say” Part 1 Another useful way to understand how values are linked to behavior is by examining idioms/expressions people use in everyday conversation. These common expressions, after all, reflect what most people in a given society believe in or value. What cultural value or belief do the following expressions reveal? Write your response in the space provided. The first group of expressions is done for you.

Example: Value/Belief: Egalitarianism a. He thinks he’s better than so and so b. She’s always putting on airs c. That person should be cut down to size d. It’s gone to his head Value/Belief: 1. Talk is cheap 2. Put your money where your mouth is

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3. He’s all talk and no action Value/Belief: 4. She’s always beating around the bush 5. Tell it like it is 6. Straight talk, straight answer, straight shooter Value/Belief: 7. She did something with her life 8. Nice guys finish last Value/Belief: 9. Every cloud has a silver lining 10. Look on the bright side 11. Tomorrow is another day Value/Belief: 12. Where there’s a will there’s a way Value/Belief: 13. Stand on your own two feet Value/Belief: 14. Don’t judge a book by its cover 15. All that glitters isn’t gold Value/Belief: 16. Nothing ventured, nothing gained

Suggested Answers 1-3: Action and doing over talking 4-6: Directness. 7-8: Emphasis on accomplishment, achieving things, in addition to being a good person. 9-11: Optimism. 12: Self-determination, control over one’s destiny 13: Self-reliance, independence. 14-15: Don’t judge or be fooled by appearances; look beneath the surface. 16: Risk taking, experimentation.

Activity 3: “The Things We Say” Part 2 Can you think of other common expressions, ones you use yourself or that are common in your family? Write them below and then list the value or belief they represent.

Value/Belief: 1. Value/Belief: 2. Value/Belief: 3.

Just as expressions common in the U.S. reveal aspects of the national culture, so do host country expressions reveal certain host country values or beliefs. Using a host country informant or a PCV who knows the local culture well, try to come up with at least three common host country expressions, and then identify the cultural belief behind them. You may use proverbs if you like. However, in many cases you may find that the same proverb exists in one form or another in many cultures, so that the value it reveals is probably universal and not specific to your host country.

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Value/Belief: 1. Value/Belief: 2. Value/Belief: 3.

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Universal, Cultural, or Personal

Culture is only one category or dimension of human behavior, and it is therefore important to see it in relation to the other two dimensions: the universal and the personal. The three can be distinguished as follows:  Universal refers to ways in which all people in all groups are the same  Cultural refers to what a particular group of people have in common with each other and how they are different from every other group  Personal describes the ways in which each one of us is different from everyone else, including those in our group These are two important points for you to remember: 1. Because of universal behavior, not everything about people in a new culture is going to be different; some of what you already know about human behavior is going to apply in your host country. 2. Because of personal behavior, not everything you learn about your host culture is going to apply in equal measure, or at all, to every individual in that culture.

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Fundamentals of Culture

The Concept of Self

Intro-Activity: Sharing Rewards For six weeks, you and the three other people in your division have been working on an important special project. Now the work is done and the four of you have been awarded a cash prize of $20,000. How should this money be distributed? In answering this question, you may find the following information useful: 1. Person A did 25% of the work. 2. Person B did 40% of the work. 3. Person C did 25% of the work. 4. Person D did 10% of the work.

In the underlined blank spaces below, write the cash prize you think each person should receive: Person A $______Person B $______Person C $______Person D $______

How did you reach your decision?

Individualism vs. Collectivism You had a taste of what the concept of self entails in the previous activity, “Sharing the Rewards.” Here you are given a general description of the two poles of this dimension, individualism and collectivism. While no culture is exclusively individualist or collective—not to mention individuals within each type—most tend to be more one than the other.

Individualist The individual identifies primarily with self, with the needs of the individual being satisfied before those of the group. Looking after and taking care of oneself, being self-sufficient, guarantees the well-being of the group. Independence and self-reliance are greatly stressed and valued. In general, people tend to distance themselves psychologically and emotionally from each other. One may choose to join groups, but group membership is not essential to one’s identity or success. Individualist characteristics are often associated with men and people in urban settings. Collectivist One’s identity is in large part a function of one’s membership and role in a group, e.g., the family or work team. The survival and success of the group

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ensures the well-being of the individual, so that by considering the needs and feelings of others, one protects oneself. Harmony and the interdependence of group members are stressed and valued. Group members are relatively close psychologically and emotionally, but distant toward non-group members. Collectivist characteristics are often associated with women and people in rural settings.

Personal vs. Societal Obligations

Intro-Activity: The Accident You are riding in a car driven by a close friend when he hits a pedestrian. There are no other witnesses and the pedestrian is bruised but not badly hurt. The speed limit in this part of town is 20 miles an hour, but you happen to notice that your friend was driving 35. His lawyer tells you that if you will testify under oath that your friend was driving 20, he will suffer no serious consequences. (Adapted from Fons Trompenaars, Riding the Waves of Culture)

Before reading further, circle the “Yes” or “No” in answer to this question: Would you testify that your friend was driving 20 miles an hour? Yes No Percentage of Americans who said they would not: 96% Percentage of Venezuelans who said they would not: 34% What do you think accounts for the great difference between these percentages? How do you think our Georgian colleagues would vote?

As was suggested by the preceding activity, people struggle with how to balance obligations to family, friends, and colleagues on the one hand and to the wider society on the other. In cases in which obligations conflict, people of different cultures often come down on different sides of this dichotomy.

Universalism and Particularism The exercise that appears below helps you to define the two sides of this dimension of human experience—universalism and particularism. No culture is exclusively universalist or particularist, but cultures do tend to lean more in one direction than the other, and while the attitudes of individuals in a given culture will vary, the focus here is on the culture as a whole. Brief descriptions of the two poles follow:

Universalism Certain absolutes apply across the board, regardless of circumstances or the particular situation. Wherever possible, you should try to apply the same rules to everyone in similar situations. To be fair is to treat everyone alike and not make exceptions for family, friends, or members of your in-group. Where possible, you should lay your personal feelings aside and

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look at the situation objectively. While life isn’t necessarily fair, we can make it fairer by treating people the same way. Particularism How you behave in a given situation depends on the circumstances. You treat family, friends, and your in-group the best you can, and you let the rest of the world take care of itself. Their in-groups will protect them. There can’t be absolutes because everything depends on the people with whom you are dealing. No one expects life to be fair. Exceptions will always be made for certain people. Having become familiar with the two poles of this concept, you now have a chance to think of your own behavior in the context of this important cultural dimension.

Follow-Up Activity: Universalist vs. Particularist Before reading further, take a moment to decide whether you consider yourself more of a universalist or a particularist. Below are a number of paired statements (a. and b.). Circle the one which best describes the action you would take or the way you feel about the particular topic. Please choose one or the other even if you think both are true. Try to be as honest as you can by answering quickly and without too much thinking.

1a. In hiring someone, I want to know 1b. In hiring, I want to know who the about their technical skills and their person’s family and friends are, who will educational/professional background. vouch for this person.

2a. In society, we should help those who 2b. In society, we should help the are the neediest. neediest of those who depend on us

3a. There are no absolutes in life; you 3b. There are certain absolutes which always have to look at the particular apply across the board. situation.

4a. I would be very hurt if my neighbor, 4b. I would not expect my neighbor, the a policeman, gave me a ticket for policeman, to jeopardize his job and not speeding. give me a speeding ticket.

5a. The courts should mediate conflicts. 5b. People should solve their own conflicts; it’s embarrassing if it has to go to court.

6a. In general, people can be trusted. 6b. My closest associates can be trusted absolutely; everyone else is automatically suspect.

7a. Performance reviews should not 7b. Performance reviews inevitably take

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take personal relations into account. personal relations into account.

8a. You often have to make exceptions 8b. Exceptions should be very rare; for people because of circumstances. otherwise, you open the floodgates.

9a. Contracts aren’t necessary between 9b. Contracts guarantee that friends friends. stay friends.

10a. What is ethical in a given situation 10b. Ethics are ethics no matter who depends on who you are dealing with. you are dealing with.

Suggested Answers Universalist Characteristics:1a, 2a, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6a, 7a, 8b, 9b, 10b Particularist Characteristics:1b, 2b, 3a, 4a, 5b, 6b, 7b, 8a, 9a, 10a

Styles of Communication

Communication, the sending and receiving of messages, is an integral part of culture. Edward Hall, the noted interculturalist, has maintained that culture is communication. What he probably means is that since culture is such an important ingredient in all behavior, and human behavior is almost always one form of communication or another, it’s hard to tell where one ends and the other begins. In any event, whether or not they are one and the same, culture and communication certainly go hand in hand. In the cross-cultural context, communication, like everything else, is more complicated. It’s almost impossible to send a message that does not have at least some cultural content, whether it’s in the words themselves (verbal), in the way they are said (tone), or in the nonverbal signals (body language) that accompany them. And even if it were possible to send a message without any cultural content, it’s not possible to receive one without passing it through the filter of one’s own cultural conditioning. All of which means that host country nationals may not interpret everything you say the way you mean it. And vice versa. Communication problems, especially misunderstanding and misinterpretation, are one of the most common frustrations experienced by PCVs. Comparing your own communication with that of your host country can highlight some of the more likely challenges you will face.

Intro-Activity: The Volunteer’s Story Jan has finished training now and settled in at her site. In this letter to her PCV friend Gavin, Jan recounts the experience she recently had negotiating her living arrangements. As she relates the encounter with her landlord, she describes at least five common techniques of indirect communication. See if you can find them.

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Dear Gavin, How are things out east? I’ve heard so much about your part of the country I’ve decided I will have to come and see for myself, maybe in the New Year. Will you be around in January? Settling in has been the circus I was more or less expecting. Some parts of it have gone quite smoothly; other parts haven’t even begun to resolve themselves yet. By far the most intriguing aspect of settling in was trying to rent a room. I had this most amazing conversation with my landlord; it was the kind of cross-cultural incident they told us about in training, where you go along thinking one thing is happening and the other person is thinking something entirely different. Anyway, I found a room I liked in a nice enough house and met with the landlord to discuss terms and price. One issue we had to resolve was whether I could use the attic to store some of my things, as my room had no extra space at all. I asked if it would be OK, and he said “Yes. As you wish.” Then he launched into a story, whose point I never did grasp, about how in his culture the aim in life is to be able to see the folly of attachments and to divest ourselves of material possessions as we get older, that these things blind us to the more important truths that we should be looking for if we’re ever going to understand the meaning of life. I’m sure he’s right, but I just wanted to rent a room. Then we moved on to the problem of my meals and whether or not I could eat with the family, or if I should make other arrangements. By way of “response,” he started talking about how close his house was to my work, which would be very convenient for me, so we still haven’t resolved the meals question yet. Next, it was time to talk about price. When I asked him how much he would charge, he blushed and said he had no idea. “Why don’t you suggest a price?” he asked. I know what the going rate is in this town, so I told him 200. “That’s good,” he said. “Don’t you think?” I said I thought it was fine, and asked him whether or not I needed to sign something, and when I might be able to move in. He said it was not necessary to sign a contract, and then asked me if I was sure I was happy with the price. I assured him I was. He looked taken aback, and then asked me if I thought the room had enough space for all my possessions. “Americans have so many nice and useful things,” he said. I said that so long as I could store some things in his attic, as he had promised, I would be fine. “Ah, yes,” he said. “My attic. My poor, little attic. And all your wonderful things. And so little money you are paying me.” And there we were: back to square one. It’s much more fun in the retelling, I can assure you, but it all ended well, nearly an hour later, when we came to terms and finally understood each other. I meant to write more, but my candle is low, (the power is out again). All the best, and write me back immediately. Jan

Indirect vs. Direct Interculturalists have identified numerous differences in communication styles from culture to culture. The most important and most studied distinctions are the indirect/direct, or high context/low context, dichotomy described below:

Indirect/High Context Context refers to the amount of innate and largely unconscious understanding a person can be expected to bring to a particular communication setting. In high context cultures, such as , which tend to be homogenous and collectivist, people carry within them highly developed and refined notions of how most interactions will unfold, of how they themselves and

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others will behave in a particular situation. Because people in high context cultures already know and understand each other quite well, they have evolved a more indirect style of communication. They have less need to be explicit and rely less on words to convey meaning— and especially on the literal meaning of the spoken word—and more on nonverbal communication. People often convey meaning or send messages by manipulating the context. Because these cultures tend to be collectivist, people work closely together and know what everyone else knows. The overriding goal of the communication exchange is maintaining harmony and saving face. Direct/Low Context Low context cultures, like the United States, tend to be more heterogeneous and individualist and accordingly have evolved a more direct communication style. Less can be assumed about the other person in a heterogeneous society, and less is known about others in a culture where people prefer independence, self-reliance, and a greater emotional distance from each other. They cannot depend merely on manipulating context—not doing or not saying something that is always done or said in that situation—or communicating nonverbally to make themselves understood; they must rely more on words, and on those words being interpreted literally. Getting or giving information is the goal of most communication exchanges.

The Concept of Time

Intro Activity: In the Shop The drawing below represents a shopkeeper standing behind the counter in his shop. Imagine six patrons ready to check out. Using a circle to represent each patron, draw a diagram of how the patrons should arrange themselves in front of the counter.

On what basis did you decide to put the people where you did?

Polychronic vs. Monochronic Another of the ways in which cultures differ is in how people conceive of and handle time, and how their concept of time affects their interactions with each other. In this activity, you are given a general description of the two poles of this dimension—monochronic and polychronic—and then asked to assign characteristics to one category or the other. The two poles are described below:

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Monochronic Time is the given and people are the variable. The needs of people are adjusted to suit the demands of time—schedules, deadlines, etc. Time is quantifiable, and a limited amount of it is available. People do one thing at a time and finish it before starting something else, regardless of circumstances. Polychronic Time is the servant and tool of people. Time is adjusted to suit the needs of people. More time is always available, and you are never too busy. People often have to do several things simultaneously, as required by circumstances. It’s not necessary to finish one thing before starting another, or to finish your business with one person before starting in with another.

Follow-Up Activity: Monochronic vs. Polychronic In the underlined blank space before each of the behaviors or characteristics listed below, put “M” if you think it is more likely to apply to a culture where time is monochronic and “P” if it is polychronic.

1. ______Time is money. 2. ______To be late is rude. 3. ______Schedules are sacred. 4. ______The focus is on the task, getting the job done. 5. ______Being made to wait is normal. 6. ______Interruptions are life. 7. ______Plans are fixed, once agreed upon. 8. ______This attitude is consistent with an individualist viewpoint. 9. ______The focus is on the person, establishing a relationship 10. ______This attitude is consistent with a collectivist viewpoint. 11. ______Deadlines are an approximation. 12. ______To be late is to be late. 13. ______Focus on the internal clock. 14. ______Plans are always changing. 15. ______Having to wait is an insult. 16. ______People are never too busy. 17. ______Interruptions are bad. 18. ______People stand in line.

Suggested Answers Monochronic Behavior: 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 15, 17, 18 Polychronic Behavior: 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 16

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The Locus of Control

Intro-Activity: Who’s in Charge Here? Which of the following two statements do you most agree with? Circle one.

A. What happens to me is my own doing. B. Sometimes I feel I don’t have control over the direction my life is taking. Percentage of Americans who chose A = 89% Percentage of Chinese who chose A = 35% What do you think our Georgian colleagues would choose?

What do you think accounts for the difference between these percentages?

Internal vs. External Cultures differ greatly in their view of a person’s place in the external world, especially the degree to which human beings can control or manipulate forces outside themselves and thereby shape their own destinies. The two sides of this dimension, internal and external control, are described below:

Internal The locus of control is largely internal, within the individual. There are very few givens in life, few circumstances that have to be accepted as they are, that cannot be changed. There are no limits on what I can do or become, so long as I set my mind to it and make the necessary effort. Life is what I do. External The locus of control is largely external, outside of the individual. Some aspects of life are predetermined, built into the nature of things. There are limits beyond which we cannot go and certain givens that cannot be changed and must be accepted. Life is in large part what happens to me. In the following sets of statements, circle the statement that does not belong, either because it is characteristic of internal control and all the rest are external control, or vice versa.

Follow-Up: Internal vs. External Control In the following sets of statements, circle the statement that does not belong, either because it is characteristic of internal control and all the rest are external control, or vice versa.

Set 1 1. Stoicism is the rule 2. The laws of the universe can be discovered 3. Progress is inevitable 4. Every problem has a solution Set 2 1. Optimism is the rule 2. Some things are a matter of luck or chance

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3. Where there’s a will there’s a way 4. People believe strongly in technology Set 3 1. Unhappiness is your own fault 2. Progress is not automatic 3. The workings of the universe are ultimately unknowable 4. Nature cannot be dominated Set 4 1. You make your own luck 2. Some problems do not have solutions 3. Where there’s a will there’s a will 4. Unhappiness is a natural part of life

Suggested Answers In the first set, #1 is external; the others are internal because: 2—this is core of internal dogma 3—as people figure out more and more about the world 4—if the world is a mechanism, then it’s possible to know how it works; no problem should be unsolvable if you look hard enough In the second set, #2 is external; the others are internal because: 1—internally controlled people believe humans are in control 3—it’s all up to you in the internally controlled world 4—mechanisms (technology) are a hallmark of internally controlled thinking In the third set, #1 is internal; the others are external because: 2—anything can happen in the external world 3—core of external dogma 4—externally controlled people don’t believe man can dominate In the fourth set, #1 is internal; the others are external because: 2—not everything is knowable 3—you can’t necessarily make things happen 4—you can’t always be happy because that would mean you were in control

Source: Culture Matters – The Peace Corps Cross-Cultural Workbook

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Geography

Georgia can only be understood by first studying its geography. Running parallel and just south of the spine of the Mountains, Georgia is a country situated between the Caspian and Black seas. It is bordered by to its north, the to its West, and to its south, and to the east. The country itself ranges in elevation from sea level to 16,500 feet at Mount Kazbegi. The drastic fluctuations in elevation caused by the multiple mountain ranges create a surprisingly diverse array of weather and ecosystems. These range from almost tropical areas and vegetation in the west to dry deserts in the south east. The summers in Georgia can be stiflingly hot, and the cold winters seem to go on forever. However, the entire country is more temperate than other countries at its latitude due to the . Georgia is protected from the bitter cold winds of Russia and the Arctic to the north by the Caucasus spine. In the west, these mountains also help trap the moisture from the Black Sea. As a result, the western regions including Samegrelo, Imereti, Guria and Adjara are typically more humid and receive more precipitation than areas to the south and east. The Black Sea also helps moderate the temperature in the west. Samtshke-Javakheti and -Mtianeti for the coldest regions volunteers are posted. Both areas are at higher levels of elevation due to the formers location in the mountain range, and the latter in the foothills of the Caucasus. Finally, moving east, Kakheti and are typically drier than the areas to the west. This is particularly true along the southeastern border with Azerbaijan, where the Davit Gareja Monastery is located in an arid desert land. Georgia’s unique geography has played a vital role in its growth as a nation and a people. It is a mountain country, first and foremost. From its effect on isolating the people early in history to the ideal conditions it creates for viticulture, the mountains of Georgia have

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played a key role. Its history and development cannot be fully understood or appreciated without first acknowledging this fact.

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History

Georgia may be a small country, but its location has made it important throughout history. It has continually been at the crossroads of and trade routes. As a result, most of the history of Georgia can be summed up in one word: invasion. If it wasn’t the Turks, it was the , and if it wasn’t the Mongols it was the of Persia or later the tsar of Russia. For millennia, Georgia has been a land whose history is full of being conquered or defending against conquerors. As Winston Churchill famously said, “History is written by the victors,” and as such, pinning down the exact “true” history of Georgia, or even defining what we mean by Georgia, is not an easy task. Even so, it is worth knowing what is commonly accepted as the history of such a culturally rich people.

“The past actually happened but history is only what someone wrote down.” –A. Whitney Brown

Ancient Period Up to IV Century Georgia is home to the oldest evidence of human existence in the world outside of Africa. The first proof of human occupation in Georgia goes back to c. 1.8 million years ago. Additional evidence has shown that the territory of modern-day Georgia has been continuously inhabited since the early Stone Age. The proto-Georgian tribes first appeared in written history in the 12th century BC. Archaeological finds and references in ancient sources reveal elements of early political and state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond. By as early as the 4th century BC a kingdom under one king with a hierarchy of aristocracy was established. This was an early example of advanced state organization. The classic period saw the rise of the two early Georgian states, known to ancient and Romans, as and . From the 6th to the 1st century BCE, the two early Georgian kingdoms thrived. The Kingdom of Colchis was situated in the west, while the occupied the east. In Greek Mythology, Colchis was the location of the sought by Jason and the Argonauts in Apollonius Rhodius' epic tale Argonautica. The legend of the Golden Fleece may have been derived from the local practice of using fleeces to sift gold dust from rivers. In the last centuries of the pre-Christian era, the area of the -Iberia was strongly influenced by to the west and Persia to the east. The two kingdoms fell to Roman rule in 65 BC, when General conquered the area. The western Kingdom of Colchis became the Roman province of Lazicum and was ruled by a Roman legati, while the Kingdom of Iberia accepted Persian Imperial protection. From 20

then until the late 7th century, the two kingdoms were constant battlegrounds between the Roman/Byzantine and the Sassanid/Persian Empires.

Christianity to IX Century The people in the regions of Iberia (also known as the Kingdom of Kartli) and Colchis, prior to the adoption of , followed the Cult of Mithras and . This changed in 327 AD, when King Miriam III of Iberia declared Christianity the . According to Georgian tradition, of (picture to the right) was able to convert the king after performing two miracles. She first cured his wife, Queen Nana, from an unknown illness, and then performed a second miracle on one of his hunting trips. Iberia became the second earliest state to adopt Christianity in the world, after Armenia, and soon afterwards Colchis followed. The adoption of Christianity as the state religion gave a great stimulus to the development of literature, arts and the unification of the country. Georgian of the existed as early as the 5th century. King Miriam III's acceptance of Christianity ultimately tied the kingdom to the neighboring Byzantine , which exerted a strong cultural influence for several centuries. Through the religion tied the area to the , it often became the battlefield and buffer-zone between it and the rival power of Persia to the east. Both fought for control of the region and it shifted hands back and forth several times. From the 4th to 7th century, the Kingdom of Kartli/Iberia was a province of the Persian Empire, with only a brief period of independence at the end of the 5th century. It was at this time that Vakhtang I Gorgasali led a successful uprising against the Persians and declared himself King of Iberia. The state was short lived as the Persians retook Iberia in 514. The early Vakhtang Gorgasali Statue in Tbilisi kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early . This made it easy for the to conquer Georgia in the 7th century. Although Arabs captured the capital city of Tbilisi in AD 645, Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under local Arab rulers. It was this relative autonomy that created conditions conducive to the formation of a unified Georgian state.

Rise of the Bagrationi Family The period leading up to the “” of Georgia witnessed numerous invasions with competing kingdoms and earldoms vying for sway over the land. The most notable of these was the new Georgian state, -, in the beginning of the 9th century. In AD 813, prince Ashot I, also known as Ashot Courapalate, gained control of the territories of southern Iberia from the Arabs. This included much of the land of modern Georgia and beyond. Ashot I kingdom began a period of nearly 1,000 years during which the house of Bagrationi ruled at least part of modern day Georgia.

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The Bagrationis ruled Tao-Klarjeti for almost a century, during which time much of modern day Armenia and parts of Turkey were added to their ruled lands from the Byzantine Empire. With King Courapalate’s invasion of their main rival kingdom, Kartli-Iberia, at the beginning of the 10th century, a united Georgian was formed. After David’s death in 1001, the Georgian Kingdom was further augmented when King Bagrat III inherited Tao-Klarjeti. King Bagrat III already ruled all of and in the years 1008-1010 Bagrat annexed Kakheti and Ereti, thus becoming the first king to rule a united Georgia. This uniting of Georgia was short-lived, as toward the middle of the the Seljuk Turks invaded. By 1081 most of Georgia (minus Abkhazia, , , and - ) was occupied by Seljuk Turks. Many , both peasant farmers and aristocrats, were either killed or became refugees due to the Turks. In fact, by the end of the , Georgians were outnumbered by Turks in the area.

Golden Age The Seljuk Turk presence in the area put Georgia and its future in dire straits. Only a strong leader could reclaim the kingdom and land from the invaders. Fortunately for Georgian history, a leader of this caliber, King David IV of the Bagrationi family, came to the people’s aid. Referred to as David (Davit) the Builder (David Aghmashenebeli), King David IV came to power at the age of 16 in 1089 when his father George II abdicated the throne. David developed the army out of local militia and led the first crusade against the Turks from 1096-1099. By 1099 David had liberated most of the lands belonging within the Bagrationi kingdom’s field of influence with the exception of Tbilisi and Ereti. Continuing his advances, by 1118 David had isolated Tbilisi as the only remaining Seljuk-held territory. Desperately needing reinforcements for his army, King David invited some 40,000 Kipchak warriors from the northern Caucasus region to bring their and settle in Georgia. Around the same time, the ruler of Alania also sent thousands of (thought to be modern day ) across the Caucasus Mountains to settle in Georgia. King David also employed mercenaries from , , and Scandinavia.

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In 1121, the leader of the Seljuk Turks declared on Georgia and sent his largest army against King David’s forces. Though outnumbered, the Georgians defeated the Seljuk forces. They went on to liberate not only Tbilisi, but also acquired much of (modern day Azerbaijan) and Armenia. King David died in 1125, leaving Georgia in a very strong position politically, socially, and geographically. King David’s successors continued his work, strengthening Georgia’s position among its neighbors as a powerful adversary and continued to annex more of the surrounding mountainous areas. Queen Tamar, or King Tamar, as many Georgians refer to her, was King David’s great granddaughter. Widely considered one of the most influential royals of Georgia’s history, her rule was marked not only by political and geographical gains, but also cultural and architectural advances. Queen Tamar’s was: “The Queen of , Kartvels, Rans, Kakhs and , Shirvan- Shakhine and Shakh-in-Shakhine. The Sovereign of the East and West.” Though she was an effective leader, not much is written about her reign, other than that it is considered the “Golden Age” of Georgia - the age of science and philosophy. From 1194-1204 Tamar’s armies obliterated Turkish invasions and led several campaigns into Southern Armenia. Although left under Turkish leaders, much of Armenia became a of the . In 1204 when the Byzantine Empire fell temporarily, it left Georgia as the strongest Christian nation in the world, east of the Mediterranean. After Queen Tamar, the Georgian Kingdom slowly declined.

Georgia at height of “Golden Age” 23

Decline In the , Georgia, like most of Asia and Eastern , was invaded by Mongols. Despite fierce resistance on the part of the Turks, Georgians, and Armenians, the Mongols eventually occupied almost all of their territories. Eventually, in 1243, Queen Rusudan signed a peace treaty with the invaders, but while Tbilisi remained the capital of occupied Georgia, Queen Rusudan refused to return. She remained in until her death in 1245. From Queen Rusudan’s death until 1330, Georgia fought to hold itself together. In light of the Mongol occupation, many provinces sought to secede. Among these, the most notable was Samtshke (southern Georgia), which broke away in 1266 and created its own separate treaties with the Mongols. The rest of Georgia attempted to gain full independence. The first campaign was led by King David Narin, and was continued under kings Demeter II and David VIII. It wasn’t until King George the Brilliant(1314-1346) came to power that Georgia’s pre-1220 state borders were re-established and parts of modern day Turkey were returned to Georgia’s sphere of influence. Unfortunately this peace was not to last. Between the years of 1386- 1403, most of Georgia was battered with invasions. From the east came the Turks and from the west came the Mongols, leaving most of Georgia’s population and economy devastated. The 15th century saw Georgia’s decline continue. Cut off and surrounded as a Christian enclave among a Muslim, Turco-Iranian-Arabic world, Georgia watched the fall of to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 with great trepidation. This completed the isolation of the whole region, leaving Georgia only able to remain in contact with the West via the Genoese colonies of the Crimea, south of in the Black Sea. During this time, the Kingdom of Georgia was fractured into several states: Kartli, Imereti and Samtskhe. Beginning in the early 16th century, the threat of the in the west was accompanied by the new Muslim Safavid Persian Empire in the east. Over the next two centuries, Georgia became one of the main battlegrounds between these two powers, leaving Georgia as an entity struggling to survive. In 1555, a treaty was signed to split Georgia between the Ottoman Turks and the Safavid Persians - the former took Imereti, while the latter acquired Kartli-Kakheti. Even after the treaty was signed, battles continued on both sides. One Safavid ruler in particular, Shah Abbas, was brutal in his campaign to bring eastern Georgia under his rule. Tens of thousands of Georgians were either killed or deported to Persia, while he had the Queen’s mother Ketevan tortured and killed. By the seventeenth century Georgia had fallen so far into poverty that bartering had replaced actual currency in much of the region. Georgian leaders were torn between acknowledging the Ottoman Turks, the Safavid

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Persians, or continuing to fight for independence. With the emergence of a third local power, Christian Russia to the North, the choice became even more complicated

Dawn of Russian Scattered and fragmented, “Georgians” found themselves at the behest of various leaders vying for control of the fractured land. In the early 18th century, Kartli experienced a slight revival under King Vakhtang VI who developed a new code of law and attempted to improve the economy. Following Vakhtang VI, Erekle II (pictured to the left) turned to Russia for protection from the Ottoman and Persian attacks he was facing. The Empress Catherine the Great was anxious to have Georgians as allies against the Turks, but sent only meager forces to assist them. In 1783 Erekle signed the treaty of Georgiesk with Russia, in which Russia agreed to protect Kartli-Kakheti. However, as soon as another Russo-Turkish war broke out, Russia withdrew its troops from the area and left Erekle and his kingdom without any protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah, Agha Mohammad , invaded and burned the capital to the ground. Although Russia did not fulfill the treaty to protect Kartli-Kakheti, Georgians turned to them to intervene when a civil war broke out over succession after Erekle II’s death. Using the pretext of stabilizing the region, Tsar Paul I of Russia signed a decree incorporating Kartli- Kakheti into the on January 8, 1801. This was later confirmed on September 12, 1801 by Tsar I. The Georgian envoy in St. Petersburg presented a note of protest to the vice-chancellor, but it was to no avail. In May 1801, the Georgian throne was replaced by a Russian appointed government led by General Ivan Petrovich Lasarev. At first, much of the Georgian nobility did not accept the new government. However, dissenters were rounded up and forced to take an oath to the Imperial crown of Russia in 1802. Anyone who refused was arrested. In the summer of 1805, Russian troops defended Tbilisi against Persian attack. In 1810 the Russian Empire annexed the after the suppression of King Solomon II’s resistance. From 1803 to1878, due to several Russian wars against Turkey and Persia, many formerly Georgian territories were annexed to the Russian Empire. These lands, which included , , , , and Abkhazia, now represent the majority of the territory of modern day Georgia. Georgia was reunited for the first time in centuries, but under Russian control.

Russian Imperialism After its annexation, Russia attempted to integrate Georgia into the rest of the Empire. Compared with the rest of the Caucasus, Georgia seemed to be a good fit. Both societies had much in common: the main religion was Orthodox Christianity and in both countries a land- owning aristocracy ruled over a population of serfs. Unfortunately, Russian rule proved heavy- handed, arbitrary, and insensitive to local law and customs. This led to a revolt by Georgian

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nobles in 1832 and another in 1841 by both nobles and peasants. The situation improved with the appointment of Mikhail Vorontsov as of the Caucasus in 1845. The viceroy’s new policies won over the nobility of Georgia, who became increasingly Europeanized. Life for Georgian serfs was very different, however, since the rural economy remained seriously depressed. Georgian serfs lived in dire poverty, subject to the frequent threat of starvation. Few of them lived in the towns, where all the trade and industry was. The towns were mostly controlled by Armenians, whose ancestors migrated to Georgia in the middle ages. Serfdom was abolished in Russian lands in 1861, except in Georgia. The tsar gradually phased it out in Georgian provinces from 1864 onward after negotiations with the Georgian nobility. However, freeing the serfs pleased neither the serfs nor the nobles. Freedom did nothing to relieve the poverty and starvation of the serfs, and the nobles lost many of their privileges. Georgian nobles also felt threatened by the growing power of the urban, Armenian middle class in Georgia, who prospered as capitalism came to the region. Georgian dissatisfaction with tsarist autocracy and Armenian economic domination led to the development of a national liberation movement in the second half of the 19th century. Between the years of 1855 and 1907 the Georgian patriotic movement was launched under the leadership of Prince (to the left), world-renowned poet, novelist and orator. Chavchavadze financed new Georgian schools and supported the Georgian national theatre. In 1877 he launched the newspaper, “Iveria”, which played an important part in reviving Georgian national consciousness. His struggle for national awakening helped bring about a Georgian literary revival as it was welcomed by the leading Georgian intellectuals of that time. These intellectuals and writers, unequalled in stature since the Golden Age of Rustaveli seven hundred years prior, included men such as , Ivane Machabeli, Akaki Tsereteli, , Alexander Kazbegi and Iakob Gogebashivili. Due to their excellence as literary figures and their contribution to the national cultural revival, they are known as the founding fathers of modern Georgia. Georgia, as it is today, did not truly exist as a concept until these intellectuals created it. At this point, it is very important to consider the “Georgia” formed by these founders. One must note that it had not existed as an intact entity for hundreds of years as conflicts, invasions, family feuds and territorial shifts had ravaged it. One could argue that the Georgian “awakening” could not have occurred without Russia first unifying the land. In addition, like most nationalistic consciousnesses, it was not entirely historically accurate. The “founders” based much of their nationalist sentiments and consciousness on their conception of Georgia from the Golden Age. As a result, it was not an accurate description of reality. Massive changes had occurred since the time of Queen Tamar, with various people with numerous differing alliances living in the land. The name of Georgia in Georgian itself is an example of this. “Sakartvelo” stands for “place of the kartveli people.” This description only refers to one group who occupy modern Georgia. In addition to the “kartveli” there are Abkhazians, Khevsurs, Tushetians, , , Armenians, and Azeris, to name a few. In their

26 creation of a “Georgian” consciousness, they did what all nationalist movements throughout history have done – pick and chose events that best suit their cause. Though the Georgian movement sprouted due to numerous factors, one of the most prevalent was religious based. A defining feature of “Georgians” was and is their Orthodox Christianity, but more specifically their following of the Georgian Catholicos, or head priest. Many Georgians were upset by the loss of the independence of the . The Russian clergy took control of Georgian churches and monasteries, prohibiting Georgian liturgy and desecrating medieval Georgian frescos on various churches all across Georgia. The end of the 19th century also saw the rise of socialism and Marxist political currents in Georgia. The rising inequality between the peasants and the aristocracy placed a lot of stress on the politics of the land. These tensions reached a head in 1905 when a large- scale peasant revolt occurred. During this time, the Marxist Social Democratic Party became the dominant political movement in Georgia, being elected to all the Georgian seats in the Russian State government, established after 1905. With their election to power, political reforms were developed that eased the tensions for a period. It is also important to note, that a young Josef Vissarionovich Djugashvili, or Stalin (picture to the right), a Georgian Bolshevik, political involvement began during this time as he became a leader of the revolutionary movement in Georgia.

A Brief Spell of Independence The of October 1917 plunged Russia into a bloody civil war during which several outlying Russian territories declared independence. Georgia was one of them, proclaiming the establishment of the independent Democratic Republic of Georgia on May 26, 1918. The new country was ruled by the Menshevik faction of the Social Democratic Party, which established a multi-party system in sharp contrast with the dictatorship of the proletariat established by the in Russia. It was recognized by Soviet Russia and the major Western powers on January 27, 1921. Within less than a year of Georgia’s declared independence, it became involved in a border war with Armenia. During the final stages of WWI, the Armenians and Georgians were defending themselves against the advance of the Ottoman Empire. In June 1918, in to delay an Ottoman advance on Tbilisi, the Georgian troops occupied the Lorri Province which at the time had a 75% Armenian majority. After the Armistice of Mudros and the withdrawal of the Ottomans, the Georgian forces remained. Georgian Menshevik parliamentarian, , offered that the Armenians would be safer from the Turks as Georgian citizens. The Armenians refused. In ,

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the Georgians were confronting a rebellion chiefly in the village of Uzunlar in the Lori region. Within days, hostilities commenced between the two republics as they battled over the provinces of Lorri and Javakheti. The two territories had been historically bicultural Armenian- Georgian territories, but were largely populated by Armenians in the 19th century. However, these border disputes became a moot point. In February 1921, the Red Army invaded Georgia and after a short war occupied the country. The Georgian government was forced to flee and participated in guerilla resistance from 1921 to 1924. This was followed by a large-scale, but unsuccessful, patriotic uprising in August 1924, which brought an end to the leaders of the short lived republic.

Soviet Rule During the Georgian Affair of 1922, Georgia was forcibly incorporated into the SFSR comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. The Soviet Government forced Georgia to cede several areas to Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Russia. Soviet rule was harsh. About 50,000 people were executed between the years of 1921 and 1924. In addition, more than 150,000 were purged under Stalin and his sinister secret police chief, the Georgian Lavrenty Beria (1935-1938, 1942 and 1945-1951). In 1936, the TFSSR was dissolved and Georgia became the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. Reaching the Caucasus oilfields was one of the main objectives of Adolf Hitler’s invasion of the USSR in June 1941, but the armies of the Axis powers did not get as far as Georgia. The country contributed almost 700,000 fighters to the Red Army, and was a vital source of textiles and munitions. However, a number of Georgians fought on the side of the German forces, forming the Georgian Legion. During this period Stalin also ordered the deportation of the Chechen, Ingush, Karachav, and Balkarian people from the Northern Caucasus. They were transported to Siberia and for alleged collaboration with the Nazis. He abolished their respective autonomous republics. The Georgian SSR was briefly granted some of their territory until 1957. Stalin’s successful appeal for patriotic eclipsed during the war and diffused it in the years following. However, the decentralization program introduced by Khrushchev in the mid-1950s was soon exploited by Georgian Communist party officials, to build their own regional power base. A thriving pseudo-capitalist shadow economy emerged

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alongside the official state-owned economy. While the official growth rate of the economy of Georgia was among the lowest in the USSR, such indicators as the savings level as well as the rates of car and house ownership, were the highest in the Union, making Georgia one of the most economically successful Soviet republics. Among all the union republics, Georgia also had the highest number of residents with high or special secondary education. Although corruption was hardly unknown in the , it became so widespread and blatant in Georgia that it became an embarrassment to the authorities in . , the country’s interior minister between 1964 and 1972, gained a reputation as a fighter of corruption. One of his early successes in his anticorruption campaign was the removal of Vasil Mzhavanadze, the corrupt First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party. Shevardnadze ascended to the post of First Secretary with the blessings of Moscow. He was an effective and able ruler of Georgia from 1972 to 1985, improving the official economy and dismissing hundreds of corrupt officials. Though Georgia was a relatively docile satellite under the Soviet reign following World War 2, there were occasional confrontations. In 1978, Soviet power and Georgian nationalism clashed when Moscow ordered the revision of the constitutional status of the as its official state language. Bowing to pressure from mass street demonstrations on April 14, 1978, Moscow approved Shevardnadze’s reinstatement of the constitutional guarantee the same year. April 14 was established as a Day of Georgian Language. Shevardnadze’s appointment as Soviet Foreign Minister in 1985 brought his replacement, , to power. As a conservative and generally ineffective communist, he coped poorly with the challenges of the Soviet Union economic reforms implemented by Gorbachov in the 1980s. Toward the end of the 1980s, increasingly violent clashes occurred between the communist authorities, the resurgent Georgian nationalist movement, and separate nationalist movements in Georgia’s minority-populated regions. On April 9, 1989, Soviet troops were used to break up a peaceful demonstration at the government building in Tbilisi. Twenty Georgians were killed and hundreds wounded and poisoned. This further radicalized Georgian politics, prompting many, including some Georgian communists, to conclude that independence was preferable to continued Soviet rule.

First President and the Government On April 9, 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Georgia declared its independence. On May 26, 1991, was elected as the first president of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisi's authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South that had been classified as autonomous oblasts under the Soviet Union. His leadership was short lived, however as he was widely criticized for his erratic and authoritarian style of government. Both nationalists and reformists joined forces in an anti-Gamsakhurdia coalition. The tense situation was worsened by the large amount of ex-Soviet weaponry available to the quarreling parties and by the growing power of paramilitary groups. After less than a year in power,

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Gamsakhurdia was removed in a bloody coup lasting from December 22, 1991 to January 6, 1992. The coup d’etat was led by an armed opposition group, called “Mkhedrioni” or “Horsemen.” Gamsakhurdia managed to escape and fled to the breakaway Russian republic of Chechnya in January 1992.

Civil War and President Shevardnadze After Gamsakhurdia’s fall from power, the country was ruled by Eduard Shevardnadze, who returned to Georgia in 1992, and the leaders of the coup, Kitovani and Ioseliani. They led through a triumvirate called the "State Council.” Under this leadership the country soon became embroiled in a bitter civil war which lasted until 1995 and plunged Georgia into darkness. In August 1992, the Georgian government accused Gamsakhurdia's supporters of kidnapping Georgia's interior minister and holding him captive in Abkhazia. The Georgian government dispatched 3,000 troops to the region to restore order. The Abkhaz were relatively unarmed at this time and the Georgian troops were able to into with relatively ease. They subsequently engaged in ethnically based pillage, looting, assault, and murder. The Abkhaz units were forced to retreat to and . The Abkhaz military defeat was met with a hostile response by the self-styled Confederation of Mountain , an umbrella group uniting a number of pro-Russian movements in the North Caucasus. This group included , Abazas, , , Ossetians and hundreds of volunteer paramilitaries from Russia. They sided with the Abkhaz separatists to fight the Georgian government. In September, the Abkhaz and Russian paramilitaries mounted a major offensive which drove the Georgian forces out of large swathes of the republic. Shevardnadze's government accused Russia of giving covert military support to the rebels with the aim of "detaching from Georgia its native territory and the Georgia-Russian frontier land". By the end of 1992, the rebels were in control of much of Abkhazia northwest of Sukhumi. The conflict stalemated until July 1993, when Abkhaz separatist militias launched an attack on Georgian-held Sukhumi. They surrounded and heavily shelled the capital, where Shevardnadze was trapped. The warring sides agreed to a Russian brokered truce but it collapsed in mid- September 1993 after a renewed Abkhaz attack.

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After ten days of heavy fighting, Sukhumi was taken over by the Abkhazian forces on September 27, 1993. Abkhaz, North Caucasian militants and their allies committed numerous atrocities against the city's remaining ethnic Georgians, in what has been dubbed the Sukhumi Massacre. The mass killings and destruction continued for two weeks, leaving thousands dead and missing. With the fall of Sukhumi and Georgia’s problems dealing with an uprising led by supporters of the deposed Zviad Gamsakhurdia in the region of Samegrelo, the Abkhaz forces quickly overran the rest of Abkhazia. Only a small region of Eastern Abkhazia, the upper gorge, remained under Georgian control. Many thousands died. It is estimated that on each side there were about 4,000 casualties (both military and civilian). During the war, gross human rights violations were reported on the both sides. In the chaotic aftermath of defeat almost all ethnic Georgians fled the region, escaping an ethnic cleansing initiated by the victors. Roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasians volunteers in 1992-1993. These people formed the large internally displaced people (IDP) population of Georgia. Problems were compounded by ethnic violence that had also flared in . Though the uprising was eventually quelled, it came at the cost of several hundred casualties and 100,000 refugees fleeing from Russian-controlled North Ossetia. In addition, Georgia had to deal with the threat of Adjarian secession. The autonomous republic of Adjara came under the control of Aslan , who managed to rule his republic from 1991 to 2004 as a personal fiefdom in which the Tbilisi government had little influence. In 1995, when Shevardnadze was officially elected as , the country was in dire straits. It had lost control of Abkhazia, had little power over Adjara, and was dealing with a hostile South Ossetia. Tensions with Russia, the civil wars and the large burden of IDPs, placed tremendous strain on the Georgian economy. It stagnated and the infrastructure of the country plummeted. Outside of Tbilisi, most homes did not have electricity. Shevardnadze’s government was also accused of rampant corruption. The police were infamous for their thuggish treatment of citizens and freedom of speech was practically non-existent. This corrupt police state created conditions ripe for revolution.

Rose Revolution In 2003, Shevardnadze, who won reelection in 2000, was deposed by the . A powerful coalition of reformists headed by Mikhail Saakashvili, and united to oppose Shevardnadze's government in the November 2, 2003 parliamentary elections. The elections were widely regarded as being blatantly rigged and in response, the opposition organized massive demonstrations in the streets of Tbilisi. After two weeks, Shevardnadze resigned on November 23, 2003 and was replaced as president on an interim basis by Nino Burjanadze. On January 4, 2004 Mikhail Saakashvili won the Presidential Elections with a huge majority of 96% of the votes cast. Zurab Zhvania was appointed Prime Minister and Nino Burjanadze the interim President became Speaker of Parliament.

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Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms was launched to strengthen the country's military and economic capabilities. Saakashvili and his government were/are Western oriented and their goals were to join both NATO and the European Union. This desire led to wide sweeping reforms of political and economic liberalization to encourage growth. The results of these reforms have had mixed, but overall positive results. The liberalization of the market and reforms also attracted the attention and aid of many western donors, including the United States. Saakashvili further cemented his alliance with the United States by supporting the coalition in Iraq and sending combat troops there. It is also important to note that one of Saakashvili’s most successful moves was the dismissal of the entire old police force. It was replaced with new highly trained officers and corruption in the police effectively rooted out. In addition to the reforms, one of Saakashvili’s first acts as President was to assert greater control over Adjara. This effort to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of Adjara led to a major crisis early in 2004. Relations between the Georgian government and semi-separatist Adjarian leader Aslan Abashidze rapidly deteriorated after the revolution, when Abashidze rejecting Saakashvili's demands that the Tbilisi government run Adjara. Both sides mobilized forces in apparent preparations for a military confrontation. However, Saakashvili's ultimatums and massive street demonstrations forced Abashidze to resign and flee Georgia. Success in Adjara encouraged Saakashvili to later intensify his efforts, with disastrous results, in the breakaway region of South Ossetia. Georgia's relationship with Russia soured substantially under Saakashvili. Due to Saakashvili’s pro western stance and public assertions over control of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, he was at odds with Putin’s Russian government. The situation continued to deteriorate with accusations of espionage in 2006 and trade between the two countries halted. This hostile relationship led to political crisis in Georgia, with serious anti-government protests in 2007. The tension between the two nations was high going into 2008.

War with Russia in 2008 The 1991–1992 South Ossetia War between Georgians and Ossetians had left slightly more than a half of the inhabited part of South Ossetia under de-facto control of a Russian- backed internationally unrecognized government. The other half of inhabited parts of South Ossetia was under Georgian control. Since the war, peace was for the most part maintained, but problems simmered just under the surface. The increasing tensions escalated during the summer months of 2008, when Saakashvili’s government made bold claims on the land. On August 5, 2008, Russia vowed to defend South Ossetia. On the night of August 7, Georgia launched a large-scale military attack against South Ossetia. The following day Russia reacted by deploying combat troops in South

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Ossetia and launching bombing raids deep into Georgia. Russian and Ossetian soldiers clashed with Georgian soldiers in the four-day Battle of , the main battle of the war. On August 9, Russian naval forces blockaded a part of the Georgian coast and landed marines on the Abkhaz coast. Russian and Abkhaz forces opened a second front by attacking the Kodori Gorge, held by Georgia and entered western parts of Georgia's interior. After five days of heavy fighting, the Georgian forces were routed, enabling the to enter uncontested Georgia and occupy the cities of Poti, Gori, , and . After mediation by the French presidency of the European Union, the parties reached a preliminary ceasefire agreement on the 12 of August, signed by Georgia on 15th in Tbilisi and by Russia on the 16th in Moscow. On August 12, President Medvedev had already ordered a halt to Russian military operations, but fighting did not stop immediately. After signing the ceasefire agreement, Russia pulled most of its troops out of uncontested Georgia, but established buffer zones around Abkhazia and South Ossetia and also created check-points in Georgia's interior. On August 26, 2008, Russia recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Russia completed its withdrawal from uncontested Georgia on October 8, but as of 2009, Russian forces remain stationed in Abkhazia and South Ossetia under bilateral agreements with the corresponding governments. However, according to a number of European and US sources, Russia has not complied with the peace agreement because Georgia lost control over some of what Georgia's government considers its territories.

Additional analysis of the crisis and its effects are provided below by Ruta Casabianca’s (PCV G10) synopsis of the book, A Little War That Shook the World: Georgia, Russian and the Future of the West, by Ronald D. Asmus. This study of the 5-day war in August, 2008 begins with a dramatic account of Saakashvili sitting in his chancellery in Tbilisi receiving updates from his key advisers and military personnel of a Russian build up in South Ossetia. The United States and European leaders had advised him that under no circumstances should he enter into a war with Russia. But Russia was building up forces along the border, moving troops through the , and Ossetians were shelling Georgian villages in South Ossetia. At 23:35, August 7 Saakashvili ordered his armed forces to attack a column of Russian forces moving toward the city of Tshkinvali, the capital of South Ossetia, to suppress the shelling of Georgian villagers, and to “minimize civilian casualties.” Asmus thesis is that Georgia was simply being used as a pawn in the bigger struggle between Putin's fears of losing ground to the West in countries which he still considered should be within his sphere of influence. The war was not over territory, minority rights, or separatist provinces. The root cause was geopolitical with Georgia determined to go west and Russia determined to stop it. Free elections in both Ukraine and Georgia were a dangerous precedent for Russia. When Saakashvili was in Italy vacationing at a “fat farm,” his alarm was sparked while watching Russian TV coverage of events in South Ossetia. “He was taken aback by the

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belligerence of the Russian and became suspicious. He rushed back to Tbilisi in early August to take charge.” Saakashvili believed, and had reason to, that Russia's army would not stop in South Ossetia, but would continue south to Tbilisi. Putin had been increasing his threats about what he would do to Georgia and Saakashvili personally if he did not change course (away from the West). According to Asmus, it was increasingly clear that Putin's aim in Georgia was regime change. Saakashvili also believed that he could not survive as president if he failed to protect Georgian citizens or if he lost the provinces once and for all. The problem with western policy, according to Asmus, was “the underestimation of Russian determination to punish Georgia, the failure to recognize how Kosovo [granted independence in 2008 despite Russia opposition] and the NATO Bucharest summit [where NATO members pledged to Ukraine and Georgia that they would eventually become members] had provided the opportunity to do so, and the failure to intervene diplomatically in Moscow to halt the escalation or to engage sufficiently on the ground in ways that could have stabilized the situation. Warnings to Georgia not to do anything stupid were not matched with a sufficiently effective diplomatic strategy to defuse the trap Moscow was setting.” The Georgians were quickly defeated and the war left South Ossetia under Russia's sphere of influence (recognized as independent by Russia, Nicaragua and Venezuela). Ethnic cleansing during this war forced thousands of Georgians to flee from their homes in South Ossetia where they had lived for generations. They now live in quickly-constructed housing in Georgia as internally displaced people (IDPs). According to Strobe Talbott in his Preface to A Little War That Shook the World, all the players turned out losers:  Georgia's de facto dismemberment has become de jure. Russia has recognized both Abkhazia and South Ossetia and claims that it is willing to defend them.  Georgia's prospects of joining the European Union and NATO were set back because Georgia is no longer considered stable or unified. Saakashvili was seen as “sucker-punched” by Prime Minister Putin into entering a war he could not win and was warned not to start.  US lost an opportunity for “pre-emptive ” to 1) prevent Russia's aggressive behavior 2) stop the war once it started. Instead the “US abandoned the diplomatic field to French President Sarkozy which resulted in an “unjust peace riddled with ambiguities that Moscow has exploited ever since.”  Europe missed an opportunity to support Georgia which had pleaded in vain with the EU to put monitors on the ground to stabilize the situation before it exploded.  Russia, the self-proclaimed winner, received worldwide condemnation. Westerners became concerned that Russia was returning to its “past bad behavior”. The practical result was a loss of investor confidence and a selloff in the Russian stock market.  Also, Putin may have thought he was punishing his “bete-noire” and sending a message to other former soviet republics of what may happen to them if they followed Saakashvili's example. According to Talbott, this may have backfired and those countries now view what happened in Georgia as a reason to want protection from Western political, economic, and security institutions.

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Asmus describes the events of August, 2008 by putting them into context of Georgia's history. According to Asmus, “The August war is inconceivable without the prehistory of Russian pressure, violations of Georgian sovereignty, provocations and threats, all of which had left the Georgian leadership very much on edge.”

Georgian Dream coalition In the aftermath of the August 2008 war, public confidence in Saakashvili's leadership was shaken. His administration’s goal of peacefully reincorporating Georgia's separatist regions seems increasingly out of reach. On April 9, 2009, a coalition of radical opposition parties began ongoing public demonstrations calling for Saakashvili's resignation and snap elections. Although the initial crowd was estimated at upwards of 80,000 protesters, the number of participants declined significantly after the first two weeks. The ongoing disruption of everyday life in the capital, the behavior of the hard core protestors, the lack of a program beyond the president's resignation, and fractures in the solidarity of the coalition resulted in a loss of their credibility. In the regions, the demonstrations generated only meager interest and support and were seen primarily as a Tbilisi affair. The oppositions’ failure to achieve their goals caused further fragmentation of the fragile coalition. During the Tbilisi mayoral election and in local elections in May 2010, voters expressed their disenchantment with the opposition by handing the ruling United National Movement the majority of seats in each of the country’s municipal councils, including in Tbilisi, and 55 percent of the vote to the incumbent mayor of Tbilisi, Gigi Ugulava of the UNM. The elections were evaluated by international monitors as making evident progress toward meeting OSCE and Council of Europe standards for democratic elections, but noted that significant shortcomings remained. Concerns about limitations on political pluralism and other components of democracy continued, and various opposition parties at times took to the streets in protest, demanding the president’s resignation and early elections. Street protests organized by the opposition were generally met with restraint by the authorities and dissipated, but in May 2011, police used tear gas and rubber bullets to disperse hundreds of demonstrators—some of whom were carrying poles and staffs—who refused to vacate the front of the Parliament building after their permit expired, resulting in dozens of injuries and two deaths. The U.S. and others called for an investigation into the use of force, and government investigations resulted in the firing of four police officers and numerous reprimands. There remain concerns about the transparency of these investigations. The unanticipated arrival of the multi-billionaire businessman and philanthropist, , on the political scene in October 2011, with his announcement that he planned to establish a political party posed the first serious challenge to Saakashvili and the UNM in the 2012 Parliamentary elections. On 27 May 2012, Ivanishvili and his alliance, a coalition of disparate opposition parties, announced the start of the campaign, drawing tens of thousands of supporters in a large anti-government rally in downtown Tbilisi.

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During the campaign, Ivanishvili tapped into long-simmering grievances over poverty, high unemployment and the autocratic style of Saakashvili’s government. Throughout a particularly bitter and vociferous campaign season, Georgian Dream complained that their activists and supporters were harassed and unfairly persecuted and that they were facing an unfair media environment and restrictive rules on campaign financing to reach out to voters. Pre- election polling in August placed the UNM comfortably ahead of Georgian Dream in most of the country. Following the release on September 18 of shocking video footage recording abuses in Tbilisi's overcrowded prisons, demonstrators called for Saakashvili's resignation. The government was unable to recover from the scandal and Georgian Dream won the vote by 55.1% to 40.1% for the UNM. One of the most closely watched elections in the post-Soviet world, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, a 56-nation democracy watchdog that deployed 400 observers to monitor the vote, determined that the elections were fair and free. The OSCE noted the elections “marked an important step in consolidating the conduct of democratic elections.” The unexpected victory of the Georgian Dream Coalition posed a new challenge to Georgia’s budding democracy, but on the day after the election, President Saakashvili conceded that his United National Movement had been defeated and announced that he was prepared to transfer power to a new government formed by the successful Georgian Dream coalition.

Current political and economic situation

After serving briefly as prime minister, Bidzina Ivanishvili voluntarily resigned in November 2013 and named as his successor. The Georgian Dream coalition’s political dominance was reinforced with a victory in the 2012 presidential elections. The election results of the October 27 presidential elections gave an outright victory to Georgian Dream’s ( GD) candidate with over 62 percent of the votes. The inauguration of Margvelashvili marked the entry into force of a new constitution, significantly cutting the president’s powers while increasing those of the Prime Minister. In November Irakli Garibashvili took constitutionally the most powerful office after the GD-dominated Parliament. National movement was only opposition party presented in the parliament. Conflict within the ruling party started by Alasania’s resignation ( November 4), the departure of the foreign minister and minister for integration with the EU and NATO and the exit from the coalition of the strongly pro-Western , led president Margvelashvili to criticize the government and Bidzina Ivanishvili. In his speech, the President expressed the view that these departures sparked a controversy over the pro-Western foreign policy and was a symptom of a crisis in the country’s democratic institutions. He also came out in defense of the ministers stating that their dismissals had been politically motivated. He furthermore criticized the decision-making system in the country, which according to him should be formalized and should take place within the institutional framework ( this last was a criticism targeting Ivanishvili’s habit to backstage government).Although Russian-Georgian relations improved after Georgian Dream took power in 2012( as seen in Moscow’s conciliatory gestures to Georgia, such as opening the

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Russian market to Georgian goods, the resumption of direct flights, Tbilisi’s greater openness to contacts with Russia and its consideration of some Russia’s interests), this did not change Russia’s overall priority , which remains the derailment of Tbilisi’s pro-Western course. Moreover the Russian side has recently taken a number of steps to strengthen its position in Georgia and create potential sources of instability in the country. The Russian activities include: putting pressure on Abkhazia to integrate more closely with Russia ( preceded by a Moscow-inspired coup in the republic this May); the activation of Ossetian separatists ( including the declaration of territorial claims against Georgia): By signing the Association Agreement (AA) in June 2014, relations between the EU and Georgia were brought to a qualitatively totally new stage. The Association Agreement with its Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) foresees far reaching political and economic integration with the EU by significantly deepening political and economic ties, bringing Georgia closer to Europe. The EU and Georgia have also agreed an EU-Georgia Association Agenda, which defines a set of priorities for the period 2014-2016 with a view to implement the AA/DCFTA. The Agenda will help Georgia to fully enjoy the benefits of the AA, which provisional application (notably its trade part) started as of 1 September 2014. The provisional application is enabling the implementation of the most of the agreement, even before the ratification procedures are completed in the National Parliaments of the 28 EU Member States. Georgia has been committed to Euro-Atlantic integration. It hopes to join NATO and in June 2014 signed Association Agreements with the EU. Foreign direct investment in Georgia has decreased. A combination of several strong shock factors has influenced Georgia’s economy, including the Russia-Ukraine crisis, deep recession in Russia and devaluation of their trade partner countries’ currencies. Georgia’s export has dropped by 30% due to these factors compared with the previous year and monetary transfers carried out by those working abroad have reduced by 25%. All this caused a slowdown in Georgia’s economic activity that has affected everyday life of Georgians.

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Tbilisi

“Mother of Cities” or “Warm City” The word capital translates into Georgian დედაქალაქი, meaning “mother city” Archaeological evidence suggests that the first settlements on Tbilisi’s territory appeared in the Chalcolithic/Eneolithic (Copper) Age, in the III–IV millennium. In the second half of the fifth century, by the order of the king of Kartli, Vakhtang Gorgasali, the construction of Tbilisi began with the purpose of making it the seat of the throne. The work commenced by Vakhtang Gorgasali was finished by his heir, Dachi. A legend has been preserved about the founding of Tbilisi, according to which King Vakhtang Gorgasali was hunting in the forests around present- day Tbilisi. The king and the members of his company made their pheasant fly, and a falcon chased the pheasant until soon both birds disappeared from sight. After a long search the king and his company saw that both birds had fallen into a hot sulphur spring. There were many such medicinal springs in that territory. King Vakhtang liked this area and decided to build a city there, which he named Tbilisi. The name Tbilisi derives from the word თბილი, meaning “warm,” and was therefore given to the city because of the area's numerous sulfuric hot springs. The construction of Tbilisi was carried out on both banks of the Mtkvari River. The first parts of the town were Tbilisi Kala and Soghdebili. By the 6th century, Tbilisi was already an important political, cultural, and trade center.

Location Tbilisi is located in the South Caucasus at 41° 43' North Latitude and 44° 47' East Longitude. The city lies in eastern Georgia on the banks of the Mtkvari River. To the north of the city, there is a large reservoir (commonly known as the Tbilisi Sea) fed by irrigation canals. The elevation of the city ranges from 380–770 meters above sea level (1246–1968 ft) and has the shape of an amphitheatre surrounded by mountains on three sides. To the north, Tbilisi is bounded by the Saguramo Range, to the east and south-east by the lori Plain, to the south and west by various endings (sub-ranges) of the Range. The geography of the city is such that some areas are highly developed while others are left undeveloped, in particular the part of the city on the right bank of the Mtkvari, as the mountains form a natural barrier to urban development. On the other hand, the part of the city which lies on the left bank of the Mtkvari River extends for more than 30 km (19 mi) from the Avchala District to River Lochini.

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History In 627, because of assailments by the Byzantians and the Khazars, the country was plundered and ruined for the first time. By the end of the 7th century, Tbilisi was seized by the Arabs, and in the 730s, Tbilisi was proclaimed the Tbilisi-Amire center. The rule of the Arabs lasted till the12th century. In 1122, the king of the united kingdoms of Georgia, Davit IV “the Builder,” took Tbilisi and returned the city to Georgia after 400 years of Arab dominion. Tbilisi was not only the center of Georgia in the 12th century, but also the political and cultural center of the whole Caucasus region, as one of the richest and most powerful cities in the . In the 1220s, however, the capital was invaded by the Shah of Khvarazm and Jalaledin, and from 1240, the Mongols reigned in Georgia and its capital for nearly a century. In the 1330s, during the reign of Giorgi Brtskhinvale, Georgia once again regained its independence. Furthermore, Pope Ioanne XXII brought the residence of the Catholic of the East from Smirni to Tbilisi. The peaceful development of the country soon came to an abrupt end, as Temur Leng took over the city in 1386. Numerous raids by Temur Leng had greatly devastated Georgia and its capital. Raids on Tbilisi became quite common in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, perpetrated by and the Ottoman Empire; the reign of Ottoman-Turks in the west cut Georgia off from the world of European culture. Traditional land routes from Europe to India declined in this period, as a result of new geographical explorations and thus, Georgia lost its role as the link between Europe and Asia. At the end of the 18th century, the last and the most devastating raid on Tbilisi took place. In 1783, a treaty was made in Georgievsk between Georgia and Russia in the Protectorate of Russia in east Georgia. The Shah of Iran, Agha Mahmad Shah, enraged by this fact, raided the country. The Iranians destroyed the capital, completely devastating and burning it. Despite the destruction, Tbilisi continued to expand as the feudal epoch drew to a close. In 1801, by order of the of Russia, Kartli and Kakheti became a part of the Russian Empire. Tbilisi lost its status as the capital and became the principal town of a province. In the 19th century Tbilisi gradually became the principal city of the Caucasus region, as the king’s representative to the Caucasus region’s residence was located there. In this period, Tbilisi was a typical bourgeois town. Trade and industry were booming, and the territory of the city was expanding as well. Sololaki, Kukia, Chughureti, Kharpukhi, and also became a part of the city. possessed its own natural and architectural landmarks including Narikhala fortress, Church, and the Mtkvari River, along with the dominant artery of the city, Golovin Avenue. In this period, the theatrical life of Tbilisi was revived, while new educational and medical institutions were opened and the first railway service began. In 1887, the first Avchala water supply got under way, and in 1893, the Tbilisi

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municipal telephone station became operational. Around the same time, the first motor-cars appeared in the city. Tbilisi was a picturesque city with both European and Asian features that served as a source of inspiration for many poets and writers. A 19th century visitor, French traveler Emile Levier wrote:

“Tbilisi is wonderful to look at from above in the evening, and it seems as if you are looking down on the town from the Eiffel Tower. Here people of various religious beliefs and nationalities have enjoyed equal rights and respect from time immemorial. Tbilisi was a city of bohemianism…a city of poets and musicians … sulphur baths… the Kintos and the Kharachoghelebi…. Women dressed in a European manner and the dressed in - Akhalikhi walking down Golovin Avenue…”

In the early 20th century, Georgia briefly regained its independence. On May 26, 1918 the National Council in Tbilisi declared the independence of Georgia, but in 1921, Georgia and its capital again became a part of the Russian state. During the Soviet occupation, Tbilisi became the ideological center of a national movement for independence. However, the fight of the Georgian people for independence and the Revolution of 1924, headed by Kakutsa Cholokhashvili and “the Strikers’ Force,” in particular, were unsuccessful. The 1920s and 1930s contained the most severe repressions in the history of Georgia, in which a large contingent of Georgian intellectuals were either shot or arrested. The Soviet epoch played a big role in the development of the city, which left positive and negative marks on the capital. In the 20th century, the territory of Tbilisi increased by nearly nine times. In 1934, a general plan for the city’s development was created and adopted. By 1985, the capital consisted of 10 administrative districts: Lenin (Nadzaladevi), Pirveli Maisi (), Kalinin (Mtatsminda), Orjonikidze (Vake), Kirov (Krtsanisi), Sakarkhno (), the Gldani, and Saburtalo. By the end of the 1980s, along with the collapse of the Soviet ideology, the Georgian national movement for independence became stronger. Tbilisi became the center of meetings and demonstrations. On the 9th of April, 1989, in front of Parliament, the Soviet army brutally broke up a peaceful demonstration. The bloody tragedy of the 9th of April served as the catalyst for the mobilization of the Georgian people, and on the 9th of April 1991 the Supreme Council declared Georgian Independence. The end of the century, however, was one of the most tragic periods in the history of Georgia, and of Tbilisi in particular, as the country fell into civil war and the territory of Abkhazia declared its independence from Georgia. Tbilisi entered the 21st century with expectations of change and with a new image, which is even now actively evolving, although at the same time it remaining true to its past. The past and present are closely linked with each other in Tbilisi. Many modern buildings are being constructed in the 1500 year old city, rendering it more distinguished and interesting. Tbilisi. Foreign investment has resulted in the

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construction of hotels, shopping malls and residential buildings, which will hopefully open up more employment opportunities and it is likely the whole city will be redeveloped soon.

See major attractions of Tbilisi at: http://www.tbilisi.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=3863

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Language and Dialects

Georgia is a country with many languages. Though the official and predominant language is Georgian, its tumultuous history and various ethnic groups have led to a land of multiple tongues. These include the three languages based on Georgian script - Georgian, Svan and Mingrelian. Azeri and Armenian are spoken in minority communities, while Abkhaz and Ossetic are spoken in the two corresponding breakaway regions. Finally as a result of the Soviet Rule, Russian is spoken by the majority of older Georgians. All of these languages will be addressed in greater detail below.

Languages

Georgian The Georgian language is one of the oldest in the world and uses one of only 14 currently existing . According to historical sources, the was created in the 3rd century B.C. during the reign of King Parnavaz. Over the course of decades it evolved and changed into its modern form. The modern Georgian alphabet developed from three ancient scripts: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli. The oldest writings were written in Asomtavruli, which have been preserved on a church constructed by Petre Iberi in 430 in the Judah desert (near Bethlehem), and inscriptions on the Sioni temple built in 495. In addition, there are other inscriptions, palimpsests and belle- letters, one of which is the "Martyrdom of " by Jakob Tsurtaveli in the 5th century. Typically, ecclesiastical works were written in Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. From the 10th to 12th centuries, during Georgia’s Golden Age, Mkhedruli was developed and used primarily in secular works. All three types of writings were used simultaneously. While ecclesiastical books were written in old letters, the Kings' orders, secular documents and books were written in Mkhedruli.

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The original Georgian alphabet was exact, simple and economical. It had as many letters as the sounds in the speech. The letters/symbols of the three types are original and have no parallel among any other alphabets in the world. However, the modern Georgian printed script has developed over time. In 1629, the first example of printed Georgian was used in in a Georgian-Italian dictionary and prayer book. This was followed in 1643, by the printing of a book using Nuskhuri, Asomtavruli and Mkhedruli. Finally, in 1712, the first printed books were produced in Georgia. ’s The Knight in the Panther's Skin and The Bible were both printed in Vakhtang VI’s printing house. These days various kinds of scripts are used in Georgia.

Svan The indigenous population of Svaneti, known as Svans or Mushuans, is considered to be a sub-ethnicity of Georgian. The is a Kartvelian language related to Georgian and is still used daily by a minority of elderly Svans (approximately 30,000).

Mingrelian Mingrelians are considered to be a sub-ethnicity of Georgian. Mingrelian, also known as Iverian, is a Kartvelian language related to Georgian, although the languages are not mutually intelligible. It has no formal written form, but it is usually written in the Georgian script. There are presently between 500,000 and 800,000 Mingrelian speakers, the majority of whom live in Samegrelo. However, most Mingrelians are also fluent in Georgian.

Azeri Azerbaijani, or Azeri, is a member of the Oghuz branch of the and is heavily influenced by Persian. The majority of its speakers reside in Azerbaijan and northern Iran, but it is also spoken in Georgia by the ethnic Azerbaijani people primarily found in Kvemo Kartli. Azeri communities and peoples in this region speak the northern dialect of Azerbaijani; the most obvious marker of this dialect is the prevalence of Russian cognates as well as minor phonetic changes, such as a ‘k’ being pronounced as a ‘ch.’ Azeris began settling in Georgia around 1480, when the Persian began their advances into the country. In 1604, the Turkic tribe, ‘Borchalu,’ moved into the region and the Borchali Khanate was created. Though the khanate existed for a little over a century, the people remained and grew. By the end of the 19th century, there were around 100,000 Azeris in the Tiflis Gubernia of the Russian Empire. During the Soviet period, many Azeris were forcefully resettled, either within Georgia or forced to leave. Again, after independence and during the Gamsakhurdia regime, Azeri families were forced emigrate. According to the 2002 census,

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there are 284,761 Azeris currently living on the territory of Georgia, a number that constitutes about 6.5% of the total population. Historically, however, the number of Azeris in Georgia has declined from 307,500 in 1989 to its present number, mostly due to emigration to Azerbaijan, Russia and Turkey. The present situation is relatively calm; however, there still exist some tensions due to land disputes and the fact that minority communities feel underrepresented in the Georgian government. The topics of assimilation and integration are also extremely sensitive. Many members of the Azeri community do not speak Georgian, which of course hinders their progress within the society. Many Georgians do not interact with the Azeris and there are frequent cases of everyday racism, mainly manifested in racial slurs. It is important to mention that many Georgians use the word tatar when talking about Azeris, which is a derogatory term. Though Azeri is the predominant language in Kvemo Kartli, with some schools taught entirely in it, it is not uncommon to meet host country nationals who are competent in three, sometimes four, languages. Azerbaijani and Georgian are two very different languages and it can be difficult to translate from one to the other. Although Kvemo Kartli’s youth reflects a changing trend toward multilingualism, few adults know both Azeri and Georgian. Russian is therefore the generally accepted cross-cultural language. In city centers such as , one will hear Russian almost as often as Azerbaijani and Georgian. While these three languages are the most common, they are not the only ones spoken in Kvemo-Kartli, which has been home to diaspora communities from Greece, Germany, Svaneti, and Russia. Thus, it is possible to come across Greek or German speakers in towns such as Marneuli or Bolnisi. German is frequently taught in the schools of this region alongside English. Serving in this region is perhaps among the most linguistically diverse Peace Corps assignments in the world, and although a great challenge, volunteers have the potential to become true polyglots by their end of their service.

Armenian A large Armenian population lives in the southwestern region of Javakheti. Armenian is widely spoken in this region while Georgian is a rarity. Armenian, unlike Georgian, is an Indo- European language, with a mercifully regular system of and a relatively straightforward grammar. Things are complicated by the fact that the standard literary Eastern Armenian (the written language of modern Armenia) is not spoken here. Rather, people speak in dialects, which differ significantly from literary Armenian and are even different from village to village in Javakheti. Words of Russian, Turkish, and Persian origin are frequently encountered in local dialects, and grammatical structures differ from those of literary Eastern Armenian.

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For example, where literary Eastern Armenian would phrase ‘I love you’ as Yes sirum em kez, an Armenian might phrase it Yes kezi sirem-ga. Many household words take the Russian or Turkish equivalent, for example, kholodilnik (Russian) for ‘refrigerator,’ or gazar (Turkish) for ‘carrot.’

Abkhaz and Ossetic Abkhaz and Ossetic are the two languages spoken in the breakaway regions. Abkhaz, spoken in Abkhazia by about 100,000 people, is a Northwest Caucasus language whose script is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. It has been a for only a hundred years. Ossetic is an East Iranian language spoken by around 525,000 people living in North and South Ossetia. Its alphabet is also Cyrillic based.

Russian Russian is the second most spoken language in Georgia. Due to Soviet Russia’s recent history, the majority of older Georgians have a working knowledge of the language. In addition, Russia is still widely used in minority regions as it is the between various ethnic groups. The Russian accent typically heard is the Georgian, or Southern Russian accent, which can be difficult to understand for those who are accustomed to hearing Russian from natives of the country. Though Russia is still spoken by many in Georgia, a big push is being made to weed it out. English has replaced it as the primary foreign language in schools, and as a result, few young people speak the language. In minority communities, the Ministry of Education is promoting both the Georgian and , but neither is widely spoken at this point.

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Dialects

Similarly to the United States, different dialects and accents exist in the regions where Georgian is the predominant language. These differences are not very great and relate mainly to pronunciation and vocabulary. The main distinction exists between the eastern and western regions. Some of the most common differences between the two regions are listed in detail below.

Eastern Region The eastern regional dialect is spoken primarily by the Georgian speakers of Kakheti. believe that their Georgian dialect is superior due to the region’s belief that it is the most authentic form of Georgian culture (this can of course be a contentious issue). In addition, due to the region’s proximity to Tbilisi, it is one of the most common dialects spoken in the capital. Some common slang is found in the forms of address. When addressing male friends, ბიჭო (boy) is cut down to ჯო. For females, გოგო is replaced by გო. In addition, პაპა rather than ბაბუა (grandfather) is more commonly used. Finally, Kakhetians typically use the suffix შვილი () at the end of their . A typical example of this is ვარდიშვილი, which means ‘Son of a Rose.’

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Western Dialect The western dialect is spoken by Georgian speakers in Samstkhe-Javakheti, Imereti, Guria and Adjara, with slight variations between them. All regions have a tendency to elide sounds and syllables in words. The following are some of the most common examples: კაი for კარგი (good), ძან for ძალიან (very), მოი for მოდი (come), and ჩაი for ჩადი (go down/get off). A G10 volunteer was once confused by the last example, as ჩაი also means ‘tea,’ believing that a kind bus driver who was directing him to get off without paying was instead demanding tea. A phrase you will undoubtedly hear, ‘She is a good girl/boy’ or კარგი გოგოა/ბიჭია, becomes კაი გოგოა/ბიჭია. In addition to occasionally omitting syllables, some vowels are changed to ‘eh’ in words. Typical examples include: მევიდა for მოვიდა (he/she came), წევიდა for წავიდა (he/she went), and მეიცა for მოიცა (wait). Some other unique phrases from the west are რა ფერი (what color?) and იგი/აგი (this/that). The former is often used roughly in place of როგორ (how?) – as in რა ფერი ხარ (How are you?), and რა ფერი ამინდია? (How’s the weather?) Family surnames and forms of address are also different in the West. In place of the შვილი of the east, ძე is the preferred suffix. Finally, it is common for close relatives of children to address them by their own – fathers will call their children მამა, mothers will call them დედა, and grandmothers will call them ბებო etc.

Volunteers’ Stories

“When I first arrived at site I had no idea what რა ფერ was and my neighbor came over and asked რა ფერ ხარ? I was really annoyed because I thought he was asking me what color I was. I had no idea what he meant by this, so I said, no color, არაფერი”

“I was at a supra with a TLG volunteer who knew very little Georgian. I was translator for the night and spent hours translating the very active ’s long toasts and anecdotes. The tamada’s two unmarried were at the table and throughout the night the tamada kept referring to their failure to find wives, yelling, „აგი! აგი! აგი!“ (Agi) referring to each son. During the for love, the tamada asked the TLG to reiterate and expand on the theme. The tamada had begun this toast by saying that he hopes his son finds love or else he will tie him with the cows. So the TLG said, “To love and to finding true love. I hope that “Agi” finds a wife so he won’t be tied with the cows”. The TLG had understandably assumed that Agi/აგი (so often repeated throughout the night) was the son’s name.”

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Religion and Holidays

Religion

The wide variety of peoples inhabiting Georgia has meant a correspondingly rich array of active religions. The dominant religion is the Georgian Orthodox Church, which comprises 83.9% of the population. However, despite the huge influence of Orthodox Christianity in Georgia, different religious minorities have lived in Georgia for thousands of years in relative harmony. These groups include, but are not limited to, (9.9%), Armenian-Gregorian (3.9%), Catholic (0.8%), some Protestant denominations as well as a small Jewish community in Tbilisi.

Georgian Orthodoxy Christianity, first preached by the Apostles Simon and in the 1st century, became the state religion of Kartli (Iberia) in 327 A.D, making Georgia the second oldest Christian country, after Armenia. The final conversion of Kartli to Christianity is credited to St. Nino of Cappadocia, who was able to convert King Mirian III through the performance of two miracles. The Georgian Orthodox Church, originally part of the Church of , gained its autocephaly in the 5th century during the reign of Vakhtang Gorgasali. It was at this time that the Bible was first translated into Georgian. As was true elsewhere, the Christian church in Georgia was crucial to the development of a written language, and most of the earliest written works were religious texts. As a result, the religion helped to create a strong sense of national identity and to preserve it, despite repeated periods of foreign occupation and attempted assimilation. After Georgia was annexed by the Russian Empire, the took over the Georgian Church in 1811. The colorful frescoes and wall paintings typical of Georgian cathedrals were whitewashed by the Russian occupiers. Though the Georgian Church regained its autonomy when Imperial Russian rule ended in 1918, neither the Georgian Menshevik government nor the Bolshevik regime that followed supported it. Under Soviet rule, the number of active churches and priests declined sharply and religious education was nearly nonexistent. As elsewhere in the Soviet Union, many churches were destroyed or converted into secular buildings. It also brought severe purges of the Georgian Church’s hierarchy and constantly repressed Orthodox worship. This history of repression encouraged the incorporation of religious identity into the strong nationalist movement in twentieth-century Georgia and the quest of Georgians for religious expression outside the official, government-controlled church. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, opposition leaders, especially Zviad Gamsakhurdia, criticized corruption in the

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church hierarchy. When Ilia II became the (catholicos) of the Georgian Orthodox Church in the late 1970s, he brought order and a new morality to church affairs and Georgian Orthodoxy experienced a revival. In 1988 Moscow permitted the patriarch to begin consecrating and reopening closed churches, and a large scale restoration process began. Membership in the Georgian Orthodox Church has increased markedly since independence in 1991.

Islam There are two major Muslim groups in Georgia which comprise a significant proportion of the population (9.9%). The ethnic Georgian Muslims follow the Sunni branch of and are concentrated in Adjara. The ethnic Azerbaijani Muslims are Shia and are concentrated along the border with Armenia in Kvemo Kartli. The Sunni/Shia schism began due to a political dispute over the leadership of the Muslim nation. Sunni Muslims believe that the new leader, following Mohammed, should be elected from among those followers capable of the job. Shia Muslims believed that the leadership should have passed directly to the Prophet’s son-in-law, Ali. Both Islamic groups in Adjara and Kvemo Kartli have practiced their branch of Islam in Georgia for centuries. The Sunni population exists in Adjara due to the Ottoman Empire’s periodic control of the area. In Adjara, the Muslims are ethnically Georgian and as such have many of the same traditions as their Christian counterparts. In many places, the distinction between the two groups is only nominal. Islamic rules and customs are more relaxed in the area than other parts of the Muslim world. Alcohol and supras are common, while women do not typically wear head scarves. The Azeri Shia population in Kvemo Kartli stems from the different Persian Empires and Khanates periodic control of the area. Among Azeris, Islam is also not practiced as strictly as in other places in the world. Young women do not wear veils, and many of the men drink alcohol. However, Islamic prayer rituals and dietary restrictions are widely practiced. In the region, religion is one of the key distinctions between the ethnic Azeri and Georgian populations. As a result of its split Georgian-Azerbaijani population, one will find prominent Christian and Islamic populations in many communities. Unfortunately, this is sometimes the cause of tension and misunderstanding, especially in the smaller villages.

Armenian Apostolic Church The Armenian Apostolic Church, or the One Holy Universal Apostolic Orthodox Armenian Church, is the world’s oldest national church. Christianity first came to Armenia through the Apostles Thaddeus and Bartholomew in the 1st century. However it wasn’t until Saint Gregory the Illuminator converted King Tiridates III in 301 AD, that it became the country’s official religion. According to

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legend, Saint Gregory was imprisoned in the pit Khor Virap, in Armenia for 13 years when, due to his Christian faith, he would not sacrifice an animal to the pagan gods. 13 years later, King Tiridates III became cursed and only Saint Gregory was able to cure him. His miraculous recoveries lead King Tiridates to convert to Christianity. Most of the ethnic are found in the region of Javakheti and belong (nominally, at least) to the Armenian Church. It differs from the Georgian and other Eastern Orthodox churches (as well as Western Christianity) in a variety of respects, though the basic theological issue has to do with the nature of Christ. The Armenian Apostolic Church holds a miaphysite position (though it is frequently understood to be a monophysite one). Miaphytism states that Christ had only one nature of both human and divine character. Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches (including the Georgian church) hold that Christ had two distinct natures, one human and one divine. As might be imagined, this dispute is not overly important to the average worshipper today, and, although tensions exist, the churches themselves have made efforts at reconciliation. An important figure in Georgian-Armenian culture is the godparent. The godparent traditionally ties two families together, with a member of one family serving as godparent to the of another family. This child will often then become the godparent to his own godparent’s children or grandchildren, and so on down the generations. This tradition is not strictly adhered to in Javakheti today, but is still common and seen as an ideal form of the relationship. The Armenians of Javakheti also have a number of interesting holidays which are not found in the rest of Georgia, many of them with pre-Christian origins.

Holidays

Georgia has many different types of holidays. The majority stems from the official state religion, Georgian Orthodoxy, but others come from its Soviet and independent past. Due to the plethora of Georgian saints, there are many saints’ days that have their own traditions and customs, but not are all designated public holidays. In addition, throughout Georgia there are numerous regional holidays and that are based on local history, authors, artists and traditions. Finally, the Azeri and Armenian minority groups have their own holidays related to their distinct religions. Below are listed the major holidays in chronological order throughout the year.

January 1st & 14th New Year – ახალი წელი Georgians celebrate New Year twice due to two calendar systems - the Gregorian and . The Gregorian calendar is the internationally accepted civil calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. However, it was only applied in Georgia after it became a Soviet Republic. The Georgian Orthodox Church has continued to celebrate holidays according to the Julian calendar introduced in the fourth century. Due to the confusion of dates and the numerous festivities that occur in these two weeks, most of the customs and traditions people from America associate with are attributed to New Year in Georgia.

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On New Year’s Eve, Georgia, like most countries around the world, sets off fireworks. In the major cities, there are often big firework displays at the stroke of midnight. In the villages, friends and neighbors will often fire off a personal supply. However, contrary to custom in the United States, Georgians try to greet the New Year at home with their families and only after midnight go and hang out with friends. Even teenagers prefer enjoying the very first moments of the New Year with their closest relatives. An important figure on New Year’s Day is the Mekvle (მეკვლე). The mekvle is the first ritual guest who steps over the threshold of the house on New Year’s Day. The mekvle should be kind, successful and bring sweets. The Georgian term მეკვლე derives from the word კვალი (trace) which denotes someone who leaves happy traces (footprints) at home. New Year’s Day celebrations would not be complete without a supra. The New Year's table in Georgia should not just be beautiful and richly covered, but bursting with all sorts of dishes. There are specific dishes without which no New Year's table would be complete. These mandatory dishes are: 1. Roasted Young Pork (შემწვარი გოჭი) 2. Satsivi (საცივი), a chicken dish with a thick sauce containing , , walnuts, spices and herbs which is served warm, or at room temperature, but never hot; and 3. Gozinaki (გოზინაყი), a traditional Georgian confection made of caramelized nuts, usually walnuts, and fried in honey. In several of Georgia’s rural areas both walnuts and honey once had religious associations and were seen as a source of prowess and potency. When night comes on New Year’s, every member of the family invites the rest to eat gozinaki, adding, “Have a life as sweet as this!” In general, the more sweets on the New Year's table, the sweeter the year will be. The tradition of the Christmas was imported to Georgia through Russia. However, indicative of its connection with New Year and not Christmas, it is called a ‘Fir Tree’ (ნაძვის ხე) instead of a ‘’ (შობის ხე). Additionally, in the regions and small villages you will hardly ever see the green Christmas tree so common in Europe and even in Tbilisi. The markets are full of hand-made wooden trees called chichilaki (ჩიჩილაკი) also known as St. Basil’s beard (The celebrates St. Basil day on January 1st). Chichilaki is made of young walnut branches shaved so that long twirling laths hang down vertically like the wisps of an old man's beard. It is put on the table during the New Year celebration with some fruit or sweets hanging on it. On the eve of Epiphany (January 19th), it is burnt to ensure a bumper crop and good luck. The bad memories of the previous year are thrown away with its ashes. Tovlis Papa or Tovlis Babua (თოვლის პაპა/თოვლის ბაბუა) is the equivalent of Santa Claus

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and literally means Grandfather Snow. Tovlis Papa is traditionally portrayed with a long white beard, dressed in the national chokha (ჩოხა) costume, and wearing a fur cloak nabadi (ნაბადი). Georgians don’t practice the same tradition of buying Christmas gifts for families, friends, relatives, and coworkers as is common in the United States. Instead, parents typically buy New Year gifts for children and give them on January 1st. Though adults don’t expect to receive gifts, they will be pleased if someone gives them a gift. Also, if you’re invited to a Georgian home during the New Year’s period, make sure to bring some sweets (chocolate, candy, , etc.) with you, since this is what Georgian do when they visit each other.

January 2nd Day of Luck – Bedoba/ბედობა The second day of January is considered the day of luck. It’s believed that whatever happens on January 2nd will continue for the whole year.

January 7th Christmas – Shoba/შობა On Christmas Eve, all the churches in the country begin a solemn liturgy celebrating the birth of Christ. In Tbilisi, it is held in the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, headed by the Catholicos (Patriarch of Georgia). A second service is held the following day on Christmas morning. These two services are generally very well attended and, after the Easter services, are considered the most important. After the morning service the most interesting and entertaining part begins - a festive parade called Alilo (a modified pronunciation of Alleluia). The believers and priests walk down the street singing church songs, while carrying , crosses and church banners high above their heads. They carry the good news about the birth of Christ. All those who are interested can join the procession, but most members of the Alilo march are children. Children are given sweets by the adults and gifts and sweets are distributed to orphanages and asylums. The Alilo carols vary across the provinces of Georgia. On Christmas night, candles are lit in every Georgian house. They are placed near the window, so that the light is visible to pedestrians. This tradition is observed in memory of the events of the Bible, when Joseph and Mary sought shelter for giving birth to their son. Christmas also marks the end of the fast (მაგხვა) which began 40 days before for religious Georgians. They break the fast on Christmas Day with a large feast with friends and family. Traditional specific to Christmas include kveri/კვერი (tasty Christmas cakes), churchkhela (strings of hazelnuts covered in hardened grape jelly) and gozinaki (walnuts in honey). Christmas is somewhat less commercialized in Georgia than in the United States. Family businesses put up fewer decorations, and Georgians generally don’t exchange gifts.

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January 19th Epiphany - ნათლისღება Epiphany is celebrated by both Eastern and Western Churches, but has a different connotation for the two groups. For Western , the feast primarily commemorates the coming of the Magi, with only a minor reference to the of Jesus and the miracle at the Wedding in Cana. Eastern churches, including the Georgian church, celebrate the Baptism of Christ in the Jordan River. In both traditions, the essence of the celebration is the same: the manifestation of Christ to the world (whether as an infant or in the Jordan), and the mystery of the Incarnation. Christians in Georgia commemorate the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River and his manifestation to the world as the Son of God. Jesus came to the Jordan River where he was baptized by John at a site traditionally known as Qasr - Yahud (the ' Castle). This event concluded with the heavens opening, a dove-like descent of the Holy Spirit, and a from Heaven saying, "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased.” This event is recorded in the of Matthew, Mark and Luke. The baptism of Jesus marks the beginning of Jesus Christ’s public ministry. The Georgian word for Epiphany ნათლისღება means ‘receiving light’ (ნათელი - light, bright; (მი)ღება - receive). Every year, the Catholicos conducts a service at Saint Trinity Cathedral. After the service, the Patriarch leads a nationwide baptismal ceremony. According to the Patriarch's decision, every fourth child in the family who is baptized on January 19th by His Holiness will be given the title of Devoted Patriot of Homeland and Defender of the Patriarchate’s Throne.

January 27th Saint Nino’s Day – Ninoba/ნინობა Saint Nino of Cappadocia is credited with bringing Christianity to Georgia. Georgians typically go to church and have feasts on St. Nino’s Day. People named Nino are also congratulated.

Late January – Late February Saint Sargi’s Day St. Sargis Day is celebrated by Armenians 63 days before Easter on a Saturday somewhere between January 18th and February 23rd. On the day, Armenians are supposed to go to a shrine or church of St. Sargis, walk three times around it and sacrifice or free pigeons. The holiday is very popular among the youth, as St. Sargis is the patron saint of young lovers. In accordance with the tradition, young people must fast all day before eating a piece of salty bread (aghi blit) at bed time. In their dreams, it is hoped that they will see their future spouse giving them water. Salty pie works wonders and lots of people claim that they have seen their future husband or wife in their dreams! Although St. Sargis is said to visit the dreams of both sexes, the tradition is more popular among girls

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and women. Most Armenian women either have a story to tell about their own St. Sargis dream or know someone with a story. The tradition is also being kept alive by Armenian communities throughout the United States, especially in Southern California.

February 4th, 2012 Mohammad’s Birth - Mawlid Muslim communities throughout Georgia celebrate the birth of the Prophet Mohammed. In many countries this may mean a big or celebration, but in Georgia it is more low-key. A family usually invites Muslim neighbors into their home, and they listen to a neighbor read/chant from the Koran. The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and therefore does not line up exactly with the Gregorian one. As a result, the exact date of Mawlid shifts from year to year.

February 13 Trndez /Derendez Trndez is an Armenian minority holiday celebrated the night of February 13. Traditionally a bonfire is built outside of churches. Newly married couples then take turns jumping over the fire. Often you try to jump over the fire when it’s as high as possible, as legend has it that the higher the fire you jump over, the more passion you’ll have in your marriage.

March 3rd Mothers’ Day - დედის დღე Unlike the United States, Georgia’s Mothers’ Day is a fixed day that does not change from year to year. It was declared as a holiday and official day-off by Georgia’s first president, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, in 1991. Useful Phrase: გილოცავთ დედის დღეს!

March 8th International Women’s Day - ქალთა საერთაშორისო დღე The Socialist Party of America organized the first National Women’s Day on February 28, 1909. In August 1910, at an International Women’s Conference in Denmark, organizers proposed making it an annual international event, but no date was specified. The following year on March 18, over a million people in Austria, Denmark, Germany and Switzerland partook in the celebration with parades and demonstrations. It was first celebrated in Russia in 1913 on the last Sunday of February. Russia at the time was still using the Julian calendar. The International Women’s Day on the last Sunday of February in 1917, prior to the Revolution, was March 8th of the Gregorian calendar. Lenin decided to use this date and make it an official holiday in the Soviet Union. However, it was only in 1965 that it was declared a non- working day in the USSR. The holiday was kept by Georgians following its independence. Flowers, especially violets and chocolates are the most common presents on this day. Useful Phrase: გილოცავთ ქალთა დღეს!

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March 21st – 22nd Novruz Bayram Azeri and other Muslim communities in Georgia celebrate Novruz Bayram – a holiday of spring and New Year. The history of the holiday has roots in the Zoroastrianism epoch and relates to the spring equinox. It symbolizes the awakening of all living creatures and the land’s readiness for the crop. In the Soviet period, Novruz Bayram was considered to be a religious and nationalist holiday. For a long time it was forbidden in Azerbaijan. Preparation for Novruz typically begins four weeks prior to the holiday. Every week is devoted to one of the four elements and each Tuesday people celebrate one of them - water, fire, earth and wind. People clean their houses, trees, make new dresses, paint eggs, and make pastries. Brides are also given special presents (bairamlygs). On the evening before the holiday the whole family gathers around the holiday table laid with various dishes to make the New Year rich. After the meal, according to tradition, it is necessary to visit the tombs of perished relatives, patients and needy people. In some areas of Azerbaijan, it is still customary to light candles on tombs of perished ancestors, although in Islam, it is not accepted. The holiday goes on for several days and ends with festive public dancing and other entertainment of folk bands and contests of national sports. In 2010 President declared Novruz Bayram as a national holiday in Georgia.

April 9th National Unity Day - ეროვნული ერთიანობის დღე The April 9th tragedy, also known as the Tbilisi Massacre or Tbilisi tragedy, refers to the events which took place in the capital on April 9, 1989. An anti-Soviet demonstration on was dispersed by the Soviet Army, resulting in 20 deaths and hundreds of injuries. The actions of this day polarized the people and accelerated Georgia’s desire for independence. Every year people gather in front of the parliament at the April 9th memorial to commemorate the day and the victims.

April 14th Georgian Language Day - დედაენის დღე Georgia has been celebrating Georgian Language Day on April 14th since 1990. Although it is not an official holiday, it is the date for commemorating the events of 1978 and celebrating

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what has been accomplished by the nation during the past year in the areas of teaching and research. On April 14, 1978, demonstrations took place in Tbilisi in response to an attempt by the Soviet government to change the constitutional status of the Georgian language. The Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR adopted a new constitution in October 1977 that, in contrast to the Constitution of 1936, no longer declared Georgian to be the state language. A series of indoor and outdoor actions of protest ensued and a clash between several thousand demonstrators and the Soviet government seemed inevitable. However, the Georgian Communist Party Chief, Eduard Shevardnadze, negotiated with the central authorities in Moscow and managed to obtain permission to retain the previous status of the Georgian language.

Mid April – Early May Easter – Aghdgoma/აღდგომა Easter is the most important holiday for Orthodox Christians. Georgians partake in lent for the 40 days preceding it. They traditionally fast (magkhva), avoiding meat, dairy, and eggs and observe a hard fast of only water and a little bread on the Friday before Easter. The week before Easter is called Passion Week, when special services are conducted every day in almost every church in Georgia. The most significant of these are Passion Thursday and Good Friday. Passion Thursday is connected to the Last Supper when Jesus Christ washed his apostles’ feet and Judas betrayed him. The Catholicos (Patriarch of Georgia) washes the feet of twelve priests just like Christ did with his Apostles. Good Friday is connected with the crucifixion, lamentation and the burial of Jesus Christ. The Georgian church conducts its service in a special way. At 2 pm, a cross is put in front of an altar and a special ritual follows. Eggs are also painted red on Good Friday, as a symbol of the blood Christ bled for the sins of mankind. Easter Sunday crowns the Passion Week, and joy replaces grief. The celebration liturgy is conducted by the Catholicos at the Holy Trinity church. Before the ceremony begins, the gathered parish listens to the epistle of the Patriarch. Afterwards, the Easter dawn is met with congratulations: ქრისტე აღსდგა! ჭეშმარიტად აღსდგა! (Christ has risen, Truly he has risen!) After church, families often visit relatives and feast. The traditional Easter dessert is baska, a cake made of sweet bread with no icing. On the Monday after Easter, people often have picnics at the cemeteries where their relatives are buried.

May 9th Victory Day, or Victory over Fascism Day, marks the capitulation of to the Soviet Union in the Second World War. It was first inaugurated in the fifteen republics of the Soviet Union following the signing of the surrender document late in the evening on 8 May 1945 (after midnight, thus on 9 May, by Moscow Time). In 1965 it became a national holiday.

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May 26th Independence Day - დამოუკიდებლობის დღე Georgia’s Independence Day celebrates Georgia’s separation from Imperial Russia. The revolution of 1917 in Russia resulted in the overthrow of the czar and the breakdown of the empire. During this tumultuous time, a national board was formed in Georgia that governed the area. It was this national board which then declared Georgia an independent state. However, this independence was short- lived as in February 1921 the Red Army invaded Georgia and occupied the country. The Georgian government was forced to flee. After 70 years of Soviet rule, Georgian independence was once again proclaimed on Aril 9, 1991. This was based on the March 31st nation-wide referendum in 1990, during which nearly the whole country’s population voted for leaving the USSR. Georgia’s Independence Day is considered one of the most important holidays of the nation and is celebrated with parades in major cities and feasts amongst families.

July Vardavor/ Vartavar, Vardavor is an Armenian holiday usually celebrated in July (its exact timing depends on Easter). During this holiday you go out into the street at your peril, since the order of the day is throwing water at everyone you can. In Akhalkalaki, it is also a traditional day to climb Mt. Abul, the tallest mountain in the region.

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August 19th Transfiguration of Jesus – Peristsvaleba/ფერისცვალება The Transfiguration of Jesus is an event reported by the Synoptic Gospels in which Jesus was transfigured upon a mountain. The Gospels state that Jesus led three of his apostles to pray at the top of a mountain. Once at the top, Jesus became transfigured, his face shining like the sun, and his clothes a brilliant white. Jesus spoke with Moses and Elijah and was called "Son" by God. The word ფერისცვალება literally means “change of color” (ფერი color; ცვალება change). Besides going to church and attending the service, there are other practices and beliefs related to this event varying from region to region. It is common to find different sorts and colors of fruit on the table in Georgian families. It is also believed that after ფერისცვალება a noticeable climate change takes place. According to legend, on this very day somewhere up in the mountains a huge lump of ice drops in water, which is a sign of weather becoming milder. It is not uncommon to hear people say that it won’t be hot after August 19.

August 28th Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary – Mariamoba/მარიამობა Mariamoba commemorates the assumption of the Blessed Virgin into heaven. Church ceremonies mark the event, with Georgians praying and lighting candles. It is also a tradition on this day to carry a lamb to the church, walk around it three times, and then slaughter it. The meat is then boiled and shared with family and friends at a communal feast.

October 14th Georgian Orthodox Festival – Svetitskhovloba/სვეტისხოვლობა Svetitskhovloba is a Georgian Orthodox holiday derived from the history of the in Mtskheta. Legend has it that Eliazar, a citizen of Mtskheta who was present during the crucifixion of Jesus, managed to procure some of Jesus’ robe and brought it home with him. Sidonia, Eliazar’s sister, touched the robe and overcome by the emotions of belief, died with it clenched to her breast. Unable to remove the robe from Sidonia’s clutches, the townspeople buried her with it. From her grave, a spectacular cedar tree grew. After Christianity was adopted by the Kingdom of Kartli, King Mirian asked St. Nino where to build the new house of God. She pointed to Sidonia’s grave and work began on its construction. However the builders were unable to create the central pillar of the church due to the cedar tree. It was only after St. Nino prayed that a miraculous pillar rose to a height of 12 meters. The great cedar was felled and seven great columns were made from it to support the structure of the cathedral. It is from this history that the cathedral gets its name Svetitskhoveli (სვეტი pillar; ცხოველი miraculous). The Svetitskhoveli Cathedral has seen many changes to it since its original structure was raised, but today it is still considered one of the most holy places in Georgia. Ten of Georgia’s kings are buried there, but only six of the tombs have been found.

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Svetitskhovloba is a national holiday, but the festival takes place in Mtskheta. The streets are decorated and street vendors sell regional food and drink. Townsfolk and visitors from different parts of Georgia gather in the city. The Catholicos (Patriarch of All Georgia) also conducts a celebrative liturgical ceremony in the cathedral.

October 26th, 2012 Qurban Bayrami At the end of the Hajj (annual pilgrimage to Mecca), Muslims throughout the world, including Georgia, celebrate the holiday of Eid al-Adha or the Festival of Sacrifice. Muslim communities in Georgia call this holiday Qurban Bayrami as it is referred in Turkish and Azeri. Qurban Bayrami (Eid al-Adha) commemorates Abraham’s readiness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael as an act of obedience to God. However, God intervened to provide Abraham with a ram to sacrifice instead. In 2012, Qurban Bayrami will begin on October 26th and last for three days. On the first morning, Muslims attend morning prayers at their local mosques. Prayers are followed by visits with family and friends, and the exchange of greetings and gifts. Everyone who can afford it slaughters sheep and shares meat with relatives, friends and those in need. People pray and hope for peace and prosperity and are thankful for their health, beauty, and love. The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and therefore does not line up exactly with the Gregorian one. As a result, the exact date of Qurban Bayrami shifts from year to year.

November 23rd ’s Day – Giorgoba/გიორგობა Saint George’s Day commemorates the death of Georgia’s patron saint. He was a Roman soldier and priest in the Guard of . Upon the Roman order that all Christian soldiers be executed, he refused to give up his faith and was martyred. He is considered the patron saint of the military and became immortalized through the tale of ‘Saint George and the Dragon’, a legend brought back with the . St. George’s importance to Georgians cannot be overemphasized. The French chronicler Jacques de Vitry and the English traveler Sir John Mandeville wrote that Georgians are called “Georgian” because they particularly revere Saint George. There are more than 400 churches and chapels named after St. George in Georgia. According to legend, God scattered the parts of his dead body all over the country and at each place chapels and churches were built. In January 2004, the country adopted the five-cross flag, featuring the Saint George’s Cross. The holiday has been celebrated under various in different regions of Georgia; for example, in Kartli as Geristoba or Usanetoba; in Kakheti as Alaverdoba or Tetri Giorgoba; in Samegrelo as Iloroba; and finally in the mountain regions of East Georgia as Lasharoba, Lomisoba. Georgians typically go to church, gather in families and feast. Finally, the numerous people named Giorgi are congratulated. Useful Phrase: გილოცავთ გიორგობას!

December 17th Saint Barbara’s Day – Barbaroba/ბარბარობა

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Saint Barbara’s day pays tribute to the saint and is observed by the Georgian Orthodox Church. St. Barbara was born to a rich, polytheistic family in a Roman province sometime around 300 A.D. Her conversion to Christianity was enough to have her condemned to an extremely violent death. Though elsewhere St. Barbara is often considered the patron saint for hazardous occupations (mining and artillery posts), in Georgia, she is a patron saint of children, and a protector and healer of sick people. Georgian believers associate the day with matters of fate. However one spends the day determines how the rest of the year will go. There is also a superstitious importance placed on the first person to enter a family’s home on St Barbara’s Day. Ideally, one wants a good-hearted and devout person to be the first guest of the day, setting up the household for a lucky year to come. Traditionally lobiani (bread baked with a bean stuffing) is baked by every family to mark the occasion. Though the date falls in a period of fasting for the Georgian Orthodox devout, lobiani is fit for eating.

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Food and Supra

Georgian food and the ‘supra’ are fundamental parts of the culture. It would be impossible to understand Georgia without a basic knowledge of these two components.

Food

General Practices Georgians do not typically follow the three meals a day schedule. They forego breakfast, only drinking coffee or tea, and occasionally eating a piece of bread with butter or cheese in the morning. Meals are eaten throughout the day, and families don’t often sit down to eat together. When food is made, it’s a big pot which sits on the stove for a few days until finished. Everyone eats whenever they’re hungry. Coffee and sweets are of course consumed at any time of the day, especially when a guest stops by. Typically the afternoon meal is the main meal, and is usually eaten after school around 2 or 3pm. This is followed by dinner around 9 pm. Georgian food contains more salt and oil than most Americans are accustomed to. They also typically drink less water than Americans, perhaps because they are used to a large amount of salt in their diet, and they will be amused if you drink the recommended two liters of water per day. Other unique features of Georgian cooking include the use of mayonnaise on pizza, and indeed, the consumption of large quantities of mayo. Bread is eaten with every meal, regardless of whether or not another source of carbohydrates forms the basis of the meal.

Dishes The meals volunteers have at their sites with their host families are more basic than the traditional Georgian food you can order at restaurants. However, it is important to have a working knowledge of the most common Georgian foods as you will be undoubtedly asked multiple times, whether you like khinkali, khatchapuri, etc. In addition, almost all Georgian restaurants serve the same foods. These are listed in greater detail below:

Bread/Pastry Tonis Puri or Shotis Puri Bread made in the traditional Georgian clay oven Khatchapuri Cheesy Bread Imeruli Arguably the most common type of khatchapuri sold on the steeet. It is a simple circular pastry filled with cheese Adjaruli By far the most unique variety of khatchapuri. The dough is formed in the shape of a canoe/boat, with cheese in the center. After it’s baked, a raw egg is cracked over the hot cheese and pats of butter are added. The egg and butter should be stirred into the hot cheese, and to eat this khatchapuri you should tear off pieces of the bread and dip them into the cheese in

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the center. While many enjoy this kind of khatchapuri in restaurants, it is not often made at home, where the easier-to-make Imeruli style is preferred Megruli Like Imeruli khatchapuri, but more cheese added on top Ghvedzeli Native to Guria, prepared like conventional khatchapuri with the addition of sliced hard-boiled eggs into the cheese filling. It is sometimes served in a crescent moon shape, and sometimes in the typical circular shape. It is typically served at Christmas/New Years Mtchadi Baked or fried Georgian corn bread Lobiani Like Imeruli khatchapuri, but filled with beans in place of cheese Kubdari Spiced meat in a bread pastry Nazuki Sweetbread Achma Lasagna-like pasta with cheese Flat bread similar in shape to a tortilla (Azeri/Armenian) Corek Sweet, braided egg-enriched bread (Azeri) Gata Savory roll with a filling of toasted flour (Armenian)

Vegetables/Fruit Dishes Lobio Brown beans cooked with spices and sometimes hazelnuts in a pot Ajapsandali Mixed in tomato sauce (Picture) Spinach, beets or greens in oil with walnuts Soko ketsze Mushrooms in a clay pot Chiri Dried fruit Plov Saffron covered rice with various greens (Azeri). Badrijani nigvzit Sautéed with garlic and walnut paste.

Dairy Products Matsoni Georgian “sour” yogurt Arazhani Sour cream Khatcho Cottage cheese Nadughi Similar to ricotta cheese Cheese Either cow or goat, typically very salty Sulguni Higher quality type of cheese, similar to mozzarella

Meat Kebabi Spiced ground meat on a Khinkali Pasta like dumplings filled with meat (Picture) Mtsvadi Chicken, beef, but most commonly pork, barbequed over a fire Khaslama Roast beef boiled in water. Khashi Boiled sheep or cow intestines. Typically served with Tchatcha; best to avoid (Georgian/Azeri/Armenian).

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Chakapuli Roast beef boiled with and plums. Traditional Kakhetian recipe Gubta Meatballs Kutleti Fried meat patty Kuchmachi Stomach and liver of chicken; best to avoid Dzekhvi Salami Tolma Meat and rice wrapped in cabbage (Armenian) Kupati Homemade spicy pork sausage, common in Guria Chakhokhbili Boiled chicken with egg, , nuts, garlic, and tomato cooked together. Satsivi Turkey, or sometimes chicken in hazelnut/walnut sauce, traditionally a New Year’s dish. Bozbash Mutton or lamb soup (Azeri/Armenian) Chigirtma A dish of minced lamb cooked with eggs (Azeri). Piti Soup cooked in a crock with mutton and vegetables (Azeri). Khorovats Armenian version of mtsvadi, prepared with grilled eggplant, tomato and peppers, and eaten with lavash (Armenian).

Desserts Tartara Also known as pelamushi, a wine-pudding that is made from the grape juice. Adding flour to the juice then thickens and transforms it into an edible pudding. Churchkhela Aka the “Georgian Snickers,” created by first stringing hazelnuts or walnuts on a thread and then dipping the nuts twice into the tartara/pelamushi.

Drinks

Both alcoholic and non alcoholic drinks serve important social functions in Georgian society. Wine plays a very significant role in the supra tradition as discussed below, while tea and coffee are offered to visitors in accordance with social customs. Mineral waters are sources of pride, and reputed cure-alls for everything from the common cold to food poisoning.

Mineral Water Georgians are incredibly proud of their wide array of mineral waters. Almost every region has its own brand, which reportedly have specific health benefits. These include, but are not limited to: kidney and urinary tract infections, liver, gall bladder, pancreas and intestinal problems. The most famous, , is produced in the town of its name in Samsthke-Javakheti. This was reputedly Stalin’s favorite beverage, and as a result is well known throughout the former Soviet Union. Other popular brands in Georgia

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are Likani, Nabeghlavi and Sairme.

Tea & Coffee Coffee and tea are offered whenever a guest comes to visit. They are considered the social drinks of neighborly visits. Often they are accompanied by sweets and chocolate. In Azeri communities, tea is particularly important, and replaces alcohol as the social drink for men. Chaikhanas, or tea houses, can be found in any community with a large Azeri population. Could add brand of Gurieli (since there are mineral water brands named above)

Wine Types of Grapes Used in (White)It is a variety of grapes that are so widely grown in Eastern and Central Europe that it ranks third in the world in hectares grown. It is the most important grape variety used to make Georgian white . It is high in acidity and is capable of producing wines with fine character. This is the most common Supra wine. (Red) The grapes produce substantial deep red/black wines that are suitable for extended aging, perhaps up to fifty years. Saperavi has the potential to produce high alcohol levels and is used extensively for blending with other lesser varieties. It is the most important grape variety used to make Georgian red wines. (Picture) Mtsvane (White) The grapes are also important in Georgian wines, and are often blended with Rkatsiteli to which they add a fruity, aromatic balance. Tsinandali A blend of Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grapes from the micro regions of and in the Kakheti region. Adesa (Red) Grapes that grow in the more humid area in Guria

Kakhetian Wine Gareji A white dry ordinary wine made of the Rkatsiteli and Mtsvane grape varieties cultivated in Kakheti. The wine has a color ranging from pale-straw to amber, a pleasing bouquet and a full harmonious taste. Its strength is 10.0-12.5 vol. % and titrated acidity 4-7%. A white wine named after the Alazani River, it is a mid-straw colored semi- sweet wine made from 100% Rkatsiteli. The climate of the Alazani Valley is slightly warmer than that of other wine-growing Georgian regions, making the local grapes sweeter than the rest. It has won one silver and one gold metal in international competitions. (Picture) Bodbe It is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety in the village of Bodbe in the Magaro microdistrict, one of the most beautiful places of Kakheti. The wine has a light-straw color, a fine aroma of wild flowers and a pleasing tender taste which give the wine piquancy highly estimated by connoisseurs. The ready wine contains 10.5-11.5% alcohol and has 5-7% titrated acidity.

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Saamo It is a vintage dessert white sweet wine is made from the Rkatsiteli grape variety cultivated in the Kardanakhi vineyards of the district in Kakheti. It takes the wine three years to mature. The golden-color wine has an original fine bouquet, a pleasant taste with a harmonious honey fragrance. When ready for use, the wine contains 17% alcohol, 13% sugar and has 4-6 g/1 titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1980. At international exhibitions Saamo was awarded 4 gold and 1 silver . Akhasheni It is a naturally semi-sweet red wine made from the Saperavi grape variety grown in the Akhasheni vineyards of the Gurdjaani district in Kakheti. The wine has a dark-pomegranate color has a harmonious velvety taste with a chocolate flavor. It contains 10.5-12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5-7% titrated acidity. The wine has been made since 1958. At international exhibitions it was awarded 6 gold and 5 silver . Kindzmarauli A high quality naturally semi-sweet wine of dark-red color. It is made from the Saperavi grape variety cultivated on the slopes of the Caucasian mountains in the Kvareli district of Kakheti. It has a strong characteristic bouquet and aroma, a gentle harmonious and velvety taste. The wonderful taste and curative properties have won Kindzmarauli general recognition. The wine contains 10.5- 12.0% alcohol, 3-5% sugar and has 5.0-7.0% titrated acidity. It has been manufactured since 1942. For its supreme qualities Kindzmarauli was 3 gold, 4 silver & 1 bronze medal at international wine competitions. Mukuzani It is a dry red wine made from 100% Saperavi in Mukuzani, Kakheti. The wine is sourced from the very best wines of the vintage that have been fermented at controlled temperatures and with selected yeast strains. The wines are then matured for 3 years in to give the wine-added complexity and flavor. Mukuzani is considered to be the best of the Georgian Dry Red wines made from Saperavi. It has won 9 gold medals, 2 silver medals and 3 bronze medals in international competitions.

Other Regional Wines Though Kakheti is the most famous wine producing region, Georgians from all over produce their own. The famous Georgian wine, Khvanchkara comes from Racha. In Guria, the common wine is the red Adesa. Adjara produces three major wines: Chkvari (red semi-sweet), Tsolikauri (white) and Tskriala (sparkling). In addition to these commercial wine products, most Georgians create their own brand of house wine. This moonshine wine is usually a dull pink color and has a high alcohol content.

Hard Liquor The national Georgian spirit is tchatcha, which is a homemade moonshine typically from grape pulp, but also other miscellaneous fruits. Tchatcha is also almost always drunk straight,

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as mixed drinks are quite uncommon. The tchatcha can be altered and flavored through various means. Sometimes milk or dairy products can be used to make liquor similar to Baileys

Beer Though there is a history of beer brewing in the Khevsureti/Mtskheta-Mtianeti region, it is a budding national industry. Beer does not have the same cultural significance as other alcoholic beverages in Georgia. The most famous brand is Natakhtari, but there are others such as Kazbegi and Zekari from which to choose. One important side note about beer relates to its significance at supras. Until recently, one would toast to an enemy with beer as opposed to the traditional positive toasts with wine.

Supra Tradition

The supra is a mainstay of Georgian culture. Supra means feast, and is a typical gathering of family and friends to celebrate an occasion. Women are responsible for setting the table and preparing the normal supra dishes as well as serving the food, while men are typically responsible for preparing the meat (mtsvadi) and keeping the wine pitchers full. Many different dishes are served. Imeruli khatchapuri is usually served, as are various stewed meats, fish, and some sort of mayonnaise-based salad, and bread. Many times there will be a beautiful arrangement of fruit and chocolates in the center of the table, which signify a bountiful life. Often there is so much food on the table that plates of food are stacked on top of each other. Georgians have an international reputation for hospitality. Indeed, pressure to eat and drink to the point of discomfort is very common on the part of hosts who are anxious to please their guests and see that they are well-fed. Supras are often punctuated by repeated commands to eat, “Tchame! Tchame!” and no visitor need worry about not having enough to eat at a supra. Compared to our American standards, Georgian society is quite conservative, a fact that is manifested by seating arrangements and drinking etiquette. Men and women usually sit across from one another at the table. During the Supra it is more common for men to drink than women, though women do occasionally take part in certain toasts. Regardless of size and type, a supra is always led by a tamada, or toastmaster, who introduces each toast during the feast. The tamada is elected by the banqueting guests or chosen by the host. A successful tamada must possess great rhetorical skill and be able to

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consume a large amount of alcohol without showing signs of drunkenness. The tamada acts as the head of the table and he must always be the first to drink. It is also imperative that everyone pays attention to the tamada when he is toasting. After every toast, men are often pressured to bolomde their glasses. This literally means, ‘to the bottom,’ and involves chugging a glass of wine like a shot. Georgian supras can last for hours, and in turn, vast quantities of wine can be consumed. Often at supras, someone will disappear into the kitchen to refill the empty pitcher from a seemingly endless supply of wine.

Volunteer’s Stories

“At one of my first supras at my site, I was not familiar with the order in which food is typically served at a supra. Cold dishes are set out on the table and hot dishes are brought in as they are prepared (according to a traditional order). With the encouragement of my counterpart teacher, I ate an entire meal’s worth of food from the cold dishes, khatchapuri, and mchadi with cheese, as they were brought out, thinking that was the entire meal. Little did I know kebabi, mtsvadi, fried mushrooms and much more were on the way! The moral of the story is to be sure to pace yourself when eating at a supra.”

“When I first arrived in Georgia, I was really excited about getting to taste the Georgian wine and eat the new food. I experienced my first supra the first week at site. We all sat down and the wine was served. My host family normally produces Rkatsiteli, but bought Saperavi so I could have the choice of both. I chose the Saperavi and then began to sip it, just like it was a normal glass I had with dinner in America. Of course, sipping wine is a NO-NO and as I was taking these sips, I was doing so without paying attention to the tamada. FIRST MISTAKE! After the rules were set, I then started only drinking after the tamada drank. However, after I had finished my first 3 glasses of red wine, I was then told that I had to switch over to white because it’s not “healthy” to drink more than 3 glasses of red wine. As the night continued and more white wine was consumed, I realized the next morning was not going to be fun, especially since the term, “bolomde,” was continuously chanted after I started each glass of wine. When this phrase is chanted (and I guarantee, you’ll hear it A LOT) it’s an encouragement for you to finish the remainder of wine that’s in your glass, meaning that I was shooting these glasses of wine much like they were shots of tequila. Let’s just say that night and the next day were not fun.”

“During PST, my cluster had an American supra for all of our host families. We served bean burritos, tortilla chips and , and pasta with fresh tomato sauce. At the end of the supra, the two males in our cluster cleared the plates from the table and did all of the dishes, in an effort to illustrate to them that in America, everyone cooks and everyone cleans. A volunteer’s host

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grandfather was so shocked by this that he tried to force us back to the table, saying, “What?? The women do this! Come back in here and drink with us!” We politely held our ground, and the girls in the cluster stayed at the table with the rest of the group while we were busy in the kitchen.”

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Gender Roles

Georgia is a very conservative society. As a result, there are many cultural and behavioral expectations for women and men in society. Volunteers may not be accustomed to many of these norms and restrictions on behavior, and therefore it is incumbent to be observant of one’s surroundings and act appropriately. This is especially true for female volunteers. Gender roles vary drastically in what is and is not culturally appropriate in villages and cities. You shouldn’t be surprised to find women in cafes, drinking in bars or kissing men in parks in Tbilisi, Batumi or other large cities. Of course, as you are foreign, it is possible you will receive extra attention and will be held to a different standard. On the other hand, Georgian families may treat you as an “exception” to the rules, especially after they know you well. Get to know your family and use your best judgment. Below is a more comprehensive explanation of the roles of men and women in Georgian society.

Daily Life Georgia is a traditional society, in which women are expected to cook, clean and take care of the children, even if they have a full time job outside the home. The majority of teachers are female and it is a very common job for women. Older generation of women usually wear dresses or skirts to work even at school, while young women dress up in dresses skirts or pants. Male teachers from old generation dress more conservatively unlike younger one, who may wear jeans as well. As volunteers, you should know that your host mother will try to cook for you, wash your dishes, iron your clothes, and clean your room. It may be possible and even appreciated if female volunteers help out around the house (or at least clean up after themselves), but male volunteers may offend their host mothers if they insist on too much independence. Though women tend to be home maintaining the household, men are often out and about, maintaining relationships. They are usually responsible for networking within the community, especially with city authorities, influential community members, and taxi/marshutka drivers. When people ask who you are, it is a good idea to tell them your host father’s name so they know how you are connected in the community. Should you be mistreated by someone outside the household, your host father, as 69

your patroni, is responsible for making things right. Your male patronis (patrons/benefactors) can be influential in protecting you from harm or harassment. If you find yourself at a supra without your patronis, don’t be afraid to remind people there of your association with them. As men are often expected to be public authorities and guardian-types, they are generally expected to show strength and endurance at the supra table, in physical labor, and emotionally. When the car gets stuck in the snow, it is only the men who get out and push, and when they meet frustration, it is typically more acceptable for men to show anger rather than tears. With much pressure to show machismo, many men in Georgia have turned down jobs they consider beneath them. There is more work for women, since men hold out for employment with higher esteem. Male volunteers should adhere to gender roles in public. You will lose face in your community if you diverge from traditional male gender roles, so it’s advisable to sit with the men at supras, shake hands firmly, speak loudly, avoid complaining, and avoid frequently changing your mind after you’ve made a decision. ‘Chivalrous’ gestures such as opening doors, pulling out chairs, and giving up seats for women are also appreciated. Gender roles are instilled in children at an early age. The children’s chores are divided by gender. While the brother plays soccer down the street, the sister may tidy, iron, and set the table. Don’t be surprised if you never see your host brother so much as carry his own dishes to the sink. However, while the sister watches television, the brother may chop firewood and carry it to the petchi. Even recreational time reflects gender role boundaries: the girl plays with her toddler cousin at home while the boy bikes around town.

At the Supra In the home, women are responsible for making the food and serving at the supra, even if the supra is a birthday party in their honor. Men regularly cook meat, mtsvadi in particular, but generally speaking do not work in the kitchen, even to clear the dishes. Men also often drink heavily at supras, making toasts and drinking “bolomde” (to the bottom) of the glass, while it is not considered appropriate for a woman to publicly appear drunk. At supras, men and women generally sit at opposite ends of the table and lead separate conversations. When the men go around the table toasting, women usually carry on with their own conversations and toast in their own circle and at their own pace. Men usually drink and are pressured to drink more, but at all-female supras, women will drink much more than when men are present. Men never sip wine, and typically chug it after toasts, finishing between half and all of a glass at a time. Female volunteers should follow the other women’s lead. Observe the women around you and try not to drink more than they do, even if the men present are pressuring you. As a woman, it is acceptable to drink little or not at all and other women will support you if you refuse.

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Dating & Relationships Dating in Georgia is traditionally considered a prelude to marriage, a courtship, and in some cases, may damage the girl’s reputation if the couple breaks up after dating for some time. This does seem to be changing, however, and some Georgian young people have a more casual attitude towards dating. Your sexual mores are probably very different from those of most of the Georgians around you. Georgian opinions on sex tend to be similar to those of Americans before the ‘Sexual Revolution’: In the regions, women are expected to remain chaste until marriage, and men are ideally expected to do the same but are given more leeway in practice – nonetheless, men are expected to eventually settle down into a stable marriage and (ideally) remain monogamous thereafter. Homosexuality is virtually unheard of. Larger cities tend to be more liberal, but even there only a fraction of the population has adopted more ‘Western’ mores. A culture of casual flirting doesn’t really exist and flirting with a Georgian girl (in villages) will be taken either as serious interest or harassment, while flirting with a Georgian man implies much more than does in the U.S., namely, that you are interested in a relationship or even sex. Female volunteers should not put up with harassment; do not be afraid to stand up for yourself if you feel uncomfortable. If someone makes you uncomfortable and you decide to confront him, try to avoid smiling or laughing to hide your discomfort; it may cause men to believe you do not really mean what you are saying. It is advisable for women to dress conservatively as Georgians may make assumptions about your character based on your style of dress. Westerners are stereotyped as sexually loose, so you may feel the need to dress even more conservatively than the average Georgian to counteract this impression.

Gender Roles in Armenian Communities The Armenian communities of Samtskhe-Javakheti, as elsewhere in Georgia, tend to be somewhat more conservative in terms of gender relations than some other regions in Georgia, and certainly more than the large urban areas like Tbilisi. Women tend to work – especially because “pink-collar” jobs like teaching are currently more readily available than jobs seen as appropriate for men, like factory or construction work – but they are also responsible for cooking, cleaning, and almost all of the housework. Both men and women tend to live with their parents until marriage. After marriage, the eldest son usually remains with his mother, and his new wife moves into the household. Usually, the husband’s mother remains in charge of the house and is responsible for cooking, though her daughter-in-law will share or take on many of the other chores like cleaning and childcare.

Gender Roles in Azeri Communities Azeri communities, in accordance with Islamic patriarchal norms, are as a rule significantly more conservative than other communities in Georgia. It is rare to see women out

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on the streets, unless they have business to attend to, and even then it is nearly impossible to see women out after six in the evening. This is an important point for volunteers to keep in mind when planning any community activities, if women are intended to participate. Moreover, girls are generally brought up in strict obedience to the father, which can create more complications. In keeping with tradition, Azeris generally marry early. It is not uncommon for volunteers to have upper classmen who are married or are about to get married. Until recently marriage was regulated by Islamic norms, which generally were manifested in the prohibition of any alcohol at the table and the presence of a religious cleric, or a mullah, at the ceremony. However, lately the event has become more modernized and relaxed. Many Azeris celebrate weddings at restaurants with plenty of food and drink. One of the most important aspects of marriage is a bridal dowry, which still remains a matter of personal honor for the bride. The dowry is a woman’s private property and is to be used to provide for the future family financially.

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Music

In Georgia, Near Eastern and European musical influences have long meshed with local polyphonic (multi-voiced) vocal styles to create a profoundly distinctive musical tradition. Traditional Georgian music can be broadly divided into four musical styles: Urban music, church choral music, and regional folk music. Additionally, beginning in the latter half of the 19th century, Georgian composers produced a profusion of classical/romantic music in the European tradition. Georgian urban music arose in Tbilisi, which, owing to its location at a confluence of trade routes, was for centuries home to a highly cosmopolitan population. As musicians in the capital integrated musical traditions from various regions of Georgia, Asia, and Europe, urban music came to reflect correspondingly diverse cultural influences. Compositions of this style are traditionally characterized by one-voiced melodic patterns and are accompanied by Near Eastern instruments. Orthodox Georgian church music traces its origin to the 4th century of the country. Theological seminaries and academies in Georgia (Gelati, Ikalto) and in Georgian centers abroad (, , , Black Mountain in , and Petritson Monastery in Bulgaria) trained church singers and composers. They originally simply translated Greek Christian chants, adopting the original melodies, but, due to the influence of folk music, they later adopted polyphonic styles. The study and practice of church music was forbidden during Soviet times but has been revived in the last two decades, and triphonic choral hymns are performed in many churches today. Folk songs are an integral part of Georgian culture, and represent one of the oldest traditions of in the world – polyphonic folk signing has probably accompanied Georgian feasts, weddings, and village festivals for thousands of years. Traditionally, most songs have three vocal parts (triphony), although monophonic, two-part and four-part polyphonic songs also exist. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, as traditional ways of life gave way to urbanization and industrialization, and nationalist intellectuals sought to define Georgian national culture, certain folk songs were recorded and standardized. The myriad local variations on folk melodies were replaced by songs associated with specific regions which are now a great source of regional pride. Georgian opera began with the construction of the Tbilisi Theater in 1851, which allowed the staging of European operas, symphonies, and . The first music school in the European tradition was founded in 1886, which paved the way for composers such as Zakaria Paliashvili (1872-1933) and Dimitri Arakishvili (1873- 1953) to gain renown by combining European musical styles with Georgian harmony and polyphony. Since 1917, the Tbilisi State Conservatory (Picture) has trained thousands of 73 composers, performers, and ethnomusicologists, and Georgians are currently well represented among the world’s opera troupes and symphony orchestras. In daily life, on the marshutka, in the home or in cafes, Georgians listen to a mixture of contemporary Georgian music, such as the tasteful group, “Mgzavrebi,” classical Georgian music and American and Russian pop music. While Georgians may enjoy songs such as “Mokhle Kaba” and “Chemi Patara,” they are considered low-class. Contemporary songs which allude to sex or a sexually charged lifestyle are considered lowbrow (in general) and many Georgians won’t openly play them for guests.

Regions

Kakheti Kakheti’s position in the Alazani River Valley made it one of the most prosperous agricultural areas in Georgia. As a result, Kakhetians were and are a people deeply connected to the earth. It is the land of corn and wine. Their work as farmers led to the advent of many working songs. The “Orovela” ( Georgian Music, Track 1 - see last page for the links) is one example of a monophonic song that peasants would sing while they worked in the field. At events such as the “rtveli” (wine harvest – see picture) and “kalooba” (corn thrashing), the “Perkhuli” is performed. The men working in the harvest link arms and form a circle, before singing and dancingKakhetians slowly together. also love to sing at their supras and celebrations. It is from these supras, that the famous Kakhetian “table music” comes from. This music is complex and polyphonic. They feature a lone bass with two soloists singing the top two parts. Examples of great table music are “Chakrulo” ( Georgian Music, Track 2), “Supruli,” “Mravalzhamier” ( Georgian Music, Track 3) and “Zamtari” ( Georgian Music, Track 4). Most of the songs are related to God and health, while “Zamtari” (winter) is a song to commemorate elders. However, the most well-known example is “Chakrulo,” which was chosen to accompany the Voyage spacecraft in 1977. It is a highly patriotic song, whose lyrics speak of Georgian heroes and history. There are seven variations of this single song. Other famous songs from Kakheti are: “Tsintskaro” ( Georgian Music, Track 5) and “Shen Xar Venaxi” ( Georgian Music, Track 6). The most famous Kakhetian musicians and performers were Gonashvili, Ilia Zaqaidze, Giorgi Ushikishvili Varlam Simonishvili. Hamlet Gonashvili was a Georgian tenor and is sometimes referred to as the “Voice of Georgia.” Famous folk groups that perform the table music are “Tsinandali” and “Lashari.” The traditional Kakhetian musical instruments are: and chonguri, (guitar like instruments), (recorder/ like instrument), garmoni (accordion like) and doli (drum).

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The Northeast Mountainous Regions – , Khevi, Khevsureti, , The music from Mtiuleti is not as complex as the music from Kakheti. Due to the mountainous terrain, the main profession among the people was sheep herding. The music tends to mirror this profession. Most music is solo work, with a person singing accompanied by a panduri, chonguri, garmoni or doli. Shepherds would sing the songs while they herded their sheep. Nevertheless, the music in the region is not limited to shepherd’s music. There are more complex and varied songs that people sing at concerts, supras and various celebrations. The music also does vary slightly from region to region. In Tusheti, for example, the music and songs are typically more lyrical and about heroes and legends. Meanwhile in Khevsureti, folk songs are bonded to faith and God. The music in Khevsureti is known as “Sagaloblebi.” Typically they are primitive one-voiced songs such as “Gutnuri,” but they also have primitive two-part songs such as “Pexkhuli.”

Imereti Kutaisi is considered a center of the Arts in Georgia. Several notable composers and singers have come from the Imereti region. For example, Meliton Balanchivadze (1862-1937 - Picture), a composer and founder of Georgian classical music, was born near Kutaisi and is buried in the city. His son George Balanchine was a famous choreographer in the United States and cofounded the New York City Ballet, while his other son Andria was also a famous Georgian classical composer. Zakaria Paliashvili (1871- 1933) was another famous composer from Kutaisi, credited with founding Georgian classical music. His most famous works are the operas “Abselom da Eteri,” “Daisi” and “Latavra.”The most famous composer to come from was Revaz Laghidze (1921-1981). In 2000, he was recognized as the “composer of the century” in Georgia. His song “Tbiliso” is considered an anthem for the city of Tbilisi. Famous performers include opera singer Makvala Kasrashvili (1942-), Bakuradze, and Rusudan Sebiskveradze. Kasrashvili began her career at the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1979 and currently works as the Director of the Bolshoi Theater Opera in Moscow. Salome Bakuradze won first place on the “Bravo” show, a talent search program.

Samegrelo Although like most Georgian folk music Mingrelian music is chiefly vocal, it is also often accompanied by string and woodwind instruments. The vocal element is sung from the throat and features strong melodies. Some of the famous songs from Samegrelo are: “Nana” ( Georgian Music, Track 7), “Ashochela” ( Georgian Music, Track 8), “Odoia” ( Georgian Music, Track 9), Popuri ( Georgian Music, Track 10).

Guria “Krimanchuli” Georgian for ‘twisted iron,’ is a Gurian folk song ( Georgian Music, Track 11). It is

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notable for its extremely complex polyphonic melodies (somewhat similar to multiple enmeshed yodels). Seven different voices repeatedly harmonize and then break apart again into apparent chaos. There is another version of “Mravalzhamier” in Guria, “Guruli Mravalzhamieri” ( Georgian Music, Track 12). Another such song is “Naduri,” the “‘farmers’ song’” ( Georgian Music, Track 13). The song describes peasants plotting against local lords, rebelling, defeating their masters and gaining their freedom. It is quite difficult to perform and requires eight singers. “Xasanbegura” is another famous song from Guria ( Georgian Music, Track 14).

Svaneti and Abkhazia Among famous Georgian songs are “Lile” ( Georgian Music, Track 15) from Svaneti region and “Abkhazuri” ( Georgian Music, Track 16) from Abkhazia.

Adjara The “Ohoi,” “Nana,” and “Acharuli” are famous Adjarian polyphonic songs. A musical culture has existed in Adjara for at least 3 thousand years evidenced by the remnants of musical instruments which have been found in the region. For example, ancient examples of the chonguri, panduri, drum and pipe have been found in the region. The most famous Adjarian song is the “Acharuli.” This song is about a man and a women flirting. In one stanza, the woman is filling up a traditional drinking vessel with water and the man says “Come here and let me drink from that and let it fill me up as if with your kisses.” He continues, saying “You are so beautiful and whenever I see such beautiful girls, I start melting.” The instruments traditionally used in this song are the drum and the panduri.

The following two famous songs are contribution from Kartli region: “Shavlego” ( Georgian Music, Track 17) and one of the most frequently sung version of “Mravalzhamieri,” “Tseduri Mravalzhamieri” ( Georgian Music, Track 18).

Azeri Minority/Kvemo Kartli Azerbaijan has its own unique musical history. Rashid Behbudov (1915-1989), an Azerbaijani pop singer, was born in Tbilisi to an Azeri singer, Majid Behbodva. He was a successful performer and also appeared in several films, winning the Stalin prize, among other . Shovkat Mammadova (1897-1981 - Picture), an Azerbaijani opera singer, was also born in Tbilisi. She began music school in Tbilisi at the age of 15, after briefly studying at the Milan Conservatory under the sponsorship of an Azeri multimillionaire. In Georgia today, in larger towns, like Marneuli, Azeri cultural centers exist, which offer opportunities for Azeri individuals to participate in dance competitions and that publish materials in the Azeri language. Marneuli has an Azeri cultural center that releases several publications in Azeri and sponsors a , Sarvan, which has successfully participated in competitions and concerts throughout Georgia.

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Armenian Minority/Samtskhe-Javakheti The Armenians of Samtskhe-Javakheti tend to listen to Armenian and Russian pop music. One of the biggest names in Armenian music is Aram Khachataryan, who is the artist most frequently cited when people in Akhalkalaki are asked for the greatest Armenian singer. Djivan Gasparyan is famous as a player of the , an Armenian traditionally carved from the wood of the apricot tree. Weddings typically feature a mix of folk and pop music, and it is the norm to have live music consisting of a drummer, a keyboardist and/or accordionist, and a duduk player, along with recorded music. More contemporary Armenian pop artists include Mihran Tsarukyan, Tata Simonyan, and Susanna Petrosyan, who was the winner of the first year of “Hay Superstar,” the Armenian version of “.”

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Instruments

Georgian folk musical instruments are divided into the groups of string instruments, wind instruments, keyboard instruments and percussion instruments. String instruments are divided into fiddlestick and string instruments.

Stringed instruments: Panduri, Chonguri and Changi The panduri is a traditional three- widely spread in all regions of East Georgia (Pshavkhevsureti, Tusheti, Kakheti and Kartli regions). The chonguri is widespread in the West Georgia (Samegrelo, Guria and Ajara) regions. The changi is a traditional Georgian instrument that today is found only in the northern region of Svaneti.

Panduri/ფანდური Changi ჩანგი Chonguri ჩონგური

Fiddlestick Instruments: or Chianuri. This instrument is considered the national instrument of Svaneti (North Georgia in the Caucasus) and is thought to have spread from there to other regions of Georgia. In the following regions, traditional musicians play a very similar instrument called a chianuri: Racha (West of Svaneti in the Caucasus, bordering South Ossetia), Guria (West on the Black Sea), Khevsureti (in the northeast Caucasus, bordering Chechnya) and Tusheti (the northeast Caucasus, bordering Chechnya and in Russia).

ჭუნირი, ჭიანური/Chuniri, Chianuri

Wind instruments: , Duduki, , Larchemi/Soinari and Salamuri The gudastviri is a Georgian wind instrument played similarly to a western bagpipe. The duduki originally came to Georgia from Eastern countries in XVII century. It was an inseparable part of feasts of old Georgian residents “Karachogheli” and grand dukes. From that time, the duduki’s design has been gradually improved and its repertoire richened with Georgian melodies. The zurna was an elaboration of the duduki. Both the duduki and the zurnda are reeded, but the duduki’s reed is designed separately and inserted into the pipe.

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The larchemi and soinari are two names for the same wind instrument widespread in two western regions of Georgia. In Samegrelo the instrument is known as the larchemi and in Guria it is known as a soinari. There is no principal difference between the two instruments. Usually made of reed, sambuca or apricot wood, the salamuri is the most widespread folk instrument in Georgia, and is considered indispensible to shepherds. Consequently, the salamuri is primarily played by men, and is usually accompanied by a doli and/or panduri.

გუდასტვირი /Gudastviri დუდუკი/Duduki ზურნა/Zurna

ლარჭემი , სოინარი/Larchemi, Soinari სალამური/Salamuri

Percussion Instruments: Doli or Daphdaphi, Daira, and Diplipito The doli ( dauli in Persian) is an Arabian-Persian instrument, which became a national instrument in Georgia. Its is dapdapi. The doli is a small, wooden, cylindrical instrument, bound with leather to form the head. The leather is stretched with straps, which are threaded into the iron circles. The doli is particularly widespread in the plains region of Georgia. The daira belongs to the group of percussion instruments. The function of the instrument is to accompany and to emphasize rhythm. Daira can be found in East Georgia, Tusheti, Samegrelo and Racha. Diplipito is played with two small sticks called “goat legs.” The instrument is used to provide rhythms for vocal music and . It is often combined with instruments such as duduki, panduri, and salamuri. The diplipito is generally played by males, and plays an important role in Georgian folk ensembles. In ancient times the diplipito was played by warriors, and has also been used during hunting.

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დაირა/Daira დიპლიპიტო/diplipito დოლი/Doli

Keyboard instruments: Garmoni and Tsiko-Tsiko Garmoni (accordion) and Tsiko-Tsiko can hardly be considered Georgian Folk instruments but taking into account their popularity and their two-century-long history, we decided to include them in the list. Garmoni came to Georgia from Europe, namely, from Russia in the 1830s and immediately became popular among folk musicians. It is especially popular in Tusheti, where it is used as an accompanying instrument (together with vocals) and also as a solo instrument. Tsiko-tsiko came to Georgia from Europe in the 1830s and mainly accompanies dances.

გარმონი/Garmoni წიკო–წიკო/Tsiko-tsiko

Sources: http://folk.ge/index.php?pg=mn&idm=1&idms=10 http://www.hangebi.ge/history.htm

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Dance

"Georgian dances are the best representation of the Georgian spirit and character" - Akaki Tsereteli

"I wonder that in this little country there are so many different parts with their different styles of dancing" - Nino Ananiashvili

Georgia is a country with a long history and folk tradition. For a very long time, dancing has been an essential component of the Georgian heritage. The traditional dances are an important part of regional pride and expression. Due to Georgia’s mountainous geography and somewhat isolated areas, a wide variety of dances developed over time. There are in fact more than 100 dances (some are quite similar) in the modern national Georgian . Though Georgian dances are now very well documented, it was not always so. In the 19th century, Georgian culture and nationality was in danger due to the annexation of their land by the Russian Empire. The "rebirth" of began in the 19th century in response to this threat. In order to prevent the loss of their traditional dancing heritage, the famous Georgian ballet dancer, Vakhtang Chabukiani, began to collect, describe and improve all the dances in Georgia. Other famous Georgian dancers, such as Revaz Chanishvili and Iliko and Nino Sukhishvili (Picture), followed him. They transformed the dances and brought them up to professional standards. They spread them not just in Georgia, but all over the world. Following this, many national choreographic ensembles were formed. The most popular and famous ones are "Erisioni," "Sukhishvilebi (since 1945)," "," and ".” Among outstanding Georgian dancers are: Iliko Sukhishvili, Nino Ramishvili, Pridon Sulaberidze, Latavra Phochiani and others. Finally, it must be stressed that in Georgia dancing is not simply a hobby or an activity to casually practice at the local dance hall or do with the lights out and your eyes closed. Dancing is a sincere form of self-expression, entertainment and a profound manifestation of national identity. It is an art, a show and a medium of perpetuating culture, tradition and identity across generations and national borders. As a result of its great cultural importance, most Georgians know how to dance. While each region is perhaps famous for a specific dance, most Georgians can perform (with varying degrees of skill) the majority of the canon. Informal and sometimes formal dancing begins at a very early age. At any supra with small children present, the children are encouraged to dance at some point in the night. Usually around the toast for grandparents (number 5 or 7), the music begins and the babes are thrown onto the stage and made to imitate the more experienced adults. As the evening progresses more and more of the supra will join until bebia and baby are spinning to the sounds of drums and chanting. 81

Regions

Kakheti Kakheti does not have its own famous unique dance. However, it would be impossible to understand Kakhetian culture without dancing. Kakhetians are very social and like to celebrate life. At every party people get up and dance traditional dances from all over Georgia.

The Northeast Mountainous Region – Mtiuleti, Khevi, Khevsureti, Pshavi,Tusheti The northeast mountainous area of Georgia consists of many small regions such as Khesureti, Pshavi, Tusheti and Khevi. However, most Georgians call all these parts collectively Mtiuleti. The geography of the region played a great role in the development of the people. As agriculture was impossible, cattle and sheep herding were the mainstays of life. The men of the region were shepherd warriors. Feuds would often occur between the different tribes over land and livestock. In addition, women were considered precious commodities and were fiercely protected. They were highly revered and respected by the men. As a result, the women play vital roles in most of the dances from the region. The shepherd warrior mentality is reflected in the clothing of the dancers from this region. All outfits are traditionally made of sheep’s wool. The men wear the chokha (traditional red suit), the papakhi (white wool hat, seen to the left), the azieurebi (traditional Georgian boots) as well as a dagger. The dagger is a symbol of the man’s honor and a sign of adulthood. The women of the region wear dresses and always have their heads covered. The dances from this region are also considered some of the most difficult in all of Georgia. Due to the use of swords/daggers and intense fighting choreography, the dances are very technical and require intense practice. Only dancers with the utmost skill are able to perform the dances without hurting anyone. Due to the numerous varieties of similar dances found in the region, there can be some misunderstanding about the names of the different dances. Only the most popular dances will be discussed below.

Khevsuruli and Parikaoba ( Georgian Dance, Track 1) The Khevsuruli and Parikaoba both originate from Khevsureti and are very similar. The Khevsuruli is considered the best representation of the Georgian spirit. It begins with a man and a woman flirting on stage. Upon the arrival of a second man, competition for the affection of the woman begins. This quickly escalates into a battle between the two men who are later joined by their supporters, armed with swords

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and shields. The battle is only temporarily halted by the woman throwing her veil between them. They stop fighting as a sign of respect for her. However, as soon as the woman leaves, the fighting picks right back up. The dance only ends when the woman reenters the stage and throws her veil for a second time. The victor of the battle is left to the audience’s imagination. The Parikaoba is very similar to the Khevsuruli. There are two groups of men fighting each other with swords, but there is not a lady present. Though it may look like a symbol of war, it comes from the tradition of Khevsuretian tradition of “Kenchnaoba.” Kenchnaoba means a competition amongst men using swords and these competitions were held on different celebrations, such as weddings, christenings, holidays etc. The dance was primarily a way for the men to show off their abilities to battle with swords.

Mtiuluri ( Georgian Dance, Track 2) The Mtiuluri, like the Khevsuruli, is also a dance based on competition between two groups of people. However, no weapons are used as it is a more general competition. It was a dance performed at mountain festivals that allowed different groups of people to come together and show off their skills. The men and woman would also use the dance to attract the attention of potential future spouses. At first, two groups of men demonstrate their skills together in performing difficult and complicated movements. Afterwards, the women groups dance and compete. Once the general group competition is over, the individuals begin to show off their talent. Each dancer displays his skill by performing technically challenging moves on their knees and toes. The dance is concluded by all the men and women dancing together in a grand finale.

Khanjluri The Khanjluri is a song only danced by men. It originated amongst the shepherds in the mountains, who wished to show off their prowess in combat. The dance has Mtiuluri elements, such as the knee and toe techniques, combined with complex dagger throwing skills. In the dance, men continually try to outperform one another with their artistry in throwing the dagger into the ground. One performer replaces the next, and the daggers begin to pile up on stage. The following dancers have to maneuver gracefully around the daggers and by the end the stage is littered with them.

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Kazbeguri Kazbeguri is a truly mountainous dance where the roughness and coldness of the mountain terrain is characterized by vigorous and strict movements. The dance is performed only by men and portrays the toughness and endurance of the highlanders.

Svaneti

Svanuri ( Georgian Dance, Track 3.1/3.2) The Svanuri dance is set to choral music and begins with a line of men entering the stage while holding hands. Still holding hands, they begin moving in a circle with long, lateral steps. They then break formation, and, hands on hips, begin dancing in groups of two, slowly orbiting one another. They then link hands again and form two lines, which again quickly break up, and all the men begin skipping in a line. They then form two circles and begin circle-dancing again. One man then breaks from each circle and is surrounded by the other men; he begins a very difficult, rapid dance on his toes. The men then resume skipping in two circles. A group of men then form a single line facing the audience, and a single man dances in front of them, gradually moving to the right of the stage. A group of men then perform a similarly difficult, rapid dance on their toes. The men then stand in silent formation behind two dancers who perform a new but equally rapid dance in front of them, alternately spinning and moving quickly on their toes. A single man then takes center stage and dances on his toes while the other stand or kneel behind him and clap. Then a group of men turn their back to the audience and three men jump through them and begin, quickly and very freely, dancing in front of them. The men then turn toward the audience and clap to the music’s rhythm. As the song ends, all of the men join in the same dance.

Guria

Partsa ( Georgian Dance, Track 4) Partsa is a Gurian dance that is characterized by its very fast pace and free-flowing style. It begins with groups of men and women dancing in concentric circles around two men – one standing on top of the other – in the center. A group of men then take center stage and begin dancing from a squatting position in a way that somewhat resembles the Ukrainian ‘Cossack’ dance. The men then stand up, join hands, and dance in a line. The women then take the stage and spin-dance, their flowing dresses billowing in the air. The men then take the center again and resume

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their Ukrainian-style dance. The dance ends as it began, with a group of men dancing in circles around an inner group of women, who in turn dance around a group of men, some standing on others’ shoulders, in the center.

Adjara

Adjaruli/Gandagan ( Georgian Dance, Track 5) The Adjaran dance that always brings people to their feet is the Adjaruli or the Gandagan. It is fairly safe to assume that this dance is performed at every musical/dancing event in Adjara. Light hearted and playful, the Adjaruli is the least formal of the classical Georgian dances and also one of the most physically challenging! Lasting about 5 minutes, the dance involves fast paced spinning, jumping and quick footwork by both the male and female dancers. The dance takes place to music depicting a man and woman flirting. The song, which is very old, is surprisingly bawdy and light-hearted, especially in comparison to many other Georgian dances which tell the story of lost love, war and so on. In many ways, the Adjaruli is simply about enjoying the moment and the play of courtship and of performance.

Khorumi ( Georgian Dance, Track 6) One of the region’s oldest and much more serious dances is the Khorumi, a dance of war. Originally this dance consisted of only a few men but over time has expanded to include up to 40 dancers. The dance brings to life a Georgian army from some time past, looking for a peaceful place to set up camp for the night. The dance begins with a few men scouting out the area, looking for enemy camps and for a safe place for the Georgian army to settle. As one can expect while in war, the army is unable to find peace this night and are called to battle. The army exits with power to march to the battle field , drawing perfect lines with small steps and grand motions, creating a beautiful display of unity and grace illustrating the beauty and power to be found in control and discipline.

Other Georgian Dances

Among famous Georgian dances are “Osuri” from Osetia ( Georgian Dance, Track 7) and “Abkhazuri” from Abkhazia ( Georgian Dance, Track 8).

Kartuli ( Georgian Dance, Track 9.1/9.2) A classical Georgian dance “Kartuli” is a truly romantic dance. It is performed by a dance couple and incorporates the softness and gracefulness of a woman and dignity and love of a man. It shows that even in love, men uphold their respect and manners by not touching the

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woman and maintaining a certain distance from her. The man focuses his eyes on his partner as if she were the only woman in the whole world. He keeps his upper body motionless at all times. The woman keeps her eyes downcast at all times and glides on the rough floor as a swan on the smooth surface of a lake. The utmost skill, which is necessary to perform Kartuli, has earned the dance a reputation of one of the most difficult dances. There were only a few great performers of Kartuli. Some of these are Nino Ramishvili and Iliko Sukhishvili, and Iamze Dolaberidze and Pridon Sulaberidze.

Armenian Minority/Samtskhe-Javakheti As elsewhere in Georgia and the Caucasus, traditionalist folk dancing enjoys wide popularity in Samtskhe-Javakheti. In Armenian communities, both Georgian and forms are practiced. Perhaps the most widely known Armenian dance is called the Kochari, in which dancers form a closed circle by putting their hands on each others’ shoulders. One interesting custom at Armenian weddings is that (khorovats) is often brought out by dancing servers with musical accompaniment.

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Literature and Poetry

Written language has existed in Georgia since at least the year 430, and probably for some decades prior. The oldest surviving work of Georgian literature is "The Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushaniki," a hagiographic work written between 476 and 483. Various other books have survived from the first millennium, mostly religious tomes describing the lives of saints or works commissioned by kings to record the history of dynasties. The most significant work of the first thousand years of Georgian literature is Shota Rustaveli’s “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin” (written c. 1200), which is considered to be Georgia’s national epic. The poem, written in the tradition of Persian poetry, describes the adventures of a young Arab nobleman as he seeks and then finds an elusive Indian knight in a tiger’s skin and their subsequent struggle to free a princess held captive by evil spirits. Rustaveli’s contribution to Georgian is similar to that of Chaucer to English -- his works were held up as an ideal to which writers aspired for hundreds of years (some even copied his lines directly into their works), and, as such, he profoundly influenced the development of Georgian literature. Little is known of Rustaveli himself. ‘Rustaveli’ was not a , but rather a demonym, meaning that he came from a place called Rustavi (probably Rustavi Village in Meskhetia rather than the large city). Limited historical evidence suggests that he may have been a minister in the court of Queen Tamar. Some of Rustaveli’s most oft-quoted lines include: “What thou givest away is thine; what thou keepest is lost” “No man can turn evil to good; none can be born again” “No one can change that which is decreed; that which is not to be will not be” “I recognize the shortness of evil, thy goodness is ever lasting” “It is said: ‘chidden slowness is better than praised haste’” During the long, politically fractured period that followed the fall of the Georgian Kingdom, Georgia was a country of poetry rather than prose. It remained so until the 19th century, when Chonkadze and Lavrenti Ardaziani introduced the novel as a popular art form, although poetry was kept alive through the works of Akaki Tsereteli and Vazha Pshavela. In the latter half of the century, Ilia Chavchavadze introduced a national consciousness into Georgian literature and sought to protect Georgian language and culture from . In the 20th century, the novelist Mikheil and the poets and , the greatest talents of Georgian literature at the time, were killed in the Stalinist purges, and , widely considered to be the greatest Georgian poet of the century, was driven to suicide by Soviet repression. However, with Khruschev’s liberalization, writers such as , Guram Rcheulishvili, and Vova Sikharulidze were allowed a greater degree of freedom of expression. http://www.mcs.gov.ge/text-14.html 87

Regions

Kartli (1840-1912) Iakob Gogebashvili was born in October 15, 1840 in the village Variani, Gori district. He grew up in a priest’s family and everyone expected him to become a cleric too. Iakob was a very bright-minded and gifted child. At that time there were no schools in villages, so his parents took Iakob in Gori at theological seminary. He was a hard –working and distinguished student so in 1855 he arrived in Tbilisi and later in 1861 went to Kiev for his further education.

Iakob Gogebashvil took a great contribution to spread literacy throughout the country together with his contemporaries. Among his distinguished works “Deda-Ena” (“Mother language” alphabet handbook) takes the significant place.

Kakheti The authors and poets from Kakheti are amongst the most important and famous in all of Georgia. There works have enriched the canon of Georgian literature. School students study them and many Georgians show off their skill reciting poetry at supras. The poetry and literature is a source of pride for Kakhetians. Below are listed the most important poets and authors from the region.

Pre-20th Century

Ilia Chavchavadze(1837-1907) Ilia Chavchacadze is the most important literary figure from Kakheti. Born in Kvareli, he is widely regarded as the founding father of modern Georgian nationalism. He was a writer, poet, journalist and lawyer. Under the yoke of Russian Imperialism, he helped revive the Georgian national movement in the second half of the 19th century. His assassination in 1907 by Bolsheviks was a great Georgian tragedy. In 1987 he was canonized as Saint Ilia the Righteous by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Chavchavadze was a realist writer and his most important works were “The Hermit,” “The Ghost,” “Otaraant Widow,” “Letters of a Traveler,” “Kako the Robber,” and “Is a Man a Human?!” Chavchavadze was a patriot and his works primarily dealt with the ideas of liberation and nationality. He addressed social issues and was an outspoken critic of serfdom. In “Letters of a Traveler,” he wrote about Georgian hardship. He believed

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that Georgians had lost their freedom and he wanted them to fight for it. In “Is a Man a Human,” he exposed the weaknesses of the Georgian people with the intention to improve them. All of his writings are distinguished by their strong artistic individualism.

Alexandre Chavchavadze(1786-1846) Alexandre Chavchavadze is considered the founder of the Georgian Romantic Movement. Born in 1786 and raised until the age of 13 in St. Petersburg, Alexandre was the son of the noble born, Kakhetian- born ambassador, Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze. Upon the Russian annexation of Georgia, he at first fought against but then joined the Russian military. He rose to great prominence fighting for the Russian army and was admired by both the Georgian and Russian nobility. He died on November 6, 1846 in a horse riding accident. His famous home is in Tsinandali, Kakheti. Alexandre Chavchavadze’s poems have melodic rhythms and a lot of them became songs sung by Georgians. The main ideas expressed in his poetry were dissatisfaction with the present and nostalgia for the past. His most famous poetry is “Woe time time,” “Listen listener,” “Oh, my dream, why have you appealed to me again,” “Caucasia” and “The Ploughman.”

20th Century

Giorgi Leonidze (1899-1966) was a Georgian poet, prose writer, and literary scholar. He was born in the village of Patardzeuli, Kakheti. In 1911, at the age of 12, his first poems appeared in the Georgian press. Upon graduating from the Tbilisi Theological Seminary in 1918, he continued his studies at . Though he wrote a lot of poetry prior to 1925, it was in this year that his real talent emerged with a series of nature lyrics about the landscapes of his native Kakheti. With his success, he quickly established himself as one of the most popular poets of Georgia. His poetry is historical and patriotic. In his famous work, “The Tree of Desire,” he wrote evocative prose based on his childhood memoirs and experiences. Giorgi died on August 9, 1966

The Northeast Mountainous Region – Mtiuleti , Khevi, Khevsureti, Pshavi,Tusheti

Pre-20th Century

Vazha Pshavela(1861-1915) Luka Razikashvili, more commonly known by his Vazha Pshavela, is one of the greatest Georgian writers, poets and playwrights. He was born in 1861 in the small village

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of Chargali, Pshavi to a clergyman and his wife. Upon graduating from the Pedagogical Seminary in Gori in 1882, he entered the Law Department of St. Petersburg University in Russia. However, financial restraints forced him to return to Georgia where he worked as a teacher. It was here that he began writing the poetry that would make him famous. With his rise to prominence, he became an active representative of the National-Liberation movement popular at that time in Georgia. He died in Tbilisi on July 10, 1915. Vazha Pshavela’s famous works are: “Aluda Ketelauri,” “Bakhtrioni,” “Gogotur and Apshina,” “Host and Guest,” “The Snake Eater,” “Eteri,” and “Mindia.” In his works, he often addressed the common heroic past of Georgians and appealed to the struggle against external and internal enemies. He was deeply patriotic and championed the bravery of Georgian heroes. At the time, his writing was a challenge to the Imperialist Russian rule. Another common theme found in his writing was man’s relationship with nature. Many of his works were studies that deeply penetrated the mysteries of nature.

Goderdzi Chokheli (1954-2007)

One of the significant Contemporary writers from the eastern mountainous regions is Goderdzi Chokheli. Goderdzi Chokheli’s writings deal with the modern problems facing Georgians today. One of the main issues he addresses is the detrimental effects of urbanization. A large part of Georgian heritage is the villages found in the mountains. However, due to the hardship of life there, as well as the appeal of Tbilisi, the villages in the mountains are emptying. Chokheli’s writings appeal to Georgians to save their heritage and preserve these villages for future generations.

Besik Kharanauli (1939-present)

Besik Kharanauli, a nonconformist contemporary, Georgian poet, who no wonder had difficulties during the soviet epoch, when freedom and independence of thought was under threat. Besik Kharanauli is portrayed as an innovator by nature, brisk, wise and eternally youthful, who managed to survive the Soviet pressure and his works even nowadays is important and valuable. He was born in 1939 in , he studied philology at Tbilisi State University. Since 1954 he published his literary works. The first volume was released in 1969. Besik Kharanauli‘s The Lame Doll, which was published in Georgia (USSR at the time) in 1971, was groundbreaking–the first poem to employ free verse (and to have an average “everyman” as persona) in Georgian. It influenced the entire generation of Georgian poets. This is his first complete work translated into English. Besik was nominated for the Nobel Prize, although there’s little chance he’ll win it–this being his only work published in English. This novel of his was recently translated into French and won some awards too.

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Imereti Imereti boasts many famous literary figures, including Galaktion Tabidze, Titsian Tabidze, Akaki Tsereteli, Paolo Iashvili, Kolau Nadiradze, Lado Asatiani, and Russian writer Dmitri Mayakovsky.

Pre-20th Century

Prince Akaki Tsereteli (1840-1915) Prince Akaki Tsereteli grew up in Savane, a village in the Imereti region, and was a good friend of Prince Ilia Chavchavadze, with whom he protested against the Tsar and encouraged the revival of the “Georgian” national identity. He was a key figure in the Georgian national liberation movement. He was raised by a peasant woman and throughout his life identified with the plight of the poorer classes. He is most famous for his poetry, as well as his stories and autobiography. The folk song “” is best on lines from his poetry. Tsereteli is buried in the in Tbilisi, with other famous notable Georgian writers.

Galaktion Tabidze(1891-1959) Galaktion Tabidze was born in a village near , in the Imereti region. Major themes of his poetry were loneliness, lost or lacking love and frightening premonitions. He survived Stalin’s purges of the 1930s, but killed himself by jumping out of the window of a psychiatric hospital in Tbilisi, after struggling with depression and alcoholism.

20th Century

Paolo Iashvili(1894-1937), Paolo Iashvili helped to found the , a Symbolist group and was a leader of the Symbolist movement in Georgia. Stalin’s purges killed many of his friends and colleagues, and contributed to his suicide. During the purges, he recanted his earlier ideology and declared his loyalty to Stalin and Soviet doctrine. Faced with the choice of denouncing his friend, poet Titsian Tabidze or being arrested and tortured, Iashvili shot himself.

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Titsian Tabidze(1895-1937) Titsian Tabidze was a Georgian poet and one of the founders of the Symbolist movement, together with Paolo Iashvili. He was educated at the University of Moscow. He was part of the Symbolist group the Blue Horns and his poetry contained both acknowledgements of Georgian classic literature as well as elements of Futurism and Dadaism. He refused to accept Soviet criticism of his “Formalist” tendencies and as a result, was imprisoned. He was arrested on charges of treason during Stalin’s purges and tortured in prison, before being executed. The execution was conducted in secret and the truth about his death was not known until after Stalin’s death, nearly two decades later.

Vladimir Mayakovsky(1893-1930) Vladamir Mayakovsky was born in Baghdati, where his house has been converted into a museum. He lived in Georgia until 1906, when his father, a Soviet forest ranger, passed away and his family moved to Moscow. Mayakovsky attended his first social demonstration at the age of 14 in Kutaisi. He began writing poetry while imprisoned, condemned to solitary confinement for his “subversive” political activity. He was very interested in Marxism and became a key figure in the Russian Futurist movement. His first major poem was published in 1915, “A Cloud in Trousers.” He died in 1930 in an early age but the reasons are not still clear. Vladimir loved Georgia very much and he dedicated many verses to this country. He was a good friend of Titsian Tabidze and Paolo Iashvili. After his death Titsian Tabidze continued close relationships with Mayakovski’s family. In one of his poem that was written after the meeting with Vladimir’s mom, Titsian writes her words: “If there was any piece of courage in him it was all from Georgia”

Lado Asatiani (1917-1943)

Lado Asatiani a poet from Kutaisi, during his short life became one of Georgia’s most beloved poets. He wrote poems about the enjoyment of daily life, and although he was later required to write about patriotic themes, he is most known for his writing about pleasure. He died of tuberculosis at the age of 26.

Muhkran Machavariani

Mukhran Machavariani (1929-2010), a well-known Georgian poet from a village called , as well as a Member of Parliament, received the Shota Rustaveli State Prize in 1987 and served as Chairman

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of the Union of Georgian Writers. He was called “the knight of Georgian Poetry”, he was distinguished by his audacious and powerful verses. His most important work “Iaron” was published in 1970. He died in May of 2010, at the Rustaveli Theater in Tbilisi.

Svaneti

20th Century

Otia Ioseliani (1930- 2011)

Otia Ioseliani was born in 1930 in the village Gvishtibi, in the west part of Georgia. After finishing the school he entered the Kutaisi pedagogical Institute, faculty of Georgian language and literature. He soon moved to Tbilisi and continued studying in Tbilisi art academy and later joined course of literature in Tbilisi writers union. His first essay was published in 1954 and worked as a novelist or play writer, but Otia Ioseliani became very famous and popular for his fairy-tales “Dachis zghaprebi” ( Dachi’s fairy-tales). His works are translated into many languages.

Mirza Gelovani(1917 – 1944) Mirza Gelovani was born in Tianeti. His first published poem, “White Land”, was printed in 1935; however, his first poem was written in 1933 and entitled “Solar Man”. Gelovani’s poems were featured in many prominent Georgian magazines and newspapers including “Our Generation.” Most of Gelovani’s poems are dedicated to the motherland (Georgia and Svaneti, in particular) and to parents. Some of his poems also invoke war imagery (“The Brother’s Tomb” (1941). He is also noted for writing romantic poems inspired by his muse and bride-to-be; however he was conscripted and joined the Red Army in November 1939. He was killed crossing a river in in 1944. Gelovani was only 27 years old at the time.

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Samegrelo

20th Century

Konstantine Gamsakhurdia (1893 – 1975) – Konstantine Gamsakhurdia was born on 15 May 1893 in the village of . He finished secondary school in Kutaisi and attended universities in many European cities, including St. Petersburg, Berlin and Leipzig. He also served as an embassy attaché in East Germany. While abroad Gamsakhurdia published “Photographer” and “Napoleon” (both 1921) and, inspired by the death of his mother, he wrote “Bells in a Storm.” He also founded a number of print outlets. After the Red Army’s invasion of Georgia in 1921, Gamsakhurdia wrote two letters of protest to Lenin – “Open Letter to Lenin” and “Words of the Georgian erisadmi on May 26”. Both of these letters are still considered symbols of self- sacrificing heroism by Georgians today. He also founded a writer’s union of reactionaries and anti-Soviet writers who constantly struggled for free artistic production. Gamsakhurdia’s works include themes such as the restless nature of people and Georgian history. His other works include: “Wisdom and Lies”, “Taboo” and “A Woman’s Milk.”

Guria

20th Century

Nodar Dumbadze There have been many influential writers to come out of Guria, most notably Nodar Dumbadze (1928 – 1984). Even though he was born in Tbilisi, he lived with his grandparents in and graduated high school there. His stories include “Me, Grandma, Iliko and Ilarioni” (1960), “I See the Sun” (1962), “Sunny Night (1967) and “White Flags” (1973). His writings are characterized by humorous impressions of contemporary life and narrative lyricism. Many of his short stories were made into films and Dumbadze received numerous awards, including the Lenin Prize in 1980. Dumbadze was also known for his appeals to the government to pardon criminals. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yO54FvP5GNg

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Ana Kalandadze Ana Kalandadze (1924 – 2008) – The female poet was born in Khidistavi, a village near Chokhatauri. She first began writing poems at the age of 11. Her first collection of poems was published in 1953 and includes the well-known “Bethania Road” and “Clouds”. Kalandadze’s poems are characterized by subtlety of thought and spiritual tenderness. Her poems can be considered harmonic. Other themes include morality, religion, generosity and patriotism. Kalandadze was awarded a number of Georgian literary awards, including the Galaktion Tabidze Prize and the Saba Prize for her contributions to Georgian literature. She died on 11 March 2008 after suffering from complications from a stroke 3 months earlier.

Adjara

Pre-20th Century

Tbeli Abuseridze(1190-1240) Tbeli Abuseridze was a pastor in the who built a church in the village of Khinkhani, in Adjara. It is thought that he composed most of his works in that village. Abuseridze was a hymnographer and expert in sacred music, as well as a scholar and astronomer. He composed a collection of hymns to St. John the Baptist, St. John the Theologian, and St. John Chrysostom. These works show “profound theological ideas, the symbolic and mystical comprehension of phenomena, the ‘knowledge of the visible’ and ‘comprehension of the invisible.’” His work called “Chronicles: Complete Commentaries and Rules,” about the Julian calendar and Christian eschatology, shows an interest in the science of chronology. Abuseridze’s famous work “The New Miracle of Great-Martyr George,” is referred to as a hagiography, or biography of saints, but is also said to contain “valuable historical information about the Abuseridze family’s efforts to revive Georgian culture during the ancient feudal epoch.”

20th Century

Pridon Khalvashi Pridon Khalvashi (1925-present) is an Adjarian poet who was born in the village of Gegelidzeebi in mountainous Adjara. He wrote more than 20 books of poetry, including “Hundred Suns of the Mother’s Heart,” which was awarded the Shota Rustaveli State Prize in 1979. Khalvashi’s poetry speaks of southwest Georgia in the 16th-19th centuries, when that part

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of the country was occupied by the Ottoman Empire and then became part of Turkey. It addresses the feelings of national unity and identity experienced by Adjarians at that time.

Guram Dochanashvili (1939 – present)

Guram Dochanashvili, Georgian prose writer, historian by profession, was born in 1939 in Tbilisi. At school he became a close friend of famous Georgian public figures, like and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. He graduated from Tbilisi State University faculty of History and participated in many archeological expeditions. He also used to play in the Orchestra of University. Dochanashvili debuted as a writer in 1961. He was immediately noted and since then, he has published dozens of stories and novellas which won him a nationwide acclaim. His works are about benignity, love and aspiration to freedom. His most popular work is the 1975 novel The First Garment (სამოსელი პირველი) based on the Holy Bible and story of the War of Canudos in the 19th-century Brazil. Also his “The man who loved the literature” is one of the most popular stories from his works. His novels and short stories are translated into many languages.

The line of poetry and prose that started too many years ago is suitably continued by the contemporaries. It is important to say that in modern literature female writers and poets are more than it used to be in old times. Speaking about modern Georgian poetry, worth to start with famous Georgian poet Niko Gomelauri

Niko Gomelauri (1970-2010)

Niko Gomelauri was born in July 12, in 1970. He was a poet and an actor of Liberty Theatre and Griboedov Theatre of Tbilisi. He is the author of 5 poetic collections in Georgian and Russian languages. His verses are distinguished with their melodies and are translated in many languages as well. He created his own line in Georgian poetry. Niko Gomelauri died in an early age in 2010 because of cancer.

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Also, Salome Benidze, Ninia Nadiradze, Gvantsa Jobava, Giorgi Zanguri Giorgi Shalamberide Nika Cherkezishvili, Henri Dolidze, Giorgi Arabuli, are very prominent representatives of modern Georgian poetry. Some of them have already won national-wide awards and actively continue their creative work.

In prose Teona Dolenjashvili, Nino Tepnadze, Nino Sadghobelashvili, Dato Turashvili, Ana Kordzaia-Samadashvili, Zaza Burchuladze, Maka Mikeladze, Aka Morchiladze etc are very interesting representatives of the epoch with their style and views. They manage to catch the readers with their language and plot of the stories. Sometimes modern literature becomes the object of sharp critic, because of their originality.

Azeri Minority/Kvemo Kartli Azerbaijani poets and writers have lived in Georgia for centuries. The earliest famous figure, Molla Vali Vidadi (1708-1809), was an Azeri poet who spent several years in Tbilisi as court poet for King Erekle II.

Pre-20th Century

Mirza Fatali Akhundov Mizra Fatali Akhundov (1812-1878), a famous Azeri playwright, moved to Tbilisi in 1834, where he worked as translator of Eastern languages and remained there until his death at the age of 65. He is considered a critical figure in the development of Azerbaijani literature and was arguably the most famous Azeri atheist during his lifetime.

20th Century

Jalil Mammadguluzadeh Jalil Mammadguluzadeh (1866-1932), a writer, attended the Gori Pedalogical Seminary, before moving to Tbilisi in 1903. He wrote satires for Azeri language newspapers, before founding his own satirical magazine Molla Nasraddin.

Hamlet Isakhanli Hamlet Isakhanli (1948-present), was born near and has worked to reform education in Azerbaijan, founding several schools and a university, as well as a publishing house. Isakhanli is a poet and mathematician, as well as an educator and publisher.

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Dashgyn Gamammadov Dashgyn Gulmammadov (1977-present), from the Marneuli region of Georgia, is currently the President of the Turks’ Confederation of Georgia and previously served as President of the National Assembly of in Georgia for 9 years, in addition to a writer and poet. He remains a controversial individual, as he has criticized Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili, and been accused of planning to stage a coup on multiple occasions. Armenian Minority

Pre-20th Century

Sayat-Nova An earlier figure, Sayat-Nova (1712-1795) was an Armenian poet, singer, and bard born in Tbilisi; he wrote in a variety of languages, including Armenian, Georgian, Persian, and Azerbaijani. Sayat-Nova belongs to a tradition of extemporaneous singer-composers called gusan; several other well-known gusan came from Samtskhe-Javakheti as well.

20th Century

Derenik Demirchyan Akhalkalaki in Samtshke-Javakheti is the birthplace of Derenik Demirchyan (1877-1956), a well-known Armenian poet, novelist, and playwright. His most famous work is “Vardanank,” a patriotic novel based on 5th-century Armenia’s struggle for independence. Armenia’s national poet Hovannes Tumanyan (1869-1923) was born in what is now northern Armenia, quite close to Georgia (or possibly in present-day Georgia; accounts vary), and was living in Tbilisi when he founded the “Vernatun” group, which included Demirchyan and a number of other notable Armenian literary figures.

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Theatre and Cinema

Theatre

A silver bowl depicting masked performers dating to the second millennium B.C. represents the first evidence of ritual theater in Georgia, and the remains of a stage dating to the 8th century B.C. have been found in Kutaisi. Influenced by Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast (a Greek-style theater and hippodrome existed at Apsaros – modern-day Gonio), the early Georgians of Colchis adopted Hellenistic theatrical practices such as pantomime. With the introduction of Christianity, clerical theater and drama such as passion plays became widespread. In the Middle Ages, a form of theater known as Sakhioba was performed at royal . Reflecting previous Greek influence, these plays were performed by masked actors and accompanied by music. Theater blossomed in Georgia during the latter decades of the Russian Empire: in 1845, the Russian Drama Theatre was founded in Tbilisi; in 1851 the first opera performance took place in Karvasla Theatre in Tbilisi; in 1886 the Treasury Theater was built in Golovini Avenue (present-day Rustaveli Avenue), where "Tbilisi Treasury Opera Theatre"- now called Z. Paliashvili Opera and Ballet Theatre - has been functioning since 1896. Early in the 20th century, professional theatres were also opened in regional capitals. Although theater suffered with the stifling of creative freedom under Stalin, Georgian drama recovered in the 1960s and 1970s due to the influence of innovative producers such as Mikheil Tumanishvili, Sturua and Temur , and by the end of the 20th century private professional theatres, chamber stages, and experimental scenes emerged and started functioning alongside state theatres in Georgia.

Cinema

Georgian cinema originated in 1908 with the short films of Vasil Amashukeli and Alexander Dighmelov. In 1912, Amashukeli produced "Akaki's Voyage in Racha and ," the world’s first full-length documentary. In 1916, in so-called prerevolutionary Georgia, the first Georgian feature film, "Kristine," was produced. With the rise of the USSR, the state took control of the film industry. Alexander Tsutsunava and nevertheless shot brilliant examples of Georgian cinema. The period from 1928 to 1931 represented a cinematic golden age in Georgia: “Eliso” by Nikoloz Shengelaia (1928), “My Grandmother” by Kote Mikaberidze (1929), “Jim Shvante” by Mikheil Kalatozov (1930) and “Khabarda” by Mikheil Chiaureli (1931), all groundbreaking films, were all released within four short years. In 1956, “Magdana's Lurja,” directed by Rezo Chkheidze and , won the Cannes Film Festival’s grand prix.

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In the 1960s, a new generation of Georgian directors decisively broke with the past. , George Shengelaia, Otar Ioseliani, Merab Kokochashvili, and Sergo Parajanov introduced a new type of hero – a character who fights against the established rules, regulations and stereotypes -- to Georgian film. Another generational shift occurred in the 1980s with the emergence of directors such as Dito Tsintsadze, Tato Kotetishvili, Levan Zakareishvili, and Gogita Chkhonia. Unfortunately, due to the deteriorating political and economic situation in the USSR at the time, this generation managed to make only few films in Georgia. The period between the end of 1980s and the beginning of 2000s was characterized by stagnation – only a limited number of films were produced in Georgia, and very few attracted international interest. However, the Georgian film industry has, in recent years, begun to show signs of revival. The generation of directors who stopped their activities in 1990s has returned. The government, as well as private studios, has begun financing the film industry, and Georgian cinema is once again emerging onto the international stage. http://www.mcs.gov.ge

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Architecture/Notable Sites

Like much of the rest of and culture, Georgian architecture evinces traces of both European and Middle Eastern influences as well as strong indigenous trends. Georgian churches, although originally constructed in the style of Greek , developed unique architectural characteristics from the 9th century onwards. In the late Tsarist era, the beautiful neoclassical styles (often with slightly Turkish or Persian flourishes means to suggest Oriental exoticism to visiting Russians), still evident in Georgian cities, were introduced to the country. However, during the Soviet period, nearly all buildings except those constructed as showpieces were modernist, utilitarian structures built with an emphasis on function over form. During your two years of service, you will have the opportunity to travel around Georgia and visit cultural and historical places of interest. The following list was created by Peace Corps Volunteers living in the various regions of Georgia with the expectation that they would have some idea of the local sights to see. Although far from exhaustive, it should acquaint you with some of the more well-known architectural and tourist sites in the country, as well as some more obscure, but perhaps equally fascinating places.

Regions

Kakheti Kakheti is a region with a breadth of historical monuments showcasing historical architecture which has been well preserved throughout history. Examples of these are the Alaverdi Cathedral from the 11th Century, the Shuamta Monastery from the 7th Century, the Church from the 16th Century, and Ikalto the medieval academy from the 13th century. According to geotour.ge the famous Georgian author Shota Rustaveli studied at this institution which was purportedly founded to function as a center for enlightenment in feudal times.

Sites

Sighnaghi Sighnaghi is Georgia’s “City of Love.” Its moniker is well- deserved as the town offers incredible views on a clear day of the Alazani Valley and the mighty Caucausus. It is a large town perched on a Kakhetian hill, still surrounded by a long defensive wall erected by King Erekle II in the second half of the 18th century. Each of the wall’s 23 towers are named after a nearby village and served as a refuge for the whole area.

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Alaverdi Monastery The was founded in the 6th century by Assyrian Christian monks. Kakhetian kings rededicated the site to Saint Giorgi in the 11th century and built a 50 meter high cathedral. Although the monastery was damaged in battles during the collapse of the Georgian Kingdom, it was rebuilt by the Persians in the 16th century and today contains the remains of artwork from the 11th to 16th centuries.

Davit Gareji The Davit Gareji cave monasteries were carved into rock faces by Assyrian monks starting in the 6th century, and together form the largest monastery complex in Georgia. Medieval Georgian monarchs gave generously to the monks, and the caves are the site of some of the few ancient Christian frescos that were unaffected by Byzantine influence.

Bodbe Monastery The original in Sighnaghi was built in the 4th century and is the site where Saint Nino died and was buried. It was rebuilt in the 9th century and restored in 1823. Its waters are said to have healing powers.

Ikalto Monastery was built by Assyrian monks in the 6th century. Arsen Ikaltoeli established an academy there in the 12th century, although only the ruins of one building have survived.

Gremi Monastery Gremi Monastery was built in what was once the capital of Kakheti. The complex contains Archangel Church, which is considered a treasure of Late Medieval Georgian

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architecture – most of the rest of the complex was destroyed by invading Persians in the 17th century.

Nekresi Monastery Monastery is one of the oldest surviving churches in Georgia. Established in the 4th century by King Trdat, the complex contains a small from the 4th century, a three-church basilica of the 6th century, a peculiarly planned domed church of the 8th century, a from the same period, a rectory, and a tower from the 16th century. It is one of the few Christian churches in the world in which animal sacrifice is practiced. According to legend, the practice started when the population of Nekresi was besieged by Muslims in the monastery. Knowing that Muslims believe pigs to be unclean, the monks sacrificed pigs to God, and the invaders were subsequently unwilling to enter the complex.

Khornabuji Castle Khornabuji castle is a medieval fortified town near Dedoplistskaro. Originally built by King Vakhtang Gorgasali, it was a bustling city during Georgia’s Golden Age. However, it was heavily damaged by invading Mongols in the 13th century and fell into disrepair. Now, only the remnants of the castle remain.

Ujarma Ujarma is the ruins of a 4th century fortress used by the first Christian kings of Georgia. It was originally a hill fortress with a central citadel surrounded by concentric rings of walls and towers. It represented a very strong strategic position and may have even possessed plumbing and a sewage system. The fortress declined in importance near the end of the first millennium and was taken by invading Arabs in 914.

Lagodekhi National Park Located on the southern slopes of the at between 400 and 3500 meters of elevation, National Park contains ancient forests, alpine meadows, and pristine glacial lakes. This protected area contains some of Georgia’s highest peaks (up to 4800 meters) and most rugged

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landscape, as well as a number of ancient ruins and mountain villages. Much of the reserve is virtually inaccessible in winter.

The Northeast Mountainous Region – Mtiuleti , Khevi, Khevsureti, Pshavi,Tusheti Though at one point in history it was the home of vicious warrior highland tribes, the mountainous region of Northeast Georgia is now famous for its spectacular hikes, scenery and views of the Caucasus Mountains. The sparse yet beautiful architecture that sprinkles the region is characterized by fortresses and towers, which are all located high in the mountains, which is not surprising given that the highlanders of the area were notoriously fierce warriors, famous for their battles with other highland tribes, especially those of the North Caucasus.

Sites:

Shatili One of the most interesting places to visit in this area is Shatili, a village located near the border with Chechnya. It is a unique complex of medieval-to-early-modern fortresses and fortified structures of stone and mortar, which at one point functioned as both living quarters and a fortress guarding the borders of the country. In the early 1950s, the population of Shatili, along with most of Khevsureti, was resettled to the plains; hence at present, Shatili is inhabited by only a dozen families.

Omalo Omalo, the Tushetian equivalent of Khevsureti’s Shatili, is located in the Caucausus highlands near the Dagestani border. The town has ancient watch towers, and great views. It is the popular place for Kakhetians to go during the hot summer

months to escape the heat.

Khevi/Kazbegi One of the most famous sites in the Greater Caucasus, which in fact attracts the largest amount of tourists is the village of Khevi— the location of Mount Kazbegi, the third highest mountain in Georgia. The region attracts large numbers of visitors because of its dramatic landscape and extensive trekking opportunities. However, in addition to the magnificent landscape there are also several important monuments—, Garbani Church, Sioni Basilica, Betlemi Monastery Complex and Sno Fortress. The most prominent of these is of course the Gergeti Church, situated right under Mount Kazbegi. The church was constructed in the 14th century and is the

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only cross-cupola church in Khevi.

Mtskheta Mtskheta is one of the oldest cities in Georgia and used to be the capital of the ancient kingdom of Iberia that existed from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century CE. It was one of the first sites where early Christianity was practiced in Georgia and still remains the seat of the Georgian Orthodox Church. Mtskheta is one of the most venerated cities in Georgia and hence most of its monuments are religious in nature. The most significant of these are the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral and the Monastery. In addition to being some of the most important monuments in Georgia, they were also important for the development of Georgian architecture from the Middle Ages onwards. Moreover, the inscriptions on these buildings are of vital importance for the study of early Georgian language and its development.

Sites:

Svetitskhoveli Cathedral The Svetitskhoveli Cathedral is the principal Georgian church and one of the most venerated places in the country. It serves as the seat of the Patriarch of Georgia, Ilia II. The present building was constructed in 11th century, but the site itself dates back to the early 4th century and is strongly associated with the nascence of Christianity in Georgia. By size, it is the second largest church in Georgia, second only to the Holy Trinity Cathedral in Tbilisi. It is also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with other monuments of Mtskheta. It is hard to say what the original cathedral looked like, since it has been damaged several times throughout history by armed conflicts and earthquakes. The only things that remain of the original building are two bull heads that adorn the east facade. The current building is a fine example of early , but it too has undergone significant restorations. Interior walls of the cathedral are painted with frescos, most of which have not survived in their original state; the most notable of those are the fragments of a 13th century Beast of the Apocalypse and figures of the Zodiac. The walls are also decorated with numerous icons, however, not the originals—those can be found in museums throughout Georgia.

Jvari Monastery is a 6th century monastery just outside of Mtskheta. According to legend, Saint Nino erected a large wooden cross on the site of an old pagan temple. It was said that this cross could perform miracles and thus it drew a large number of pilgrims from all over the Caucasus. In the 6th century, a small church was erected on the spot of the wooden cross and was named “The Small Church of Jvari,” as “jvari” means “cross” in Georgian. The present church was built 40 years

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later. In the the complex was fortified by a large stone wall and gate, remnants of which still survive. During the Soviet period, the site was largely neglected, but was restored for religious use after Georgian independence.

Armazi Near Mtskheta, is located at the site of the original capital of an early Kartli/Iberian Kingdom. There were several periods of excavations at the site that eventually revealed three major cultural levels, named Armazi I, II, and III. The earliest one, Armazi I, dates back to the 4th to 3rd century B.C., the middle one to the 3rd to 1st century B.C., and the newest one to the 1st to 6th century C.E. Among the surviving structures, the royal palace, several tombs, a bathhouse and a small mausoleum are of special note. All of those are from Armazi III. In addition to its archeological importance, Armazi is also an important site for the study of ancient writing. The bilingual Greco-Aramaic tombstone discovered here bears an interesting inscription in a variation of an Aramaic script. This script later became known as Armazi script and can be found in other parts of Georgia, making it one of the earliest examples of Georgian writing. Originally, Armazi was far more extensive than it is today and was a large city named after the eponymous pagan deity of the Iberian pantheon. Later, the city was captured by the Romans and there still are remains of an old “Pompey Bridge” named after the conquering general. With the transfer of capital to Tbilisi in the late 5th or 6th century, Armazi gradually declined and was finally razed to the ground in 736 by the Arabs. The city has never been restored since, but around the 12th century a small monastery of St. Nino was constructed at the site. However, it is now in ruins and only some fragments of the 12th-century frescos survive.

Imereti Georgia was only united as it is today for a brief period of time during its Golden Age. Throughout its history, the west and the east competed for prestige and the claim to being the proper rulers of “Georgia.” Imereti, and especially its capital Kutaisi, were the seats of power of the western kingdoms. Its rulers built many churches and buildings, which are now considered classics examples of Middle Age Georgian architecture. Kutaisi and the surrounding area, in addition to its ancient architecture, is the site of further urban development. Modern architectural projects in Kutaisi include the creation of a new Parliament building, designed to be both “modern” and “organic” in appearance. A park for the public will surround the building, called Millennium Park, which is scheduled to be completed in 2012. A new airport, designed by Ben Van Berkel is also planned to coincide with the relocation of Parliament.

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Gelati and Motsameta The monasteries of Gelati and Motsameta, located several kilometers outside of Kutaisi, are UNESCO World Heritage sites. Gelati was founded in the 12th century by King David the Builder. The ruins of the Academy of Gelati lie within the monastery complex, which was a medieval center of learning. The monastery contains three churches, Church of the Virgin, built by David, and the churches of St. George and St. , built the following century. The monastery contains a number of murals and is the site of King David’s grave. Nearby, Motsameta monastery was built by King Bagrat III in the 11th century, on the ruins of a church where brothers David and Constantine Mkheidze were buried. They were martyred in the eighth century, tortured and killed for refusing to convert to Islam during an Arab invasion.

Bagrati Cathedral , located in Kutaisi on the Ukimerioni Hill, was built in the 11th century, during the reign of Bagrat III, which also gives the Cathedral its name. The invasion of Imereti by Ottoman troops in the 16th century is largely responsible for the ruined state of the cathedral today, although it is currently being restored.

Vani Vani was a major center between 700 and 100 BC, during the Kingdom of the Colchis. It was first excavated in the 1890s. It is still possible to see the remains of the city gate and walls, which date back to 300-100 BC. An archaeological museum in Vani contains many of the artifacts found at the site.

Sataplia and Prometheus Caves Natural attractions of the Imereti region include the Sataplia cave, Prometheus’ cave near Tskaltubo, and the resorts of Sairme. Sataplia is the site of dinosaur footprints and is part of a nature reserve. Prometheus’ Cave is about a mile in length and contains five major rooms, as well as an underground river.

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Svaneti Svaneti is often considered to be the most beautiful part of Georgia and rightfully so. Its location and proximity to the highest peaks of the Caucasus provide great hikes and stunning scenery. Similarly to the mountainous regions in the east, Svaneti was home to a warrior highland tribe, the Svans. Watch towers and defensive settlements are the key features of the architecture in the region.

Ushguli Located on the European side of the Caucasian continental divide, at 2,200 meters above sea level, the Svanetian village of is the highest settlement in Europe. It is home to about 200 people and features a large number of Svanetian defensive towers. Due to heavy snows 6 months of the year, it is often not accessible from the rest of Georgia.

Guria Several different styles of architecture exist in Guria. Classical Georgian architecture can be found at Shemokhmedi Monastery, while a variety of different styles can be viewed in , the largest city in the region

Shemokhmedi Monastery The most well-known church in Guria is Shemokhmedi Monastery, which is about eight kilometers from Ozurgeti. Although the monastery complex appears at first to be a single church, it is in fact two. They share a wall, but you can see the separation on the outside by the differing roof structures: the larger church has a pitched roof while the smaller church is topped with a tower/dome. The older church is about half the size of the younger one and is usually not open. The chapel’s dome is raised in the classic Georgian manner. The light this dome lets into the room casts dramatic light onto the fading frescoes. Inside the larger church is 11th and 12th century architecture with barrel vaults supported by heavy buttresses, a square nave with a half-dome roof, a stone canopy with plant motif ornamentation, Eastern pointed arches, Western round-top arches, and slivered windows. On the outside, the church is notable for its checkered black and white stone masonry and the Old Georgian script by the entrance. On the other side of the building, there’s a good view of the Ozurgeti area.

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Ozurgeti Ozurgeti, Guria’s capital, contains many differing styles of architecture. The church in the center of the city features classic Georgian ecclesiastical architecture. The train station in the north of the city shows the Soviet influence in Georgia, while the design of the Ozurgeti Convention Center, currently under construction, follows a more modern aesthetic. The Ozurgeti Municipal Theatre, located to the west of the main square, is the largest structure in Ozurgeti. A striking example of Soviet Neoclassical architecture, its interior is decorated with murals and sky motifs. A company of 42 actors performs plays several times per year. Ozurgeti contains a number of restaurants, markets, museums, and monuments. The Ozurgeti Art Gallery and Historical Museum are housed in two adjoining structures to the south of the city’s main square. The gallery displays works by about 100 Gurian artists, both professional and non-professional, and the museum houses archaeological and ethnographic collections. An ancient bathhouse has also recently been found near the museum, and excavations are ongoing.

Ureki is a resort town on the Black Sea coast. Its black sand beaches are said to have curative properties, and its long, shallow slope makes it possible to wade many meters into the surf.

Gomis Mta Gomis Mta (‘Gomi’s Mountain’) is a mountain resort notable for its heavy summer fogs and pristine alpine lakes.

Bakhmaro Bakhmaro is the highest mountain resort in Georgia. As the altitude provides some relief from the humid summer heat, the area becomes quite densely populated in July, August, and September, and is the site of concerts and horse races.

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Adjara Adjara’s architecture is unique in relation to the rest of the country in that its people were converted to Islam and more or less practiced some version of it (mixed with local superstitions and customs) for 300 years. As a result, one can find Georgian Muslims and Georgian Mosques. The largest can be found in Batumi in the Turkish district and is the last remaining Batumi mosque. In the region, one can find small village mosques in the villages along with newly-constructed Orthodox churches, and most villages still have an Imam. While the mosque and church standing at odds along the Turkish-Georgian border evoke sentiments of conflict between these two cultures, in the village this architecture creates a space which speaks of and encourages a peaceful, timely changing of the guard, so to speak. The passive co-existence of these two often conflicting religious structures speaks of the region’s tolerant relationship with religion, and of the fact that culture defines religion and gives religion meaning, rather than religion itself providing people with a purpose. Generally, the architecture in Adjara is distinct from that of the rest of the country. An example of a uniquely Adjarian house would be the Laz home, which is a style that to this day can be found in many villages. The Laz house is two floors and rectangular. The bottom floor doubles as a wine cellar and storage shed for wood, tools etc. The second floor is where the family lives and typically consists of four to six rooms. Examples of the different types of Adjarian houses can be seen at the Adjaruli Sakhli (the Adjarian House), a restaurant famous for its authentic Adjarian dishes, or, at the private workshop of the local Batumian artist Kemal Turmanidze who can be reached at 599 95 42 47. Turmanidze has built authentic replicas of traditional Adjarian houses, clothing, tools, and scenes from daily life. The centerpiece of Adjara is its capital Batumi. Batumi has a diverse conglomeration of Turkish and Georgian architecture, but it is being overshadowed by the rapid development and modernization of the city. Batumi is discussed in greater detail below.

Batumi Batumi, the lifeblood of Adjara and Georgia’s third largest city, has been recently restored and rebuilt to be Georgia’s and perhaps one day, the Caucasus region’s top summer tourist destination. In the summer months, one can spend the day lounging on the stony, Black Sea beach with the back drop of mountains and mandarin trees, drinking beer and eating watermelon or hot corn. If it gets too hot, one can escape to a café on the beautiful boulevard or spend time in the numerous gardens and plazas throughout the city. Once the sun sets, Batumi lights up - everything from the palm trees lighting the boulevard to the Justice House come

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alive with a bold display of lights. Stroll the boulevard or walk through the city from the more modern European Square to Old Batumi. Though there are examples of older architecture, Batumi is undergoing extensive growth and modern buildings and designs are quickly dominating the scene. These can be seen in the numerous new buildings, statues and monuments that exist throughout the city, such as the Radisson Hotel, the Ali and Nino Statue, and the Alphabet Tower. The city also offers several museums. Adjara State Art Museum, which would fit-in in any European city, carries a few permanent pieces of Pirusi and offers any number of temporary collections. The museum’s displays are surprisingly professional and accessible. The Batumi Archeology Museum contains the artifacts discovered from excavations performed throughout the region of Adjara. Artifacts include Greek, Roman and Colchic coins and evidence of civilization dating all the way back to the Stone Age. Finally, the Adjara State Museum, which at 100 years old is the region’s oldest remaining museum, contains a wide variety of exhibits. One can learn about the wild life and foliage, ethnography, or traditional dress of the region.

Kobuleti is a laid back, seaside resort town popular with residents of Adjara and Guria (although some tourists come from much farther away) for its miles of pebble beaches. In the summer, its long boardwalk is lined with stalls and restaurants.

Ancient Bridges Some of the oldest remaining structures are several bridges which date back to the 4th and 5th centuries. These bridges were built all over the country to facilitate trade along the Great Silk Road, into Europe. Today, the only remaining ones can be found in the valleys of the rivers Adjaristskali and Kintrishi, in Adjara - the Dandalo, Makhunseti, and Makho bridges.

Skhala Cathedral One of those remaining is the Cathedral of Skhala from the 12th century. The cathedral was built by Abuseridzes on a mountain peak on the right bank of the Skhalta river in the region of Adjara. Today some ruins of the cathedral remain, along with fragments of paintings

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from the 14th century. Surviving frescos from the 13th to 14th century AD can also be seen in St. George’s Church in Achkvi.

Petra Fortress The Petra fortress dates back to the 6th century and was constructed by the Byzantine Empire as a way to control movement through the pivotal road connecting Georgia, the Byzantine Provinces, Iran, and Armenia. The Petra fortress was the site of many great battles during the 542-562 Lazic War between and Persia

Gonio Fortress The , dating to the 8th century B.C.E., is the oldest fortress in Georgia. Built by the Romans, the city of Gonio was a strong and relatively stable Roman city within the region of Colchis. The fortress was an important center of cultural and political life in the region including a hippodrome, theater, graveyard and a prison. Today, the fortress still stands along the road to Turkey, overgrown and sagging, visitors can freely roam within and over the walls or visit the archeological museum near the front entrance. It is believed that the grave of Saint Matthais (one of the 12 Apostles) is within the walls of the fortress and a shrine to him can also be found at this site.

Kvemo Kartli (Azeri Minority) Kvemo Kartli is a great region for those interested in prehistoric sites and archeological discoveries, as well as early Christian churches.

Dmanisi is an archeological site located in the ruins of a town that dates back to the 6th century. Few structures from the town survive, but one of the most prominent buildings is the Dmanisi Sioni, an Orthodox Cathedral that was built around the 6th century and is one of five such Sioni structures in Georgia. In addition, since archeological studies began here in 1936, unique remains of prehistoric humans and animals have also been discovered. In fact, there is strong evidence that the human remains discovered at the site – popularly known as “the first humans in Europe” -- are of a completely different species (Homo georgicus, a transition fossil between Australopithecus and Homo erectus) and represent the earliest human presence in the Caucasus.

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Bolnisi Sioni Another structure similar to the Dmanisi Sioni is . Considered by many to be the first religious construction in Georgia, it contains examples of the oldest written Georgian on its wall. It was built around 478, with construction beginning almost immediately after the Georgian Orthodox Church gained independence.

Trialeti The historical region of Trialeti is another interesting part of Kvemo Kartli. This region is famous historically because it is thought that it was here that the Transcaucasian culture began. Of course it is very hard to determine a specific age range for this, but some archeologists believe that it happened sometime between 2500 and 1500 B.C. In the area located around present day , archeologists found several burial mounds, containing ceramics, golden chalices, silver buckets, pins, bronze axes and even chariots. However, they failed to discover any settlements or even campsites. It is still undetermined where the people who constructed these mounds lived. Archeologists were also surprised to find very little weaponry in these mounds. Chronologically, the first group of mounds is located close to Tbilisi, near the village of Martkopi, and dates from 2300 B.C.

Samtskhe-Javakheti (Armenian Minority) Samstkhe-Javakheti, like Adjara, has been inhabited by many different ethnicities due to its location at the crossroads of different empires. Though currently it is home to a large Armenian population, it has been in the hands of different empires/people through the ages. This is best shown in Akhaltsikhe’s old city, the Rabati. It is a fascinating monument to Georgia’s multicultural heritage as you will find a fortress, a church, and a mosque there (along with a worthwhile museum). Nearby, there also once stood a synagogue and several other churches.

Vadzia The most famous site of Samstkhe-Javakheti is the cave monastery complex of . Legend has it that Queen Tamar got lost in the mountains as a child, and called out to her Uncle “ak var dzia” which translates to “I am here, uncle.” Built in 1185, it was constructed as protection from the Mongols. Though partly ruined in an earthquake 1283, it was still in use until the Persian invasion of 1551. Today it is a major tourist attraction and still an operational monastery. Frescoes dating from the age of Queen Tamar are particularly noteworthy.

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On the road to Vardzia, you’ll see the imposing Khertvisi fortress; a church was built on the site in the 10th century, but its present walls date to the mid-14th century.

Khachkars Distinctive cross-stones or khachkars are a hallmark of Armenian settlements. These stones, carved with crosses and intricate floral or other decorative motifs, commemorate living or dead persons or major victories or historical events.

Racha

Nikortsminda Cathedral

Nikortsminda Cathedral is a Georgian Orthodox Church located in Nikortsminda, Racha region of Georgia. Nikortsminda was built in 1010-1014 during the reign of Bagrat III of Georgia and was repaired in 1634 by the King Bagrat III of Imereti. Three-storied bell-tower next to the Cathedral was built in the second half of the 19th century. Frescoes inside the Cathedral date from the 17th century. The Cathedral is on the Tentative List for status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Barakoni Church

Barakoni Church is near the town of , in the village of Tsesi of Racha region. Barakoni was commissioned, in 1753, by the local lord Rostom of Racha (1750-1769) from the architect Avtandil Shulavreli who is commemorated in the inscription of the eastern façade. It is a domed cruciform church and one of the last important monuments in the tradition of medieval Georgian architecture. The church was built of neatly trimmed stable stand stones and adorned with rich ornamentation. The church was closed and desecrated under the Bolshvik rule. It suffered further damage, though not serious, in the 1991 earthquake, but was quickly repaired.

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Superstitions, Jokes and Stereotypes

Superstitions

Good Luck:  You should get up from your bed with your right foot and enter the house for the first time with the right foot; this will bring you good luck. People use the expression: მარცხენა ფეხზე ხომ არ ადექი? (Did you get up from your bed with your left foot?) when someone they are talking to is not lucky on that particular day.  If your nose is itching, someone will soon visit you  If you visit a house and discover while entering that your hosts are having dinner, it means your future mother-in-law will love you  If the palm of your right hand is itchy, then it means that money is coming to you, but DON'T scratch it as that stops the money from coming! If it’s your left palm that is itchy, then scratch away, as that means that you'll soon be paying out money for something!  If a bird excrements on you, it’s a good thing: it means you will buy something new or receive the present  Make a wish if you taste a dish for the first time  Show money to the new moon and you will have money the whole month till the next new moon  If all of a sudden your cheeks turn red and feel as if they're burning, then someone somewhere is paying you compliments!  Hang a horse-shoe on your wall with the two prongs facing up. The idea is that all your good luck will be caught in the shoe like a cup and therefore last forever  Touching something made of wood is supposed to bring you good luck in the future - “Knock on Wood!”  If a detached eyelash is under your eye, someone can ask you, “Which would you like to get: joy or a letter?” Then you have to point to the eye that you think has the eyelash under it. If you pointed to the right eye, you will get your joy or your letter as you wished  If you drop a fork, this means a guest will come to your house  If you meet the same person three times in a day, this means a guest will come to your house  If you wear red you will protect yourself from the evil eyes/thought of others.  If the bride drags her foot while walking into the wedding hall and thinks of you, you will soon be married.  In Adjara, eating the brides chocolate will bring you good luck.  If you catch the brides bouquet you will soon be married.  If you clean your plate well while eating, you will be a good wife.  Shoot a gun on birthdays and new years to scare away the evil from the coming year.

115 Bad Luck:  If your ear is burning, then someone is talking about you! To determine whether what they are saying is good or bad, remember this rhyme: "Left for love, Right for spite!"  Don’t inside the house or the devil will come in and bring you bad luck  If you get married in May your marriage will have problems and fail  When salt drops on the table, you must laugh and you must pour water on it, if you don’t you will fight with somebody (salt used to be as expensive as gold)  The black cat is often a symbol of evil, so to have one walk past you is especially bad. (Although some people have the opposite view and consider the black cat as a bringer of good fortune or a lucky charm)  The number 13. Many people consider this number to be very unlucky. Some people will actually stay at home on this day so as to avoid any bad luck or misfortune  If a mirror in the house falls and breaks by itself, someone in the house will die soon  When you say “snake,” spit three times and bite your finger  Standing on the edge of something (threshold) is considered to be bad luck  Don’t sit at the edge of the table, because you won’t get married for 7 years  Don’t sit on a cold surface or you will catch cold  Don’t sit on a cold cement floor if you are a female or you will become infertile  You must wear multiple layers around your abdomen on a cold day or you will become ill  You must wear socks or you WILL get sick on a cold day  When somebody sneezes while talking about dead people you should touch his shoulder and say, “მის მოსვლამდე არაფერი გეტკინოს,” which means, “Nothing will hurt you until this (dead) person comes to you.”  When someone passes away, people usually cover all the mirrors with white cloth. They do this because mirrors prevent the dead person’s spirit from finding his way to heaven.  Don’t wash your hair on Mondays  Don’t eat out of the pan/pot or it will rain on your wedding day.  In Adjara, don’t allow any possessions to be buried with a dead person, or you will be cursed.  In Adjara, don’t eat meat on your wedding day or you and your spouse will fight.  If you change plates many times over the course a meal, you will also go through husbands.  The number of ___(head swirls) you have equals the number of spouses you will have.

Georgian Jokes and Stereotypes

People from Georgia have some stereotypes about themselves and about people from different regions of Georgia. Also people who visit Georgia want to know something about the country and its people and once they know Georgians better they have some general ideas about Georgians. Here are some of the most popular stereotypes about Georgian people.

116 Georgians about Georgians  Georgians are hospitable and friendly people  All Georgians are cheerful people, feast loving, having fun at supras, drinking wine, singing, dancing and enjoying it fully.  Talented but lazy  Georgians considered themselves to be proud people  Georgians are the warmest people in the world  Georgians can drink a lot of alcohol.

Foreigners about Georgians  Are you from Atlanta?  Georgian are extremely nice to foreigners. They are so hospitable it can be oppressive.  Georgians don’t smile and often stare. (The look they give to foreigners is often not out of coldness but rather curiosity. if Georgians do not smile while talking to you it does not mean they do not like you)  Georgians prefer to dress in dark colours.  Georgians are often sceptical about new changes and don’t believe in them. They are not open to discussions about new ideas.  “Time” is quite different in Georgia. The workday usually starts no earlier than 10:00 and usually begins closer to 11:00. The workday then extends later into the evening. Punctuality is important if you are meeting senior officials but otherwise tardiness is overlooked. Still, a safe general rule is to be on time rather than late.  Georgians are loud and passionate people  Georgians love drinking, eating and making long toasts

Regional Stereotypes  People from Svaneti and from mountainous regions are considered slower, more traditional, a little strict and more violent (sullen like the nature)  Megrelians are known as funny, intelligent and sly.  People from Imereti are more hospitable, cheerful, industrious and creative  People from Kakheti are more straightforward and stubborn  Rachians are unusually calm and easy-going  Armenians are considered to be stingy and unreliable people, it’s hard to trust them  Georgians often call Azeris the word “Tatari”, meaning dirty and uncivilized  Adjarians may be called crazy or not really Georgian by Georgians in other regions. This is mainly due to many Georgians belief that being Georgian also means being Christian. Adjara was a part of Turkey for 300 years and therefore, was converted to Islam by their captors. While many Adjarians have converted to Georgian Orthodox, many have not.  Gurians are stereotyped as being loud, fun-loving and fast talking.

117 Cultural Dos and Don’ts

General Manners

Do:  Keep your clothes neat and your shoes clean, particularly in the work place  Be Polite o Compliment people on their cooking and homes and tell them that their children are talented o Cover your mouth when yawning in public o Say thank you o Greet people in your community and acquaintances. Ask how they are and how their business is.  Answer in the Affirmative when People Ask You if You Like Georgia o This will happen quite frequently and it will make people very happy to hear that you like their country.  Address People by Their First Names o Nearly everyone you meet will call you by your first name, and you should address them the same way. Using the ‘botoni/kalbotoni’ (Mr./Ms.) before a first or last name as you would in English is considered odd.  Go to funerals and donate money at the funeral and at weddings  Stand up for old women while on the village marshutka if you are young  Bring chocolate or a small gift to the homes you visit.  Occasionally buy small household supplements, such as coffee or candy for your host family.  Dance at weddings and supras (debatable - gender). Show your host that you are enjoying yourself. At the end of the event express to the host that you had a good time. If you do not have the appropriate language skills to do this, simply smile with a thumbs up.  Carry bags for weaker people, children and the elderly and walk children home.  Offer to pay sometimes for people on the Marshutka  Use regional slang with appropriate audiences, they love it

Don’t:  Blow your nose in public  Wear shoes in the house, but always wear socks and slippers o Georgians almost universally remove their shoes before entering their living spaces. Guests may be allowed to keep their shoes on, but in your own home (or if you’re offered a pair of slippers), take your shoes off.  Whistle Indoors.

118 o You may hear of a superstition that whistling indoors invites the devil, but this is mostly just considered rude.  Yawn without covering you mouth  Curse in Georgian (it is much more offensive in Georgian than in English)  Let your room become messy  Insult any relative, no matter how distant. If they insult you, explain how in a factual way and act understanding if they explain why. Your family would defend you in the same fashion as they really do consider you to be a family member.  Use Georgian friends and host members homes as hotels. If you are staying with a Georgian family who is not your own, be sure to arrive early enough to spend time with them and stay at least for breakfast the next morning.

Food Related

 Eat the moment food is put on the table. There is no need to wait.  Offer to share anything you are eating with anyone present and if you don’t have enough for everyone don’t eat it in front of them.  Make toasts, especially if the Tamada asks you to or if the toast is to a friend or family member. Say thank you for any toasts made to you.  Say you love their food  Don’t be shy to eat with your hands in familiar settings. You will find your hosts generally prefer using their hands with certain dishes, but will provide utensils to make you comfortable.

Religion and Politics (Little Disclaimer/Advice)

 Don’t Take Controversial Religious Positions o Religious observance is quite high in Georgia and Georgians will probably assume that you are also religious. Do not disabuse them of this notion, as they may lose respect for you if they learn that you are not practicing or do not believe in God at all. They are also likely to assume that you are Catholic and may have little knowledge of other religions. Religious conversations may be very difficult if you have limited language skills. Do not criticize Christianity, the Orthodox Church, or the Patriarch.  Don’t Express Strong Opinions on Georgian Politics o Your Georgian friends and host family will probably ask your opinion on the 2012 elections in Georgia and America. Bear in mind that Georgia is still an emerging democracy which has not yet completed a transition of power through democratic means. As such, assumptions based on experiences in authoritarian political systems are still prevalent, and Georgians may feel insulted by criticism of the government, may resent American support for the current government, or

119 may feel that expressions of dissent put them in danger. Feel free to discuss American politics at length, but it’s best to feign perpetual ignorance of Georgian politics.  Don’t Mention the War. o Some Georgians expected more support from the United States during the 2008 South Ossetia War, so it may be a sore spot. In particular, avoid suggesting that Georgia started it.  Do not assume your family is Christian and do not assume anything about their political views.

Armenian - People & Cultural Dos and Don’ts

Do:

 Accept invitations to visit community members. If you visit someone first, invite them to visit you in return (assuming it is ok with your host family, if you live with a host family).  See above. Do’s and Don’t’s in the Georgian community generally apply to Armenian communities.

Don’t:  Leave the party all at once. If one group is leaving the others should stay just a little while so that their isn’t a mass exits.

Azeri Cultural Do’s & Don’ts & Gender Roles

Do:  Patroni female volunteers and host country nationals if necessary as it is arguably even more expected in Azeri communities than Georgian.  Do travel in the streets with a trusted, male patroni if you are a female.

Don’t:  Plan community/work events before 6 pm if you expect women from the community to attend. It is very rare for women to be outside the home after 6 without a patroni.

Workplace Culture

Do:  Make sure your role is clearly defined.

120 o You are a consultant not an employee. Make sure this is clear in the beginning. It is much easier to move from consultant to worker by choice than in the opposite direction.  Get to know your coworkers on a personal, as well as professional level. This will help you gain your counterparts trust and lead to better experience overall. o Little by little, as those around you come to trust you, your advice and work will begin to produce change. o If you know your community, school, counterparts on a humanistic level, then you can better help them change in the way they want to change as opposed to the way you think they should change. o Attend birthday parties, supras, weddings and funerals. Check on your co- workers if they are sick. Ask about their families and bring occasional treats for them. Essentially, show them that you care. o Let them get to know you. Bring in photos, let them Skype with family and talk to them about your problems and challenges in Georgia and in general. o Ask your counterpart for help on being culturally-sensitive in the workplace. S/he will appreciate your concern for Georgian culture  Keep the lines of communication open. Encourage and practice honesty with your counterparts. Let them know of your whereabouts and plans (this builds trust) and inform them in a calm and constructive way of any frustrations you have.  Be flexible. Have contingency plans and be prepared for everything to change at the very last minute.  Show up on time, each day, despite the fact that your coworkers may not. This shows them you are reliable and builds their confidence in you.  Share food. If you buy a snack for yourself, buy enough to share with the office/teacher’s break room.  Communicate your calendar and needs.  Ask for help in showing you around the school/organization, community etc. Georgians love showing off their community.  Host a party or make a presentation about American culture/holidays for co-workers as well as students/community members.  Be proactive o Make a schedule and share it with your co-workers.  Network: Georgia is a tiny country where relationships and reputation matter imensly. The more people you know who like you, the more opportunities you will have.  Do take mental health breaks

Don’t:  Speak in a condescending way to your co-workers. o There are many decisions and practices you may not immediately understand as an outsider. Take the time to understand why something is a certain way. Often, there is a reason, even if it is not immediately apparent to you.

121  Try to do too much in beginning. Take the time to understand your organization, community and/or school. Once you have a better understanding of the needs and practices of your particular community, you work will become more effective.  Become angry.  Force your ideas on your counterpart. You are an advisor, not a drill sergeant.  Don’t tell a counterpart what to do. Your role is to suggest, facilitate, discuss, and listen. If your counterpart doesn’t want to follow your advice, it is really his/her choice.  Drink too much. It will cause your co-workers and community to disrespect you.

122 AUDIO AND VIDEO FILES

Georgian Music https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B_ZdUebGdGNFQWFoM0xOVmtMd00

Georgian Dance https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B_ZdUebGdGNFamdueVNvclNpMzQ

Georgian Language Podcasts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kmif6VhuwVY&list=PLZ9sfHUP7Bu81MmhzJcfsbqnIgI02r1YK

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