V
Contents
Abbreviations of the names of languages in the statistical maps. xiii Abbreviations in the text. xv Foreword 17 1. Introduction: the objectives 19 2. On the theoretical framework of research 23 2.1 On language typology and areal linguistics 23 2.1.1 On the history of language typology 24 2.1.2 On the modern language typology ' 27 2.2 Methodological principles 33 2.2.1 On statistical methods in linguistics 34 2.2.2 The variables 41 2.2.2.1 On the phonological systems of languages 41 2.2.2.2 Techniques in word-formation 43 2.2.2.3 Lexical categories 44 2.2.2.4 Categories in nominal inflection 45 2.2.2.5 Inflection of verbs 47 2.2.2.5.1 Verbal categories 48 2.2.2.5.2 Non-finite verb forms 50 2.2.2.6 Syntactic and morphosyntactic organization 52 2.2.2.6.1 The order in and between the main syntactic constituents 53 2.2.2.6.2 Agreement 54 2.2.2.6.3 Coordination and subordination 55 2.2.2.6.4 Copula 56 2.2.2.6.5 Relative clauses 56 2.2.2.7 Semantics and pragmatics 57 2.2.2.7.1 Negation 58 2.2.2.7.2 Definiteness 59 2.2.2.7.3 Thematic structure of sentences 59 3. On the typology of languages spoken in Europe and North and 61 Central Asia 3.1 The Indo-European languages 61 3.1.1 Indo-Iranian languages 63 3.1.1.1New Indo-Aryan languages 63 3.1.1.1.1 Romany 63 3.1.2 Iranian languages 65 3.1.2.1 South-West Iranian languages 65 3.1.2.1.1 Tajiki 65 3.1.2.2 North-West Iranian languages 68 3.1.2.2.1 Kurdish 68 3.1.2.2.2 Northern Talysh 70 3.1.2.3 South-East Iranian languages 72 3.1.2.3.1 Pashto 72 3.1.2.4 North-East Iranian languages 74 3.1.2.4.1 Ossete 74
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3.1.3 Armenian 76 3.1.4 Albanian 77 3.1.5 Greek 80 3.1.6 The Modern Romance languages 82 3.1.6.1 The Ibero-Romance languages 82 3.1.6.1.1 Spanish 82 3.1.6.1.2 Portuguese 84 3.1.6.1.3 Catalan 85 3.1.6.2 The Gallo-Romance languages 87 3.1.6.2.1 French 87 3.1.6.3 The Italo-Romance languages 89 3.1.6.3.1 Italian 89 3.1.6.4 The Balkano-Romance languages 91 3.1.6.4.1 Romanian 91 3.1.7 The Celtic languages 93 3.1.7.1 Irish 93 3.1.7.2 Welsh 95 3.1.7.3 Breton 97 3.1.8 The Germanic languages 99 3.1.8.1 The West Germanic languages 99 3.1.8.1.1 English 99 3.1.8.1.2 German 102 3.1.8.1.3 Dutch 104 3.1.8.1.4 Yiddish 106 3.1.8.2 The North Germanic languages 108 3.1.8.2.1 Swedish 108 3.1.8.2.2 Danish 109 3.1.9 The Baltic languages 111 3.1.9.1 Latvian 111 3.1.9.2 Lithuanian 113 3.1.10 The Slavonic languages 114 3.1.10.1 The South-Slavonic languages 115 3.1.10.1.1 Bulgarian 115 3.1.10.1.2 Macedonian 116 3.1.10.1.3 Serbo-Croat (Serbian, Croat and Bosnian) 118 3.1.10.1.4 Slovene 120 3.1.10.2 The West Slavonic languages 122 3.1.10.2.1 Czech 122 3.1.10.2.2 Slovak 123 3.1.10.2.3 Sorbian 125 3.1.10.2.4 Polish 126 3.1.10.2.5 Kashubian 128 3.1.10.3 The East Slavonic languages 129 3.1.10.3.1 Russian 129 3.1.10.3.2 Belorussian 131 3.1.10.3.3 Ukrainian 132 vii
3.2 Indigenous languages of the Caucasus 134 3.2.1 The South Caucasian languages (the Kartvelian phylum) 134 3.2.1.1 Georgian 134 3.2.1.2 Svan 137 3.2.2 The North-West Caucasian languages (the Abaza-Adyghe phylum) 138 3.2.2.1 Abkhaz 138 3.2.2.2 Kabardian (East Circassian) 140 3.2.3 The North-East Caucasian languages 143 3.2.3.1 The Avaro-Andi-Tsez group 143 3.2.3.1.1 The Avaro-Andi group 143 3.2.3.1.1.1 Ghodoberi 143 3.2.3.1.2 The Tsezic group 145 3.2.3.1.2.1 Hunzib 145 3.2.3.2 The Lezgian group 146 3.2.3.2.1 Tsakhur 146 3.2.3.2.2 Udi 149 3.2.3.2.3 Lezgi 151 3.3 The Uralic languages 152 3.3.1 The Finno-Ugric languages 153 3.3.1.1 The Saami languages 153 3.3.1.1.1 Skolt Saami 153 3.3.1.1.2 North Saami 155 3.3.1.2 The Baltic-Finnic languages 157 3.3.1.2.1 Finnish 157 3.3.1.2.2 Estonian 159 3.3.1.3 The Mordvin and Mari languages 161 3.3.1.3.1 Erzya 161 3.3.1.3.2 East Mari 163 3.3.1.4 The Permic languages 165 3.3.1.4.1 Komi Zyrian 165 3.3.1.4.2 Udmurt 167 3.3.1.5 The Ugric languages 169 3.3.1.5.1 The Ob-Ugric languages 169 3.3.1.5.1.1 Northern Khanty 169 3.3.1.5.1.2 Mansi 171 3.3.1.5.2 Hungarian 173 3.3.2 The Samoyedic languages 175 3.3.2.1 The North Samoyedic languages 175 3.3.2.1.1 Central Tundra Nenets 175 3.3.2.1.2 Nganasan 176 3.3.2.2 The South Samoyedic languages 178 3.3.2.2.1 Selkup 178 3.4 The Altaic languages 179 3.4.1 The Turkic languages 179 3.4.1.1 The South-West Turkic languages 179 3.4.1.1.1 Turkish 179 viii
3.4.1.1.2 Azerbaijani 181 3.4.1.1.3 Turkmen 183 3.4.1.2 The North-West Turkic languages 185 3.4.1.2.1 Karachay-Balkar 185 3.4.1.2.2 Tatar and Bashkir 187 3.4.1.2.3 Noghay 189 3.4.1.2.4 Kirghiz 190 3.4.1.2.5 Karakalpak and Kazakh 191 3.4.1.3 The South-East Turkic languages 192 3.4.1.3.1 Uzbek 192 3.4.1.3.2 Uyghur 194 3.4.1.4 The North-East Turkic languages 196 3.4.1.4.1 Sakha (Yakut) 196 3.4.1.4.2 South Siberian Turkic 197 3.4.1.4.2.1 Khakas 198 3.4.1.4.2.2 Tuvan 200 3.4.1.4.2.3 Northern Altay 202 3.4.1.5 Chuvash 203 3.4.2 The Mongolic languages 205 3.4.2.1 Kalmuck 206 3.4.2.2 Dagur (Daur) 207 3.4.2.3 Khalkha 210 3.4.2.4 Buryat 212 3.4.3 The Tungusic languages 213 3.4.3.1 Evenki 213 3.4.3.2 Even 216 3.4.3.3 Nanay 218 3.4.3.4 Manchu 219 3.5 Basque 222 3.6 Indigenous minority languages spoken in East Asia 224 3.6.1 The Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages 224 3.6.1.1 Chuckhi 224 3.6.1.2 Koryak 227 3.6.1.3 Itelmen 228 3.6.2 The Yukaghir languages 230 3.6.2.1 Kolyma Yukaghir 230 3.6.3 The Yenisei languages 232 3.6.3.1 Ket 232 3.6.4 The Eskimo-Aleut languages 234 3.6.4.1 Aleut 234 3.6.5 Nivkh 236 3.6.6 Ainu 238 3.7 Korean 239 3.8 Japanese 242 3.9 Sino-Tibetan languages 244 3.9.1 Mandarin Chinese 244 ix
3.10 Languages spoken in the border areas of Europe and North and Cen- 247 tral Asia, and migrant languages 3.10.1 Semitic languages 247 3.10.1.1 Central Semitic languages 247 3.10.1.1.1 Arabic 247 3.10.2 Mon-Khmer languages 249 3.10.2.1 Vietnamese 249 4. On typological diversity of languages spoken in Europe and North 252 and Central Asia 4.1 On typological distances between languages in the database 2S2 4.2 On relative typological distances of languages in various language 273 groups 4.2.1 The Indo-European languages 273 4.2.2 The Uralic languages 276 4.2.3 The Altaic languages 278 4.2.4 Caucasian languages 281 4.2.5 Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages, Yukaghir, Ket, Ainu, Basque, 283 Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, and Arabic 4.3 Geographical areas as the frameworks of organizing languages spo- 284 ken in Europe and North and Central Asia 4.3.1 The Baltic Sea Region and Northern Scandinavia 285 4.3.2 The North Sea Region and north-western Scotland and Ireland 287 4.3.3 The Danube and Dnestr Catchment Areas 289 4.3.4 South Europe: the Mediterranean Zone 291 4.3.5 The East European Plain 293 4.3.6 The Ob and Irtysh Catchment Area 295 4.3.7 The Yenisei, Selenga and Khatanga catchment areas 297 4.3.8 North-East Asia 299 4.3.9 South-Eastern Central Asia 301 4.3.10 The Central Asian Mountains and Upland 303 4.3.11 Western Central Asia 305 4.3.12 The Caucasus 307 5. Areal distribution and typological diversity of languages spoken in 310 Europe and North and Central Asia: a summary 5.1 On reliability of the database 310 5.2 On the clustering models used in the analysis of the database 318 5.3 Areal linguistic aspects on typological organization of the languages 321 in the database References and literature 329 Appendix I. Linguistic database: the list of variables. 357
Tables Chapter 2 Table 1. Case-marking patterns. 58 Chapter 3 Table 1. A schema for Georgian verb structure. 136 X
Chapter S Table 1. The set of vowels according to the IPA system. 315 Table 2. Possible combinations of two vowels in the IPA vowel system. 316 Table 3. Possible vowel combinations in the average European vowel 316 system. Table 4. Exposing complex tense categories in typologically different 317 kinds of languages.